5.

Exploration methods

5.1.

Remote sensing

Remote sensing is the collection of information about an object or area without being in physical
contact with it. Data gathering systems used in remote sensing are:
a) Photographs obtained from manned space flights or airborne cameras, and
b) Electronic scanners or sensors such as multispectral scanners in satellites which record
data digitally. These sensors gather data using available reflected or transmitted parts of the
electromagnetic (EM) spectrum and, therefore, can generate reflectance profile of the EM
spectrum.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. Remote sensing: (a) aerial photography and (b) satellite image.

Two approaches are used to extract geological information from satellite imagery.
a) Photogeological approach: By using the elements of aerial photograph interpretation we
identify landforms, man-made lines versus photogeological lineaments, vegetation, rock outcrop
boundaries, rock types, and rock structures (folds, faults, fractures). Once identified, the
geological units and structure are transferred on to a topographical base map.
b) Spectral approach: By using spectral ratios, multispectral classification, digital filters,
cross correlation and regression algorithms, satellite images can be used to investigate geology

structures, in hydrogeology, to provide basic geological maps, to detect hydrothermal alteration,

and to produce maps of regional and local fracture patterns that may have controlled
mineralization or hydrocarbon accumulation.

5.2.

Geophysical methods

Exploration geophysicists use measurements of physical quantities made at or above the ground
surface or, more rarely, in boreholes to draw conclusions about concealed geology. Lines may
have to be surveyed and cleared, heavy equipment may have to be brought on site, and detectors
and cables may have to be positioned, so geophysical work on the ground is normally rather
slow. Airborne geophysical surveys, on the other hand, provide the quickest and often the most
cost-effective, ways of obtaining geological information about large areas.
For a geophysical technique to be useful in mineral exploration, there must be contrasts in the
physical properties of the rocks concerned that are related, directly or indirectly, to the presence
of economically significant minerals. Geophysical anomalies, defined as differences from a
constant or slowly varying background, may then be recorded. Anomalies may take many
different forms and need not necessarily be centered over their sources. Ideally, they will be
produced by the actual economic minerals, but even the existence of a strong physical contrast
between ore minerals and the surrounding rocks does not guarantee a significant anomaly. The
effect of gold, which is both dense and electrically conductive, is negligible in deposits suitable
for large-scale mining because of the very low concentrations. A wide range of geophysical
surveying methods exists, for each of which there is an operative physical property to which
the method is sensitive. The methods are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Geophysical methods.
Method

Measured parameter

Travel times of
Seismic

reflected/refracted seismic
waves

Operative physical property

Density and elastic moduli,
which determine the
propagation velocity of
seismic waves

Spatial variations in the

Gravity

strength of the gravitational

Density

field of the Earth

Spatial variations in the
Magnetic

strength of the geomagnetic

field
Earth resistance

Resistivity

Induced
polarization

Electrical

Radar

5.3.

remanence

Electrical conductivity

Polarization voltages or
frequency- dependent ground

Electrical capacitance

resistance
Electrical potentials

Electrical conductivity

Response to electromagnetic

Electrical conductivity and

radiation

inductance

Self-potential

Electromagnetic

Magnetic susceptibility and

Travel times of reflected radar

pulses

Dielectric constant

Geochemical methods

Geochemistry is now used in every exploration program, if only to determine the grade of the
material to be mined. However exploration geochemistry has evolved from its early origins in
assaying, to using the chemistry of the environment surrounding a deposit in order to locate it.
The outline of a deposit is defined by economic criteria and the mineable material is surrounded
by lower concentrations of the mined elements which are however substantially enriched
compared with unmineralized rock. This area of enrichment is known as the primary halo, by
analogy with the light surrounding the outline of the moon, and the process of enrichment as
primary dispersion. Exploration geochemistry particularly applies to the use of surficial material,
such as soil, till, or vegetation, that can be used in areas where there is little outcrop. The object

is to define a geochemical anomaly which distinguishes the deposit from enhancements in

background and nonsignificant deposits.

A geochemical program can be divided into the

following phases:
a) Planning: The choice of the field survey technique and the analytical methods depends
on the commodity sought and its location. The basis of a geochemical program is a systematic
sampling program (Thomson 1987) and thus decisions must be made in a cost-effective manner
as to the material to be sampled, the density of sampling, and the analytical method to be
employed.
b) Sampling: Samples should be collected in nonmetallic containers to avoid contamination.
Paper bags are best suited for sampling soils and stream sediments because the bags retain their
strength if the samples are wet and the samples can be oven dried without removing them from
their bags. Thick plastic or cloth bag are preferred for rock samples. All samples should be
clearly labeled by pens containing nonmetallic ink.
c) Chemical analysis: Most analysis is aimed at the determination of the elemental
concentrations in a sample and usually of trace metals. In exploration for base metals it is usual
to analyze for the elements sought, e.g. copper in the case of a copper deposit, and as many
useful elements as possible at a limited extra cost. With modern techniques it is often possible to
get 2030 extra elements, including some that provide little extra information but a lot of extra
data for interpretation.
d) Interpretation: The object of geochemical exploration is to define significant anomalies.
In the simplest case these are the highest values of the element sought but they could be an
elemental association reflecting hydrothermal alteration or even element depletion. Anomalies
are defined by statistically grouping data and comparing these with geology and sampling
information.
e) Follow-up: Once an anomaly has been found during reconnaissance sampling and a
possible source identified, it is necessary to define that source by more detailed sampling, by
highlighting areas of elemental enrichment, and eliminating background areas until the anomaly
is explained and a bedrock source, hopefully a drilling target, proven.

Choose the best choice:

1. Which method needs physical contact to collect exploration data?
A. Aerial photography

B. Multispectral scanner

C. Geophysics

D. Geochemistry

2. Multispectral sensors can generate of the EM spectrum.

A. Photographs

B. Reflectance profile

C. Geological structure

D. hydrothermal alteration

3. Which method is able to be applied on aerial photos?

A. Lineament study B. Spectral ration

C. Digital filters

D. Regression

4. Alteration mapping cannot be applied using

A. Aerial photo

B. Satellite image

C. Geochemistry

D. Core sampling

5. Airborne geophysical surveys are (more) than ground works.

A. Slower

B. Faster

C. expensive

D. Accurate

6. contrast in rock properties is required for a mineral to be explored by a geophysical

method.
A. Mechanical

B. Chemical

C. Physical

D. Compositional

7. Geophysical anomalies centered over their resources.

A. Are

D. Are nor

C. Should

D. May be

8. Geochemical halos have concentration of mined elements than background rocks.

A. Higher

B. Lower

C. Lower or higher

D. Equal

9. Which case is not important to a cost-effective geochemical planning?

A. The wide of anomaly

B. Density of sampling

C. Analytical method

D. The material to be sampled

10. Geochemical samples should be collected in nonmetallic bags to avoid

A. Concentration

B. Depletion C. Enrichment

D. Contamination

Close test (Seismic exploration)

Seismic measurements are well known from their use in hydrocarbon exploration, but can also
be applied for mapping of 1 underground structures such as buried valleys. The method is
comparable to a marine echo sounder: seismic waves are created by a hit on the surface and they
travel underground. Like sound waves, they are reflected and refracted when they reach a
boundary between different layers in the underground. Using the 2 required for the wave to
come back to the surface and the velocity of travel, we can determine the 3 of different
geological boundaries. The velocity value of the waves carries information on the 4 of
sediment or rock. This method is important not only for structural information, e.g. in delineating
faults or valley structures, but also for 5 characterization of layers and thus is very useful in
hydrogeological investigations. Since the 1920s, seismic reflection techniques have been used to
search for petroleum and refraction techniques have been used in engineering applications.
1. A. Shallower B. Deeper

C. Simple

D. Complex

2. A. Distance

B. Time

C. Depth

D. Velocity

3. A. Structure

B. Geometry C. Depth

D. Velocity

4. A. Type

B. Composition

5. A. Compositional

B. Physical

C. Geometry D. Grain size

C. Chemical

D. Geometrical

Technical words:
Airborne camera
Analogy
Buried valley
Capacitance
Commodity
Concentration
Conductivity
Contamination

Minable mineral
- Multispectral
Oven
Paper bag
Photogeology
- Primary halo
) (Propagation
Radar

 Reflectance profile
Reflected wave

Cost-effective
Cross correlation

Refracted wave
Regression

Depletion
Dielectric constant

Remnant magnetic
Remote sensing

Echo sounder
Economic criteria

() Resistivity
Sampling

Elastic modulus
Electrical method

Satellite
Seismic method

Electromagnetic
Enhancement

Self-potential
Spectrum

Follow-up
Gravity method
Induced polarization
Interpretation

Stream sediment
- Suited

Susceptibility
Trace metal

Landform
Lineament
Magnetic method
Manned space flight

) (

Transmitted
Travel time

) (

Answer Sheet:
1
D
1
A

2
B
2
B

3
A
3
C

4
A
4
A

5
B
5
B

6
C

7
D

8
A

9
A

10
D