Basic Refrigeration Principles

Thermodynamics:
Greek - therme, meaning heat and dynamis, meaning power (Mostly an
idea)
(But no one knows, on which basis this term came into existence.
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat, work, and energy.
Work is the exertion of force over a given distance to displace or move an object,
and is, thus, the product of force and distance exerted in the same direction.
Energy, the ability to accomplish work, appears in numerous manifestations
including thermal energy, or the energy associated with heat.
Energy Described in two different forms
kinetic energy, or the energy associated with movement, and potential
energy, or the energy associated with position. If a spring is pulled back to
its maximum point of tension, its potential energy is also at a maximum;
once it is released and begins springing through the air to return to its
original position, it begins gaining kinetic energy and losing potential
energy.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms
of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic
variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical,
thermodynamic systems. (Steam engine , etc)

Laws of thermodynamics:
There are four laws - do not depend on the details of the
systems
They are generally valid and can be applied to systems about
which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and
matter transfer.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Zeroth law of thermodynamics:
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
When two systems, each internally in thermodynamic equilibrium at a different
temperature, are brought in diathermic contact with each other they exchange
heat to establish a thermal equilibrium between each other.
zeroth law of thermodynamics may be restated as follows:
If three or more systems are in thermal contact with each other and all in equilibrium
together, then any two taken separately are in equilibrium with one another. (quote
from T. J. Quinn's monograph Temperature)
Now one of the three systems could be an instrument calibrated to measure the
temperature - i.e. a thermometer. When a calibrated thermometer is put in thermal
contact with a system and reaches thermal equilibrium, we then have a quantitative
measure of the temperature of the system. For example, a mercury-in-glass clinical
thermometer is put under the tongue of a patient and allowed to reach thermal
equilibrium in the patient's mouth - we then see by how much the silvery mercury has
expanded in the stem and read the scale of the thermometer to find the patient's
temperature.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

First law of thermodynamics:
It may be stated as in several ways:
The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed. It can only change forms.
(Conservation of energy)
In any process in an isolated system, the total energy remains the same.
For a thermodynamic cycle the net heat supplied to the system equals the net
work done by the system.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, because the amount of energy in a
system remains constant, it is impossible to perform work that results in an energy
output greater than the energy input. Thus, it could be said that the conservation of
energy law shows that "the glass is half full": energy is never lost. On the hand, the first
law of thermodynamics shows that "the glass is half empty": no machine can ever
produce more energy than was put into it. Hence, a perpetual motion machine is
impossible, because in order to keep a machine running continually, there must be a
continual input of energy.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Second law of thermodynamics:
Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a hotter location.
no engine can be constructed that simply takes heat from a source and performs
an equivalent amount of work: some of the heat will always be lost. In other

words, it is impossible to build a perfectly efficient engine.

though it is true that energy is never lost, the energy available for work output will
never be as great as the energy put into a system. Linked to the second law is the
concept of entropy, the tendency of natural systems toward breakdown, and
specifically, the tendency for the energy in a system to be dissipated. "Dissipated"
in this context means that the high-and low-temperature reservoirs approach
equal temperatures, and as this occurs, entropy increases.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Third law of thermodynamics:
As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy of the
system approaches a minimum value.
Absolute zero, at which all activity would stop if it were possible to happen, is
273.15 C (degrees Celsius), or 459.67 F (degrees Fahrenheit) or 0 K (kelvin).

Absolute zero, can never be achieved.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Heat:

first - modern definition of heat Given by Maxwell

1. It is something which may be transferred from one system to another,
according to the second law of thermodynamics.
2. It is a measurable quantity, and thus treated mathematically.
3. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed
into something that is not a substance, e.g., mechanical work.
4. It is one of the forms of energy.
Modern definitions of heat are as follows:
The energy transferred from a high-temperature system to a lowertemperature system is called heat.
Any spontaneous flow of energy from one system to another caused by a
difference in temperature between the systems is called heat.
Heat is often defined as energy in transit or the flow of energy

Basic Refrigeration Principles

thermal equilibrium:

Heat flows spontaneously from systems of higher temperature

to systems of lower temperature, but heat flow in the opposite
direction is not spontaneous.
When two systems of different temperatures come into thermal contact, they
exchange thermal energy, i.e. heat, but the hotter body gives to the colder body more
thermal energy than it takes from it, until their temperatures are equal.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Heat transfer:
Thermal energy is transferred from an object of high temperature to one of
lower temperature by conduction, convention and radiation. This process is
usually called heat transfer or heat flow, although it is the thermal energy
that is really being transferred. Heat is the amount transferred.
If you grasp a snowball in your hand, of course, your hand gets cold. The human
mind perceives this as a transfer of cold from the snowball, but, in fact, exactly
the opposite happens: heat moves from your hand to the snow, and if enough
heat enters the snowball, it will melt. At the same time, the departure of heat
from your hand results in a loss of internal energy near the surface of your hand,
which you experience as a sensation of coldness.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Conduction:
Conduction is when materials are in physical contact and kinetic energy is
transferred through collisions of their particles, according to the Kinetic
Theory of Matter.
In the conduction of heat, kinetic energy is passed from molecule to molecule,
like a long line of people standing shoulder to shoulder, passing a secret. (And,
just as the original phrasing of the secret becomes garbled, some kinetic energy
is inevitably lost in the series of transfers.)

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Convection:
Convection is the movement of thermal energy from one area to another in a
liquid or gas.
Convection is of two types: natural convection and forced convection,
Examples of forced convection include some types of ovens and even a
refrigerator or air conditioner. These two machines both move warm air from an
interior to an exterior place. Thus, the refrigerator pulls hot air from the
compartment and expels it to the surrounding room, while an air conditioner
pulls heat from a building and releases it to the outside.
But forced convection does not necessarily involve human made machines: the
human heart is a pump, and blood carries excess heat generated by the body to
the skin. The heat passes through the skin by means of conduction, and at the
surface of the skin, it is removed from the body in a number of ways, primarily
by the cooling evaporation of perspiration.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Radiation
Radiation is when warm or hot matter emits
electromagnetic radiation--especially infrared--that is
then absorbed by an object at a distance. The
absorption heats the second object.

Heat generated from the

electromagnetic radiation
from the Sun is one of the
driving forces of life on
Earth.

Every form of matter emits electromagnetic waves,

though their presence may not be readily perceived.
Thus, when a metal rod is heated, it experiences
conduction, but part of its heat is radiated, manifested
by its glowvisible light. Even when the heat in an
object is not visible, however, it may be radiating
electromagnetic energy, for instance, in the form of
infrared light. And, of course, different types of matter
radiate better than others: in general, the better an
object is at receiving radiation, the better it is at
emitting it.
A red-hot iron rod from which heat transfer to
the surrounding environment will be primarily
through radiation.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Units of heat:

heat is a form of energy, and energy is the ability to perform work, heat is, therefore,
measured by the same units as work.
The principal unit of work or energy in the metric system (known within the scientific
community as SI, or the SI system) is the joule.
Abbreviated "J," a joule is equal to 1 newton-meter (N m).
The newton is the SI unit of force, and since work is equal to force multiplied by
distance, measures of work can also be separated into these components.

The kilocalorie in addition to the joule, is an important SI measure of heat.

The amount of energy required to change the temperature of 1 gram of water
by 1C is called a calorie, and a kilocalorie is equal to 1,000 calories.
A British thermal unit (Btu or BTU and also known as a heat unit in the United States)
is the energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by
one fahrenheit degree.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Temperature:

Heat is not temperature.

Eg) putting a pot of water on the stove, then the temperature of that
water goes up. More heat, more temperature - they must be the same,
right?
Not so.

Temperature is a number. That number is related to energy, but it is not energy itself.
Temperature is a number that is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules
of a substance.
The spatial distribution of temperature in a body determines heat flow.
Heat is a measurement of some of the energy in a substance. When you add heat to a
substance, you are adding energy to the substance. This added heat (energy) is usually
expressed as an increase in the kinetic energies of the molecules of the substance. If the
heat (energy) is used to change the state of the substance, say by melting it, then the
added energy is used to break the bonds between the molecules rather than changing
their kinetic energy.
If you measure it in degrees Kelvin, then the temperature value is directly proportional
to the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the substance.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

When heat (energy) goes into a substance one of two things can happen:
1. The substance can experience a rise in temperature. The heat (the added energy) can
be realized as an increase in the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The
molecules now, on average, have more kinetic energy. This increase in average kinetic
energy is registered as a number called temperature that changes proportionally with
it. Note that this increase in the average kinetic energy of the molecules means that
they will now, on average, be traveling faster than before the heat arrived.
2. The substance can change state. For example, if the substance is ice, it can melt into
water. Perhaps surprisingly, this change does not cause a rise in temperature. At the
exact moment before melting, the average kinetic energy of the ice molecules is the same
as the average kinetic energy of the water molecules at the exact moment after melting.
That is, the melting ice and the just melted water are at the same temperature.
Although heat (energy) is absorbed by this change of state, the absorbed energy is not
used to change the average kinetic energy of the molecules, and thus proportionally
change the temperature. The energy is used to change the bonding between the
molecules.
Changing the manner in which the molecules bond to one another can require an
absorbtion of energy (heat) as in the case of melting, or require a release of energy
(heat) as in the case of freezing.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

So, when heat comes into a substance, energy comes into a substance. That energy
can be used to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules, which means an
increase in their temperature which means an increase in their speed. Or at certain
temperatures the added heat could be used to break the bonds between the
molecules causing a change in state that is not accompanied by a change in
temperature.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

The Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales are three different systems for measuring
heat energy (temperature) based on different references.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Room temperature:
Room temperature is a common term that can either denote a certain temperature to
which humans are accustomed or a specific temperature.
Room temperature may otherwise be indicated by general human comfort, with the
common range of 20 C (68 F) to 29 C (84 F), though people may become acclimatized
to higher or lower temperatures.
Scientific Calculations:
For scientific calculations, room temperature is usually taken to be either 20 or 25
degrees Celsius (293 or 298 kelvin (K), 68 or 77 degrees Fahrenheit). For numerical
convenience, 300.00 K (26.85 C, 80.33 F) is often used, without being specified as "room
temperature".
However, room temperature is not a uniformly defined scientific term, unlike Standard
Temperature and Pressure, or STP, which has several, slightly different definitions.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Ambient versus room temperature:
Room temperature implies a temperature inside a temperature-controlled building.
Ambient temperature simply means "the temperature of the surroundings" and will be
the same as room temperature indoors.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Change of State:
The three basic physical states of matter include
solid
liquid
gas
The physical state of a substance is closely related to the distance between
molecules. As a general rule, the molecules are
closest together in solids, farther apart in liquids, and farthest apart in gases.
In general, matter in one state can be changed into either of the other two states.
Such transformations are called "phase changes
Whenever the change involves the disruption of intermolecular forces, energy must be
supplied.
The disruption of intermolecular forces accompanies the state going towards a less
ordered state.
As the strengths of the intermolecular forces increase, greater amounts of energy are
required to overcome them during a change in state

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Change of State:

In short Evaporation, condensation, sublimation, freezing, and melting are changes of

state.
The melting process for a solid is also referred to as fusion
The enthalpy change associated
with melting a solid is often called
the heat of fusion
The heat needed for the
vaporization of a liquid is called the
heat of vaporization

Energy Changes Accompanying Changes of State

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Eg)
A snowman, glass of water and steam might look very different but they are made of
the same stuff!
The state will change when the substance is heated.
As a solid, a substance has a fixed volume and shape and is usually unable to flow,
except in the case of glaciers. For instance, an ice cube or snowflake is the solid state of
water.
When a solid is heated, it turns into a liquid. As a liquid, a substance has a fixed
volume, but its shape changes to fill the shape of its container. For instance, a glass of
water is the liquid state of water.
When a liquid is heated, it turns into a gas. As a gas, a substance does not have a
fixed volume or shape. Gas expands to fill the shape and volume of its container. For
instance, the steam that comes out of a hot teakettle, making the whistle sing, is
water in the form of a gas.
Heat causes substances to change their state because, when heated, the molecules
within the substance to move around faster. The faster the molecules bounce about,
the weaker they are held together.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Sensible heat:

When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The increase in heat is
called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed from an object and its temperature
falls, the heat removed is also called sensible heat. Heat that causes a change in
temperature in an object is called sensible heat.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Temperature change with time. Phase changes are indicated by flat regions where heat
energy used to overcome attractive forces between molecules

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Latent heat

All pure substances in nature are able to change their state. Solids can become liquids
(ice to water) and liquids can become gases (water to vapor) but changes such as these
require the addition or removal of heat. The heat that causes these changes is called
latent heat.
Latent heat however, does not affect the temperature of a substance - for example,
water remains at 100C while boiling. The heat added to keep the water boiling is
latent heat. Heat that causes a change of state with no change in temperature is called
latent heat.
The terms sensible heat and latent heat are not special forms of energy, instead they
characterize the same form of energy, heat, in terms of their effect on a material or a
thermodynamic system. Heat is thermal energy in the process of transfer between a
system and its surroundings or between two systems with a different temperature.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

When heat flow to a
substance is not reflected in a
temperature increase in that
substance, the energy is being
used to increase the distance
between the molecules of the
substance and to change it from
a solid to a liquid or from a liquid
to a gas.
You might say that latent heat is
the energy price that must be
paid for a change of state from
solid to liquid or from liquid to
gas.
The energy is not lost. It is stored
in the substance as internal
energy.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Latent heat of fusion:

It is the addition or removal of to change the state from a solid to a liquid (melting) or
the reverse processes of freezing. It is also called the latent heat of fusion, and the
temperature at which it occurs is called the melting point.
In simple words, a change of substance from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a
solid involves the latent heat of fusion. It might also be termed the latent heat of
melting, or the latent heat of freezing.
The units of heat of fusion are usually expressed as:
kilojoules per mole (the SI units)
calories per gram (old metric units now little used, except for a different, larger
calorie used in nutritional contexts)
British thermal units per pound or Btu per pound-mole

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Evaporation:

change of a liquid into vapor at any temperature below its boiling point.
For example, water, when placed in a shallow open container exposed to air, gradually
disappears, evaporating at a rate that depends on the amount of surface exposed, the
humidity of the air, and the temperature. Evaporation occurs because among the
molecules near the surface of the liquid there are always some with enough heat energy
to overcome the cohesion of their neighbors and escape
At higher temperatures the number of energetic molecules is greater, and evaporation is
more rapid. Evaporation is also increased by increasing the surface area of the liquid or
by increasing the air circulation, thus carrying away the energetic molecules leaving the
liquid before they can be slowed enough by collisions with air molecules to be
reabsorbed into the liquid. If the air is humid some water molecules from the air will pass
back into the liquid, thus reducing the rate of evaporation. An increase in atmospheric
pressure also reduces evaporation. The process of evaporation is always accompanied by
a cooling effect. For example, when a liquid evaporates from the skin, a cooling
sensation results. The reason for this is that only the most energetic molecules of liquid
are lost by evaporation, so that the average energy of the remaining molecules
decreases; the surface temperature, which is a measure of this average energy,
decreases also.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Eg)
When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below
the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low
humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through the
clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Latent heat of evaporation:

A change of a substance from a liquid to a vapour, or from a vapour back to a liquid

involves the latent heat of evaporation. Since boiling is only a rapid evaporation process,
it might also be called the latent heat of boiling, or the latent heat of condensation.
Because of large amount of latent heat involved in
evaporation and condensation, heat transfer can
be very efficient during this process.
The absorption of heat by changing a liquid to
vapour, and the discharge of that heat by
condensing the vapour is the keystone to the
whole mechanical refrigeration process, and the
movement of the latent heat involved is the basic
means of refrigeration.

Water vapor behaves like a gas and is, thus, invisible, but the clouds of condensed water
droplets refract and diffuse the sun light and so are visible.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Latent heat of Sublimation:

Sublimation is the term for when matter undergoes a phase transition directly from a
solid to gaseous form, or vapor, without passing through the more common liquid
phase between the two. It is a specific case of vaporization.
The most well known example of a material that undergoes sublimation is dry ice, or
frozen carbon dioxide.
The latent heat of sublimation is equal to the sum of the latent heat of fusion and
the latent heat of evaporation.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

When a comet approaches the sun, the comet
comes to a region of space where it is warm
enough that the ices inside the nucleus become
gases. That is when the tails and coma of the
comet form.

Sublimation of frozen carbon

dioxide ("dry ice") is common at
the surfaces of comets when they
warm up upon approaching the
Sun. This is an artist's depiction of
sublimation on a comet's surface.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Saturation temperature:

The condition of temperature and pressure at which both liquid and vapour can exist
simultaneously is termed saturation.
At higher pressures, the saturation temperature increases, and with a decrease in
pressure, the saturation temperature decreases.
So, saturated temperature is directly proportional to pressure.
In other words,
Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the
temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its
vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition
of thermal energy results in a phase transition.
If the pressure in a system remains constant, a vapor at saturation temperature will
begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Super heated vapour:

After a liquid has changed to a vapour, any further heat added to the vapour raises its
temperature so long as the pressure at which it is exposed remains constant. Since a
temperature rise results, this is sensible heat.
The term superheated vapour is used to describe a gas whose temperature is above its
boiling or saturation point. The air around us is composed of superheated vapour.
In other words, Superheated steam is steam at a temperature higher than water's boiling
point. If saturated steam is heated at constant pressure, its temperature will rise, producing
superheated steam. This will occur if saturated steam contacts a surface with a higher
temperature. The steam is then described as superheated by the number of degrees it has
been heated above saturation temperature.
Superheated steam and liquid water cannot coexist under thermodynamic equilibrium, as
any additional heat simply evaporates more water and the steam will become saturated
steam. However, under dynamic conditions some degree of superheating is often possible.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Eg Pest control

Superheated steam is used for soil steaming. Steam is induced into the soil which causes
almost all organic material to deteriorate. Soil steaming is an effective alternative to
chemicals in agriculture

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Subcooled liquid:

Any liquid which has a temperature lower than the saturation temperature
corresponding to its pressure is said to be subcooled.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

In other words, A compressed fluid (also called a subcooled fluid or subcooled liquid)
is a fluid under thermodynamic conditions that force it to be a liquid. It is a liquid at a
temperature lower than the saturation temperature at a given pressure. In a plot
comparing absolute pressure and specific volume (commonly called a P-v diagram), of
a real gas, a compressed fluid is to the left of the liquid-vapor phase boundary; that is,
it will be to the left of the vapor dome.
Some of the conditions that cause a fluid to be compressed are the following:
A specific volume lesser than the specific volume of a saturated liquid
A fluid temperature below the saturation temperature
A pressure exceeding the saturation pressure
An enthalpy (a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a
system) smaller than the enthalpy of a saturated liquid
The term "compressed liquid" emphasizes that the pressure is greater than the
saturation pressure for the given temperature.
Compressed liquid properties are relatively independent of pressure. As such, it is
usually acceptable to treat a compressed liquid as a saturated liquid at the given
temperature.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

A P-v diagram for liquid water. The compressed fluid region is located to the left of the
blue line (the liquid-vapor phase boundary).

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Freezing is complex and liquid water droplets often condense or persist at
temperatures colder than 0 C. Water droplets colder than 0 C are supercooled.
Supercooled water drops very often are in abundance in clouds at temperatures
between 0 C and 15 C with decreasing amounts at colder temperatures.
Usually, at temperatures colder than 15 C, sublimation is prevalent; and clouds and
fog may be mostly ice crystals with a lesser amount of supercooled water. However,
strong vertical currents may carry supercooled water to great heights where
temperatures are much colder than 15 C.
Supercooled water has been observed at temperatures colder than 40 C.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Pressure Temperature Relationships (In Liquids):

The temperature at which a liquid boils is dependent on the pressure exerted to it.
The vapour pressure of the liquid, which is the pressure exerted by the tiny molecules
seeking to escape the liquid and become vapour, increase with an increase in
temperature until at the point where the vapour pressure equals the external
pressure, boiling occurs.
Vapor Pressure
A liquid doesn't have to be heated to its boiling point before it can become a gas.
Water, for example, evaporates from an open container at room temperature (20oC),
even though the boiling point of water is 100oC. We can explain this with the diagram
in the figure below.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Even at temperatures well below the boiling point of a liquid, some of the particles are
moving fast enough to escape from the liquid.
When this happens, the average kinetic energy of the liquid decreases. As a result, the
liquid becomes cooler. It therefore absorbs energy from its surroundings until it
returns to thermal equilibrium. But as soon as this happens, some of the water
molecules once again have enough energy to escape from the liquid.
In an open container, this process continues until all of the water evaporates.
In a closed container some of the molecules escape from the surface of the liquid to
form a gas as shown in the figure below.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Eventually the rate at which the liquid evaporates to form a gas becomes equal to the
rate at which the gas condenses to form the liquid. At this point, the system is said to
be in equilibrium (from the Latin, "a state of balance"). The space above the liquid is
saturated with water vapor, and no more water evaporates.
The vapor pressure of a liquid is literally the pressure of the gas (or vapor) that collects
above the liquid in a closed container at a given temperature.
The pressure of the water vapor in a closed container at equilibrium is called the
vapor pressure. The kinetic molecular theory suggests that the vapor pressure of a
liquid depends on its temperature. As can be seen in the graph of kinetic energy
versus number of molecules, the fraction of the molecules that have enough energy to
escape from a liquid increases with the temperature of the liquid. As a result, the
vapor pressure of a liquid also increases with temperature.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

The figure shows that the relationship
between vapor pressure and
temperature is not linear the vapor
pressure of water increases more
rapidly than the temperature of the
system.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Water at sea level boils at 100 Deg C, but at 5,000 feet elevation it boils at 85 Deg C,
due to atmospheric pressure.
If some means, a compressor for example, were used to vary pressure on the surface
of the water in a closed container, the boiling point could be changed at will.
Since all liquids react in the same fashion, although at different temperatures and
pressures, pressure provides a means of regulating a refrigerating temperature. If a
cooling coil is part of a closed system isolated from the atmosphere and a pressure
can be maintained in the coil equivalent to the saturation temperature (boiling point)
of the liquid at the cooling temperature desired, then the liquid will boil at that
temperature as long as it is absorbing heat and refrigeration has been accomplished.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Refrigerants:

A refrigerant is a substance used in a heat cycle usually including, for enhanced

efficiency, a reversible phase change from a gas to a liquid.
Traditionally, fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons were used as refrigerants,
but they are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects.
Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide,
and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as methane.
Ideal Refrigerant Properties:
The ideal refrigerant has good thermodynamic properties, is unreactive chemically, and
safe.
The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target
temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively
high density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature.
Since boiling point and gas density are affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made
more suitable for a particular application by choice of operating pressure. These
properties are ideally met by the chlorofluorocarbons.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

In other words, a large quantities of heat can be absorbed by a substance through an
increase in sensible heat involving either a big temperature difference or a large weight.
In a change of state involving heat, however, a fraction of the weight will absorb an
equivalent amount of heat.
In mechanical refrigeration a process is required that can transfer large quantities of heat
economically and efficiently, and can be repeated continuously. The processes of
evaporation and condensation of a liquid are therefore, the logical steps in the
refrigeration process.
Practically any liquid could be used for absorbing heat by evaporation. Water is ideal in
many respects, but it boils at temperature too high for ordinary cooling purposes, and
freezes at temperature too high for low temperature conditions. A refrigerant must
satisfy two main requirements,
1. It must readily absorb heat at the temperature required by the product load.
2. For economy and continuous cooling, the system must use the same refrigerant over
and over again.
There is no perfect refrigerant, and there are varying opinions as to which may be best
for specific applications.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Refrigerants by class

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of

absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically boiling),
using the refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat', the quantity
of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They are air,
calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing
solutions. The purpose of Class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature
from Class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be airconditioned.
Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable
agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of their ability to
carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their heat
of solution. They can also be classified into many categories.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Refrigerant:

Ammonia - An efficient refrigerant used successfully in industrial applications

through many Highly toxic.
Careful consideration must be given to any design or application.
Penetrating odor, soluble in water.
harmless in concentration up to 1/30%, non flammable, explosive
USE - Large industrial plants
R22 Chlorodi- fluoromethane
R22 is a single hydrochlorofluorocarbon or HCFC compound.
Low chlorine content and ozone depletion potential, ODP = 0.05
Modest global warming potential GWP = 1700.
R22 can still be used in small heat pump systems, but new systems can not
be manufactured for use in the EU after 2003. From 2010 only recycled or
saved stocks of R22 can be used. It will no longer be manufactured.
Little odor, colorless as gas or liquid, non toxic, non irritating, non
flammable, non corrosive, stable
USE - Packaged air-conditioning units where size of equipment and economy
are important. Air Conditioning, Low and Medium
Temperature Refrigeration

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Why move to Natural Refrigerants

In the 1970s, scientists discovered the dangerous impact Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
have in the Earth's atmosphere. CFCs were used as foam blowing agents, refrigerants
and solvents. It was found that they destroy the ozone layer, so that aggressive UV-B
radiation can reach directly the Earth's surface causing genetic damage in the cells of
people, plants and animals.
Therefore, in 1987, an international treaty was concluded at Montreal, Canada (the so
called Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer), to prevent the
ozone layer from further destruction and begin the phase-out of the use of CFCs and
other Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) like Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are fluorinated gases
(F-gases) and are widely used in many commercial refrigeration applications, such as
beverage coolers, vending machines, ice cream freezers, open deck coolers and freezers
used in supermarkets. HCFCs are ozone depleters and will be phased out under the
Montreal Protocol.
In the refrigerant sector, two ozone-friendly replacement technologies are available:
climate harmful fluorinated refrigerants (HFCs) and climate-friendly natural refrigerants.
If HFCs will replace HCFCs, the climate benefits of the Montreal Protocol will be lost in a
short period of time.
Therefore, Naturally! members have decided to support climate-friendly technology
and go for natural refrigerants.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Other things to be done to reduce the load on the refrigerant:

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Natural Refrigerants

Natural refrigerants are naturally occurring substances, such as hydrocarbons (propane,

iso-butane), CO2, ammonia, water and air.
These substances can be used as cooling agents (heat transfer medium) in refrigerators
and air conditioners, don't harm the ozone layer and have no or negligible climate
impact.

Basic Refrigeration Principles

Air a Refrigerant:
Air has been used for residential, automobile, and turbine-powered aircraft airconditioning and/or cooling. The reason why air is not more widely used as a generalpurpose refrigerant is the misperception that the use of air is too inefficient to be
practical.
Yet, with suitable compression and expansion technology, air can be a practical (albeit
not the most efficient) refrigerant, free of the possibility of environmental
contamination or damage, and almost completely harmless to plants and animals.
Disposal
As of July 1, 1992 it is illegal to release refrigerants into the atmosphere (intentional or
accidental) because they can cause severe damage to the ozone layer. When CFCs are
removed they should be recycled to clean out any contaminants and return it to a
usable condition. Refrigerants should never be mixed together. Some CFCs must be
managed as hazardous waste even if recycled, and special precautions are required for
their transport, depending on the legislation of the country's government.

Vapour Compression Cycle

Refrigeration cycle and System components:

Vapor-compression refrigeration:
It is one of the many refrigeration cycles available for use.
It has been and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of large public
buildings, offices, private residences, hotels, hospitals, theaters, restaurants and
automobiles.
It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for
chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars,
and a host of other commercial and industrial services.
Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas
processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize
large vapor-compression refrigeration systems.
Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by
removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this
function may also be called a heat pump.

Vapour Compression Cycle

Simple Vapor Compression Refrigeration System:
A simple vapor compression refrigeration system consists of the following equipments:
i) Compressor ii) Condenser iii) Expansion valve iv) Evaporator.

Simple Vapour Compression Cycle

Vapour Compression Cycle

Vapour Compression Cycle

Here are the various processes of vapor compression

cycle
2) Compression:
The vapors of refrigerant enter the compressor and
get compressed to high pressure and high
temperature.
During this process the entropy of the refrigerant
ideally remains constant (but not so)and it leaves
in superheated state.
3) Condensation:
The superheated refrigerant then enters the
condenser where it is cooled either by air or water
due to which its temperature reduces, but pressure
remains constant and it gets converted into liquid
state.

condensation
expansion

compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

4) Expansion:
The liquid refrigerant then enters the expansion valve
or throttling valve where sudden expansion of the
refrigerant occurs, due to which its temperature and
pressure falls down.
The refrigerant leaves expansion valve in partially
liquid state and partially in gaseous state.
1) Evaporation or cooling:
The partially liquid and partially gaseous refrigerant at
very low temperature enters the evaporator where
the substance (air usually) to be cooled is kept.
It is here where the refrigeration effect is produced.
The refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance
to be cooled and gets converted into vapor state. expansion
This low pressure refrigerant is then absorbed by the
compressor where it is compressed again and the whole
cycle of refrigeration repeats again.
The vapor compression cyclic process is used for
refrigeration in domestic as well as commercial applications

condensation
compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

1. The process starts with vaporisation of the
refrigerant in the evaporator. This is complete at point
2. Compression is used to raise the pressure of the
refrigerant, point 3, so that it can condense at a higher
temperature. When all the vapour has condensed,
point 4, the pressure is reduced in an expansion
device, and the refrigerant is returned to its original
condition 1.
Notice that Expansion is a constant enthalpy
process.
It is drawn as a vertical line on the P-h diagram.
No heat is absorbed or rejected during this
expansion, the liquid just passes through a valve,
like water coming out of a tap.
The difference is, that because the liquid is
saturated at the start of expansion by the end of
the process it is partly vapour.

condensation
expansion

compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

Point 1 is inside the curve . The refrigerant at the

beginning of the vaporization is already partly
evaporated! How much? This depends on the shape
of the curve, and the start and end pressures.
On the other hand the Compression process is shown
as a curve.
It is not a constant enthalpy process.
The energy used to compress the vapour turns
into heat, and increases its temperature. This
tends to raise the temperature of the vapour,
making point 3 move further and further into the
superheated part of the diagram as compression
progresses.
Point 3 is outside the curve and not on the curve
as described in the Compression process.
This means that before Condensation can start,
the vapour has to be cooled down.

condensation
expansion

compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

To turn the basic vapour compression cycle into a
practical refrigerator, the evaporator should
superheat the refrigerant after all the liquid has
evaporated.
It is not practical to control precisely at the point
where evaporation is just finished.
Unless it is complete, some liquid will leave the
evaporator, which is useful cooling potential
wasted.
Moreover, compressors do not generally
appreciate liquid arriving with the vapour. It can
cause damage.
So control is provided in such a way as to ensure
that the vapour leaving the evaporator is
superheated.
The process starts with evaporation of the
refrigerant in the evaporator. Point 2 is in in the
vapour region, to the right of the saturated
vapour curve. Compression raises the pressure of
the refrigerant, point 3. The vapour is now hot,
and is cooled before condensation starts.

condensation
expansion

compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

It is not possible in practice to control exactly the
completion of condensation.
We want liquid to flow through the line from the
condenser to the control or expansion valve.
If some vapour is present here, it can cause
excessive pressure drop and reduction in
performance of the system.
The pressure drop should occur in the valve itself.
Some degree of subcooling is necessary to ensure
100% liquid flow.
This subcooling can occur in the condenser, and
further cooling of the liquid can take place between
the condenser and the valve.
Point 4 is now in the liquid region, to the left of the
saturated liquid curve, the pressure is reduced in an
expansion device, and the refrigerant is returned to
its original condition 1.

condensation
expansion

compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

Superheat and Subcooling occupy quite small

sections of the diagram, but they are very important
for the effective working of the system.
When refrigerant flows from one process to the next
it always moves through the pipes as either a
superheated vapour or a subcooled liquid.
The amount of superheat or subcool may be quite
small, but much needed.

condensation
expansion

compression

evaporation

Vapour Compression Cycle

Maximum Efficiency of the Vapour Compression Cycle

It takes a lot of heat to evaporate liquid. In other words a small amount of liquid
circulating in a refrigerator can perform a large amount of cooling.
This is one reason why the vapour compression cycle is widely used.
The refrigeration system can be small and compact.
Also from a practical point of view heat exchange is much better when using change
of state - evaporation and condensation.
However the expansion of the high pressure liquid, process 4 - 1 above is non
reversible.
And so the efficiency of this cycle can never even approach Carnot efficiency.

Vapour Compression Cycle

Components of the Practical Cycle

Connect up, use fans to circulate air over the evaporator (the air will be
cooled), and condenser (the air will be heated), switch on the compressor
and we have a refrigeration machine.
Sounds simple, but careful design and specification of components is needed.
The control valve is a key component.
Usually termed "Expansion Valve" this device regulates the superheat at the
outlet of the evaporator.
The temperature sensor at the outlet of the evaporator is connected to the
valve to provide feedback on the adjustment of the valve.
Most valves work automatically by means of a diaphram, and are termed
Thermostatic Valves, whilst other types are electronic.

Vapour Compression Cycle

How can we tell if the system is working correctly?

It is really quite simple in principle.
The properties of the Refrigerant or Working Fluid are known to a high level
of accuracy and by measuring the pressure and temperature at points 1, 2, 3,
4 the P-h diagram can be established.
In practice only two pressure measurements 2 and 3 are required.
Instrumentation and computer techniques are now available which allow fast
diagnostics of almost any system.

Vapour Compression Cycle

Air Handling Unit

What is Air:

Air is everywhere, where we live it is an ocean and wherein we are the fish.
Air is a mixture of gases predominantly oxygen.
Air is so elastic that virtually a room full can be squeezed into a tooth paste
tube.
Air is an element constantly being invaded by things like heat, vapour, cold,
dirt, odour, pollens, moisture, dust, etc.
The first step in air-conditioning then is to enclose it.
You may then add or subtract heat to it.
You may then add or subtract moisture to it.
You can circulate it with fans.
You can clean it up with filters.
You can distribute it through ducts without causing draft.
You may do all these things at once also.

Air Handling Unit

Air Handling Unit:

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to
condition and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
system.
An air handler is usually a large metal box containing a blower, heating or cooling
elements, filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers. Air handlers usually
connect to ductwork that distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it
to the AHU.
Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly to and from the space
served without ductwork.
Small air handlers, for local use, are called terminal units, and may only include an air filter,
coil, and blower; these simple terminal units are called blower coils or fan coil units. These
units are used for air-conditioning small spaces like guest rooms in hotels, hospital patient
rooms, etc.
A larger air handler that conditions 100% outside air, and no recirculated air, is known
as a makeup air unit (MAU).
An air handler designed for outdoor use, typically on roofs, is known as a packaged
unit (PU) or rooftop unit (RTU).

Air Handling Unit

An air handling unit; air

flow is from the right to
left in this case. Some AHU
components shown are:
1 - Supply duct
2 - Fan compartment
3 - Vibration isolator ('flex
joint')
4 - Heating and/or cooling
coil
5 - Filter compartment
6 - Mixed (recirculated +
outside) air duct

Air Handling Unit

A rooftop packaged unit or RTU

Air Handling Unit

Fan Coil Unit:

When it becomes necessary to condition a large number of small individually controlled

rooms such as in motels, hotels, apartment houses, medical centres and hospitals, it is
economical to circulate hot and chilled water to small fan coils located in each room.
A fan coil unit is a small air handling unit, which is usually installed in the ceiling space
above an entrance hall, closet or bathroom.
Ordinarily, hot and chilled water are piped to the unit, although electric strip heaters
may replace the hot water coil.
A thermostat actuates the hot water or chilled water valve, and a fan switch controls the
amount of air delivered to the room for quick heating or cooling.

Air Handling Unit

How AHU works:

Operation
The basic function of the AHU is to suck air from the rooms, let it pass through chilled
water cooling coils and then discharging the cooled air back to the rooms.
Normally, letting it pass through panel or bag filters also filters the air.
A certain amount of fresh air may be introduced at the suction duct so that air in the
rooms may be gradually replaced.
AHU's come in many sizes and shapes.
Usually, the air conditioning designer will choose a particular AHU based on the air flow
requirements and the cooling capacity.
If humidity of the air has to be controlled, steam coils, or other heating coils may be
installed.
If the air has to be very cleaned, special filters have to be installed at the ducting outlets
or at the AHU filter box.
Moisture in the air is condensed out when it comes into contact with the chilled water
coils.
At the bottom of the AHU, a pipe is installed so that water that is collected can be
drained out.

Air Handling Unit

Air handling units often use a squirrel cage blower powered by the AC electric motor to
circulate air. The air flow rate is controlled by vanes or dampers on the fan. Small air
handling units also contain a fuel-burning heater or heat pump which is placed in the air
stream to heat it. Larger air handling units use coils to circulate hot steam or water for
heating, and circulate chilled water for cooling purposes.
The fan and motor assembly is usually mounted on vibration dampers that absorb any
vibrations generated. Removable panels are installed so that personnel can enter into
the AHU for maintenance. Maintenance is mostly changing or washing of air filters,
greasing of bearings, changing of belts, and general inspection and cleaning work.

Air Handling Unit

Detailed Air handling unit

Air Handling Unit

Types

Small air handling units, called terminal units, often contain only a blower, air filter
and heater, and are used for local use.
Larger air handling units that condition outside air are called makeup air units
A packaged unit refers to an air handling unit exclusively designed for outside use,
and is typically found on roofs.

The air handling units are installed at the different places in the building to be air
conditioned. They are connected to the cool air supply and return air ducts which are laid
in all the rooms to be cooled.
In case of the central air conditioning plants the air handling units are installed on
the floor,
while in case of the split air conditioners, they are mounted on the roof inside the
room above the false ceiling.
In case of packaged units they can be installed on the floor or the roof.

Air Handling Unit

Air handler components

Blower/fan
Heating and/or cooling elements
Filters
Humidifier
Mixing chamber
Heat recovery device
Controls
Vibration isolators

Air Handling Unit

Blower/fan:

Air handlers typically employ a large squirrel cage blower driven by an AC induction
electric motor to move the air.
The blower may operate at a single speed, offer a variety of set speeds, or be driven by a
Variable Frequency Drive to allow a wide range of air flow rates.
Flow rate may also be controlled by inlet vanes or outlet dampers on the fan.
Some residential air handlers (central 'furnaces' or 'air conditioners') use a brushless DC
electric motor that has variable speed capabilities.
Multiple blowers may be present in large commercial air handling units, typically placed
at the end of the AHU and the beginning of the supply ductwork (therefore also called
"supply fans").
They are often augmented by fans in the return air duct ("return fans") pushing the air
into the AHU.

Air Handling Unit

Heating and/or cooling elements

Air handlers may need to provide heating, cooling, or both to change the supply air
temperature depending on the location and the application.
Smaller air handlers may contain a fuel-burning heater or a refrigeration evaporator,
placed directly in the air stream. Electric resistance and heat pumps can be used as well.
Evaporative cooling is possible in dry climates.
Large commercial air handling units contain coils that circulate hot water or steam for
heating, and chilled water for cooling.
Coils are typically manufactured from copper for the tubes, with copper or aluminium
fins to aid heat transfer.
Cooling coils will also employ eliminator plates to remove and drain condensate.
The hot water or steam is provided by a central boiler, and the chilled water is provided
by a central chiller.
Downstream temperature sensors are typically used to monitor and control 'off coil'
temperatures, in conjunction with an appropriate motorized control valve prior to the
coil.

Air Handling Unit

Filters

Air filtration is almost always present in order to provide clean dust-free air to the
building occupants.
It is typically placed first in the AHU in order to keep all its components clean. Depending
upon the grade of filtration required, typically filters will be arranged in two (or more)
banks with a coarse-grade panel filter provided in front of a fine-grade bag filter, or other
'final' filtration medium.
The panel filter is cheaper to replace and maintain, and thus protects the more expensive
bag filters.

Humidifier

Humidification is often necessary in colder climates where continuous heating will make
the air drier, resulting in uncomfortable air quality and increased static electricity.
Various types of humidification may be used:
Evaporative:
Vaporizer:
Spray mist:
Ultrasonic:
Wetted medium:

Air Handling Unit

Mixing chamber

In order to maintain indoor air quality, air handlers commonly have provisions to allow
the introduction of outside air into, and the exhausting of air from the building.
In temperate climates, mixing the right amount of cooler outside air with warmer return
air can be used to approach the desired supply air temperature.
A mixing chamber is therefore used which has dampers controlling the ratio between
the return, outside, and exhaust air.

Heat recovery device

A heat recovery device heat exchanger of many types, may be fitted to the air handler
between supply and extract airstreams for energy savings and increasing capacity. These
types more commonly include for:
Recuperator, or Plate Heat exchanger:
Thermal Wheel, or Rotary heat exchanger:
Run around coil:
Heat Pipe:

Air Handling Unit

Controls

Controls are necessary to regulate every aspect of an air handler, such as: flow rate of
air, supply air temperature, mixed air temperature, humidity, air quality.
They may be as simple as an off/on thermostat or as complex as a building automation
system using BACnet or LonWorks, for example.
Common control components include temperature sensors, humidity sensors, sail
switches, actuators, motors, and controllers.

Vibration isolators

The blowers in an air handler can create substantial vibration and the large area of the
duct system would transmit this noise and vibration to the occupants of the building.
To avoid this, vibration isolators (flexible sections) are normally inserted into the duct
immediately before and after the air handler and often also between the fan
compartment and the rest of the AHU. The rubberized canvas-like material of these
sections allow the air handler to vibrate without transmitting much vibration to the
attached ducts.
The fan compartment can be further isolated by placing it on a spring suspension, which
will mitigate the transfer of vibration through the floor.