Structure and Written Expression

1. Basic Grammar Terminologies

a. Pronoun and Noun
b. Verb

: Kata Ganti Orang dan Kata Benda

: Kata Kerja

c. Adjective

: Kata Sifat

d. Adverb

: Kata Keterangan

e. Article

: Kata Sandang

f. Preposition

: Kata Depan

Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more nouns. We use pronouns to:

Refer to a noun (called its antecedent) that usually comes before the pronoun

Make our writing clearer, smoother, and less awkward

In the sentence, Roberto feels that he can win the race, he is the pronoun, and Roberto
is the antecedent. In the sentence, Terry and Jim know that they are best friends, they
is the pronoun, and Terry and Jim are the noun antecedents.
There are several types of pronouns.

S
I

O
Me

Possessive
My

Nominative
Mine

Reflexive
Myself

You

You

Your

Yours

Yourself/Yoursel

We

Us

Our

Ours

ves

They

Them

Their

Theirs

Ourselves

She

Her

Her

Hers

Themselves

He

Him

His

His

Herself

It

It

Its

Its

Himself
Itself

Example:
-

Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents they from drying out
A

Quickly in air, sun, or wind.

D
The sentence should read: Animals like frogs have waterproof skin that prevents
them from drying out quickly in air, sun, and wind. Therefore the correct answer is
(C)
-

Because of its ability to survive close to human habitation, the Virginia deer has

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C
actually increased their range and numbers.
D
The sentence should read: Because of its ability to survive close to human habitation,
the Virginia deer has actually increased its range and numbers. Therefore the correct
answer is (D)
There are also other types of pronoun:

An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are which,

who, whom, and whose.

A demonstrative pronoun is used to point out a specifi c person or thing. These

pronouns include this, that, these, and those. In the sentence, Theresa, is this
yours? this is the demonstrative pronoun, and yours is the personal pronoun.

An indenite pronoun often does not refer to a specific or definite person or

thing. It usually does not have a defi nite or specifi c antecedent as a personal
pronoun does. In the sentence,
Everybody will select another to help with everything, the three italicized words
are all indefi nite pronouns since they take the place of a noun and do not refer to a
specifi c or defi nite person or thing. These are all indefi nite pronouns:
all

each

more

one

everybody

much

several

anyone
someone

everything
both

another

either

anybody

nobody

most

everyone

somebody

many no one

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea:

farmer, mechanic, father, Professor Haskins, editors, Marcia

Places:ocean, Canada, porch, Spain, classroom

Things: scissors, giraffe, pen, smiles, tugboat, skateboard, braces, drill
Ideas:

love, inspiration, courage, anxiety, eagerness, happiness

Clues to identify Noun from its position and pattern:

After article [the / a / an]+ Noun

Before and after of [N of N]

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neither

anything

Noun
People:

other
few

any
some
none

And

Same structure

But

Same structure
Or

Suffixes that form Noun

1.
3.
5.
7.

-er (entertainer, presenter)

-or (actor, director)
-ist (scientist, psychologist)
-ian (comedian, magician)

2.
4.
6.
8.

-ty (responsibility, security)

-nce (significance, influence)
-cy (accuracy, fluency)
-age/ge (marriage,

9. -ee (interviewee, employee)

11. -eer (engineer, volunteer)
13. -ant (servant, consultant,

knowledge)
10. -dom (freedom, kingdom)
12. -ism (patriotism, nationalism)
14. -phy (philosophy, geography)

informant)
15. -ment (government,

16. -al (refusal, denial, arrival)

development)
17. -ion (notification, production)
19. -ry (recovery, injury)

18. -gy (biology, sociology)

20. -hood (Brotherhood,

21. -ship (friendship, leadership)

Childhood)
22. -ure

23. -ness (illness, brightness)

(pressure,failure,departure)
24. th (truth, youth)

Some Random Noun Formations:

1. Grow (V) : Growth (N)

9. Deep (Adj)

Depth (N)

2. Fly (V)

: Flight (N)

10. High (Adj)

: Height (N)

3. See (V)

: Sight (N)

11. Strong (Adj)

: Strength (N)

4. Live (V)

: Life (N)

12. Long (Adj)

5. Die (V)

: Death (N)

6. Weigh (V)

: Weight (N)

7. Believe (V)

: Belief

(N)
8. Speak (V)

Length (N)
13. True (Adj)

: Truth (N)

14. Hot (Adj)

: Heat (N)

15. Wide (Adj)

: Speech (N)

(N

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: Width

Samples :
1. The able of writers to precisely record observation made about others enables
B
C
them to include in their work a great deal of materials outside their own
C
D
experience.
The sentence should read: The ability of writers to precisely record observation
made about others enables them to include in their work a great deal of materials
outside their own experience. Therefore, the answer is (A).
2. Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to raise water from
A
B
C
streams for the irrigate of crops.
C
The sentence should read: Some of the earliest mechanical devices were designed to
raise water from streams for the irrigation of crops. Therefore, the answer is ( C )
3. Philosophy tries to discover the nature of true and knowledge and to find what is of
the basic
A
B
C
value and importance in life.
D
The sentence should read: Philosophy tries to discover the nature of truth and
knowledge and to find what is of the basic value and importance in life. Therefore,
the answer is (B)

Adjective
An adjective modifi es (qualifi es or limits the meaning of ) a noun or a pronoun. It answers
the questions, What kind? Which one(s)? How many? How much?

Carrie read an interesting story. ( What kind of story?)

The recent article has that information. ( Which article?)

Kent owns those surfboards. ( Which surfboards?)

Wendy paid fty dollars for the jacket. ( How many dollars?)

Much space was devoted to her artwork. ( How much space?)

The words a, an, and the are the most frequently used adjectives. Although they are
sometimes referred to as articles or noun markers, they are really adjectives, plain and
simple. Use a before words that start with a consonant sound ( a joking man or a lucky
lottery player) and an before words that start with a vowel sound ( an hours wait or an
interesting story).
An adjective can come before or after the noun or pronoun it describes:

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Older cards are found on the table. ( Which cards?)

Tall players and intelligent coaches were interviewed by the interested

reporter.
( Which players? Which coaches? Which reporter?)

Tired and hungry , the campers reached the lodge. ( What kind of campers?)

The campers, tired and hungry , reached the lodge. ( What kind of campers?)

a. Suffixes that form Adjective

1.
3.

-ful (beautiful, useful)

-less (speechless,

2.
4.

-ish (childish, selfish)

-y (healthy, salty)

5.
7.
9.
11.

powerless)
-al (industrial, political)
-ive (creative, attractive)
-ble (comfortable, valuable)
-ous (dangerous, famous)

6.
8.
10.
12.

-nt (different, significant)

-ic (Islamic, historic)
-an (Brazilian, European)
-ese (Chinese, Japanese)

b. Participial Adjective

Present Participle Adjective (Ving)

Ex: a washing machine,
Adj

Adj

Past Participle Adjective (V3)

Ex: a limited edition
Adj

Ex: the confusing lesson

Ex: a written document

Adj

*) Another + Singular N
Adj

*) Other + Plural N
Adj

*) Others
N
Samples:
1. Video artist combine many different ways of using video equipment both to
A
B
create and to record various types of expression artistic.
C
D
The sentence should read: Video artist combine many different ways of using video
equipment both to create and to record various types of expression artistic.
2. The convention national of a United States political party nominates candidates
A
B
for the presidency and vice presidency of the country and issues a declaration of

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C
policy.
D
The sentence should read: The national convention of a United States political
party nominates candidates for the presidency and vice presidency of the country
and issues a declaration of policy.

Verb
There are several types of verbs to be studied: the action verb, the linking verb, and the
helping verb.
Action Verbs An action verb tells what action (often a physical action) a subject is
performing, has performed, or will perform.

My father delivers packages to department stores each day.

Louie bowled a perfect game last night.

Suzanne skated across the rink in Central Park.

Turn at the next corner, Noel.

Oscar will help Petra with the project.

Linking Verbs

A linking verb connects (or links) a subject to a noun or an adjective in

the predicate. The most common linking verbs are the forms of the verb to be ( is, are,
was, were, been, being, am ) and appear , become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell,
sound, stay, taste, and turn.

My sister is a doctor. (The linking verb, is, connects the subject, sister, with the
predicate nominative, doctor. )

My sister is studying to become a doctor. (In this sentence the word is is a helping
verb for the main verb, studying. Is does not function as a linking verb.)

He appeared tired. (The linking verb, appeared, links the subject, He, with the
predicate adjective, tired. )

He appeared at the game. (In this sentence the verb, appeared, is an action verb,
not a linking verb.)

In the following group of sentences, the odd-numbered sentences exemplify the linking verb
and the even-numbered sentences show the same verb used as either an action verb or a
helping verb. Discuss why each verb functions as it does.
1.

Reggie looked confused.

2. Reggie looked for his missing wallet.

3. Tammy grew tired during the long concert.
4. Tammy grew tomatoes in her garden this year.
5. I feel confused in math class.

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6. I feel the penny at the bottom of this pool.

Helping Verbs or Auxulliaries

A helping verb assists the main verb in a sentence.

There can be more than one helping verb in each sentence. In a questioning (interrogative)
sentence, the helping verb is usually separated from the main verb. The common helping
verbs are am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being, has, had, have, do, does, did,
may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, and would.
The italicized word in each sentence below is the helping verb. The underlined word is
the main verb.

The members are going to the city tomorrow evening.

Are the members going to the city tomorrow evening?

That joke has been heard around the offi ce.

Has that joke been heard around the offi ce?

Her brothers are leaving for the train.

Are her brothers leaving for the train?

Verb Tenses in TOEFL Structure and Writen Expression Section

Simple Present Tense [-s / -es] -> only for Singular or Uncountable Noun
Subject in Present Tense
Habitual/regular activity
Example:
She studies in ITI of Padang to increase her TOEFL score
She gets up at 5 A.M every morning
General Truth/Fact,
Example:
The Earth revolves around the Sun
Water freezes at temperature below 00 C
A plant obtains energy from the Sunlight.
Plants obtain energy from the sunlight
Time signals:
-

Today, recently, currently, nowadays,

(every, each, any)+time.

When the sentence discusses fact or

general truth, time signal is not necessary.

Example:
-

According to a World Resources Institute Report, a significant part of forest

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acreage disappear each year.

C

The sentence should read: According to a World Resources Institute Report, a

significant part of forest acreage disappears each year. Therefore the correct
answer is (C).
-

Variations in melody, rhythm and tone of voice becomes a major feature of child
A

speech toward the end of the first year.

D
The sentence should read: Variations in melody, rhythm and tone of voice becomes
a major feature of child speech toward the end of the first year. Therefore the correct
answer is (B).

Simple Past [-ed / irregular verb]

Time Signals:
- ago
- last
- In 1972, in the eighteenth century, in the early 1800s
- First / early/ the earliest/ originally/ ancient/ prehistoric, etc
- When the subject is a historical figure / Fact (Albert Einstein, Civil War, World War
II, etc)

Example:
-

In the late 1800s, United States painter Thomas Eakins develop a broad,
A

powerful Realist style that became almost expressionistic in his later years.
C

The sentence should read: In the late 1800s, United States painter Thomas Eakins
developed a broad, powerful Realist Style that became almost expressionistic in his
later years. Therefore, the correct answer is (A).

Continous/Progressive Tense [Tobe (am / is / are / was / were

/be/been/being+ Ving)
Pay attention to these following Ving examples :

The meeting was cancelled (Gerund)

We are discussing grammar now (Present Continues Tense)

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Indonesia is a developing country (Present Participial Adjective)

Passive Voice [Tobe + V3]

Example:
-

Prof Smith writes many articles (A)

Many articles are written by Prof.

Smith (P)
-

Prof Smith wrote an article (A)

An article was written by

Prof Smith (P)

Example:
-

When a bone is broke into several pieces, doctors may pin the pieces together
A

for proper healing.

D
The sentence should read: When a bone is broken into several pieces, doctors
may pin the pieces together for proper healing. Therefore, the answer is (A)
-

The one-fluid theory of electricity was proposing by Benjamin Franklin, a man

famous for his
A
C

wide interests and great attainments.

The sentence should read: The one-fluid theory of electricity was proposed by
Benjamin Franklin, a man famous for his wide interests and great attainments.
Therefore, the answer is (B).
Note :

Ving ( Active voice / Continous

Tense )
To Be +
V3 (Passive Voice )

Perfect Tense

Has / Have / Had + V3 (Active)

Ex: Prof Smith has written many novels (A)

Has / Have / Had + been + V3 (Passive)

Ex: Many novels have been written by Prof Smith (P)

Example:
-

Law in the United States has became a complex blend of common law and

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D
statutory law.
The sentence should read: Law in the United States has become a complex blend
of common law and statutory law. Therefore, the answer is (B)
-

Since Prehistoric times, artist have been arranged colors on surfaces in ways
A
B
that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion.
C

The sentence should read: Since prehistoric times, artists have arranged colors
on surfaces in ways that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion.
Therefore, the answer is (A).

Future Tense
Auxilliaries : Will/ Shall/Would

Will + V1 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith will write an international Journal (A)

Will + be + V3 (Passive)
Ex: An international journal will be written by Prof Smith (P)

Modal (Can / Could / Shall / Should / May / Might)

Modal + V1 (Active)
Ex: Prof Smith must write an international journal. (A)

Modal + be + V3 (Passive)
Ex: An international journal must be written by Prof Smith. P)

Example:
-

The rights to any new and useful machine, manufacturing process, or

A

material, or any improvement to these, can be protecting by United States

C

patent law.
The sentence should read: The rights to ay new and useful machine,
manufacturing process, or material, or any improvement to these, can be
protected by United States patent law.

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Tobe (am / is / are / was / were/ be / been /being + N/adj)

Example:
Prof Smith is a lecturer
He has been a lecturer for 10 years.
He will be a dean next month
He was a journalist
Example:
-

Anyone with absolute, or perfect pitch are able to identify by ear any note at
A

some standard pitch or to sing a specified note at will.

C

The sentence should read: Anyone with absolute or perfect pitch is able to
identify by ear any note at some standard pitch or to sing a specified note at will.
Therefore, the answer is (A)
Prex and Suffixes that form Verb
en- (enrich, enjoy, entitle)
-ize (maximize, organize)
-en (shorten, sharpen)

-ate (vibrate, educate)

-fy (classify, identify)
-er (lower, higher)

Summary:
-

A sentence must consist of at least Subject and Verb

Subject must be Noun

To+V1 Verb

When the verb of a sentence is underlined, check:

a. Time Signals
b. Subject [singular/plural]
c. Active or passive voice

3. ADVERB

Adverb of time

Now, recently , nowadays, currently

Adverb of place

Here, there , at the office, etc

Adverb of degree + Adjective

So, too, very, almost, rather, quite, pretty, somewhat

Adverb of Frequency + Verb

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Always
Often
Usually
Sometimes

+ Verb

Seldom
Ever

Never
Adverb of Manner [How?]
a. -ly (beautifully, naturally)
b. -ward (backward, upward)
c. -wise
Adverb of manner has three different uses. They can describe verb, adjective or
other adverbs. The functions:
a. Modify verb
a. She walks toward me.

How does she walk toward you?

Slowly.
-

She walks slowly toward me

She slowly toward me

She walks toward me slowly

b.

The room is decorated with expensive painting.

How is it decorated?

Beautifully
-

The room is decorated beautifully with expensive paintings

The room is beautifully decorated with expensive paintings.

c. Modify adjective
Ex: Albert Einstein is brilliant
-

Albert Einstein is exceptionally brilliant

Albert Einstein is an extremely brilliant scientist

d. Modify Adverb
Ex:
She speaks unbelievably quickly
-

It is an extremely quickly written letter

Patterns:
I.

Verb+Adv / Adv+Verb

II.

Tobe + adv + V3

III.

Adv+Adj
Adv+Adj+Noun

IV.

Verb+Adv+Adv

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Adv+Adv+Adj+Noun
Ex: 1. The planet mercury has a moderately elliptically orbit
A

Answer : D
2. In the Northern United States, two European species of small white birch are
A

extensive planted as ornamentals.

C

Answer : C
4. Article

The

Adj + N

An

Adv+Adj+N

1. A versus An
An
A

: Vocal SOUND
: Consonant SOUND

Article A/An both must be followed by Singular Noun

Ex:

An Umbrella

An Hour

A University

A europen country
A House

A one-hour

trip
Ex:

The visible world .. ( )

Art
Adj
N
A significance influent .. ( )
Art
N
Adj
A significant influence .. ( )
Art
Adj
N
A perfectly strong boy .. ( )
Art
Adv
Adj
N

Sample:
Mark Spitz, an United States swimmer, won seven gold medals at the 1972 Olympic
Games, all in

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D
world record times.
Answer: A
2. A/an versus The
A/AN Generalization or denition
The is used in the following conditions:
a. Specific
b. Special
c. Only one
d. Superlative Degree
Sample:
1. The gila monster is an only poisonous lizard native to the United States
A

2. Lake Superior, part of the United States-Canadian boundary, is a largest

freshwater lake in the
A

D
world
Answer key : 1. A, 2. C
5. Preposition
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also
in front of gerund verbs).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in
English:
Preposition - Time
English

Usage

Example

on

days of the week

on Monday

in

months / seasons

in August / in winter

time of day

in the morning

year

in 2006

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English

Usage

after a certain period of

Example

in an hour

time (when?)

at

for night

at night

for weekend

at the weekend

a certain point of

at half past nine

since 1980

for 2 years

time (when?)

since

from a certain point of

time (past till now)

for

over a certain period of

time (past till now)

ago

a certain time in the past

2 years ago

before

earlier than a certain point

before 2004

of time

to

telling the time

ten to six (5:50)

past

telling the time

ten past six (6:10)

to / till /

marking the beginning

from Monday to/till Friday

He is on holiday until Friday.

in the sense of at the

I will be back by 6 oclock.

latest

By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

and end of a period of

until

time

till / until

in the sense of how long

something is going to last

by

up to a certain time

Prepositions Place (Position and Direction)

English

in

at

Usage

Example

room, building, street,

in the kitchen, in London

town, country

in the book

book, paper etc.

in the car, in a taxi

car, taxi

in the picture, in the world

picture, world

meaning next to, by an

at the door, at the station

object

at the table

for table

at a concert, at the party

for events

at the cinema, at school, at work

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English

Usage

Example

place where you are to do

something typical (watch
a film, study, work)

on

by, next

attached

the picture on the wall

for a place with a river

London lies on the Thames.

being on a surface

on the table

for a certain side (left,

on the left

right)

on the first floor

for a floor in a house

on the bus, on a plane

for public transport

on TV, on the radio

for television, radio

left or right of somebody

Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.

the bag is under the table

the fish are below the surface

covered by something

put a jacket over your shirt

else

over 16 years of age

meaning more than

walk over the bridge

getting to the other side

climb over the wall

a path above the lake

getting to the other side

walk across the bridge

(also over)

swim across the lake

drive through the tunnel

movement to person or

go to the cinema

building

go to London / Ireland

movement to a place or

go to bed

or something

to, beside

under

on the ground, lower than

(or covered by) something
else

below

lower than something else

but above ground

over

(also across)

above

overcoming an obstacle

higher than something

else, but not directly over
it

across

through

getting to the other side

something with limits on

top, bottom and the sides

to

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English

Usage

Example

country

for bed

into

enter a room / a building

go into the kitchen / the house

towards

movement in the direction

go 5 steps towards the house

jump onto the table

a flower from the garden

of something (but not

directly to it)

onto

movement to the top of

something

from

in the sense of where

from
Other important Prepositions
English

Usage

Example

from

who gave it

a present from Jane

of

who/what does it belong

a page of the book

to

the picture of a palace

what does it show

by

who made it

a book by Mark Twain

on

walking or riding on

on foot, on horseback

horseback

get on the bus

entering a public
transport vehicle

in

entering a car / Taxi

get in the car

off

leaving a public transport

get off the train

vehicle

out of

leaving a car / Taxi

get out of the taxi

by

rise or fall of something

prices have risen by 10 percent

travelling (other than

by car, by bus

walking or horseriding)

at

for age

she learned Russian at 45

about

for topics, meaning what

we were talking about you

about
Patterns:

The

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Preposition

Adj + N
An

Adv+Adj+N

Preposition + Ving
Ex: Before picking up my mom, I went to the market
Prep Ving
Ex: By practicing a lot, students can master writing and speaking English.
Prep

Ving

Preposition for Time

Ex:

The seminar will be held in 2015

The seminar will be held in June 2015
The seminar will be held on June 6, 2015 on Wednesday at 4 A.M

Note:
In 1970 (Correct)
In the 1970s (Correct)
In the nineteenth century (Correct)
In the 1828 (Incorrect) In 1828
In the twenty century (Incorrect) In the twentieth century
Another type of preposition is the compound preposition. It does the same as a common
preposition but is composed of two or more words. Here are the most common compound
prepositions:
according to ahead of apart from
addition to

as of

aside from because of by means of in

in back of in front of in place of

next to on account of out of

in spite of

instead of

in view of

prior to

6. Subject and Verb

A sentence in English should have a subject and a verb. The most common types of
problem that you will encounter in Structure questions on the TOEFL test are related to
Subjects and verbs; perhaps the sentence is missing either the subject or the verb, or
perhaps the sentence contains the subject and verb agreement problems.
A. Various Form of Subjects in A Sentence

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The subject is a constituent that can be realized in numerous forms in English and other
languages, many of which are listed in the following table:

The large car stopped outside our house.

Noun (phrase) or pronoun
It is red

Farming requires much water

A gerund or gerund phrase His constant hammering was annoying.
(phrase)
Collecting antique stamps from around the world was
a big trend in the 1980s.

A to-infinitive (phrase)

To read is easier than to write.

A full that-clause

That he had traveled the world was known to

everyone.

A free relative clause

Whatever he did was always of interest.

A direct quotation

I love you is often heard these days.

Zero (but implied) subject

Take out the trash!

An expletive

It is raining.

A cataphoric it

It was known by everyone that he had traveled the

world.

B. Subject and Verb Agreement

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Basic
Rule.

The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb,
while a plural subject takes a plural verb.
NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or
plural. The next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.
Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do.
In order to determine which verb is singular and which one is
plural, think of which verb you would use with he or she and
which verb you would use with they.
Exampl
e:

Rule
1.

Two singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular

verb.
Exampl
e:

Rule
2.

talks, talk
Which one is the singular form? Which word would
you use with he? We say, "He talks." Therefore, talks
is singular. We say, "They talk." Therefore, talk is
plural.

My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.

Two singular subjects connected by either/or or neither/nor

require a singular verb as in Rule 1.
Example
s:

Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.

Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage
decorations.

Rule
3.

When I is one of the two subjects connected by either/or or

neither/nor, put it second and follow it with the singular verb am.
Exampl
e:

Rule
4.

When a singular subject is connected by or or nor to a plural

subject, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
Exampl
e:

Rule
5.

Neither she nor I am going to the festival.

The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.

When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/or or

neither/nor, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
Exampl
e:

Neither Jenny nor the others are available.

20 TOEFL Section 2 : Structure and Written Expression

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Rule
6.

As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects

when they are connected by and.
Exampl
e:

Rule
7.

A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such

as along with, as well as, besides, or not. Ignore these
expressions when determining whether to use a singular or plural
verb.
Example
s:

The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected

shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause
of her shaking.

Rule
8.

The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone,

anybody, someone, and somebody are singular and require
singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Example
s:

Each of the girls sings well.

Every one of the cakes is gone.
NOTE: Everyone is one word when it means
everybody. Every one is two words when the
meaning is each one.

Rule
9.

With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, part,

majority, some, all, none, remainder, and so forth look at the
noun in your of phrase (object of the preposition) to determine
whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of the
preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the
preposition is plural, use a plural verb.

Example
s:

Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.

Pie is the object of the preposition of.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
Pies is the object of the preposition.
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.
All of the pie is gone.
All of the pies are gone.

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Some of the pie is missing.

Some of the pies are missing.
None of the garbage was picked up.
None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.
Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first
one.
NOTE: Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word
only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,
"Clearly none has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is.
The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to
have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you,
use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are
acceptable beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).
Rule
10.

The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while

the expression a number is followed by a plural verb.
Example
s:

The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.

A number of people have written in about this
subject.

Rule
11.

When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular
verbs.
Example
s:

Neither of them is available to speak right now.

Either of us is capable of doing the job.

Rule
12.

The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs
even though they indicate place. In sentences beginning with here
or there, the subject follows the verb.
Examples:

There are four hurdles to jump.

There is a high hurdle to jump.

Rule
13.

Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.

Example
s:

Ten dollars is a high price to pay.

Five years is the maximum sentence for that
offense.

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Rule
14.

Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a

verb in the middle of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and
which become singular or plural according to the noun directly in
front of them. So, if that noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it
is plural, use a plural verb.
Example
s:

Salma is the scientist who writes/write the reports.

The word in front of who is scientist, which is
singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.
He is one of the men who does/do the work.
The word in front of who is men, which is plural.
Therefore, use the plural verb do.

Rule
15.

Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or

plural depending on their use in the sentence.
Example
s:

The staff is in a meeting.

Staff is acting as a unit here.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
The staff are acting as separate individuals in this
example.
The sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are in disagreement about the
findings.

Subject/Verb Agreement Exercises

1. The price of these jeans ____is/are_________ reasonable.
2. The books borrowed from the library __is/are____________ on my desk.
3. The boy who won the two medals ______is/are_________ a friend of mine.
4. Bread and butter _______is/are_______ our daily food.
5. The famous singer and composer ________have/has____________ arrived.
6. Collecting match-boxes _____is/are_________ one of his favorite pastimes.
7. The quality of the candies _______is/are_________ poor.
8. Neither his father nor his mother ______play/plays____________ mahjong.
9. Neither parent ________is/are__________ fond of playing mahjong.
10. None of my friends _____was/were____________ there.
11. Many students ______have/has________ made the same mistake.
12. Gold, as well as platinum, _______have/has_________ recently risen in price.
13. The boss, as well as his colleagues, _______have/has_________ been robbed by the robber.
14. Ten tons ______is/are__________ a heavy load.
15. Fifty miles ______is/are___________ a long distance.
16. Thirty years ______is/are______ a long time.

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17. One of the books ___have/has________ been missing.

18. The poor __________is/are_________ suffering.
19. You should decide which one of the three choices A, B, or C best
____answer/answers____________ the question.
20. One of the most intelligent students who ___score/scores__________ full marks
______is/are__________ John.

Task 2
1. The use of vitamin supplements and herbs (be) ___ becoming increasingly popular
among Americans.

2. While many studies claim that vitamins and herbs can improve health, there (be) ___
a lot of controversy about their safety.

3. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (do) ___ not regulate vitamins and herbs.

4. Most experts (believe) ___ that herbal supplements are mild and somewhat harmless.

5. Still, anyone who (take) ___ too much of a vitamin or herb could suffer negative side
effects.

6. For example, some medical problems (have) ___ been linked to overuse of ephedra,
an herb taken by people to lose weight.

7. Some researches (suggest) ___ that Vitamin C may help prevent cancer.

8. People who (take) ___ more than 1,000 miligrams of vitamin C daily may experience
diarrhea or kidney stones.

9. Advertisers say that the herb "kava kava" (reduce) ___ anxiety and insomnia.

10. Using large amounts of kava kava (be) ___ not wise as muscle, eye or skin problems
could result.

11. The danger of long-term use of vitamins and herbs (be) ___ still unknown.

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12. There (be) ___ a lot of evidence that vitamin-rich foods are beneficial.

13. However, whether the use of supplements (be) ___ helpful or not is still being
debated.

14. Most people (be) ___ able to get all the vitamins they need in the foods they eat.

15. A daily diet that (contain) ___ foods from the 4 groups should supply all the nutrients
a person needs.

16. Eating 5 servings of fruits and vegetables daily (be) ___ said to provide all the
essential vitamins we require.

17. The best way to get the necessary vitamins and minerals (be) ___ naturally through a
healthy diet.

18. Talking to your doctor before taking supplements (be) ___ advisable.

C. Simplifying A Sentence
In order to make it easier to find the subject and verb of a sentence especially in
TOEFL Structure and Written Expression part, the sentence can be eliminated by
omitting some elements below:
1. Prepositional Phrase
Example:
1. Under a variety of conditions, in the presence or in the absence of water, -----------with oxygen.
a. Iron reacting
b. Iron reacts
c. The reaction of iron
d. In which iron reacts
In this example you should look for the subject and the verb. You should notice
that under a variety of conditions, in the presence or in the absence of
water are prepositional phrases that give additional details to the main sentence
therefore they can be eliminated. There are no subject and verb in this sentence.
Therefore answer (b) iron reacts is the best answer.
2. The major purpose of the United Stated Department of Education are to ensure
A
equal educational opportunity for all and to improve the quality of education.
B
C
D

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In this example, the subject of the sentence is The major purpose. The word
purpose is underlined meaning that it is one of the suspects of error. Therefore
the answer is (A) because when the subject of the sentence is underlined, you
must check the verb form, in this case are. The sentence should read : The
major purposes of the United Stated Department of Education are to ensure
equal educational opportunity for all and to improve the quality of education.
2. TO INFINITIVE [ to+V1 ]
Example:
-------------- to fly backwards and upside down and to hover is very unusual.
a. Hummingbirds are able
b. The ability of the hummingbird
c. The able hummingbird can
d. The hummingbird has the ability
3. Present Participle [Ving]/Past Participle [V3]
Example:
1. Founded in New Jersey in 1776 as Queens college, --------------- to honor a
Revolutionary War hero in 1825.
a. Rutgers University, but renamed,
b. Rutgers University was renamed
c. But it was renamed Rutgers University
d. Renamed it Rutgers University
2. Among the factor affecting motivation are physiological ones, such as the body
A
B
signals that tell people when they are hungry or tired.
C
D
4. Appositive (words or phrases between two commas)
Example:
1. ____________, particularly the oxides of sulfur, greatly increases the rate at which
rust forms.
a. The presence of air pollutants
b. Air pollutants are present
c. Because the presence of air pollutants
d. Air pollutants whose presence
2. The saguaro, found in desert regions in the southwestern United States, _____
cactus in the
world.
a. The largest
b. Is the largest
c. That is the largest
d. The largest that is a
5. Adjective Clause [ who, which, that, whom, whose, when, where]
Example:
1. ---------- in the United Sates began in the eighteenth century, when individuals,
merchants, and colonial governments loaned money to one another.
a. It was banking
b. When banking

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c. Banking
d. Banking was
6. Examples [ such as, like, especially, including, for example, etc].
Example:
Legumes such as alfalfa or clover are often plant as cover crops to replenish the
nitrogen
A
B
content of soil in heavily cultivated fields.
C
D
The sentence should read: Legumes such as alfalfa or clover are often planted as
cover crops to replenish the nitrogen content of soil in heavily cultivated fields.

Subject and Verb Exercise

1. Until about 7.000 years ago, .
no technology apart from simple
tools.
a. There was almost
b. Was almost
c. There almost
d. Almost
2. Ripe or rotting rain forest fruits
alcohol concentration as high as 5
percent.
a. Are contained
b. That contain
c. Contain
d. Containing
3. . in eastern North America,
within the belt of prevailing
westerly winds, has given New
Jersey a climate characteristic of an
inland location.
a. Located
b. Its location
c. It is located
d. Because of its location
4. Since the early 1950s, .
throughout the world has more
than doubled.
a. There was demand for food
b. The demand for food
c. Food, a demand that
d. Since the demand for food
5. The ordinary chair in countless
shapes, sizes, styles, and
materials.
a. Has been made

6.

7.

8.

9.

b. Has made
c. Been making
d. was making
was the most important
economic activity in the United
States until about 1890.
a. Agriculture when
b. Agriculture
c. It was agriculture
d. There was agriculture
Larch and spruce trees .. in bogs
and wet areas of the northern
United States.
a. Found
b. Are found
c. Have found
d. Finding
.. by drying them is one of the
oldest known methods of
preventing food from spoiling.
a. Preserving certain foods
b. Preserve certain foods
c. By preserving certain food
d. certain foods preserved
In telecommunications, ...... data
very long distances (up to 30 miles
at one stretch).
a. For optical fibers to transmit
b. Optical fibers transmit
c. Optical fibers, when
transmitting
d. The transmission by optical
fibers

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10. . To fly backwards and upside

down and to hover is very unusual.
e. Hummingbirds are able
f. The ability of the hummingbird

g. The able hummingbird can

h. The hummingbird has the
ability

11. Through reproduction .. the

properties of a species.
a. Successive generations that
carry on
b. That successive generations
carry on
c. Successive generations carry
on
d. Carry on successive
generations
12. Refrigerating meats .. the spread
of bacteria.
a. Retards
b. Retarding
c. To retard
d. Is retarded
13. .. Muscles in the shoulder,
primarily the trapezius, which helps
turn the scapula, and the deltoid,
which moves the upper arm.

a. That several
b. Several
c. There are several
d. Several of the
14. Migraine, one of the most common
headache condition known to
human kind, .. during the
Mesopotamian era, about 3000
B.C.
a. To be first described
b. Was first described
c. Be first describing
d. First describing
15. to vapor without passing
through the liquid phase is called
sublimation.
a. A solid converts
b. The conversion of a solid
c. When a solid is converting
d. A solid whose conversion

16.
17.
1. Saturn is surrounding by a vast swarm of particles that form many rings, some of
which
18.
A
B
C
19. are quite complex in composition.
20.
D
2. Richard Wrights Uncle Toms Children, a collection of short stories, were a critical
21.
A
B
22. success when it appeared in 1938.
23.
C
D
3. Legumes such as alfalfa or clover are often plant as cover crops to replenish the
nitrogen
24.
A
B
25. content of soil in heavily cultivated fields.
26.
C
D
4. Children produce grammatically correct sentences by the age of three and uses
27. A
B
C
D
28. some highly complex constructions by the time they are five.
29.
5. Centrifuges are widely use to separate liquids having different densities or to
separate
30.
A
B
C
31. solids from liquids.
32.
D

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6. The first city in the United States to implement major plans for the clustering of
33.
A
B
34. government buildings were Washington D.C.
35.
C
D
7. Since prehistoric times, artists have been arranged colors on surfaces in a way to
36.
A
B
C
37. represent their ideas of beauty.
38.
D
8. In the nineteenth century, moving from crowded Britain to relatively sparsely
populated
39.
A
B
40. North America were seen by many British as an act of patriotism.
41.
C
D
9. The rapid growth of the worlds population over the past 100 years have led to a
great
42.
A
B
43. increase in the acreage of land under cultivation.
44.
C
D
45.
10. One storm in the planet Jupiters upper clouds, known as the Great Red Spot, has
46. A
B
47. observed for a period of well over 300 years.
48.
B
C
D
11. Law in the United States has became a complex blend of common law and statutory
law.
49.
A
B
C
D
50.
12. Annually in the United States, paper currency with a face value of more than $35
billion
51.
A
B
52. is been printed, averaging about 16 million notes a day.
53.
C
D
13. In the United States, in the years after 1828, the Democrats won the presidency six
out
54.
A
B
55. of eight times through 1856 and control Congress during most of that period too.
56.
C
D
14. In every culture, humans have organized themselves into groups, or communities
and
57.
A
B
C
58. have been established rules of living.
59.
D
15. The Art Deco is characterizing by sleek forms, simplified lines, and geometric
patterns.
60. A
B
C
61.
62.
63. Conclusion:
1. A sentence must contain at least subject and verb.
2. Subject must be noun.
3. The basic rule is that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a
plural subject takes a plural verb.
4. To infinitive [ to + V1] is not verb or predicate of a sentence

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5. When the subject is underlined, check the verb form

6. When the verb is underlined, check
- Time signal
- Subject (singular or plural)
- Active or passive voice
64.

7. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE and ADJECTIVE PHRASE

65.

An adjective clause describes a noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is

positioned directly after the noun that it describes.

Function: To modify Noun

Who + V

Which/That + (S) + V

Whom/Whose/When/Where + S + V
66. Example:
67. This is the house that I want to buy
68. The house that I want to buy is expensive
69. The ajective clause that I want to buy describe the noun house
70.

A reduced adjective clause begins with either a present participle (V-ing) or a

past participle (V3). It is simple to know which one to use: if the reduced clause is
made from an active verb, start the adjective clause with the present participle, but if
it's made from a passive verb, begin the adjective clause with a past participle. For
example, the ordinary adjective clause in the first example:
71.

72.

Example 1

Example

75.
I saw a man who
was carrying an umbrella.

78.
79.

73.
Adjective
Clause

74.
Verb
in
the
adjective
clause

76.
who
carrying
umbrella

77.
was
carrying
active

was
an

is

reduces to:
Example

82.
I saw a man
carrying
an
umbrella.

80.
Reduced
Adjective
Clause

81.
Participle that
starts the reduced
clause

83.
carrying
an umbrella

84.

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carrying

85.

We use carrying in the reduced clause because it comes from the active

verb in the original clause.

86.

87.

Example 2

Example

90.
The people who worked
there got a raise last year.

93.
94.

101.

Example

91.
who
worked there

92.
worked
is active

95.
Reduce
d
Adjective
Clause

96.
Participle
that
starts
the
reduced clause

98.
there

99.

working

working

Example 3

Example

104. The
books
which
were published that year are
expensive.

107.

89.
Verb
in
the
adjective
clause

This reduces to:

97.
The
people
working there got a raise
last year.
100.

88.
Adje
ctive
Clause

102. Adjectiv
e Clause

103. Verb in
the adjective
clause

105. which
were
published
that year

106. were
published
is
passive

reduces to:
Example

109. Reduce
d
Adjective
Clause

110. Participle
that
starts
the
reduced clause

111. The
books
published that year are
expensive.

112. publishe
d that year

113.

108.

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published

114.
115.

Ex:

1.

risk of diabetes.
116.
117.
diabetes.
118.
119.
120.
2.

The people [who consume too much sugar] have a greater

S
Adj. Clause
V
The people consuming too much sugar have a greater risk of
S

Adj. Phrase

The government released a new policy [that regulated the number

of political
parties.]
121.
S
V
Adj. Clause
122. The government released a new policy regulating the number of political
parties.
123.
124.

3.

S
V
Adj. Phrase
The books [which are written by Gus Dur] create a lot of

controversies.
125.
S
Adj. Clause
V
126.
The books written by Gus Dur create a lot of controversies.
127.
S
Adj. Phrase
V
128.
129.
4.
Louis Pasteur [who is a French Chemist and Biologist] invented
the Pasteurization.
130.
V
131.

Adj. Clause

Louis Pasteur, a French Chemist and Biologist, invented the

Pasteurization.
132.
S
Adj. Phrase
V
133.
134.
Directions: Change the adjective clauses to adjective phrases.
1. Dr. Stanton, who is the president of the university, will give a speech at the
commencement ceremonies.
135.
136.
137.
2. Be sure to follow the instructions that are given at the top of the page.
138.
139.
140.
3. The rules that allow public access to wilderness areas need to be reconsidered.
141.
142.
143.
4. The photographs which were published in the newspaper were extraordinary.
144.
145.

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146.
5. There is almost no end to the problems that face a head of state.
147.
148.
149.
6. The psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made important discoveries.
150.
151.
152.
7. The experiment which was conducted at the University of Chicago was successful.
153.
154.
155.
8. Kuala Lumpur, which is the capital of the city of Malaysia, is a major trade center in
Southeast Asia.
156.
157.
158.
9. Antarctica is covered by a huge ice cap that contains 70 percent of the earth's fresh
water.
159.
160.
161.
162.
10. When I went to Alex's house to drop off some paperwork, I met Jerry, who is his
longtime partner.
163.
164.
165.
166.
11. Our solar system is in a galaxy that is called the Milky Way.
167.
168.
169.
12. Two out of three people who are struck by lightning survive.
170.
171.
172.
13. Simon Bolivar, who was a great South American general, led the fight for
independence early in the 19th century.
173.
174.
175.
176.

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14. Many of the students who hope to enter the university will be disappointed because
only one-tenth of those who apply for admission will be accepted.
177.
178.
179.
180.
15. There must exist in a modern community a sufficient number of persons who possess
the technical skill that is required to maintain the numerous devices upon which our
physical comforts depend.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
16. Many famous people did not enjoy immediate success in their early lives. Abraham
Lincoln, who was one of the truly great presidents of the United States, ran for public
office 26 times and lost 23 of the elections. Walt Disney, who was the creator of
Mickey Mouse and the founder of his own movie production company, once was fired
by a newspaper editor because he had no good ideas. Thomas Edison, who was the
inventor of the light bulb and the phonograph, was believed by his teachers to be too
stupid to learn. Albert Einstein, who was one of the greatest scientists of all time,
performed badly in almost all of his high school courses and failed his first college
entrance exam.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.

Example:

1. Scientists are now only beginning to understand the factors .. cigarette addiction.
a. Cause
b. Causing
c. They cause
d. Causes
2. John Singleton Copley, in Boston in 1793, built his reputation in colonial
America as a portraitist.
a. Born on
b. Was born
c. Born
d. Who born
196.
3. An entire salt-marsh complex of creeks, marshes, river mouths, and barrier
197.
A
198.
islands can be seen as a single community linking by the tides.

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199.

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200.
4. Princeton University, was founded in 1746, is one of the oldest universities
201.
A
B
C
D
202.
in the United States.
5. An entire salt-marsh complex of creeks, marshes, river mouths, and barrier
203.
A
204.
islands can be seen as a single community linking by the tides.
205.
B
C
D
6. Establishing outside Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1976, The Minnesota
206.
A
207.
Valley National Wildlife Refuge contains more than 9,000 acres of forest,
208.
B
C
209.
prairies, marshes and lakes.
210.
D
211.
212.

Answer key: 1. B, 2. C, 3. D, 4. A, 5. D, 6.A

8. Preposition in Adjective Clause

218.
219.

213.
214.
215. Prep +
216.
217.

220. Example:
221. For people:
yesterday
222.
223.
advice.

226.
227.

S+V
Whom (Person)

The teacher gave me good advice.

I spoke to her

The teacher whom I spoke to yesterday gave me good

224.
good advice.
225.

Which (Thing)

The teacher to whom I spoke yesterday gave me

For things:

The bag was empty. She looked in it.

The bag which she looked in was empty.
The bag in which she looked was empty.

1. Funeral is a ritual. Europeans wear black at funeral.

Funeral is a ritual at which Europeans wear black.
228.
2. Winter is a season. Many mammals such as bears hibernate during winter.
Winter is a season during which many mammals such as bear
hibernate.
229.
3. Societies are informants. Anthropologists obtain cultural information from
societies.
Societies are informants from whom anthropologists obtain cultural
information.
230.

36 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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231.
232.

Sample from TOEFL:

1. Hypoglycemia is a condition _____ concentration of glucose in the blood falls to an

abnormally low level.
a. The
b. Of the
c. In which the
d. Such as the
2. Reflection occurs when light bounces off an objects and returns to the side ____
a. To come from
b. From which it came
c. It came
d. Which it came
3. In the cardiac cycle, the diastole is the period of relaxation of heart muscle
233.
A
B
234.
which during the chamber of the heart fill with blood.
235.
C
236.

Answer key: 1. C, 2. B, 3.C

9. Expressions of Quantity in Adjective Clause

237.
238.
Whom (Person)
239.
Expression of Quantity + Which (Thing)
+V
240.
Whose (Possessive)
241.
242.
243.

244.

Examples:
a. In my class there are 20 students. Most of them are from the Far East.
In my class there are 20 students, Most of whom are from Asia.
b. He gave several reasons. Only the few of them were valid.

He gave several reasons, only of few of which were valid.

245.
c. The teachers discussed Jims problems. One of his problems was
poor study habits

246.
247.
248.
249.

The teachers discussed Jims problems, one of whose problems was poor
study habits.
Note:

An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity with of: some of,
many of, most of, none of, two of, haft of, both of, neither of, each of, all of,
several of, a few of, little of, a number of, etc.
The expression of quantity precedes the pronoun. Only whom, which, and,
whose are used in this pattern.
Adjective clauses that begin with an expression are more common in writing
than speaking.
Commas are used.

37 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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250.
251.
252.
10. ADVERB CLAUSE
Function: To modify Sentence
Connectors:
253.
Because
Until
254.
255.

Since
Though

Unless

256.
257.

+ S+V
Although
After
Even though Once

258.
259.
260. Pattern:

Before

When
Where

While

Meanwhile
Whereas

As
As if

if

Whether _ or
As Though
Yet

So
So That

261.
262.
Connector S V , S V
If it rains, the streets get wet
263.
S V Connector, S V
The streets get wet, if it rains
264.
265.
266. Ex:
267.1. A delta is formed when _________ and the process of erosion does not carry the
materials away.
268.

a. the deposit of river

c. the deposits of river

269.

sediment
b. the river deposits sediment

d. the sedimentation of

river
3. When ___________, the elections of the outer rings are exchanged
270.

a. joining of two atoms

c. two

atom joint
271.

b. two atoms join

d. two of

atom joining
4. Only a few sounds produces by insects are heard by humans ________ most of the
sounds are pitched either too high or too low.
a. In spite of
c. as a result of
b. Because
d. instead of
5. As a country develops from an agricultural to an industrial economy, the attitudes,
values, structures, and functions of the family _______.
a. The change
c. change
b. Which change
d. changing
272.
273.
a.

Answer key : 1. B, 2. B, 3. B, 4. C.
Note:

Despite
274.
275.
276.
277.
278.

In spite of
Instead of
Because of
During

N/NP

38 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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279.

Ex:

University.
280.
281.
University.
282.

Because he is brilliant, he gets an achievement from his

Conn. S V
Because of his brilliance, he gets an achievement from his
Conn.

NP

b. Two sentences one connector

283.
Three sentences two connectors
284.
11. PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
285.
and
286.
Same Structure
but
Same Structure
287.
or
288.
289.
290.
Ex:
The living room was decorated with expensive paintings and
elegance lamps.
291.
Adj.
N
N
N
292.
Elegance is a Noun. It should be changed into Elegant (Adj).
293.
294.
Ex:
The student reads each chapter, takes a lot of notes and memories
the materials.
295.
V
V
N
296.
Memories is a Noun. It should be changed into Memorizes (V).
297.
298.
299.
12. PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS
Both __________ and
Either _________ or
Neither ________ nor
Not ___________ but
Not only _______ but also
Whether _______ or
From __________to
Between/among __________________and
Rather than
One _______ another
300.
301.
Ex:
Rapid eye movement sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep
because it has
302.
A
B
303.
characteristics of either the waking and sleeping state.
304.
C
D
305. Answer : D
306.
307.
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.

39 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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313.
314.
315.

13.

TWO WORD EXPRESSIONS

Based on
Relate to
Derived from
Exile from
Adapted to
Consist of
Name for/after
Suffer from
Escape from
Date to/from
Refer to
Aware of
Deal with

According to
Resistant to
Capable of
Date from/to
Regarded as
Originated from
Benefit from
Concern with
Purpose of
Comment on
Depend on
Combine into
Concentrated on

Devoted to
Similar to
Differ from
Same as
Carry on/out
Native to
Suited to
Result from
Come into
Known as/for
Dedicated to
Account for
Subtitute for

316.
317.

Samples from TOEFL:

1. A liquid is similar at a gas in that a liquid can fit the shape of any container into
which it is put.
318.
A
B
C
D
2. The development of microscope dates ________, which occurred between 1950 and
1610.
a. From the construction of compound-lens systems
b. When the construction of compound-lens systems
c. The construction of compound-lens systems
d. Was when the construction of compound-lens systems
319.
3. Teak wood is highly valued because it is _________ to water.
a. Resisting, and strong, and durable
b. Strong, durable and resistant
c. Resistant, durable, and strong
d. Strong, durable, and resists
320. Answer Key: 1. A, 2. A, 3. B
321.
14. COMPARISON
322.
325.
328.
331.

Positive
Small
Happy
Expensive

323.
326.
329.
332.

Comparative
Smaller
Happier
More expensive

324.
327.
330.
333.

334.
337.

Beautiful
Far

335.
338.

More beautiful
Farther/ further

expensive
336. The most beautiful
339. The farthest/ the

340. Good
341. Better
343. Bad
344. Worse
346. Many/much
347. More
349. Little
350. Less
352.
Patterns:
Positive Degree (as adj as)
Comparative Degree
[more]adj

Superlative
The smallest
The happiest
The most

furthest
342. The
345. The
348. The
351. The

40 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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best
worst
most
least

353.
354.
Superlative Degree ( the + [most]

Adj [-er]

+ than

+
355.
356.

Adj
Adj+Noun
Adv + adj + Noun

357. Example:
1. Prized for centuries for their beauty, roses are the world______________ plants.
a. Cultivated ornamental most widely
b. Ornamental widely cultivated most
c. Most widely cultivated ornamental
d. Widely ornamental most cultivated
2. Of the more 850 species of trees in the United States, the most oldest, the
358.
A
B
359.

bristlecone pine, grows in the Nevada and Southern California

dessert.
360.
C
D
361.
3. When Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated as President in 1933, the United
362.
A
363.
States was in the midst of the worse economic depression in its
history.
364.

D
365.
Answer key: 1. C, 2. B, 3. C
To innitive in Superlative Degree
366.
The first / The second / The third .
367.
The (most) adj. (-est)
368.

To + V1

To + be + V3

Ex: Sally Ride is the first American astronaut woman ______ on

the moon.
369.
370.

a. landed
b. who landed

c. landing
d. to land

371.
372.
373.
374.
Equalisation
375.
376.
377.

Pattern: The more _________; The more (S)

V

Ex: 1. Hubbles law states that the greater the distance between any two

galaxies,

__________________ is their relative speed of separation.

378.
379.

380.

a. the greatest
b. the greater

2. The more kinetic energy in the particles of a material, the

hottest the material

381.
A
D
382.
383.

c. greater than
d. as great as

Is.
Answer key: 1. B, 2. D

Repetition in Comparison
384. Pay attention to these indicators:
- As ----------- as

41 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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- Same as
- Resemble to
- Look similar to
- Differ from
- More/ less ------ than----385. Rules:
a. The items that are compared or repeated must be similar or
equal (apple to apple)
b. That (Singular) >< Those (Plural)
386.

Example:

The chemical composition of sand stone is the same as the

chemical composition of sand.

387.

The repeated words the chemical composition could be

changed
388.

into that.
Therefore, the sentence becomes : The chemical

composition of sandstone is the

389.
same as that of sand.
390.

The rules in Written English are more stringent than the rules of
spoken English.
391. The repeated words the rules could be changed into
those.
392. Therefore the sentence becomes: the rules of written English
are more stringent than those of spoken English

393.
394.

Ex:
1. Ostrich eggs are larger _____ of other birds; they are 50 mm long and

125 mm thick.
395.
a. than they are
c. than those
396.
b. than that
d. that than those
397.
2. Veterinary medicine is practiced separately from human medicine
since animal
diseases differ largely from ________________ humans.
398.
a. those affecting
c. they are affecting
399.
b. what affecting
d. affecting of
400.
Answer key: 1. C, 2. A

15. INVERSION

Not until
Not only
Rarely
In no way
Never
Scarcely
Only

Never
Under the

circumstances
With no exception
At no time
Seldom
Hardly
No sooner

401.
402.

Ex:

Auxiliary
Does/Do/Did
Has/Have/Had

S+V

To be
Modal

1. Television did not get its start as a full-scaled broadcasting

service in the U.S until 1948

403.
Not until 1948 did television get its start as a full-scaled
broadcasting in U.S

42 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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404.
405.
406.

2. I have never seen such a beautiful rose

Never have I seen such a beautiful rose
3. Earthquake not only destroys the buildings but also the

fragile ecosystem
407.

Not Only does the earthquake destroy the buildings but

also the fragile ecosystem.

408.
4. Rendang is seldom made of fish
409.
Seldom is Rendang made of fish
410.
411.
Example:
1. Not until 1741 and the first installment of Benjamin Franklins General magazine
_______________ their first appearance in North America.
a. When did literary magazines begin to make
b. Did literary magazines begin to make
c. Literary magazine began to make
d. Began to make literary magazines
2. Not only ________________ the center of French language and culture in North
America, it is also the second largest province in Canada with respect to
population.
a. Considering Quebec
b. Where Quebec is considered
c. Quebec is considered
d. Is Quebec considered.
412.
3. Not until fairly recently ____________ that land is not a limitless commodity.
a. Americans have realized
b. When have American realized
c. Have Americans realized
d. But Americans have realized
413.
Answer key: 1. B, 2. D, 3. C
414.
16. EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY
415.

For Singular

Noun
417.
For Plural
Noun

416.

A, an, every, any, each, every, another

418.

Two, three, .., both, several, various,

numerous, most, all, all of, of all, some,

between, among, many, few, a few, a number

419.

For

of, one of, a group of, a lot of, lot of, other
420.
Many, few, a few, a number of

Countable Noun
421.
For

422.

Much, little, a little, the amount of

Uncountable Noun
423.
For both

424.

a lot of, some, most, all, all of, of all, a

Countable and

lot of, a lot, more, none, one of, the majority of

Uncountable Noun
425.
426.
Note:
Another
427.
428.
429.

+ Singular oun
Other + Plural Noun
Each
Any
Other + Singular Noun

43 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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430.
Every
The other + Noun (Plural)
431.
Adj
432.
The others ( must not be followed by Noun)
433.
The other elements ( Correct)
434.
The others elements ( Incorrect)
435.
-

Example:
Cone shells live in much different seas and feed mainly on small fish and
436.
A
B
C
437.
worms.
438.
D
Another great artists of the time and possibly the most gifted silversmith in
439.
A
B
C
440.
the colonies was Paul Revere.
441.
D
442.
443.
The sentence should read: Another great artist of the time and
possibly the most gifted silversmith in the colonies was Paul Revere. Therefore

the correct answer is (A)

444.
445.
17. NOUN CLAUSE
446. A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses
most often begin with the subordinating conjunction.
-

Who
Which
That
what

How
Why
When
Where

- How much
-Whatever
- How many
- If
- Whenever
- Whether
- Wherever
-Whoever

447. Since a noun clause acts as a noun, it can do anything that a noun can do.
A noun clause can be a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, an object of a
preposition, a subject complement, an object complement or an appositive.
448.

Examples:

449.
Whatever you decide is fine with me. [ Noun Clause as a subject]
450.
S
V
Whether he continues his study next year or not remains unknown [NC as
subject]
451.
S
V
452.
That Jokowi chose many businessmen to join his cabinet is not
surprising. [NC as Subject]
453.
454.
He wondered why he had to live there alone . . .. He wondered where
his friends were, where his family was. He wondered what he had done to
earn himself this precarious and uncomfortable circumstance. He
remembered when he was a powerful man, successful, well-regarded." [ Noun
Clause as Object of the verb wonder and remember]

44 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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455.
Lacey talked at length about how she had won the perogy-eating
contest.
[ Noun Clause as object of the preposition about)
456.

Sample from TOEFL:

457.
different kinds of sleep has long been recognized.
a. There are
b. Although there are
c. Why there are
d. That there are
458.
459.
460.
461.
18. REVERSED WORDS
462.
Example:
463.
Specialization in industry creates workers lack who versatility in their
ability to
464.
A
B
C
D
465.
step in to other jobs.
466.
467.
The sentence should read: Specialization in industry creates workers who
lack versatility in their ability to step in to other jobs. Therefore, you the correct
answer is (C).
468.
19.Omitted Words
469.
Example:
470.
Yosemite National Park is most well known its beautiful spouting geysers of
all
471.
A
B
C
472.
sizes.
473.
D
474.
475.
The sentence should read: Yosemite National Park is most well known for
its beautiful spouting geysers of all sizes. Therefore, the correct answer is (B).
476.
20.UNNECESARY WORDS
477.
Example:
478.
While push-ups build your arms, shoulders and chest, sits-ups they
strengthen
479.
A
B
480.
your abdominal muscles.
481.
C
D
482.
483.
The sentence should read: While push-ups build your arms, shoulders and
chest, sits-ups strengthen your abdominal muscles. The word they is omitted.
Therefore, the correct answer is (B).
484.
20. Purpose vs. Effect
485. SO THAT PURPOSE
486. A statement of action or intended action is followed by the preposition so
and that + clause expressing purpose or goal.
487. Example:

45 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

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We stayed out all night so that we could watch the World Cup final match.
We took some blankets so that we could keep warm
488. SO [ ADJECTIVE/ADVERB+ADJECTIVE] THAT + S + V ---INTENSIFIER
489. So has two meanings and uses for expressing effect: (1) a connector
followed by a clause expressing a result; (2) an intensifier for some remarkable
situation or condition followed by that + clause expressing the effect.

490.
Example:
The car is so expensive that we could not afford to buy it.
The weather is so hot that you could fry an egg on the sidewalk.
491.
492. Sample from TOEFL:
493. Fluorine is a greenish gas too active that even water and glass burn in it.
494.
A
B
C
D
495.
496. The sentence should read: Fluorine is a greenish gas so active that even
water and glass burn in it.

497.

46 TOEFL Section 2: Structure and Written Expression

Compiled by : Nurfitrina Rosman