Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Self-compacting Concrete in
Bridge Construction
Guide for design and construction
Peter J M Bartos
Technical Guide No. 7
Self-compacting Concrete in
Bridge Construction
Contents
1
2
3
Figures
Tables
What is and what is not self-compacting concrete?
Brief historical development and the need for
self-compacting concrete
Self-compacting concrete in bridge construction
3.1 Overview of bridge applications
3.2 Case studies
Materials for self-compacting concrete
4.1 Mix design
4.2 Cements
4.3 Additions (powders and llers)
4.4 Aggregate
4.5 Admixtures
4.6 Other ingredients
Production and construction process
5.1 Batching and mixing
5.2 Transport and placing
5.3 Formwork
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39
Contents
7.3 Durability
7.4 Bond strength
7.5 Surface nish
7.6 Other properties
8 Benets
8.1 Quality
8.2 Economy
8.3 Health and safety
9 Specication and conformity testing
9.1 Specication
9.2 Trials and adjustments
9.3 Tests proposed for EN standardisation
10 Current limitations and potential pitfalls
11 Further research and development
12 References
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Figures
Figures
Figure 1 Poorly compacted concrete: many visible lift-lines, cold joints and
honeycombing.
Figure 2 Poor compaction (visible) of the lower layer of concrete in a beam.
Figure 3 Extensive making good at the CTRL project (1999).
Figure 4 One single batch of a traditional low-slump, vibrated, concrete was used to
cast the whole of the wall element shown: the bottom part was compacted,
the top part was not.
Figure 5 Compaction of two parallel reinforced concrete beams by poker vibrators.
Medium workability (3060 mm slump) concrete.
Figure 6 Effectiveness of compaction from one position (insertion) of a poker vibrator.
Figure 7 Pedestrian footbridge in Ostrava (Czech Republic), spanning 100 m. The
slender pylons were designed as steelconcrete composite elements lled with
SCC.
Figure 8 Northern anchorage block of Akashi-Kaikyo bridge, all cast in SCC.
Figure 9 Placing of fresh SCC from multiple discharge points during construction of an
anchorage block of the Akashi-Kaikyo bridge.
Figure 10 Small span integral road bridge in Sweden, cast in one piece from SCC.
Figure 11 Congested reinforcement in an abutment for an integral post-tensioned bridge
(Forest Road, Hackney), before placing of SCC.
Figure 12 Construction of a new jetty in Immingham, using SCC for the deck.
Figure 13 Concrete bridge deck with dense reinforcement. Compaction of a traditional
concrete by vibration would have been almost impossible.
Figure 14 Placing of SCC during construction of a railway bridge near Prague.
Figure 15 (a) Slump ow test arrangement (b) Slump ow test.
Figure 16 (a) Orimet test: basic dimensions of the apparatus (b) Orimet test in
progress.
Figure 17 Test equipment (a) V-funnel and (b) O-funnel.
Figure 18 (a) and (b) J-Ring in combination with slump ow test.
Figure 19 (a) and (b) J-Ring used in conjunction with the Orimet test.
Figure 20 Assessment of passing ability, measured by the J-Ring. Note the step in levels
of fresh concrete within and outside the ring.
Figure 21 L-box with four vertical bars during a test. The optional time for the concrete
to reach 200 mm and 400 mm ow is also being measured.
Figure 22 Settlement column test (ACM Centre, University of Paisley).
Figure 23 Penetration test for segregation resistance: apparatus at the start of the test
procedure. The bucket below the penetrometer holds the sample of fresh
concrete.
Figure 24 Wet-sieving stability test. The sample is poured onto the sieve in a prescribed
manner.
Figure 25 Excellent surface nish of a precast concrete element.
Figure 26 Heavily reinforced bridge deck: it would be very impractical to attempt to
concrete it using TVC. The use of SCC was planned from the design stage.
Figure 27 Casting of a deck of a new jetty using SCC. Note that the mix is almost selflevelling. The labour demand is reduced to one operator, who adjusts the
position of the discharge hose.
Figure 28 SCC being placed during construction of a medium-reinforced deck of a
Swedish integral bridge. Note that only one operator is required. Introduction
of SCC permitted a change in concrete supply contracts, in which the supplier
is also responsible for placing of the delivered concrete.
Tables
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Example of a Swedish mix design for SCC concrete for a highway bridge.
Proportions (kg/m3) of a SCC for building construction, using Scottish
aggregate, used in a European SCC project (19972000) at Paisley for casting
and load tests on typical full-scale structural elements (4 m beams, 3 m
columns).
Proposed standard test methods for assessment of lling ability (uidity).
Proposed standard test methods for passing ability (blocking).
Proposed standard test method for segregation resistance.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Extensive making good at the CTRL project (1999)
Photo courtesy of The New Civil Engineer
It is important to point out that the idea of self-compaction predates that of modern SCC.
The idea of SCC has been considered and applied ever since concrete has been used in
situations where compaction was physically impossible, such as in underwater placing, largediameter deep piling, diaphragm walling etc. In such cases, extremely high cement contents
and, more recently, plasticising admixtures, produced the required SCC mixes. This approach
was tolerated because the well-known adverse consequences of very high cement contents
were often substantially mitigated in concretes cured underwater, and placed in generally
cool conditions where the excessive heat of hydration was more easily dissipated.
However, independently of the Japanese research, signicant development of nondispersive mixes for underwater placing commenced in Europe (Paisley, Scotland) 1 and
North America (Sherbrooke, Canada) in the mid-1980s. Fresh underwater concretes had
to be self-compacting: this led to experiments and limited practical trials using the same
mixes for normal dry construction, thus effectively introducing SCC.
The actual concrete compaction process is a very strenuous activity, which is often
difcult to carry out and supervise. The degree of compaction achieved, and its adequacy
can be judged in most cases only indirectly and subjectively by a visual assessment of the
surface of the placed concrete by the worker operating the vibrator. Trained workers
have to use vibrators under close supervision. However, adequate compaction is not
always achieved, and it remains one of the main causes of poor performance of hardened
concrete, including its surface nish.
Incorrect use of poker vibrators can also lead to displacement of reinforcement, patches of
honeycombed or poorly-compacted concrete and other defects, which are often hidden
inside, but which signicantly reduce quality and performance of concrete structures.
The need for an adequate compaction of fresh concrete is therefore fundamental. A wall
element, cast out of one batch of a typical traditional vibrated concrete is shown in
Figure 4. The bottom part was compacted by internal, poker vibrators. It may be hard to
believe, but the upper part of this vertical wall element shows the same concrete, from
the same batch as the bottom part, but placed without any compaction.
Compaction by poker vibrators of two parallel beams cast simultaneously is shown in
Figure 5. Each of the 4 m-long beams required up to 15 minutes of a concentrated effort
by one operator to achieve an adequate compaction. There was signicant exposure to
noise, vibrating plant was handled and signicant physical effort was required. Casting of
the same beam in SCC took approximately 2 minutes, the concrete being placed directly
from a truck-mixer.
The importance, and difculty, of visually judging compaction by poker vibrators is
illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 5
Compaction of two parallel reinforced concrete beams by poker vibrators. Medium
workability (3060 mm slump) concrete
Figure 4
One single batch of a traditional low-slump, vibrated
concrete was used to cast the whole of the wall
element shown: the bottom part was compacted,
the top part was not
Figure 6
Effectiveness of compaction from one position
(insertion) of a poker vibrator
Considering concrete bridges, it is difcult to nd any concrete parts where selfcompacting concrete would not be an appropriate replacement for the traditional
vibrated concrete (TVC): from substructure, foundations, abutments, anchorage blocks,
to piers, pylons, decks and the rest.
In most applications, TVC is easily replaced by SCC. In some applications, only SCCs with
enhanced properties, such as a higher segregation resistance, or special SCCs, which are
capable of being placed and nished to a fall (e.g. bridge decks), may be required. The
actual formwork may need to be modied (e.g. top-forms can be used) and the placing
methods modied (bottom pumping, short tremies etc.). A non-exhaustive list of
applications includes:
High-strength concrete (HSC) has already been successfully tried in Sweden on
10
Figure 7
Pedestrian footbridge in Ostrava (Czech Republic),
spanning 100 m. The slender pylons were designed as
steelconcrete composite elements lled with SCC
Photo courtesy of ing J Lukas
The greatest single application of SCC to date, which is likely to remain in the lead for
some time, has indeed been in bridge construction.
Anchorages (see Figure 8) for the world record-holding (2 km free span) suspension
bridge, connecting the islands of Honshu and Shikoku at Akashi-Kaikyo in Japan, required
a total of approximately 500,000 m3 of SCC for massive anchorage blocks encasing the
cable ends and for 60 m-deep foundation blocks beneath. This quantity excluded large
foundations for the 300 m tall main towers, where self-compacting non-dispersive
underwater concrete was used.
11
Figure 8
Northern anchorage block of Akashi-Kaikyo bridge,
all cast in SCC
Photo courtesy of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority
The use of SCC allowed the consortium of contractors to achieve very high placing rates
of up to 1900 m3 of concrete per day, which are said to have reduced the construction
period by 34 months, saving approximately 20% on the construction time. Concrete
was pumped and distributed through a system of pipelines, with splits permitting
multiple discharge points (Figure 9). Placement was controlled by video cameras and a
system of sensors. Fresh concrete was allowed to free-fall up to 3 m when leaving the
discharge pipes; however, no segregation was observed. Placing of massive volumes of
SCC required the use of special low-heat cement and pre-cooling of aggregate, which
had a maximum size of 40 mm.
12
The most signicant advance in practical applications of SCC has been achieved in
Sweden in bridge construction. As early as in 1996, the Swedish National Road
Administration in collaboration with the Cement and Concrete Institute in Stockholm
commenced a project aiming to evaluate prospects to exploit the advantages of SCC,
investigate the suitability of local materials and consider adjustments to established
Figure 9
Placing of fresh SCC from multiple discharge points
during construction of an anchorage block of the
Akashi-Kaikyo bridge
Photo courtesy of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority
construction processes to maximise the benets of the new technology. The concept of
an integral small- to medium-sized span bridge was adopted, together with the
introduction of SCC technology3,7.
Table 1
kg/m3
Cement
405
Water
162
Filler
121
895
732
Superplasticiser
3.4
Air-entraining agent
The rst SCC bridge was cast in January 1998 and two additional small-span bridges were
completed in the same year. Many more have been completed since then. A smaller
version of the Swedish SCC bridges is shown in Figure 10. The SCC was required to
conform to the performance of a hardened TVC, namely with a characteristic strength of
45 MPa, a high freeze-thaw resistance (46% air entrainment was required), w/c ratio of
0.40 and a low permeability to chlorides.
The mix design of the SCC developed for the bridges was based on a low-alkali, sulfateresistant Portland cement, w/c of 0.40, a limestone ller, superplasticiser for SCC and an
air-entraining admixture. Table 1 shows the mix design and quantities used.
13
Figure 10
Small span integral road bridge in Sweden, cast in
one piece from SCC
Photo courtesy of Orjan Petersson
Swedish authorities approved the SCC concept for concrete very early on and enabled
Swedish engineers to consider using SCC at the bridge design stage. One concrete bridge
was designed, utilising a very high-strength SCC. This reduced the sizes of structural
sections and the use of SCC permitted higher percentages of reinforcement to be
incorporated safely. Compaction of traditional concrete in relatively slender sections
with dense reinforcement would have been impossible to achieve reliably using TVC. The
overall quantity of concrete used was also markedly reduced. An overall reduction in cost
was achieved.
Practical implementation of the integral bridge concept, in which a bridge is cast as a
single monolithic element, was greatly assisted by SCC technology. The use of SCC
enabled casting of the bridge to be considerably faster and with less labour. There was no
longer any need for vibrators, and the inevitable and undesirable occurrence of
construction joints8. The noise levels during placing of concrete were also greatly
reduced.
14
supplier. SCC was placed by pumping with a short tremie at the discharge end. Despite
this late intervention, the complex bridge construction was successfully completed, with
cost savings in comparison with a TVC alternative. SCC was also considered for the
bridge deck. However, as its surface had a fall and the SCC used for abutments appeared
to be self-levelling, the original TVC design was adhered to.
Construction of a new jetty in Immingham (see Figure 12) is an early example of using
SCC in a bridge-type structure. Approximately 300 m3 of SCC were used.
Another successful bridge-related application involved 15 m-long precast concrete beams
used to support the Cairngorm Mountain Railway. In this recently completed application,
the hardened SCC had to show durability, particularly regarding extreme freezethaw
exposure.
Figure 11
Congested reinforcement in an abutment for an
integral post-tensioned bridge (Forest Road,
Hackney), before placing of SCC
Figure 12
Construction of a new jetty in Immingham, using SCC for the deck
15
SCC technology is already being exploited by leading contractors outside the UK, such as
Metrostav a.s. in the Czech Republic. The company carried out mix design trials with a
local ready-mixed concrete supplier and then adopted SCC for several projects, including
a major tunnel and the construction of two bridges, one of them a complex, heavy-duty,
skewed railway bridge near Prague. The deck of the bridge was deep and heavily
reinforced (Figures 13 and 14), which would have made compaction of a TVC very
difcult to achieve.
The bridge abutments and very substantial linked retaining walls also offered a
substantial saving on labour and time, which were obtained by using SCC.
Figure 13
Concrete bridge deck with dense reinforcement.
Compaction of a traditional concrete by vibration
would have been almost impossible
Photo courtesy of Dr J L Vitek, Metrostav a.s.
Figure 14
Placing of SCC during construction of a
railway bridge near Prague
Photo courtesy of Dr J L Vitek, Metrostav a.s.
16
As is the case with traditional vibrated concrete, there is not yet a single universal and
approved procedure leading to proportioning of a self-compacting mix for a specic
application. Different approaches have been developed for SCC mix design in different
countries (e.g. Sweden, France, the Netherlands, Japan), in several major construction
companies and by major ready-mixed concrete suppliers.
Considering extreme cases, it is possible to produce concrete that will be selfcompacting when fresh and that will have almost any level of performance
characteristics when hardened. Equally, it is often technically possible to modify
traditional (vibrated) concretes of very unusual compositions to make them selfcompacting when fresh. Inevitably, in such extreme cases, much higher contents of
admixture(s) are almost always required, the mixes become less robust/tolerant and
considerably more expensive to produce and place.
Typically, one of the more common basic approaches is to initially design a traditional
mix for compaction by vibration, with a slump value of between 60 and 100 mm, and
then replace part of the coarse aggregate content by appropriate ne ller. A suitable
superplasticiser is then added in order that an adequate level of lling ability (see section
6.1) is obtained without the water content being increased. The minimum lling ability
(ow, uidity) satises the basic requirement for a fresh concrete to be self-compacting;
it is able to ow under its own weight. The two other key parameters, namely passing
ability (see section 6.2) and segregation resistance (see section 6.3) are then determined
and the mix proportions adjusted where necessary.
Alternative approaches begin with the design of a sand cement mortar rst, to which
an appropriate quantity of coarse aggregate is added, always checking that the mix
will have adequate lling and passing abilities (no blocking). The Swedish approach is
based on achieving a maximum packing density of particles in a dry mix and then adding
paste of suitable viscosity/yield stress in a quantity required to make the mix selfcompacting.
SCC mix designs tend to have common features, namely:
The paste content is higher than that for an ordinary TVC. The content of nes,
including cement, is higher than that of an ordinary TVC. Total cement and ller
contents are between 450 and 600 kg/m3. The higher volumetric proportion of nes is
compensated for by a proportional reduction of the volume of coarse aggregate.
The dosage of superplasticiser is higher and a more common addition of a viscositymodifying admixture (VMA) is used than in mix designs for TVC.
It is possible to formulate a SCC without an admixture. However, such a concrete would
have a very limited range of practical application combined with an increased overall
17
Table 2
kg/m3
280
750
865
Free water
200
Limestone powder
240
Admixture
(superplasticiser)
4.2
4.2 Cements
cost (very high cement content or a very low strength) and other unwanted side-effects
(drying shrinkage, heat development). The concrete may also be very sensitive to
variations of moisture content of the aggregate.
To illustrate, the mix proportions of a SCC for building applications (compressive
strength say C28/35) developed in the European SCC project5 using Scottish crushed
rock as coarse aggregate are given in Table 2 below.
Work on the development of consistence (workability) classes of fresh SCC, which
would indicate levels of self-compaction required for different applications, has
commenced. However, until its completion, SCC mix designs for all major applications
will still be subject to placing trials, in which critical site conditions are simulated, before
their nal acceptance.
All types of cement can be used in the production of SCC. These include cements covered
by EN 197. Typical contents do not differ from those used for traditional vibrated
concretes, which depend on the performance requirements of hardened concrete.
Very high cement contents carry with them undesirable side effects (temperature rise
during setting and hardening, high shrinkage etc.) as with TVCs.
It is therefore important not to use cement as a convenience measure (avoiding the need
to store and batch ne llers) in the production of SCC, or as a substitute for the usual
addition of ne llers. Excessive cement contents, which lead to all the well-known
adverse side effects, are entirely unnecessary in SCC.
Factory-produced cements with active or inert materials (additions) such as ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs), pulverised-fuel ash (pfa) or limestone powder are
especially suitable for the production of SCC. Such blended cements tend to simplify
batching by satisfying the requirement for the content of nes required for a typical SCC.
It is probable that, for everyday SCC concrete, the use of such pre-blended cements will
in many cases eliminate the need for additional storage and batching of ne llers.
The essential ingredients of a typical SCC are additions comprising nes with particle
sizes below 80m (sometimes 75m or 150m). Their high content, usually between
200 and 300 kg/m3 (in addition to Portland cement content), produces an increased
proportion of stable cement paste, which, in turn, assists with the development of an
adequate lling ability and segregation/bleeding resistance of the fresh SCC mix. The
nes in aggregate are counted as a contribution to the total ne ller requirement.
The ne particles densify the microstructure of SCC and they are considered to be one
of the key factors responsible for the strength and durability of a hardened SCC being
sometimes higher than that of a traditional well-compacted concrete with the same
water/cement ratio.
18
Typical nes may act either as inert llers or they can possess varying degrees of
pozzolanic or hydraulic reactivity. Some assist (e.g. pfa), and some hinder, the attainment
of adequate consistence of the paste and concrete. The nes most commonly used
include limestone powders, dolomitic limestone powders, pfa and ggbs. Microsilica is
also a ne; however, the purpose of its addition will more likely be to alter properties of
the hardened concrete rather than solely as a ller added to control properties of the mix
when fresh (segregation resistance).
The actual size and shape of the ne particles, and their grading are known to inuence
the properties of fresh SCC; however, not enough is known at this time for any specic
guidance to be offered.
4.4 Aggregate
Despite the need for the fresh concrete to ow easily, which indicates a requirement for
a rounded aggregate, SCCs are often, and successfully, produced using crushed rock as
coarse aggregate. However, uncrushed ne aggregate (natural sand) is preferred.
A feature of typical SCC mixes is the ratio between coarse and ne aggregate content,
ac/af, which is in the range of about 1.01.3 (by weight) for a typical SCC, compared with
ac/af of 1.82.5 for a typical TVC.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate also matters considerably more than in the case
of TVC when used to produce reinforced concrete. To avoid any blockage during casting,
the fresh SCC must have an adequate passing ability.
The passing ability depends on the lling ability of the concrete (its uidity), on the
maximum size of coarse aggregate, on the concentration of the coarse aggregate (mix
proportion) and on the nature of the obstructions encountered during placing (size and
spacing of reinforcement, narrow passages etc.). The two key characteristics of fresh SCC
are interrelated.
The following aggregate parameters are important:
The standard maximum size of aggregate (20 mm) is commonly used, although for
applications where large volumes are cast, the maximum size can increase (40 mm
maximum size was used in Japan on the Akashi-Kaikyo bridge). When dense
reinforcement and narrow openings obstruct the ow of fresh SCC, the maximum
size tends to be reduced to 14 mm or more often right down to 10 mm. Typical
SCC mixes in many European countries are based on 16 mm maximum size of
aggregate.
The moisture content of the individual types of aggregate and of the aggregate overall
must be monitored more closely, compared with that of aggregate for TVCs. The
indications are that SCC containing viscosity-modifying admixtures can achieve a very
high degree of tolerance of variations in moisture content, sometimes greater than
that for aggregate for TVC11.
The properties of all the aggregate should comply with EN 12620.
19
Other aggregate properties are considered to have the same effects on fresh and
hardened SCC as on TVC. Lightweight aggregate causes difculties similar to or greater
than those encountered in traditional lightweight aggregate concrete, which depend on
their degree of water-absorbency.
4.5 Admixtures
There are two types of admixture (BS EN 934-2) directly associated with production of
fresh SCC, which provide the key control of workability/consistence:
Superplasticisers
Viscosity-modifying admixtures.
Superplasticisers of different types are used in the production of SCC. Several brand
name products designed for SCC are on the market. Basic polymers making up
admixtures specically developed for use in SCC exploit the excellent properties of
synthetic superplasticisers for dispersion of cement particles (namely those based on
steric hindrance). Admixtures specically aimed for SCC may contain ingredients other
than a superplasticiser alone, mostly for the purpose of reducing excessive aeration/airentrainment and/or neutralising the possible decrease of an early strength development.
Such specialist admixtures may also contain a combination of a superplasticiser with a
VMA.
Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs) are sometimes called water-retaining
admixtures, viscosity modiers or stabilisers. They vary in origin from synthetic organic
compounds to gums produced by biotechnology and which act as thickeners, helping
to reduce or prevent segregation and bleeding. VMAs tend to be used when the water
content of the mix is high or too variable or when the mix has a lower than required
content of nes, which would otherwise increase the risk of segregation or excessive
bleeding. Viscosity agents are used in small dosages, which may require additional
control and supervision, and their effectiveness may depend on a thorough, effective
mixing. Viscosity agents in a liquid form are preferred because of easier dosage and
dispersion within a mix. Overdosing of a VMA may lead to a reduction of the lling
ability (excessive stiffening and thixotropy (see section 5.3)), an excessive airentrainment and a reduction of an early compressive strength. The results of recent fullscale SCC casting trials11 suggest that VMAs can very signicantly decrease the sensitivity
of basic fresh SCC properties (lling ability ow, passing ability blocking and
segregation resistance) to variations in water content of the mix. Such concretes are able
to tolerate substantial variations in the moisture content of aggregate.
It is possible to combine workability admixtures with admixtures for other purposes,
namely for air-entrainment and for set-controlling admixtures such as accelerators and
retarders. It is essential to consult appropriate technical information regarding
compatibility of admixtures by contacting admixture suppliers or by carrying out trial
mixes. Air-entraining admixtures tend to assist in reaching the required levels of the key
properties of fresh SCC.
20
Considering the initially high demand on workability of SCC, it was not thought
practicable to maintain self-compactability when bres were added. However, extensive
research5,12 has demonstrated that signicant proportions of steel bres (up to
approximately 60 kg/m3) can be incorporated into SCC, without causing the concrete to
lose its basic self-compactability, which is adequate for a useful range of applications.
The maximum dosage depended on the specic type of bre and on the mix design.
The addition of very ne bres, e.g. brillated polypropylene, inuences the key
properties of fresh SCC more than the coarser steel bres. There is insufcient data
available for general recommendations; however, it is unlikely that dosages greater than
1 kg/m3 can be tolerated. Trial mixes and pours are necessary in all cases.
21
Greater control over moisture content is normally required during the storage and
batching of aggregate for SCC than is required for traditional vibrated concrete in order
to control accurately the consistence of the fresh mix. This extends to the mixing
process, including the monitoring of water retained in the drum of a truck mixer after
washing-out.
Most of the ready-mixed concrete and other concrete (precasting) producers are using
forced action (e.g. pan) mixers, which are capable of producing a uniform SCC in times
not dissimilar to those for TVC. Large drum mixers used in some plants have also been
shown to be suitable; however, mixing times must always be veried and charging
sequences checked for achieving an optimum performance of the mix both during
production and when placed.
An exception is in the UK, where most of the fresh concrete is delivered to sites from
ready-mixed concrete centres. Here, the concrete is dry-batched rst and then mixed in
a truck mixer. In such cases the mixing time in the truck mixer may have to be extended
and some of the admixture (superplasticiser) added only after the arrival of the truck
mixer at the site. It may also be necessary to reduce the size of a batch in a truck mixer
because of its uidity during transport, particularly when the SCC is premixed centrally
and the truck-mixer acts only as an agitator.
Trial mixing and production of mock-up elements will continue to play a very
important part in mix design and production of SCC until the procedures for
specication and verication are well established, and tests for key fresh properties
are standardised. The introduction of proprietary concretes will also facilitate
exploitation of SCC in general construction practice and reduce the need for mixing and
placing trials.
Fresh concrete that satises the key criteria for being self-compacting is normally easily
pumpable. SCC, designed for high lling and passing ability, require lower pumping
pressures, which in turn permit deliveries over greater distances or heights. Fresh SCC can
free-ow over a distance of more than 10 m, depending on the gradient, although
normally a horizontal ow to a distance of 56 m from one discharge point is considered
to be reliably achievable.
Fresh SCC lends itself perfectly to delivery through pipelines, where splits or
bifurcations can occur. Such splits/bifurcations of the fresh SCC delivery enable much
faster placing rates to be reached. The SCC is then delivered simultaneously to several
discharge points and a very large pour may be completed in a time much shorter than
that required for TVC.
22
5.3 Formwork
23
Casting from the top, using a crane and skip or discharging through a exible
pipe/hose or a short tremie pipe will produce overall lower formwork pressures than
fully hydraulic ones, similar to those generated by a TVC. Such placing keeps only the
top (last poured) layer of the concrete subjected to internal movement, which causes
shearing. The concrete remaining below the top layer is at rest and, depending on its
thixotropy, stiffens rapidly, sometimes almost instantly.
Casting (pumping) from the bottom, which may be very convenient and is facilitated
by the mix being self-compacting, leads to the whole height of the concrete above the
injection point being continually sheared. Full hydrostatic pressure will therefore
develop over the whole height of the formwork. Restarting the pumping process may
lead to a higher than hydrostatic pressure developing temporarily in the vicinity of the
injection point.
There are further differences regarding formwork when SCC replaces TVC. Due to the
need for internal cohesion in a fresh SCC in order to prevent segregation, the concrete
(namely the cement paste or the ne mortar) is less likely to leak through joints in
formwork. This leads to a reduction in unsightly blemishes on surfaces of hardened
concrete and hardened concrete with better, sharper corners and arrises, provided
standard practice in the sealing of formwork is maintained.
It is recommended to design the formwork for full hydrostatic pressure, unless a benet
obtainable from the use of lighter formwork is sufcient to justify adjustments in mix
design leading towards a more thixotropic fresh mix. In all cases, the lower formwork
pressures must be veried in a realistic casting trial before their adoption in formwork
design and setting-up.
Absence of vibration means that a lighter formwork can be used or more re-uses are
possible, particularly in precasting.
The microstructure and the cohesive nature of a typical fresh SCC restrict the migration
of water during the early stages of setting and hardening of the concrete. Limited
evidence gained from the European SCC project5 suggests that typical SCCs may be less
prone to problems associated with inadequate curing of TVCs. However, it is
recommended to use the same measures for curing SCC as is good practice in curing
TVCs.
The restriction of the movement of moisture, which is benecial in curing, may cause
signicant difculties in the nishing of SCC surfaces, particularly in the case of
mechanical nishing of large slabs and pavements. This is caused by a lack of water
migrating to the upper surface, which tends to lubricate the levelling/nishing action,
both when power-nishing or manual-nishing is applied. Any requirement for power
nishing has to be taken into account in the mix design of the SCC for such purpose.
Adjustments are possible, which permit modern nishing methods to then be applied
reliably.
24
Adequate levels of all three properties listed above must be reached for a SCC to be
satisfactorily produced, transported and placed in given conditions and by chosen means.
Additional properties of the fresh concrete may be appropriate for a given application,
such as nishability, plastic settlement, etc.
In all cases of testing for the key properties of SCC, particularly when segregation
resistance is to be assessed, an appropriate sampling procedure must be carefully
considered. Frequency of sampling, size of samples and procedures for their collection
and handling must include a consideration of the purpose of the test (within batch,
between batch variations etc.). Guidance given in EN 206 and related standards is
applicable to fresh SCC, within the requirements of a specic test (as yet non-standard).
The absence of suitable standardised test methods capable of identifying the three key
properties of SCC in the fresh state is a recognised fundamental obstacle to the wider
use of SCC in Europe and beyond. This hinders the increased use of SCC since it is
difcult to validate reliably SCC mix designs except by full-scale trials, which may be
commercially acceptable only in special or large projects. Condence in the material
cannot be increased as a result. A major European project Testing-SCC11, which has
been completed, and a simultaneous action by CEN intend to overcome this obstacle. All
the tests selected for a pre-normative evaluation in Testing-SCC are described below,
while tests that have been recommended for adoption as EN standards are listed in
section 9.3. It should be noted that none of the tests is without drawbacks, including
those most used to date (e.g. the slump-ow).
25
The principal aim of the tests for lling ability is to determine how far a fresh SCC would
ow under its own weight, and how well it would ll formwork and spaces of varying
degrees of complexity. In addition, it may be important, namely for very large or
complicated pours, to determine how fast the mix will ow.
Slump-ow test
The slump-ow (SF) test was rst used to assess the spread of concrete using a
traditional slump cone (height 300 mm, base diameter 200 mm, top diameter 100 mm)
for the development of underwater concrete and, more recently, for SCC. The mould
requires a volume of approximately 5.5 litres to ll. A minimum mass of 30 kg of
concrete is needed for two tests.
The mean values for concrete spread, measured at the two perpendicular directions, are
rounded to the nearest 5 mm and an average value is obtained as the test result. The
higher the SF spread, the greater is the lling ability (owability of concrete) of the fresh
mix. Spreads greater than 600 mm are usually required to achieve lling ability adequate
for a fresh concrete to be self-compacting. SF spreads of greater than 750 mm indicate
high lling ability. Exceptionally, SCC mixes may exhibit spreads in excess of 850 mm;
adequate segregation resistance may be difcult to achieve in such cases.
In addition to the SF spread, the time it takes for the concrete from the moment the
mould is lifted to the spread reaching a circle of 500 mm is sometimes also measured.
This is often referred to as time T500 and indicated in seconds. The shorter the T500, the
faster the SCC will ow during placement. The time is related to an apparent viscosity of
the fresh concrete.
The basic SF test procedure is quick and easy to follow, applicable both in a laboratory and
on site. In a normal arrangement, the test requires two operators to carry it out. The
timing of T500 is difcult; both the start and especially the end of the timing (rst concrete
touching the circle or all of the circle being covered) are not easily determined.
Figure 15
(a) Slump ow test arrangement
(b) Slump ow test
Slump
cone
Slump flow
(D1 D2)/2
Unit: mm
Flow table
1000 1000
D1
D2
500
Segregation
border
26
The spread concrete is also assessed visually. What is particularly noted is the occurrence
of any rim of ne mortar or just paste/laitance, indicated in Figure 15 (a) as a
segregation border. Such a halo of paste indicates that some of the concrete is not
robust and that it had effectively segregated. However, full-scale trials5,11 failed to
support an important potential conclusion that the paste border always led to a
segregated concrete being placed.
The baseplate must be perfectly at and rigid, to maintain the required atness, and
preferably set in a horizontal position. Slight deformations of the baseplate when stoodon during the test, or previous deformations, will cause the concrete to spread unevenly,
making it impossible to measure it reliably11. The SF test result is sensitive to the degree
of wetting of the surface of the baseplate. This should be uniformly damp/wet at the
beginning of the test.
Orimet test
The Orimet was developed as a practical test method1417 for a rapid assessment of very
highly workable, owing fresh concrete mixes on construction sites. The test exploits the
principle of an orice rheometer, applied to fresh concrete.
The Orimet consists of a vertical casting pipe of 120 mm internal diameter, tted with an
interchangeable orice at its lower end. A quick-release trap door is used to close the
orice. The basic Orimet is provided with orices having internal diameters of 70 mm or
80 mm, which are appropriate for the assessment of concrete with an aggregate size not
exceeding 20 mm. Orices of other sizes can be tted if appropriate. An integral tripod,
folding back for easy transport, supports the casting pipe, the orice and the trap door
mechanism (see Figure 16 (a) and (b)).
The test is used primarily for assessing the lling ability (uidity) of fresh SCC, for
compliance with specications and for a rapid check of mix adjustments, e.g. additional
admixtures on construction sites where very high consistence has to be maintained. The
test is also sensitive to poor passing ability (excessive blocking) and severe segregation.
The Orimet is used either for determination of the ow time (FT, seconds) of a fresh
concrete or as a Go/No-Go device to eliminate mixes of inadequate lling and passing
ability for a given size of the orice. The FT is measured as the time it takes for all of the
concrete to ow out of the Orimet into a standard bucket placed below the orice. A
sample of approximately 7.5 litres is required to ll the Orimet. The sample is normally
re-tested twice, the rst test result is discarded and the next two, carried out on the
same sample (from the bucket) without cleaning the casting pipe are averaged.
Increased FT indicates a higher viscosity. In some cases a concrete with a very low
segregation resistance will cause coarse aggregate to settle in the orice area and
increase the FT or cause a blockage and a partial/intermittent ow. Depending on an
appropriate combination of the size of the orice and the maximum size of the
aggregate, the Orimet may be set up as a Go/No-go test for a rapid conformity testing
of successive deliveries of fresh SCC.
27
Figure 16
60
1090
600
980
The Orimet is a simple, rugged, durable, easily maintained and portable apparatus, with
good simulation of the movement of fresh owing concrete during actual placing on a
site. No power supply is needed and no calibrations are necessary. The testing procedure
is very quick: a set of three tests can be completed in less than three minutes.
No specially prepared ground is required for setting-up of the Orimet; small deviations
from verticality do not affect the test results. The synchronisation between the beginning
of the timing and the opening of the trap door can lead to an operator error, if carried
out manually by a single operator.
The tests follow the principle of the Orimet in a simplied arrangement. Instead of a length
of straight casting pipe as in the Orimet, the funnels use a container, which tapers all the
way from the top to the bottom opening. The bottom opening is either a rectangular one
(Figure 17a) typical for the more common V-funnel test (selected for European Standard
evaluation) or circular, which is typical of the O-funnel test (Figure 17b).
The funnels are tted with trap doors and attached to a metal frame. The test result, a
ow time (FT) measured in seconds, is obtained in the same manner as for the Orimet.
The funnels most often used are designed to cope with coarse aggregate of up to 25 mm
maxaximum size.
A sample of fresh concrete of between 12 and 15 litres is required. The same sample can
be re-tested rapidly. Normally assessment requires at least two, preferably three samples
to be tested. The advantages and disadvantages are broadly similar to those of the
Orimet. Many different geometries of the V-funnels have been used in the past; caution
is needed when comparing results.
28
Figure 17
Test equipment (a) V-funnel and (b) O-funnel
(a)
(b)
Tests in this group aim to determine how well the fresh SCC mix will ow through
constricted spaces and between reinforcement. The aim is to assess the level of risk that
the coarse aggregate in the concrete will become wedged between bars or form arches,
which will partially or fully block, or obstruct, the ow.
There is a link between lling ability and passing ability; an example is a situation, in
which the lling ability may become so low that the fresh mix will exhibit a poor passing
ability without an excessive content of coarse aggregate.
J-Ring test
The idea may have originated in Japan. However, the practical form of this test, now
widely used, was developed at the ACM Centre of the University of Paisley16,17. The
equipment consists of a ring with an inner diameter large enough to accommodate the
traditional truncated cone mould from the slump test without its holding-down step-on
brackets.
The J-Ring arrangement selected for the nal pre-normative evaluation as a proposed
European Standard test has 18 equally spaced, 125 mm long, pieces of smooth
reinforcement attached to the ring along its 300 mm-diameter circle.
Different types of reinforcement at different spacings can be set up, were the J-Ring to be
used for simulation of specic project conditions rather that as a test verifying basic SCC
passing ability (see Figure 18 (a) and (b)). Alternatively, the Orimet test apparatus can be
positioned within the J-Ring (see Figure 19 (a) and (b)). Then, in addition to the J-Ring
results, the normal Orimet FT is also measured.
Not less than 6 litres of fresh concrete are required for a single J-Ring test combined with
the slump-ow. The sample is increased to at least 7.5 litres when a combination of the
J-Ring with the Orimet test is used.
29
(a)
Figure 18
(b)
(a)
Figure 19
(a) and (b) J-Ring used in conjunction with the
Orimet test
(b)
The greater the spread, the greater are both the passing and lling abilities. However, a
satisfactory passing ability is indicated by the size of the step (Figure 20) (if any)
between the levels of concrete inside and outside the ring. If the step is not more than
10 mm, the fresh SCC is considered to have a satisfactory passing ability (adequately low
risk of blockage during placing).
30
Figure 20
Assessment of passing ability, measured by the
J-Ring. Note the step in levels of fresh concrete
within and outside the ring
In addition, the time it takes for the concrete to spread to a 500 mm ring can be
measured in seconds and used to indicate the rate of ow in a manner similar to that
used in determination of T500 in the slump-ow test.
Unlike any of the other test methods, the J-Ring test method is capable of assessing both
the lling ability (measuring the spread of the concrete sample either through the ring, or
without it) and the passing ability (measured as the step at the ring), together with the
optional assessment of the rate of ow (measurement of T500 time).
L-box test
The L-shaped box was developed originally for the assessment of consistence/owing
ability of underwater concrete, without any reinforcement bars placed into the path of
the owing concrete sample1,2. The L-shaped apparatus used for assessment of fresh SCC,
which has been selected for European Standard evaluation, consists of a vertical hollow
column and a horizontal trough, which are separated by a vertical sliding door.
A set of vertical reinforcing bars is placed into the trough at its column end (see Figure
21). Fresh concrete is required to pass through the bar assembly once the sliding door is
raised and it ows out of the vertical column. The ow of the concrete sample in the test
is initiated by the weight of a relatively small volume of the mix in the column; the test is
therefore semi-static, compared with the usual, more dynamic, placing conditions. A
typical L-box requires a sample of approximately 12 litres of concrete.
The vertical steel bar arrangement can be adjusted according to the maximum size of
aggregate, the size of steel bres and different practical applications.
31
Figure 21
L-box with four vertical bars during a test.
The optional measurement of the time for the
concrete to reach 200 mm and 400 mm ow
is also being taken
Trough:
32
Blocking caused both by oversize coarse aggregate or its excessive content can be
detected, as well as blocking generated by moderate/severe dynamic segregation. The
concrete can be regarded as stable, possessing a degree of segregation resistance, if the
particles of coarse aggregate are visibly distributed on the concrete surface all the way to
the end of the horizontal part.
Both blocking and serious segregation in the L-box can be assessed visually. Blocking is
usually visually detected as coarse aggregates wedged between the reinforcement bars.
Good practice of transport and placing of TVC requires measures that minimise the risk
of segregation. However, in the absence of any recognised test for segregation resistance
of a traditional mix, the existing good practice guidance has been limited to general
advice about measures to avoid segregation.
For example, established good practice suggests that traditional vibrated fresh concrete
is not to be allowed to drop during placing by a free fall from heights greater than
approximately 1.5 m and too many transfers/handling of the SCC during transport
should be avoided. Segregation can assume different forms. A typical case of segregation
of TVC is honeycombed concrete, revealed after stripping of the formwork, often at
bases of walls and columns. It is sometimes difcult to separate the effects of
segregation from those of an inadequate compaction, both of which lead to hardened
concrete of very poor quality requiring remedial action, making good. Another common
form of segregation is an excessive separation of water, leading to bleeding on
horizontal surfaces of fresh concrete.
Segregation requires much greater attention in the case of SCC than in the case of TVC.
Experience and research have shown that segregation of a fresh concrete, which satised
the basic requirements of lling and passing abilities, is unlikely to show as honeycombed
or uncompacted hardened concrete, which are typical manifestations of segregation
when TVC is used. Instead, the concrete is likely to be fully compacted even though there
is slight to moderate segregation. This would show only as a non-uniform distribution of
aggregate. Such a phenomenon particularly concerns coarse aggregate, which may settle
at the bottom of a mould or which can be left behind and concentrate in different
places when passing through formwork.
Recent work has indicated16 that a fresh concrete, satisfying the other two key properties
adequately for it to be considered self-compacting, will still achieve a high degree of
compaction, which will mitigate the adverse effect on strength and durability of the nonuniform distribution of aggregate due to segregation. There is evidence, albeit limited,
suggesting that provided a concrete is self-compacting, compressive strength is not
signicantly affected until a severe segregation occurs. Current requirements for
negligible non-uniformity/segregation may therefore be too conservative. More research,
based on full-scale placing trials, is required to establish reliable evidence in support of
guidance on the extent of segregation, which may be acceptable for different
construction applications.
33
The settlement column segregation test was developed independently at the ACM
Centre in the University of Paisley16,18 and the University of Ghent. The test involves
samples of concrete being taken from different vertical positions within a column-shaped
apparatus via doors after a controlled jolting cycle and a standard settlement period. The
concrete removed is then analysed to determine the content of coarse aggregate.
The apparatus comprises a column with internal dimensions of 500 mm 150 mm
100 mm with three hinged doors to facilitate the collecting of samples from the top,
middle and bottom (see Figure 25). A sample of at least 7.5 litres is required.
In order to provide the controlled jolting, the settlement column is mounted upon a ow
table apparatus as described in BS 4551: Part 1: 1996 (see Figure 22). The difference
between aggregate content of the top and bottom samples produces a segregation ratio,
which is used as an indicator of segregation.
A segregation ratio with a value lower than 0.90 suggests that the mix is likely to
segregate. A value greater than 0.95 indicates good resistance to dynamic segregation19.
34
Figure 22
150
200
150
150
100
The settlement column test, and other variations of the test, which are based on the
same principle, provide a tool sensitive enough to differentiate between different degrees
of segregation resistance, which is a more dynamic characteristic than those measured
by the other two tests described in this document. A disadvantage of the settlement
column test is the relative complexity of the testing procedure.
Segregation test by
penetration
The test5,16,20 is used to rapidly evaluate the static segregation resistance of fresh SCC on
site, which can be done without the necessity to obtain separate samples, depending on
the method of placing of the fresh SCC.
The penetration test apparatus (Figure 22) consists of a frame, which supports a sliding
penetration head. The sliding movement of the head, caused by its penetration into the
surface of fresh concrete, is measured against a linear scale graduated in millimetres. The
test can be carried out on the surface of the fresh concrete in a container. The minimum
size of the surface of the concrete in an appropriate container is 200 mm 200 mm, the
concrete in it being at least 600 mm deep (minimum volume is 7.5 litres).
The result of the test is expressed as the penetration depth, Pd (mm). There is limited
experience with practical applications of this test; however, a Pd 8 mm is considered to
indicate concrete with good resistance against static (settlement) segregation when a
54 g penetration head is used. The test has been proposed as a potential EN standard
test because it is based on a simple method, is easy to carry out and a direct test result is
obtained.
35
Figure 23
Penetration test for segregation resistance:
apparatus at the start of the test procedure. The
bucket below the penetrometer holds the sample of
fresh concrete.
Wet-sieving stability
(segregation resistance test)
segregation. The paste/mortar may be too viscous, with a poor lling ability, probably
below the minimum required for self-compaction.
515% of the sample passes the sieve: good (optimum?) level of resistance to
segregation.
1530% of the sample passes the sieve: the mix is likely to be susceptible to
segregation (critical stability?).
More than 30% of the sample passes the sieve: the mix is susceptible to severe
segregation (a very poor stability).
36
Figure 24
Wet-sieving stability test. The sample is poured onto
the sieve in a prescribed manner
In addition, it is not acceptable if any noticeable bleed water is detected during the
test.
The wet-sieving stability test is a relatively simple test to conduct and one person can
carry it out. A single test takes around 25 minutes to complete and requires
approximately 10 litres of concrete. Experience shows that the test is capable of
detecting a potential moderate-to-severe static (settlement) segregation.
Practically all fresh concrete classed as SCC is easily pumpable. Difculties may arise only
in extreme cases of very viscous concretes with small maximum size of aggregate and
extremely high contents of nes. Additional properties such as nishability or resistance
to plastic settlement can be required.
Finishability may be a problem with SCC; the solution is likely to require adjustments to
the mix design, depending on the specic method used. There is no test for this property.
Plastic settlement22 tends to be lower for SCCs, compared with traditional vibrated
concrete. There is a specialised test to check this in cases where these properties are of
signicance.
Washout-resistant SCC is currently used for underwater construction. Such concretes
tend to contain additional viscosity admixtures, which minimise the wash-out but also
reduce the lling ability and reduce the speed of ow of the concrete. Orimet ow times
become longer than 10 seconds.
37
Compressive strength of hardened SCC follows the established basic relationship with
w/c ratio and other parameters of a mix. Concretes of any strength, from very low to
very high, which are self-compacting, can be produced.
In most cases the densication by the high content of nes, which may also be active,
leads to an appreciable increase of compressive strength. A 10% gain in compressive
strength is not uncommon and for this reason it is sometimes easier to produce a very
high strength mix (> 70 MPa) than a low-strength SCC (<25 MPa).
Investigations of performance of full-scale reinforced concrete structures (namely
columns and walls), made of SCC and placed by free-fall casting, concluded that for a
typical SCC the strength of cores was nearer to the strength of cubes cast separately
from the same batch of concrete than was the usual case with TVC extracted from the
same elements, made of same strength class of concrete, but compacted by vibration.
There was also a difference in compressive strength of cores taken from the bottom of
the column (higher), compared with those taken from near the top; however, the
difference was signicantly smaller than that obtained from the same trials using TVC.
The rate of gain of compressive strength of SCC is similar to that of TVC with the same
type and proportion of cement and same w/c ratio5.
There are indications that due to the cohesive nature of the fresh SCC, which restricts
movement of moisture (lesser or no bleeding when compared with TVC and more
difcult mechanical surface nishing), the compressive strength of a SCC may be less
38
dependent on curing. A SCC may become largely self-curing, or there might be a lesser
need for curing. However, such ndings appear to be related only to the particular type
of SCC examined and it is therefore advisable to apply the same good curing practice
applicable to TVC to SCC.
The amount of water in the concrete, the cement content and the nature or properties of
aggregate govern autogeneous and drying shrinkage and creep in the same basic manner
as for TVC. There has been a limited amount of research carried out directly into
shrinkage and creep of SCC. Results available5,24 indicate that magnitudes and timeproles of creep do not differ signicantly from those established for TVC. As the cement
content and water content of a typical SCC are not outside the range for the TVC,
observed values of shrinkage and creep have been comparable. A similar conclusion has
been reached recently following trials of SCC mixes specically for civil engineering,
namely for prestressed bridge applications24.
The current structural design codes and procedures for concrete bridges were found to be
applicable for the same structures made of SCC. An excessive increase in cement
content, as can occur when attempting to produce SCC without ne additions, will have
a predictably adverse effect on shrinkage and creep.
7.3 Durability
39
Concerns regarding the bond between reinforcement, particularly the horizontal bars, and
hardened SCC were raised at the very beginning of the introduction of the SCC into Europe.
A signicant investigation of the bond was therefore included in the original European SCC
project5, where performances of TVC and SCC were compared. Results of standard pullout
tests indicated that there was a distinctly higher bond between reinforcement and SCC.
However, when adjusted for the higher strength of the SCC, the bond between the SCC and
reinforcement was then equal to or slightly higher than with TVC. The same differential
regarding the position of the bars as that found in TVC was observed. Microstructural
investigations revealed that the interfacial zone below the bars was weaker than that
above the bars, although it was stronger and the difference was lesser in the case of SCC26
than in TVC. Bond with reinforcement has been also investigated as part of other research
projects; however, there have been no indications that the use of SCC had an adverse
inuence on bond. Bond values associated with TVC of the same strength category as that
of SCC can therefore be used safely in structural design according to current codes.
Excellent surface nishes have been obtained with SCC. An example is shown in Figure
25. However, such a good surface nish is not automatically obtained with SCC of any
type. In all cases, where an outstanding quality of surface nish was obtained, a trial and
error development had been carried out previously. This included experimentation not
only with mix proportions and characteristics of the constituent materials; it also
included mixing processes, placing techniques and types of formwork and release agents.
Once a suitable mix design, production and placing process had been established, it was
possible to continually achieve excellent surface nish. This applies very much to precast
concrete, where consistent sources of appropriate materials can be guaranteed and the
batching, mixing and casting process are well controlled and repeatable.
Figure 25
Excellent surface nish of a
precast concrete element
Prefa Dywidag a.s., Czech Republic
40
Limited experiments have been carried out5 in order to link the rate and mode of placing
of a typical SCC and the type of formwork with the quality of surface nish, but without
conclusive results. Existing best practice in obtaining good surface nish for TVC
remained a prerequisite for excellent SCC nishes. Factors such as the absorbency of
formwork material, rate and method of lling of formwork and composition of SCC
(additions such as limestone powder had a positive effect) played a role in the
achievement of a SCC nish which was better than good TVC nishes. The actual
detailed mechanism of the formation of a blemish-free surface layer of SCC during
placing remains largely unexplored.
In the absence of relevant basic knowledge and when adequate experimentation (mostly
hit and miss trials) related to a specic SCC for a specic application cannot be carried
out, the quality of the surface nish of hardened SCC can be expected to be comparable
to that of a TVC.
There is little information available on the effects of the change in composition that
typies SCC, on additional properties of hardened concrete, such as modulus of
elasticity, tensile strength or shear strength.
Results of load tests to destruction of typical full-scale structural elements (beams,
columns) designed5 according to the current concrete Eurocode did not reveal any
indications of poor tensile or shear strength, their overall performance invariably
exceeding that expected.
It is conceivable that the reduced volume of coarse aggregate in a typical SCC may
reduce the contribution of the aggregate-interlock to shear strength compared to TVC.
It is possible, because of the lower coarse aggregate content, for the modulus of
elasticity to decrease when a relatively low-strength matrix-hardened binder is used.
There is very little evidence to hand on this matter; however, such a potential loss may in
reality be compensated for, or even exceeded, by the gain from a denser and therefore
stronger hardened matrix.
41
8 Benets
8. Benets
Replacement of traditional vibrated concrete by self-compacting concrete offers a range
of specic benets. However, the maximum benet, which will be greater than a mere
sum of the individual ones, is obtained when the use of SCC is already adopted in the
early design stages and the construction/management process itself is adapted to this
new technology.
Elimination of the compaction process from concrete construction opens up possibilities
of gradual automation of the concrete construction process, leading to a much greater
productivity and consistent quality of the product.
Most of the SCC produced in UK to date appears to have been specied only for special
applications, where compaction was impossible or when the originally specied TVC was
found to be impossible to use. In such cases the use of SCC was very benecial; it
enabled the construction of a project, which was found to have been impossible to
complete satisfactorily with TVC (see Figure 26). In the specic applications described
above, the benet was mainly in the mitigation of large potential losses (penalties for
late completion, massive remedial works, removal and replacement of poor quality
concrete placed etc.), rather than a positive net gain for the contractor, the consultant
and the client.
Figure 26
Heavily reinforced bridge deck. It would be very
impractical to attempt to concrete it using TVC. The
use of SCC was planned from the design stage
Photo courtesy of Dr J L Vitek, Metrostav a.s.
42
Benets 8
8.1 Quality
Compaction of traditional concrete has very often been in the hands of the least trained
workers carrying out the most unpleasant and physically demanding task in concrete
construction, and which was not amenable to effective and close supervision.
Well-compacted structural concrete, virtually free of voids and honeycombing, produced
when SCC is used, leads to a large reduction in making good and the need for other
remedial measures. This, in turn, improves strength and durability. In general an
improvement in surface nish is to be expected with SCC when compared to TVC casting
methods.
The generally denser microstructure of hardened SCC improves its quality overall.
8.2 Economy
The overall cost of concrete construction is affected in many aspects when SCC is used.
It leads to both increases and decreases, with the maximum economy being obtained
when the use of SCC is pre-planned and both design and construction processes are
adjusted accordingly beforehand. Elements of cost, and the rise/decrease linked to the
use of SCC are discussed briey below:
The overall cost of SCC constituent materials tends to be higher than that of a TVC of
43
8 Benets
Figure 28
SCC being placed during construction of a mediumreinforced deck of a Swedish integral bridge8. Note
that only one operator is required. Introduction of
SCC permitted a change in concrete supply
contracts, in which the supplier is also responsible
for placing of the delivered concrete
Labour and materials required for repairs and making good are greatly reduced or
44
The introduction of SCC into construction practice is sometimes called a quiet revolution.
The compaction of concrete is a widespread source of noise during construction. An
effective way of reducing this type of noise is to choose materials and working methods
that produce less noise, which applies perfectly to the introduction of SCC.
Benets 8
The elimination of vibrators signicantly improves health and safety on the concrete
construction site27. There is a major reduction of:
Exposure of the workers to noise (directly from vibrators and indirectly from auxiliary
45
9.1 Specication
46
The selection of SCC for a given project/structure usually takes place at different stages
in the construction process:
(a) The structural engineer/designer or the architect selects SCC. SCC has been
considered already in the design stage and it is specied in order to obtain one or
more of its potential benets. Such a specication means that formwork of a given
certain shape with the required reinforcement will be completely lled with a fresh
concrete of uniform composition without the need to compact it.
(b) The contractor selects SCC instead of TVC (unless the project was a design and build
contract) and, usually, orders it from a supplier. The reason for the selection of SCC
tends to reect benets related to potential benets from the practical concrete
construction process, available to the contractor. The supplier then takes on the
responsibility for the mix design, which must lead to a concrete of adequate
performance. It is essential that the supplier/producer of SCC is adequately informed
of the proposed application and of the demands placed on the actual performance
of the SCC. Such information should indicate how far the concrete is expected to
ow, how congested the reinforcement is, where any segregation-inducing
obstructions will be etc. Methods of placing (pumping-up, free-fall from a skip etc.),
surface nish requirement and any other relevant data must also be indicated.
Weather conditions, namely temperature, must also be taken into account.
It is essential that clear contractual arrangements relevant to each of the cases
mentioned above be drawn in advance between the parties concerned. This concerns
particularly the responsibility for assessment of conformity and action in case of noncompliance with the SCC specication.
For applications of even moderate signicance, the nal mix design is almost invariably
tested on preconstruction trial pours of mock-up full- or half-scale elements, which
simulate the most complicated, difcult parts of the concrete structure to be built and
use the expected techniques for placing. At the same time, the quality of the surface
nish is examined, ensuring that the trial casting process is as much as possible identical
to that proposed for the actual construction. If necessary, adjustments of the mix
proportions are made. There are usually many ways that effective adjustments can be
made. Basic adjustments are:
Inadequate lling ability: adjust paste content, water content, admixture
(superplasticiser)
Inadequate passing ability: adjust coarse aggregate size, coarse aggregate content,
maintain same water content
Inadequate segregation resistance: increase nes content or add viscosity-modifying
admixtures.
As the segregation tests have been developed only very recently, the lling and passing
ability alone are usually measured and recorded for a satisfactorily performing mix. These
values are then used as benchmarks for verication of conformity of the concrete when
delivered on site.
47
SCC is designed to be uid and cohesive, and to possess both properties in correct
proportions. This is a fundamental requirement for this type of concrete. In practice, it
means that no single test can be expected to measure reliably both uidity (ow;
lling ability) and cohesiveness (basis of segregation resistance). The results of the
European project Testing SCC11,31 conrmed that more than one test was required.
For example, the slump ow test result alone is an insufcient indicator that the
concrete is self-compacting; additional tests linked to viscosity and segregation are
required.
The nal recommendation of tests for European standardisation categorised as priority A
(basic reference tests) or priority B (supplementary or alternative tests)32 is presented in
Tables 3, 4 and 5.
The nal selection of tests and their ranking took into account both their fundamental
performance parameters (precision, repeatability, reproducibility), established in a large
and rigorous interlaboratory evaluation, and practical aspects obtained from full-scale
trials and applications in construction practice.
Data and information from the Testing SCC European project provide the essential data
for the current joint initiative of industry (EFNARC/CEMBUREAU/ERMCO/EFCA/BIBM)
and CEN, which aims to produce better European guidelines to specications and
accelerate formal adoption of EN standards for assessment of the key properties of fresh
SCC.
48
Table 3
Proposed standard test methods for assessment of
lling ability (uidity)
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Disadvantages
Priority rating
All of the test methods listed in Tables 3 and 4 are suitable for use both on site and in a
laboratory. It is expected that the wet-sieving stability test (Table 5) will be carried out
predominantly in a laboratory, as a mix-development test.
49
Table 4
Proposed standard test methods
for passing ability (blocking)
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Good reproducibility
Single measurement (H2)
may sufce
Different materials can be
used for its construction
Good correlation with
slump-ow
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Inconvenient measurements
(unless placed on a raised
platform)
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Table 5
Proposed standard test method for
segregation resistance
50
Disadvantages
Priority rating
Reasonable reproducibility
Current EN test equipment
is used (manual version)
Good correlation with
behaviour in full-scale
structures
51
may attempt to substitute them with cement, with all the adverse consequences of
grossly excessive cement contents.
The cost of SCC tends to rise greatly when it is introduced into a project as an
emergency measure, after the proposed use of TVC has proved to be impractical or
impossible. Such cases promote a perception of SCC as a very high-price material and
hinder its wider general acceptance.
52
53
12 References
12. References
1
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27 BARTOS, P J M & CECHURA, J. Improvement of working environment in concrete construction by the use of selfcompacting concrete. Structural Concrete. Vol. 2, No. 3, Sept 2001. pp 127133.
28 13286/188/ EEC. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE of 12 May 1986 on the Protection of workers from the risk related to exposure
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20022003.
30 HOLTON, I et al. Performance and technology of self-compacting concrete. BRE. DTI project 2117, Building Research
Establishment, Garston, 20012004.
31 DRANSFIELD, J et al. Personal communication. Joint Project Group for European SCC Guidelines, EFNARC, ERMCO,
EFCA and BIBM. Dec 2004.
32 GIBBS, J C, BARTOS, P J M et al. Testing-SCC: Draft nal report. EC Growth project. Contract GRD2-2000-30024. Nov
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54
References 12
55
and management.
Promote an integrated approach and encourage development of innovative
service companies
UDC
CCIP-003
CI/Sfb
Benets of SCC explored in this title include quality, economy and increased
health and safety benets.
CCIP-003
Published July 2005
ISBN 1 904482 20 1
Concrete Bridge Development Group
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