CELL DIVISION

Syllabus

: Agricultural chemicals: Pesticides, Biofertiliser, Chemical Fertilisers. Bioenegy, Crop

improvement, Crop origin centre, Genetic Conservation, Methods of plant breeding, Sum important high
yielding and Mutant variety, Economic Botany and Plant Diseases.

Growth & development of every living organism depends upon the growth and
development of its constituent cell. In unicellular organisms cell division is the
means for reproduction. Multicellular organisms develop from a s ingle primordial
cell i. e. zygote.
The continuation of species from one generation to next is governed by two
process: Syngamy (union of cells) and division of cells (mitosis and meiosis).

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
Robert Remark
181565
Strasburger
1875
Flemming
1882
Prevost & Dumas
1824
A. Weismann
1887
Van Benden
J.B. Farmer
Moore
Blakeslee
Bridges
Boveri
Scheleiden
Jonssens

1887
& 1905
1937
1961
1892

1909

Described amitosis
Cell division in plants
Cell division in animal and coined term mitosis
Cell division in Frog Egg.
Occurrence of reduction in no. of chromosome during
gamete formation (theoretical)
Demonstrate reduction division
Used term meiosis
Used colchicine to induce polyploidy
Non-disjunction.
Discovered meiosis
Karyokinesis
Chiasmata

The life cycle of a cell involve two distinct phasesInterphase (non dividing period)
and cell division or mitosis (period of division).

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Cell division in Eukaryotes is of three types.

Amitosis
(Two daughter cells of
equal size, no chromosome
formation, eg. in Amoeba)

Mitosis
Meiosis
(Two equal sized daughter (Four equal sized daughter
cells having equal no of cells with half the no of
chromosome eg. in somatic chromosome,
eg.
in
cells)
gametes)

Size of nucleus increases in interphase; size of nucleolus increases in first four

substages of Prophase I of meiosis.

All organelles (organoids) including centrioles are doubled in G.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
S.N. Mitosis
Meiosis
1.
Mitosis takes place in the somatic cell
It occurs in the reproductive cells or at
the time of germination of zygote or
zygospore.
2.
The cells undergoing mitosis may be The cell undergoing meiosis are always
haploid or diploid.
diploid.
3.
It is a single division which produces Meiosis is a double division. It gives
two cells.
rise to four cells.
4.
Interphase occurs prior to each Interphase precedes only meiosis I. It
division.
does not occur prior to meiosis II.
5.
Mitosis is comparatively simple.
Meiosis is quit complicated.
6.
It takes less time to complete.
It takes longer time to complete.
7.
A cell can undergo repeated mitosis.
Meiosis occurs only once.
8.
Subsequent mitotic divisions are The two division of meiosis are not
similar to the earlier ones.
similar. The first one is heterotypic or
reductional while the second one is
homotypic or equational like mitosis.
9.
Each chromosome replicates in the The chromosomes replicate only once,
interphase before every division.
prior to meiosis.
10.
The number of chromosomes remains The number of chromosomes is reduced
the same after mitosis.
to one half after mitosis.
11.
The daughter nuclei or cells formed The daughter nuclei or cells formed after
after mitosis are exactly similar to the meiosis are neither similar to the parent
parent one.
one nor to one another.
12.
Mitosis helps in multiplication of cells. Multiplication of cells is not involved.
13.
Mitosis takes part in healing and Meiosis takes part in the formation of
repair.
meiosopores
or
gametes
and
maintenance of chromosome number of
the race.
14.
No variations are introduced.
It introduces variations.

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Prophase
15.
Chromomeres are not conspicuous.
16.
Prophase is of shorter duration.

Chromomeres are quite conspicuous.

Prophase I is of longer duration while
prophase II s very brief.
17.
Prophase is simpler and is hardly Prophase I is complicated and is divisible
distinguishable into substages.
into five sub stages. Prophase II is,
however, very simple.
18.
Each chromosome has two distinct Chromosomes of prophase I do not show
chromatids.
distinct chromatids.
19.
No bouquet stage is recorded.
Chromosomes of animals and some
plants show convergence towards one
side during early prophase I. It is known
as bouquet stage.
20.
Pairing of chromosomes does not Pairing or synapsis of homologous
occur in mitosis
chromosomes
takes
place
during
zygotene of prophase I and continues
upto metaphase I.
21.
A synaptonemal complex is absent.
Synapsed homologous chromosomes
develop a synaptonemal complex.
22.
Crossing over is absent.
Crossing over or exchange of similar
segments between nonsister chromatids
of homologous chromosomes usually
takes place during pachytene stage.
23.
Chiasmata are absent
Chiasmata
or
visible
connections
between homologus chromosomes of
bivalents are observed during diplotene,
diakinesis (prophase I) and metaphase I.
Metaphase
24.
Centromeres
produce
a
single A double metaphasic plate is formed by
metaphasic plate.
centromeres in metaphase I but only one
in metaphase II.
25.
Chromosomes are independent and do Homologous
chromosomes
are
not show connections.
interconnected. Hence the chromosomes
occur in pairs or bivalents in metaphase I.
They are, however, free in metaphase II.
26.
Only the centromeres lie at the Arms of the chromosomes mostly lie at
equator. The arms of chromosomes the equator while the centromeres projects
are oriented in various directions.
towards the poles in metaphase I.
27.
A centromere is connected with both A centromere is connected to one spindle
the spindle poles.
pole in metaphase I but both in metaphase
II.
28.

Two chromatids of a chromosome are The two chromatids of a chromosome are

genetically similar.
often genetically different due to crossing
over

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Anaphase
29.
A centromere splits length wise to
form two centromeres in the
beginning of anaphases
30.
Anaphasic chromosomes are single
stranded.

Centromeres do not divide

anaphase I but do in anaphase II.

during

Chromosomes are double stranded in

anaphase I but single stranded in anaphase
II.
31.
Similar chromosomes move towards Dissimilar chromosomes move towards
the opposite poles in anaphase.
the opposite poles both in anaphase I and
anaphase II.
Telophase
32.
Telophase is longer and produces Telophase I is shorter and nuclei never
interphase nuclei
enter the interphase.
Cytokinesis
33.
Cytokinesis follows every mitosis. It Cytokinesis often does not occur after the
produces two new cells.
first or reductional division. It occur after
second division to result in four new cells.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL MITOSIS
S. Plant Mitosis
Animal Mitosis
N.
1.
It occurs generally in the It occurs at several places.
region of meristem.
2.
Plant mitosis is generally Animal mitosis is controlled by a number of
controlled
by
hormone mitogens like lymphokines, epidermal growth factor,
cytokinin.
platelet derived growth factor, etc.
3.
The cell does not change The cell often becomes spherical prior to division.
shape prior to division.
4.
Spindle is anastral.
Spindle is amphiaster (=astral) with one aster at each
pole.
5.
Centrioles are absent.
The spindle poles posses centriole pairs.
6.
The equatorial region of the The equatorial region of the spindle forms midbody.
spindle forms phragmoplast.
7.
Cytokinesis generally occur Cytokinesis occur by cleavage.
by cell plate method.
8.
Cell plate grows centrifugally. Cleavage proceeds centripetally.
9.
Microfilaments do not have Microfilaments bring about cleavage.
much role in cytokinesis.
10. Cell plate or middle lamella Cleavage creates an intercellular space between the
cements the daughter cells.
daughter cells.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CYTOKINESIS AND ANIMAL CYTOKINESIS

S.N. Plant Cytokinesis
Animal Cytokinesis
1.
It usually occurs by cell plate method.
It takes place by cleavage.
2.
The spindle usually persists during The spindle begins to degenerate soon
cytokinesis.
after anaphase.
3.
Central part of spindle grow in size and A mid body of dense fibrous and
forms an interdigited complex called vesicular material is formed in the
phragmoplast.
middle.
4.
Vesicles derived from Golgi apparatus The event is absent in animal
reach the equator of the phragmoplast and cytokinesis.
fuse to from cell plate and new cell
membranes.
5.
Cell plate grows centrifugally.
Cleavage progresses centripetally.
6.
The new cell membrane is derived from The new cell membrane is usually
vesicles of Golgi apparatus.
derived from endoplasmic reticulum.

Any agent that stimulates cell division is called mitogen. Temperature, cytokinin,
auxin, gibberellin insulin, steroids are mitogens.

A cell divides to have high surface area per unit of volume and high
nucleocytoplasmic ratio. The smaller the size of cell, more the surface area and
nucleocytoplasmic ratio it has.

Genetic continuity is due to duplication of DNA in cell divi sion that occur in S
phase.

Mitotic poisons are inhibitors of cell division. Azides and cyanides inhibit
prophase; colchicine checks spindle formation; chalones inhibits cell division in
vivo and in vitro both; ribonuclease block prophase; heat shocks prevent cell
division and Mustard gas agglutinate all chromosomes.

In fungi, spindle is formed inside nucleus (intranuclear division); nuclear membrane

remains intact; nucleus divides by furrow karyochoriosis.

Endomitosis is duplication of chromosomes without division of nucleus.

Nondisjunction is failure of migration of chromatids at anaphase.

Brachymeiosis: It is believed by some mycologists that in some ascomycetes,

fertilisation takes place in single celled stage resulting in a diploid nucleus which
then undergoes free nuclear division followed by pairing (dikaryon formation).
These dikaryons then fuse and thus becomes a tetraploid nucleus. This is ascus
mother cell. If it has to form haploid ascopores it must now undergo two reductional
& one equational division. This is know as brachymeiosis.

Cmitosis is colchicine induced mitosis. Colchicine is an alkaloid, obtained from

underground corms of autumn crocusColchicum autumnale. It was discovered by

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Dustin (1934) and used to induce polyploidy by Blakeslee (1937). Granson is

similar to colchicine in action. Both inhibit spindle formation.

In Cyperus, one meiosis produced one pollen grain instead of four.

Aristolochia (duck weed) has all types of tetrads.

Amitosis is called direct or incipient cell division and is found in yeasts,

protozoans, monerans (prokaryotes), cartilage and degenerated / old tissues.

Mitosis forms daughter cells that are morphologically and genetically similar. It
distributes chromosomes equally both quantitatively and qualitatively.

Spindle consists of microtubules made up of sulphur rich tubulin protein (9597%), RNA (3-5%) and ATPase. Spindle is seen with polarising microscope only.

The structure of chromosomes is best studied at metaphase while shape of

chromosomes is best studies at anaphase.

Prophase is of longest duration. Anaphase is of shortest duration; centromere

divides and disjunction occurs here. About 30 molecules of ATP are needed to
move one chromosome from equator to pole.

Telophase is reverse of prophase. Nuclear membrane reappear from ER and

remnants of original nuclear membrane.

Meiosis is a double division in which nucleus divides twice but chromosomes only
once. It is antithesis of fertilization and halves the number of chromosomes. It
maintains number of chromosomes constant through successive generations.

Meiosis occurs in diploid reproductive cells (meiocytes) at the time of

reproduction.

Anthers of unopened young flowers and testes of grasshopper are widely used to
study meiosis.

Zygotene is zipping or synapsis or pairing of homologous chromosomes.

Tetrad formation and crossing over occur at pachytene stage.

Diplotene is of longest duration and involves chiasmata formation.

Transposition is exchange and rejoining of chromatids parts during crossing over.

In metaphase-I, migrating chromosomes are dyad i.e. each chromosome has 2

chromatids.

Reduction in number of chromosomes occur in Anaphase-I but haploidy

(reduction) in terms of DNA occur during anaphase-II.

In Trillium, anaphase-I directly enters into metaphase-II.

Tetrad is a group of 4 halploid cells formed during meiosis. It can be tetrahedral,

isobilateral, linear, decussate or T-shaped bur tetrahedral tetrad is common in
plants.

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Kinetochore is a proteinaceous region of the centromere in chromosome to which

spindle fibres attaches.

Nucleoprotein complex
synaptonemal complex.

Chromatids move towards the pole at a speed of I m per minute.

He La cells are human cancer cells of a patient Henrietta Lack, maintained in

tissue culture since 1953.

During G 2 , a cell contains double the amount of DNA (4n) as compared to original
diploid cell (2n).

Repair of damaged DNA also takes place in the interphase.

In plants, mitosis occurs in meristematic tissues (shoot, root tip). Root tip is the
most preferred regions to observe mitosis.

The spindle fibres as well as astral rays are composed of RNA (3 -5%) and tubulin
(95-97%). The latter is formed by gelation of cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins.

Stimulation of mitosis: Kinetin (6 furfurylamino-purine) increases the mitotic rate

in meristems of Allium. At low concentration, it reduces the duration of interphase,
and increases the mitotic rate.

Some chemical act at prophase and interphase; inhibit oxidation (e. g. cyanide,
azide) or uncouple oxidative phosphorylation processes (e.g. 2, 4 -dinitrophenol),
which provide energy for mitosis. As a result, mitosis is prevented but
chromosomal duplication occurs the nuclear volume increases.

In human males, meiosis starts after puberty.

In human females, meiosis starts at the end of 3rd month of prenatal life. In the fifth
month of prenatal life, the oocytes reach the diplotene stage and remain arrested a t
this stage for many (about 12) year when ovulation occur.

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present

between

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synapsed

chromosomes

is

called