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LESSON 1 SIMPLE CURVE

1. Arc Basis
a) Metric System
20/D = 2R/360
D = 1145.916/R
b) English System
100/D = 2 R/360
D = 5(1145.916)/R

2. Chord Basis
a) Metric System
Sin D/2 = 10/R
R = 10 / Sin D/2

b) English System
Sin D/2 = 50/R
R = 50 / Sin D/2

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Elements of Simple Curve

The following are the elements found in a simple curve:


P.C. =Point of Curvature

R = Radius of Curve

P.T. = Point of Tangency

T = Tangent Distance

P.I. = Point of Intersection

D = Degree of Curve

Tangent I/2 = T/R


1. T = R tangent I/2
E = R Sec I/2 R
E = external distance
M = middle ordinate
LC = Length of Curve

4.

C = 2R Sin I/2

2.

E = R (Sec I/2 I)
M = R R cos I/2

3.

M = R(1 Cos I/2)


Sin I/2 = C/2R

5.

Lc/I = 20/D
Lc = 20 I/D

6.

Lc/I = 100/D
Lc = 100 I/D

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Figure 1. A Simple Curve

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WORKSHEET 1 SIMPLE CURVE

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Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year__________________________Date Submitted__________
The deflection angles of two intermediate points A and B of a highway curve are
415 and 915 respectively. The chord distance between points A and B is
20.00 m. while the long chord is 120.00 m. Stationing of P.I. is 80 + 060. Find
the stationing of P.C. and P.T.

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WORKSHEET 2 SIMPLE CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year____________________________Date Submitted__________
The bearing of the back tangent of a simple curve is N7000E while the
forward tangent has a bearing of S8230E. the degree of curve is 4.5.
Stationing of PC is at 10+345.43. It is proposed to decrease the central angle by
changing the direction of the forward tangent by an angle of 700, in such a
way that the position of the PT of the forward tangent and the direction of the
back tangent shall remain the unchanged. Determine:
a) The new radius of the curve
b) Stationing of new PC.

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WORKSHEET 3 SIMPLE CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year__________________________ Date Submitted__________
Two tangents intersecting at V with bearings N7512E and S7836E are
connected with a 4 simple curve. Without changing the direction of the two
tangents and with the same angle of intersection, it is required to shorten the
curve to 100.00 m. starting from the P.C.
a) By how much shall the P.T. be moved and in what direction?
b) What is the distance between the two parallel tangents?

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WORKSHEET 4 SIMPLE CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
It is required to layout a simple curve by deflection angles. The curve is
to connect two tangents with an intersection angle of 32 and a radius of 800
ft. Compute the deflection angles to each full stations on the curve, if the
transit is set up at the P.C. which is at station 25 + 57.2. What is the station of
P.T.?

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LESSON 2 COMPOUND CURVE


Compound Curve consists of two or more consecutive simple curves
having different radius, but whose centers lie on the same side of the curve. In
a compound curve, the point of the common tangent where the two curves join
is called the point of compound curvature (PCC). Shown in Figure 2 are the
elements of a Compound Curve.

Elements of Compound Curve

Figure 2. Compound Curves

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Example:

The long chord of a compound curve is 425.00 meters long and the
angles that it makes with tangents of the curve were 20 and 24 respectively.
Find the radius R1 and R2 of the compound curve if the common tangent is
parallel to the long chord.

C1 / Sin 12 = 425 / Sin 158


C1 = 235.88 m.

C2 / Sin 10 = 425 / Sin 158


C2 = 197.01 m.

Sin 10 = 235.88 / 2R1


R1 = 679.15 m.

Sin 12 = C2 / 2R2
R2 = 473.78 m.

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WORKSHEET 5 COMPOUND CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
The highway engineer of a certain road construction decided to use a
radius of 100.00 m in laying out a simple curve having an angle of intersection
of 3620. The stationing of the vertex is 30 + 375.20 after verifying the actual
conditions of the proposed

route, it was found out that the PT should be

moved out in a parallel tangent having a perpendicular distance of 10.00


meters with an angle of intersection remaining the same while the curve shall
have the same PC. Determine:
1. The radius of the new curve.

2. The stationing of the new PT.

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WORKSHEET 6 COMPOUND CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
Two tangents intersect at Station 25 + 50. A compound curve laid on
their tangents has the following data.
I1 = 3100

I2 = 3600

D1 = 3 00

D2 = 5 00

a) Compute the Stationing of the PC, PCC and PT of the curve.


b) If the PT is move 50.00 ft. out, compute the station of the PT with the
PCC on the same point.

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WORKSHEET 7 COMPOUND CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A common tangent of a compound curve makes an angle with the
tangents of the compound curve of 2530 and 3000 respectively. The
stationing of A of 10 + 362.42. The degree of curve of the first curve is 430
while that of the second curve is 500. It is required to change this compound
curve with a simple curve that shall end at the same PT while the direction of
the tangents remains the same. Find the radius of this simple curve and the
stationing of the new PC.

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WORKSHEET 8 COMPOUND CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
Given a compound curve with a long chord equal to 135.00 meters
forming an angle of 1200 and 1800 respectively with the tangents. The
common tangent is parallel to the long chord. Determine the radii of the
compound curve.

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LESSON 3 REVERSED CURVE


This kind of curve is formed by two circular simple curve with common
tangents but lies on opposite side. Reversed curve is useful in laying out
pipelines, flumes, levees, and low speed roads and railroads. In canals, it is
used with tremendous cautions since it makes the canal difficult to navigate
and contribute to erosion.
Elements of A Reversed Curve:

Figure 3. Reversed Curve


R1 and R2 = radii of curvature
D1 an D2 = degee of curve
V1 and V2 = points of intersection of tangents
= angle between converging tangents
I2 I 1 =
P.C. = point of curvature

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P.R.C. = Point of Reversed Curve

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P.T. = point of tangency

Lc = Lc1 + Lc2 = Length of reversed curve


P = distance between parallel tangents

Four types of reversed curve problems are:


1.
2.
3.
4.

Reversed
Reversed
Reversed
Reversed

curve
curve
curve
curve

with
with
with
with

equal radii and parallel tangents.


unequal radii and parallel tangents
equal radii and converging tangents.
unequal radii and converging tangents.

Method of Laying out


The method of latying out simple curve is applied. At the point where the
curve reversed in its direction is called the Point of Reversed Curvature (PRC).
After this point has been laid out from the P.C. the instrument is then
trnasferred to this point. With transit at P.R.C. and a reading equal to the total
deflection angle from the P.C. to the P.R.C. , the P.C. is backsighted. If the line
of sight is rotated about the vertical axis untl the horizontal reading become
zero, this line of sight falls on the common tangent. The next simple curve
could be laid out on the opposite side of the tangent by deflection angle
method.
Example:
From the figure shown, the two diverging tangents were connected
by a reversed curve with both arcs having a 5 curve. Determine the
Station of P.I. if I angle is 41, Determine also the Station of P.T. if Ts is
measured as 550 ft. The Station of P.C. is 20 + 40.30.

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Solution:

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P.I. = 20 + 40.30 + 2,758.25 = 47 + 98.55


P.T. = 47 + 98.55 550 = 42 + 48.55

WORKSHEET 9 REVERSED CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents is equal to
8.00 meters, central angle to 80000 and the radius of curvature of the first
curve equal to 175.00 meters. Find the radius of the second curve of the
reversed curve.

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WORKSHEET 10 REVERSED CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
Two parallel railway 200.00 meters apart were to be connected by equal
turnouts. If the intermediate tangent is 400.00 meters and the radius of curve
is 1100.00 meters, determine the central angle.

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WORKSHEET 11 REVERSED CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
The perpendicular distance between two parallel tangents of a reversed
curve is 35.00 meters. The azimuth of the back tangent of the curve is
2700000 and the azimuth of the common tangent is 3000000. If the radius
of the back curve is 150.00 meters and the stationing of the P.R.C. is 10 + 140,
find the station of the P.T.

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WORKSHEET 12 REVERSED CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A reversed curve connects two converging tangents intersecting at an
angle of 300000. The distance of this intersection from the P.I. of the curve is
150.00 meters. The deflection angle of the common tangent from the back
tangent is 200000R, and the azimuth of the common tangent is 3200000.
The degree of curve of the second simle curve is 60000 and the stationing of

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of the P.C., the P.R.C, and the P.T.

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the point of intersection of the first curve is 4 + 450. Determine the stationing

WORKSHEET 13 REVERSED CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
Two converging tangents have azimuth of 3300000 and 900000
resectively while that of the common tangent is 3500000. The distance from

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the point intersection of the tangents to the P.I. of the second curve is 160.00
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meters while the stationing of the P.I. of the first curve is at 10 + 432.24. If the
radius of the first curve is 285.40 meters, determine the stationing of P.R.C and
P.T.

LESSON 4 SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES


Symmetrical
curve

is

parabolic
a

vertical

parabolic curve wherein


the horizontal length of
the curve from the PC to
the vertex is equal to the
horizontal length from

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By Ratio and Proportion:

2) Using the squared property of parabola:

3) Location of Highest or Lowest Point of the Curve:


a) From the P.C.

Example:

b) From the P.T.

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On a railroad a -0.80% grade meets a +0.40% grade at station 90+00


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whose elevation is 100.00 ft. The maximum allowable change in grade per
station having a length of 100 ft. is o.20. It is desired to place a culvert to
drain the flood waters during heavy downpour. Where must be the location of
the culvert? At what elevation must the invert of the culvert be set if the pipe
has a diameter of 3.00 ft. and the backfill is 1.00 ft. high. Neglect the thickness
of the pipe.
Figure:

Solution:
Length per station = 100ft.
r = rate of change per station
Elevation of P.T. = 100 + 0.04(300) = 101.2 ft.

AC = 101.8 100 = 101.8 ft.


AB = BC = 0.90 ft.
n = 6 stations

H = 0.90 ft.

L = 6(100) = 600 ft

S1 = 400 ft.
Stationing of P.C. = 90 + 00 300 = 87 + 00
Stationing of P.T. = 90 + 00 + 300 = 93 + 00

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Elevation of P.C. = 100 + 0.008(300) = 102.4


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WORKSHEET 14 SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A Symmetrical parabolic curve is designed to pass through point A at station 4
+ 50 whose elevation is 76.20 ft. The P.C. of this parabolic curve is at station 2
+ 75 whose elevation is 74 ft. The length of the parabolic curve is 400 ft. long
having a backward tangent grade of + 2.5%. It is required to determine the
amount of cut and fill at stations 2 + 75, 3 + 00, 4 + 00, 5 + 00, 6 + 00, and 6 +
75 if the ground elevations are as follows:
Station
2 + 75
3 + 00
4 + 00

Ground Elevation
74.00
75.881
76.815

Station
5 + 00
6 + 00
6 + 75

Ground Elevation
76.925
75.825
70.940

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WORKSHEET 15 SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A symmetrical parabolic curve connects two grades of + 6% and -4%. It is
to pass through a point p the stationing of which is 35 + 280 and the elevation
is 198.13 meters. If the elevation of the grade intersection is 200 meters with
stationing 35 + 300 determine:
a)
b)
c)
d)

The length of the curve


Stationing and elevations of P.C. and P.T.
The location of the highest point of the curve.
Elevation of station 35 + 260 on the curve

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WORKSHEET 16 SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A horizontal laid circular pipe culvert having an elevation of its top to be
85.26 ft. crosses the right angles under a proposed 400 ft parabolic curve. The
point of intersection of the grade lines is at station 12 + 80 and its elevation is
88.50 ft while the culvert is located at station 13 + 20. The backward tangent
has a grade of + 3% and the grade of the forward tangent is 1.6%. Under this
conditions, what will be the depth of cover over the pipe?

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WORKSHEET 17 SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
An underpass road crossing a reinforced concrete bridge along the Shaw
Blvd. has a downward grade of 4% meeting an upward grade of + 8% at the
vertex V (elevation 70.00 m) at station 7 + 700, exactly underneath the center
line of the bridge having a width of 10.00 meters. If the required minimum
clearance under the bridge is 5.00 meters and the elevation of the bottom of
the bridge is 78.10 meters, determine the following:
a) Length of the vertical parabolic curve that shall connect the two
tangents.
b) Stationing and elevation where a catch basin will be placed.

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WORKSHEET 18 SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A vertical highway curve is to pass through a railroad at grade. The
crossing must be at Station 64 + 50 and at an elevation 724.00 ft. The initial
grade of the highway is + 2% and meets a 3% grade at station 62 + 00 at an
elevation of 732.40 ft. The rate of change must not exceed 1% per station.
a) What length of curve will meet the condition?
b) What is the stationing and elevation of the highest point of the curve?

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LESSON 5 UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES


Consist of a symmetrical parabolic curve from PC to PT. A,B
another symmetrical parabolic curve tangent to that point A and PT
Used in provide a smooth and continues curve transition from PC to PT
Point A is the common tangent point

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Example:
Given:
g1 = 7%
L1=160m

g2 = -4%
L2 = 120m

Required:
a. Elevation of the
Curve of the underpass
b. L2 if elevation of curve is 22.683m.
c. Stationing of the HP of the curve for
question b.
Solution:

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WORKSHEET 19 UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
An unsymmetrical parabolic curve has a forward tangent of -8% and a bacward
tangent of +5%. The length of the curve on the left side of the curve is 40.00
meters long while that of the right side is 60.00 meters long. If P.C. is Station 6

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+ 780 and the elevation is 110.00 meters a) determine the height of fill at the
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outcrop, b) Determine the height of curve at Sta. 6 + 820.

WORKSHEET 20 UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________

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A forward tangent having a slope of

-4% intersects the back tangent

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having a slope +7% at point V at Station 6 + 300 having an elevation of 230.00


meters. It is required to connect the two tangents with an unsemmetrical
parabolic curve

that shall pass through point A on the curve having an

elevation of 227.57 meters at station 6 + 270. The length of curve is 60.00


meters on the side of the back tangent. A) It is required to determine the length
of the curve on the side of the forward tangent. B) Determine the stationing
and elevation of the highest point of the curve.

WORKSHEET 21 UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE

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Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
In a certain road construction undertaken by DPWH it was decided to
connect a forward tangent of 3% and a back tangent of -5% by 200 meter
symmetrical parabolic curve. It was discovered that the grade intersection at
10 + 100 whose elevation is 100.00 meters fall on a rocky section with the
exposed boulder at elevation 102.67 meters. To avoid rockky excavation, the
project engineer decided to adjust the vertical arabolic curve in such a way that
the curve will just clear the rock without altering the position of P.C. and the
grade of the tangents. Determine the stationing and elevation of new P.T.

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WORKSHEET 22 UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A forward tangent of +6% was designed to intersect a back tangent of
-3% at a proposed underpass along EDSA so as to maintain a minimum
clearance allowed under a bridge which crosses perpendicular to the
underpass. A 200.00 meters curve lies on the side of the back tangent while a
100.00 meters curve lies on the side of the froward tangent. The stationing and
elevation of the grade intersection is 12 + 530.20 meters and 100.00 meters
respectively. The centerline of the bridge fall at station 12 + 575.20. The
elevation of the underside of the bridge is 117.48 meters. Determine the
minimum clearance of the bridge if it has a width of 10.00 meters.

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LESSON 6 SIGHT DISTANCE

Non-Passsing Sight Distance


Non Passing sight distance is the safe stopping distance of a
vehicle running at design speed.

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Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is the distance required to overtake safely another


moving vehicle in the same traffic lane.

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WORKSHEET 23 SIGHT DISTANCE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A vertical summit curve has a tangent grades of 2.8% and -1.6%. A
motorist whom eye sight is 4.80 ft. above the road way sighted the top of a
visible object 4.20 high at the right side of the summit. Calculate the length of
the curve for a sight distance of 432.00 ft.

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WORKSHEET 24 SIGHT DISTANCE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A grade ascending at the rate of 5% meets another grade descending at
the rate of 4% at the vertex of elevation 20.00 m. and stationing 5 + 000. Solve
fot the stationing and elevation of the summit of the vertical parabolic curve
which will connect the grade lines for a safe distance of 150.00 m., the height
of the eyes of the drivers above the pavement at each end of the sight distance
being 1.50 meters

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LESSON 7 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR VERTICAL SAG


CURVE AT UNDERPASS
1. When passing sight distance is greater than the length of the curve.

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Using the previous relation of the parabolic curves.


S>L
Where:
S = length of passing sight distance
L = length of curve
h1 = height of drivers eye
h2 = height of object
C = vertical clearance from the lowest point of under pass to curve

2. When the passing sight distance is less than the length of curve.

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WORKSHEET 25 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES FOR VERTICAL


SAG CURVE AT UNDERPASS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
In a certain underpass, the vertical clearance of the 240.00 meter
arabolic curve with P.C. at station 13 + 000 and elevation 30.00 meters is
14.50 ft. The height of the object at the instant of perception is 3.50 ft. while
that of the drivers eye is 4.50 ft. If the approach grade is -4% and the passing
sight distance is 320.00 meters, what is the grade of the forward tangent? At

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installed?

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what point (station and elevation) of the curve should the catch basin be

WORKSHEET 26 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES FOR VERTICAL


SAG CURVE AT UNDERPASS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
The vertical clearance of the parabolic sag curve of the newly constructed
Balintawak Underpass is to be determined if the maximum height of the
drivers eye that could utilize such underpass measured from the pavement is

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4.50 ft., while that of the object at the instant of perception is 3.50 ft. The
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length of the parabolic curve is 1,152.00 ft. and that of the passing sight
distance is 1,100.00 ft. The designed grade at the back tangent is -5% while
the forward tangent has a designed grade of +3%.

WORKSHEET 27 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES FOR VERTICAL


SAG CURVE
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________

a 2% descending grade. The oint of


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with a 3% ascendinhg grade and

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A highway designed for speeds of 60 mph, is being constructed over a hill


intersection of the two grades is at elevation 100.00 ft. and at that station the
elevation of the ground is 95.00 ft. What will be the depth of cut at the point
where the two grades intersect if the vertical curve used is designed for a safe
passing sight distance of 2,100.00 ft. Height of observers eye from the
pavement is 4.50 ft. and that of the object is also 4.50 ft. above the pavement.

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WORKSHEET 28 PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES FOR VERTICAL


SAG CURVE
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A vertical parabolic summit curve was designed in order to have a clear
sight distance of 120.00 meters. The grade lines intersect a station 9 + 100 at
elevation 160.50 meters. The curve was so designed such that when the height
of the driovers eye is 4.50 ft. above the pavement it could just see an object
whose height is 4.20 inches above the pavement. Determine then the maximum
speed that a car could travel along this curve. The grade lines has an upward
grade of +5% and a downward grade of -3%.

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LESSON 8 SPIRAL CURVE


A spiral curve is a transition curve inserted between a circular curve and
the tangent to the curve. It is a curve of varying radius used to gradually
increase the curvature of the road or railroad used primarily to reduce
skidding and steering difficulties by gradual transition between straight-line
and turning motion. It provides a method for adequately for super elevating
curves.

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Elements of Spiral
TS = the point of change from tangent to spiral
SC = the point of change from spiral to circular curve
CS = the point of change from circular curve to spiral
ST = the point of change from spiral to tangent
SS = the point of change from one spiral to another

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The symbols PC and PT, TS and ST, and SC and CS become transposed when the direction of stationing
is changed.
a = the angle between the tangent at the TS and the chord from the TS to any point on the spiral
A = the angle between the tangent at the TS and the chord from the TS to the SC
b = the angle at any point on the spiral between the tangent at that point and the chord from the TS
B = the angle at the SC between the chord from the TS and the tangent at the SC
c = the chord from any point on the spiral to the TS
C = the chord from the TS to the SC
d = the degree of curve at any point on the spiral
D = the degree of curve of the circular arc
f = the angle between any chord of the spiral (calculated when necessary) and the tangent through the TS
I = the angle of the deflection between initial and final tangents; the total central angle of the circular
curve and spirals
k = the increase in degree of curve per station on the spiral
L = the length of the spiral in feet from the TS to any given point on the spiral
Ls = the length of the spiral in feet from the TS to the SC, measured in 10 equal chords
o = the ordinate of the offsetted PC; the distance between the tangent and a parallel tangent to the
offsetted curve
r = the radius of the osculating circle at any given point of the spiral
R = the radius of the central circular curve
s = the length of the spiral in stations from the TS to any given point
S = the length of the spiral in stations from the TS to the SC
u = the distance on the tangent from the TS to the intersection with a tangent through any given point on
the spiral

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U = the distance on the tangent from the TS to the intersection with a tangent through the SC; the longer
spiral tangent
v = the distance on the tangent through any given point from that point to the intersection with the tangent
through the TS
V = the distance on the tangent through the SC from the SC to the intersection with the tangent through
the TS; the shorter spiral tangent
x = the tangent distance from the TS to any point on the spiral
X = the tangent distance from the TS to the SC
y = the tangent offset of any point on the spiral
Y = the tangent offset of the SC
Z = the tangent distance from the TS to the offsetted PC (Z = X/2, approximately)
= the central angle of the spiral from the TS to any given point
= the central angle of the whole spiral
Ts = the tangent distance of the spiraled curve; distance from TS to PI, the point of intersection of
tangents
Es = the external distance of the offsetted curve

Spiral Formulas
The following formulas are for the exact determination of the functions of the 10-chord spiral
when the central angle, , does not exceed 45 degrees. These are suitable for the compilation of
tables and for accurate fieldwork.
(1)

(2)

(4)

(6) B =

(3)

(5) A = ( /3) - 0.297

-A

(7) C = Ls (Cos 0.3

+ 0.004 Exsec 3/4

seconds

(9) Y = C Sin A

(11)

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(8) X = C Cos A

= 1 Tan ( )

(10)

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(Exsec

(12)

(13) Z = X - (R Sin

(14) o = Y - (R Vers
(Vers

(15) Ts = (R + o) Tan ( I) + Z

= 1 - Cos

(16) Es = (R + o) Exsec ( I) + o
(Exsec ( I) = Tan ( I)(Tan( I))

Empirical Formulas
For use in the field, the following formulas are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes when
does not exceed 15 degrees.
a=

/3 (degrees)

A=

/3 (degrees)

a = 10 ks2 (minutes)

S = 10 kS2 (minutes)

Spiral Lengths
Different factors must be taken into account when calculating spiral lengths for highway and
railroad layout.

Highways. Spirals applied to highway layout must be long enough to permit the effects of
centrifugal force to be adequately compensated for by proper superelevation. The minimum
transition spiral length for any degree of curvature and design speed is obtained from the the
relationship Ls = 1.6V3/R, in which Ls is the minimum spiral length in feet, V is the design speed
in miles per hour, and R is the radius of curvature of the simple curve. This equation is not
mathematically exact but an approximation based on years of observation and road tests.
Table 1 is compiled from the above equation for multiples of 50 feet. When spirals are
inserted between the arcs of a compound curve, use Ls = 1.6V3/Ra. Ra represents the radius of a
curve of a degree equal to the difference in degrees of curvature of the circular arcs.

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Railroads Spirals applied to railroad layout must be long enough to permit an increase in
superelevation not exceeding 1 inches per second for the maximum speed of train operation.
The minimum length is determined from the equation Ls = 1.17 EV. E is the full theoretical
superelevation of the curve in inches, V is the speed in miles per hour, and Ls is the spiral length
in feet.
This length of spiral provides the best riding conditions by maintaining the desired relationship
between the amount of superelevation and the degree of curvature. The degree of curvature
increases uniformly throughout the length of the spiral. The same equation is used to compute
the length of a spiral between the arcs of a compound curve. In such a case, E is the difference
between the superelevations of the two circular arcs.
Spiral elements are readily computed from the formulas given above. To use these formulas,
certain data must be known. These data are normally obtained from location plans or by field
measurements.
Example:

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55

The tangents of a spiral curve has azimuth of 226 and 221 respectively.
The minimum length of the spiral is 40.00 meters. with a minimum super
elevation of 0.10 m/m width of roadway. The maximum velocity to pass over
the curve is 70.00 km/hr. Assume width of the roadway to be 9.00 meters.
a) Determine the degree of simple curve.
b) Determine the length of the spiral at each of the simple curve.
c) The super elevation of the first 10.00 meters from the S.C. on the
spiral. Use e = 0.004 K2/R
Solution:
a) e = 0.004 K2/R
0.10 = 0.004(70)2/R
R = 196.00 meters
D = 1145.916/R
D = 1145.916/196.00
D = 5.85

b)

Lc = 0.0036K3/R
Lc = 0.0036(70)3/196.00
Lc = 63.00 meters say 60.00 meter (use multiple of 10 m.)

c)

e1 = (1/6) (0.10) = 0.017 m. (@ 10 m. from TS on the Spiral)


e2 = 5(0.017) = 0.085 m. (@ 10 m. from SC on the Spiral)
e = 0.085(9) = 0.765 m. (super elevation at 10 m. from SC on the spiral)

WORKSHEET 29 SPIRAL CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
A simple curve having a radius of 280.00 meters connects two tangents
intersecting at an angle of 5000. It is to be replaced by another curve having
80.00 meters spirals at ends such that the point of tangency shall be the same.
a) Determine the radius of new circular curve
b) Determine the distance that the curve will move nearer the vertex.
c) Determine the central angle of the circular curve.
d) Determine the deflection angle at the end of the spiral.
e) Determine the offset from tangent at the end point of the spiral.

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f) Determine the distance along the tangent at the midpoint of the


spiral.

WORKSHEET 30 SPIRAL CURVE


Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
The two tangents of a simple curve has azimuths of 27000 and 1000
respectively. It has a radius of 320.00 meters. It is required to change this
curve to a spiral curve that will have value of p = 2.50 meters and b = 30.00
meters as shown in the figure. Determine the distance on which the new curve
must be moved from the vertex and its distance from T.S. to the P.C. of the
simple curve, if DE is parallel to h.

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Page

LESSON 9 EARTHWORKS
EARTHWORKS the construction of large open cuttings or excavations
involving both cutting and filling of material other than rock.

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58

EXCAVATION is the process of loosening and removing earth or rock from


itsoriginal position in a cut and transporting it to a fill or to a waste deposit.
EMBANKMENT the term embankment describes the fill added above the
low points along the roadway to raise the level to the bottom of the pavement
structurematerial for embankment commonly comes from roadway cuts or
designated borrow areas

a. By Average End Areas


V = L/2 (A1+ A2)
Where:
V = Volume of Section of Earthworks between Sta. 1 and 2, m
A1, A2 = Cross sectional area of end stations, m
L = Perpendicular Distance between the end station, m
NOTES:
1. The above volume formula is exact only when A1= A2
but is approximate A1<> A2.
2. Considering the facts that cross-sections are usually a
considerable distance apart and that minor inequalities in the surface
of the earth between sections are not considered, the method of end
areas is sufficiently precise for ordinary earthwork.
3. By where heavy cuts or fi lls occur on sharp cur ves. The
computed volume of earthwork may be corrected for curvature out of
ordinarily the correction is not large enough to be considered
4 . A . B y P r i s m o i d a l Fo r m u l a
V = L/6 (A1 + AM + A2)

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59

Where:
V = Volume of section of earthwork between Sta 1 and 2 of volume
of prismoid,m
A1, A2 = cross sectional area of end sections, m
AM = Area of mid section parallel to the end sections and which will
be computedas the averages of respective end dimensions, m
NOTES:
1. A Prismoid is a solid having for its two ends any
dissimilar parallel plane figures of the same number of
sides, and all the sides of the solid plane figures. Also, any
prismoid may be resolve into prisms, pyramids and wedges,
having a common altitudes the perpendicular distance between
the two parallel end plane cross section.
2. As far as volume of earthworks are concerned, the use of
Prismoidal formula is justified only if cross-section are taken
at short intervals, is a small surface deviations are observed,
and if the areas of successive cross-section cliff or widely
usually it yields smaller values than those computed from
average end areas
PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION FORMULA

CD = L/12 (b1 b2)(h1 h2)


Where:
CD = Prismoidal Correction, It is subtracted algebraically from the
volume as determined by the average and the areas method
to give the more nearly correct volume as determined by the
Prismoidal formula, m

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Page

L = Perpendicular distance between 2 parallel and sections, m


b1 = Distance between slope stakes at end section ABC where the
altitude is h1, m
b2 = Distance between slope stake at end section DEF where the
altitude is h2, m
h1= Altitude of end section ABC at Sta 1, m
h2 = Altitude of end section DEF at Sta 2, m

PROBLEM:
1. Given the following cross-section notes of a roadway with a base
of 6m and SS of 1.25:1.00, between the volume of the prismoid between
the two-end sections by the following methods: a) end area method; b )
Prismoidal formul;c)end area method and
prismoidal correction formua.
Station
10 + 00
10 + 20

Cross Section Notes


+6.55 +2.84
+2.84
+7.55 +3.64
+1.85

+6.55
+3.65

+2.84
+0.52

SOLUTION:
Compute for the area at each station cross-section and at mid-section
Figure

Check for Cut distances


DR1= DL1 = B / 2 + SHR = (6m) + 1.25(2.84)
= 6.55m
Area by method of triangle and rhombus
A1= BC + SC = 27.12m
Figure

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Page

Check for the distances


DR2 = B/2 + SHR2 = (6) + 1.25(0.52) = 3.65m
DL2 = B/2 + SHL2 = (6) + 1.25(3.64) = 7.55m
Area by method of triangle
A2 = AA + AL + Ac + Ad
= (3)(3.64) + (1.85)(7.55) + (1.85)(3.65) + (0.52)(3)
A2 = 16.60m
Compute for the dimensions of the mid sections
Figure

DRm = (DR1+ DR2)


= (6.55 + 3.65)
DRm = 5.10 m.

HRm= (HR1+ HR2)


= (2.84 + 0.52)
HRm = 1.68 m.

DLm = (DL1 + DL2)


= (6.55 + 7.55)
DLm = 7.05

HLm = (HL1 + HL2)


= (2.84 + 3.64)
HLm = 3.24

HCm= 1 / 2 (HC1 + HC2)

Check for Cut distances


DRm = B / 2 SHRm
= 1 / 2 (6) + 1.25(1.68)
DRm= 5.10m

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Page

HCm

= 1 / 2 (2.84 + 1.85)
= 2.345m

DLm = B / 2 SHLm
= 1 / 2 (6) + 1.25(3.22)
DLm = 7.05m
Area by method of triangle
Am = Ae + Af + Ag + Ah
= (3)(3.24) + (7.05)(2.345) + (5.10)(2.345) + (3)(1.68)
Am = 21.68m
COMPUTE FOR THE VOLUME OF EARTHWORK VOLUME OF CUT IN
BETWEEN THE TWO STATIONS
Figure

1. By End Area Method


Ve = L/2 (A1 + A2)
Where:
L = (10 + 020) (10 + 000)= 20m
A1= 27.12m
A2 = 16.60m
Then,
Ve = 20/2 (27.12 + 16.60)= 437.20m
2. By Prismoidal Formula
Vp = L/ 6 (A1 + 4Am + A2)
Where:
L = 20m; A1 = 27.12m; A2 = 16.60m; Am = 21.67m
Then

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63

Vp = 20/6 [27.12 + 4(21.67) + 16.60] = 434.13m


1 . P r i s m o i d a l Fo r m u l a fo r C o r r e c t i o n
Cp = L/2 (A1 + A2)(b1 b2)
Note:Resolve the given prismoid into a series of triangular prismoid into a
series of triangular prismoid.
Cp = Cpa + Cpb + Cpc + Ppd
Where:
Cpa = 20/12 (2.84 3.64)(3-3) = 0
Cpb = 20/12 (2.84 1.85)(6.55 7.55) = -1.65m
Cpc = 20/12 (2.84 1.85)(6.55 3.65) = 4.785m
Ppd = 20/12 (2.84 0.52)(3-3) = 0
Then
Cp = -1.65 + 4.785= 3.135m
2 . C o r r e c t e d Vo l u m e
Vc = Ve - Cp = 437.20 3.135
Vc = 434.065m

WORKSHEET 31 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
Derive the prismoidal correction formula for a triangular end areas using the
formula V = L/6 (A1 + AM + A2)

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Page

WORKSHEET 32 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted__________
Derive the prismoidal formula for determining volumes of regular solid.
V = L/6 (A1 + AM + A2)

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Page

WORKSHEET 33 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted_________
Using the prismoidal correction formula, find the corrected volume of cut
between stations 80.00 meters apart if the area of irregular sections in cut at
stations are 26.00 sq.m. and 68.00 sq.m. respectively. Base width = 8.00
meters, side slope 1:1.

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WORKSHEET 34 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted_________
The side slope of a railroad cut shown is 1:1. The width of the roadway is
10.00 meters. Determine the corrected volume by applying the prismoidal
correction. Distance between sections is 100.00 meters.

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Page

WORKSHEET 35 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted_________
Given the cross section notes below of the ground which will be excavated for a
roadway, compute the volume of excavation between stations 47 + 00 and 48 +
00 by: a) end area method; and b) prismoidal formula. The road is 30.00 ft.
wide with slopes of 1.5:1

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Page

WORKSHEET 36 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted_________
From the following cross section notes, compute the corrected volumes of
cut and fill, the road bed being 20.00 ft. wide in cut and 16.00 ft. in fill. The
side slope for both cut and fill is 1:1. Give the results in cubic yard.

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Page

WORKSHEET 37 EARTHWORKS
Name___________________________________________________________
Course/Year___________________________Date Submitted_________
The following cross section notes are for a road passing a hilly country.
The roads bed is 11.00 meters wide for thorough cut, 10.00 meters for side hill
and 9.00 meters for fill. The slope of the cut is 1:1 and 1.5:1 for fill. Find the
volume of cut and fill by the end area method.

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