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ENDOGENICANDEXOGENICPROCESSES
(a)CRUSTALDEFORMATIONPROCESSES
ThetopographicmapillustratedinFigure10l1suggeststhattheEarth'ssurfacehasbeendeformed.Thisdeformationistheresultofforcesthatare
strongenoughtomoveoceansedimentstoaneleveationmanythousandsmetersabovesealevel.Inpreviouslectures,wehavediscoveredthatthis
displacementofrockcanbecausedbytectonicplatemovementandsubduction,volcanicactivity,andintrusiveigneousactivity.

Figure10l1:TopographicreliefoftheEarth'sterrestrialsurfaceandoceanbasins.Oceantrenchesandtheoceanfloorhavethelowestelevationson
the image and are colored dark blue. Elevation is indicated by color. The legend below shows the relationship between color and elevation.
(Source:NationalGeophysicalDataCenter,NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration).
Deformationofrockinvolveschangesintheshapeand/orvolumeofthesesubstances.Changesinshapeandvolumeoccurwhenstressandstrain
causesrocktobuckleandfractureorcrumpleintofolds.Afoldcanbedefinedasabendinrockthatistheresponsetocompressionalforces.Folds
aremostvisibleinrocksthatcontainlayering.Forplasticdeformationofrocktooccuranumberofconditionsmustbemet,including:
Therockmaterialmusthavetheabilitytodeformunderpressureandheat.
Thehigherthetemperatureoftherockthemoreplasticitbecomes.
Pressuremustnotexceedtheinternalstrengthoftherock.Ifitdoes,fracturingoccurs.
Deformationmustbeappliedslowly.
Anumberofdifferentfoldshavebeenrecognizedandclassifiedbygeologists.Thesimplesttypeoffoldiscalledamonocline(Figure10i2).This
foldinvolvesaslightbendinotherwiseparallellayersofrock.

Figure10l2:Monoclinefold.

An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an arch like structure with the rock beds (or limbs) dipping way from the center of the
structure(Figure10l3).

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Figure10l3:Anticlinefold.Notehowtherocklayersdipawayfromthecenterofthefoldareroughlysymmetrical.

A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward (Figure 10l4 and 10l5). Both anticlines and synclines are the result of
compressionalstress.

Figure10l4:Synclinefold.Notehowtherocklayersdiptowardthecenterofthefoldandareroughlysymmetrical.

Figure 10l5: Synclinal folds in bedrock, near SaintGodarddeLejeune, Canada. (Source: Natural Resources Canada Terrain Sciences Division Canadian
Landscapes).
More complex fold types can develop in situations where lateral pressures become greater. The greater pressure results in anticlines andsynclines that are inclined and
asymmetrical(Figure10l6).

Figure10l6:Thefollowingillustrationshowstwoanticlinefoldswhichareinclined.Alsonotehowthebedsoneithersideofthefoldcenterareasymmetrical.

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Arecumbentfolddevelopsifthecenterofthefoldmovesfrombeingonceverticaltoahorizontalposition(Figure10l7).Recumbentfoldsarecommonlyfoundinthecoreof
mountainrangesandindicatethatcompressionand/orshearforceswerestrongerinonedirection.Extremestressandpressurecansometimescausetherockstoshearalonga
planeofweaknesscreatingafault.Wecallthecombinationofafaultandafoldinarockanoverthrustfault.

Figure10l7:Recumbentfold.
Faultsforminrockswhenthestressesovercometheinternalstrengthoftherockresultinginafracture.Afaultcanbedefinedasthedisplacementofonceconnectedblocksof
rockalongafaultplane.Thiscanoccurinanydirectionwiththeblocksmovingawayfromeachother.Faultsoccurfrombothtensionalandcompressionalforces.Figure10l8
showsthelocationofsomeofthemajorfaultslocatedontheEarth.

Figure10l8:LocationofsomeofthemajorfaultsontheEarth.Notethatmanyofthesefaultsareinmountainousregions.

Thereareseveraldifferentkindsoffaults.Thesefaultsarenamedaccordingtothetypeofstressthatactsontherockandbythenatureofthemovementoftherockblocks
eithersideofthefaultplane.Normalfaultsoccurwhentensionalforcesactinoppositedirectionsandcauseoneslaboftherocktobedisplacedupandtheotherslabdown
(Figure10l9).

Figure10l9:Animationofanormalfault.

Reversefaultsdevelopwhencompressionalforcesexist(Figure10l10).Compressioncausesoneblocktobepushedupandovertheotherblock.

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Figure10l10:Animationofareversefault.

Agrabenfaultisproducedwhentensionalstressesresultinthesubsidenceofablockofrock.OnalargescalethesefeaturesareknownasRiftValleys(Figure10l11).

Figure10l11:Animationofagrabenfault.

Ahorstfaultisthedevelopmentoftworeversefaultscausingablockofrocktobepushedup(Figure10l12).

Figure10l12:Animationofahorstfault.

Thefinalmajortypeoffaultisthestrikesliportransformfault.Thesefaultsareverticalinnatureandareproducedwherethestressesareexerted
paralleltoeachother(Figure10l13).AwellknownexampleofthistypeoffaultistheSanAndreasfaultinCalifornia.

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Figure10l13:TranscurrentfaultzonesonandofftheWestcoastofNorthAmerica.(Source:U.S.GeologicalSurvey).

(b)EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the Earth. More than 150,000 tremors strong enough to be felt by humans occur each year
worldwide. Earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of motion. Most earthquakes are
producedalongfaults,tectonicplateboundaryzones,oralongthemidoceanicridges(Figures10m1and10m2).Attheseareas,largemassesof
rockthataremovingpasteachothercanbecomelockedduetofriction.Frictionisovercomewhentheaccumulatingstresshasenoughforcetocause
asuddenslippageoftherockmasses.

Themagnitudeoftheshockwavereleasedintothesurroundingrocksiscontrolledbythequantityofstressbuiltupbecauseoffriction,thedistance
the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and ability of the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic waves. The San Francisco
earthquakeof1906involveda6meterhorizontaldisplacementofbedrock.Sometimeafterthemainshockwave,aftershockscanoccurbecauseof
the continued release of frictional stress. Most aftershocks are smaller than the main earthquake, but they can still cause considerable damage to
alreadyweakenednaturalandhumanconstructedfeatures.

Figure 10m1: Distribution of earthquake epicenters from 1975 to 1995. Depth of the earthquakefocus is indicated by color. Deep earthquakes
occur in areas where oceanic crust is being actively subducted.About 90% of all earthquakes occur at a depth between 0 and 100 kilometers.
(Source:U.S.GeologicSurvey,NationalEarthquakeInformationCenter).

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Figure10m2:Distributionofearthquakeswithamagnitudelessthan5.0relativetothevarioustectonicplatesfoundontheEarth'ssurface.Each
tectonicplatehasbeengivenauniquecolor.Thisillustrationindicatesthatthemajorityofsmallearthquakesoccuralongplateboundaries.
EarthquakeWavesEarthquakesareaformofwaveenergythatistransferredthroughbedrock.Motionistransmittedfromthepointofsudden
energyrelease,theearthquakefocus,assphericalseismicwavesthattravelinalldirectionsoutward(Figure10m3).ThepointontheEarth'ssurface
directlyabovethefocusistermedtheepicenter.

Figure 10m3: Movement of body waves away from the focus of the earthquake.The epicenter is the location on the surface directly above the
earthquake'sfocus.
Twodifferenttypesofseismicwaveshavebeendescribedbygeologists:bodywavesandsurfacewaves.Bodywavesareseismicwavesthattravel
throughthelithosphere.Twokindsofbodywavesexist:PwavesandSwaves.Bothofthesewavesproduceasharpjoltorshaking.Pwavesor
primarywavesareformedbythealternateexpansionandcontractionofbedrockandcausethevolumeofthematerialtheytravelthroughtochange.

Theytravelataspeedofabout5to7kilometerspersecondthroughthelithosphereandabout8kilometerspersecondintheasthenosphere.The
speedofsoundisabout0.30kilometerspersecond.Pwavesalsohavetheabilitytotravelthroughsolid,liquid,andgaseousmaterials.Whensome
Pwavesmovefromthegroundtotheloweratmosphere,thesoundwavethatisproducedcansometimesbeheardbyhumansandanimals.
Swavesorsecondarywavesareasecondtypeofbodywave.ThesewavesareslowerthanPwavesandcanonlymovethroughsolidmaterials.S
wavesareproducedbyshearstressesandmovethematerialstheypassthroughinaperpendicular(upanddownorsidetoside)direction.
Surface waves travel at or near the Earth's surface.These waves produce a rolling or swaying motion causing the Earth's surface to behave like
wavesontheocean.Thevelocityofthesewavesisslowerthanbodywaves.Despitetheirslowspeed,thesewavesareparticularlydestructiveto
humanconstructionbecausetheycauseconsiderablegroundmovement.

EarthquakeMeasurement
Thestrengthofanearthquakecanbemeasuredbyadevicecalledaseismograph.Whenanearthquakeoccursthisdeviceconvertsthewaveenergy
intoastandardunitofmeasurementliketheRichterscale.IntheRichterscale,unitsofmeasurementarereferredtoasmagnitudes.TheRichterscale
is logarithmic.Thus, each unit increase in magnitude represents 10 times more energy released.Table 10m1 describes the relationship between
Richterscalemagnitudeandenergyreleased.Thefollowingequationcanbeusedtoapproximatetheamountofenergyreleasedfromanearthquake
injouleswhenRichtermagnitude(M)isknown:

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Energyinjoules=1.74x10(5+1.44*M)
Table10m1:RelationshipbetweenRichterScalemagnitudeandenergyreleased.
Magnitudein
RichterScale

EnergyReleased
inJoules

2.0

1.3x10 8

Smallestearthquakedetectablebypeople.

5.0

2.8x10 12

EnergyreleasedbytheHiroshimaatomicbomb.

6.06.9

7.6x10 13to1.5x10 15

6.7

7.7x10 14

Northridge,CaliforniaearthquakeJanuary17,1994.

7.0

2.1x10 15

Majorearthquakethreshold.

7.4

7.9x10 15

TurkeyearthquakeAugust17,1999.Morethan12,000people
killed.

7.6

1.5x10 16

Deadliestearthquakeinthelast100years.Tangshan,China,
July28,1976.Approximately255,000peopleperished.

8.3

1.6x10 17

SanFranciscoearthquakeofApril18,1906.

9.3

4.3x10 18

December26,2004Sumatraearthquake.

9.5

8.3x10 18

Mostpowerfulearthquakerecordedinthelast100years.
SouthernChileonMay22,1960.Claimed3,000lives.

Comment

About120shallowearthquakesofthismagnitudeoccureach
yearontheEarth.

Figures10m4and10m5describethespatialdistributionofsmallandlargeearthquakesrespectively.Thesemapsindicatethatlargeearthquakes
have distributions that are quite different from small events. Many large earthquakes occur some distance away from a plate boundary. Some
geologistsbelievethatthesepowerfulearthquakesmaybeoccurringalongancientfaultsthatareburieddeepinthecontinentalcrust.Recentseismic
studies in the central United States have discovered one such fault located thousands of meters below the lower Mississippi Valley. Some large
earthquakesoccuratparticularlocationsalongtheplateboundaries.Scientistsbelievethattheseareasrepresentzonesalongadjacentplatesthathave
greaterfrictionalresistanceandstress.

Figure10m4:Distributionofearthquakeswithamagnitudelessthan5ontheRichterScale.

Figure10m6:Distributionofearthquakeswithamagnitudegreaterthan7ontheRichterScale.

EarthquakeDamageandDestruction
Earthquakes are a considerable hazard to humans. Earthquakes can cause destruction by structurally damaging buildings and dwellings,
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fires,tsunamis,andmasswasting(seeFigures10m7to10m11).Earthquakescanalsotakehumanlives.Theamountofdamageandlossoflife
dependsonanumberoffactors.Someofthemoreimportantfactorsare:
Timeofday.Higherlossesoflifetendtooccuronweekdaysbetweenthehoursof9:00AMto4:00PM.Duringthistimeintervalmany
peopleareinlargebuildingsbecauseofworkorschool.Largestructuresareoftenlesssafethansmallerhomesinanearthquake.
Magnitudeoftheearthquakeanddurationoftheevent.
Distanceformtheearthquake'sfocus.Thestrengthoftheshockwavesdiminishwithdistancefromthefocus.
Geologyoftheareaeffectedandsoiltype.Somerocktypestransmitseismicwaveenergymorereadily.Buildingsonsolidbedrocktend
toreceivelessdamage.Unconsolidatedrockandsedimentshaveatendencytoincreasetheamplitudeanddurationoftheseismicwaves
increasingthepotentialfordamage.Somesoiltypeswhensaturatedbecomeliquefied(Figure10m7).
Typeofbuildingconstruction.Somebuildingmaterialsanddesignsaremoresusceptibletoearthquakedamage(Figure10m8).
Populationdensity.Morepeopleoftenmeansgreaterchanceofinjuryanddeath.
ThegreatestlossoflifebecauseofanearthquakethiscenturyoccurredinTangshan,Chinain1976whenanestimated250,000peopledied.In1556,
alargeearthquakeintheShanxiProvinceofChinawasestimatedtohavecausedthedeathofabout1,000,000people.

Figure 10m6: Earthquake of June 16, 1964 in Niigata, Japan had a magnitude of 7.4. Liquefaction of some soils in the area caused large
apartmentbuildingstotipoverontheirsides.(Source:ImageprovidedbytheNationalGeophysicalDataCenter,NOAA).

Figure10m7:AviewofaparkinglotonthecampusofCaliforniaStateUniversity.Columnsofreinforcedconcretefailedafterthe1994Northridge
earthquake and its aftershocks. (Source: Photography by M. Celebi, US Geological Survey. Image provided by the National Geophysical Data
Center,NOAA).
Acommonproblemassociatedwithearthquakesinurbanareasisfire(Figure10m8).Shakingandgrounddisplacementoftencausestheseveringof
electricalandgaslinesleadingtothedevelopmentofmanylocalizedfires.Responsetothisproblemisusuallynoteffectivebecauseshockwaves
alsorupturepipescarryingwater.IntheSanFranciscoearthquakeof1906,almost90%ofthedamagetobuildingswascausedbyfire.

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Figure10m8:ThefollowingimagelooksatdowntownKobe,Japanataboutnoononthedayofthe1995earthquake.Manyareasofdowntown
Kobewereonfireandtherewasnowaterpressuretoputouttheflames.(Source:PhotographbyRogerHutchison.ImageprovidedbytheNational
GeophysicalDataCenter,NOAA).
Inmountainousregions,earthquakeprovokedlandslidescancausemanydeathsandseveredamagetobuiltstructures(Figure10m10).Thetownof
Yungay,PeruwasburiedbyadebrisflowthatwastriggeredbyanearthquakethatoccurredonMay31,1970.Thisdisasterengulfedthetownin
secondswithmud,rock,ice,andwaterandtookthelivesofabout20,000people.

Figure10m9:TheGuatemalaearthquakeofFebruary4,1976hadamagnitudeof7.5.Thisearthquakekilledabout23,000people,injured76,000,
and caused just over 1 billion dollars in property damage. The earthquake also caused a number of landslides. (Source: Photography by US
GeologicalSurvey.ImageprovidedbytheNationalGeophysicalDataCenter,NOAA).
Anotherconsequenceofearthquakesisthegenerationoftsunamis(Figure10m10).Tsunamis,ortidalwaves,formwhenanearthquakecausesa
suddenmovementoftheseafloor.Thismovementcreatesawaveinthewaterbodywhichradiatesoutwardinconcentricshells.Ontheopenocean,
these waves are usually no higher than one to three meters in height and travel at speed of about 750 kilometers per hour. Tsunamis become
dangerouswhentheyapproachland.Frictionalinteractionofthewaveswiththeoceanfloor,astheynearshore,causesthewavestoslowdownand
collideintoeachother.Thisamalgamationofwavesthenproducesasuperwavethatcanbeastallas65metersinheight.

Figure10m11:TheearthquakeofMarch27,1964,intheGulfofAlaskageneratedatsunami.Thisphotoshowsabeachedfishingboatthatwas
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carriedlandwardbythetsunamiwave.(Source:ImageprovidedbytheNationalGeophysicalDataCenter,NOAA).

(c)VOLCANOES
A volcano is generally a conical shaped hill or mountain built by accumulations of lavaflows, tephra, and volcanicash. About 95% of active
volcanoes occur at the plate subduction zones and at the midoceanic ridges (Figure 10n1). The other 5% occur in areas associated
withlithospherichotspots.These hot spots have no direct relationships with areas of crustal creation or subduction zones. It is believed that hot
spotsarecausedbyplumesofrisingmagmathathavetheiroriginwithintheasthenosphere.

Figure 10n1: Location of the Earth's major volcanoes. Most occur along tectonic plate boundaries where plate subduction creates
rising plumes of magma. The volcanoes that do not occur along plate boundaries are the result of localized asthenosphere hot spots that melt
throughtheEarth'scrust.TheHawaiianIslandchainofvolcanoeswascreatebyahotspot.
Overthelast2millionyears,volcanoeshavebeendepositinglava,tephra,andashinparticularareasoftheglobe(Figure10n2).Theseareasoccur
athotspots,riftzones,andalongplateboundarieswheretectonicsubductionistakingplace.

Figure10n2:Locationofmajorvolcanicdepositslaiddownduringthelast2millionyears.

Notallvolcanoesarethesame.Geologistshaveclassifiedfivedifferenttypesofvolcanoes.Thisclassificationisbasedonthegeomorphicform,
magmachemistry,andtheexplosivenessoftheeruption.
Theleastexplosivetypeofvolcanoiscalledabasaltplateau.Thesevolcanoesproduceaveryfluidbasalticmagmawithhorizontalflows.Theform
ofthesevolcanoesisflattogentlyslopingandtheycanoccupyanareafrom100,000to1,000,000squarekilometers.Depositsofthesevolcanoes
canbeasthickas1800meters.LargebasaltplateausarefoundintheColumbiaRiverPlateau,westernIndia,northernAustralia,Iceland,Brazil,
Argentina,andAntarctica.
Somebasalticmagmascanproduceverylargeslightlyslopingvolcanoes,6to12,thathavegentlyflowingmagmascalledshieldvolcanoes.Shield
volcanoescanbeupto9000meterstall.ThevolcanoesoftheHawaiianIslandsaretypicalofthistype.Extrudedmaterialsfromthistypeofvolcano
mainlyconsistoflowviscositybasalticlavaflows(Figure10n3).

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Figure10n3:Lowviscositybasalticlavaflow.(Source: U.S.GeologicalSurvey)

Acinderconeisasmallvolcano,between100and400meterstall,madeupofexplodedrockblastedoutofacentralventatahighvelocity
(Figure10n4).Thesevolcanoesdevelopfrommagmaofbasaltictointermediatecomposition(andesite).Theyformwhenlargeamountsofgas
accumulatewithinrisingmagma.ExamplesofciderconesincludeLittleLakeVolcanoinCaliforniaandParicutinVolcanoinMexico.

Figure10n4:CinderconevolcanointheMojaveNationalPreserve,California.(Source:U.S.GeologicalSurvey)
Composite volcanoes are made from alternate layers of lava flows and exploded rock. Their height ranges from 100 to 3500 meters tall. The
chemistryofthemagmaofthesevolcanoesisquitevariablerangingfrombasalttogranite.Magmasthataremoregranitictendtobeveryexplosive
becauseoftheirrelativelyhigherwatercontent.Waterathightemperaturesandpressuresisextremelyvolatile.Examplesofcompositevolcanoes
includeItaly'sVesuvius,Japan'sMountFuji,andWashingtonState'sMountRainierandMountSt.Helens(seeFigures10n5and10n6).

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Figure10n5:MountSt.HelenseruptiononMay18,1980.(Source:U.S.GeologicalSurvey,photographbyAustinPost).

Themostexplosivetypeofvolcanoisthecaldera.ThecataclysmicexplosionofthesevolcanoesleavesahugecirculardepressionattheEarth's
surface.Thisdepressionisusuallylessthan40kilometersindiameter.Thesevolcanoesformwhen"wet"graniticmagmaquicklyrisestothesurface
oftheEarth.Whenitgetstowithinafewkilometersofthesurfacethetopofthemagmacoolstoformadome.Beneaththisdomethegaseouswater
inthemagmacreatesextremepressuresbecauseofexpansion.WhenthepressurebecomestoogreatthedomeandmagmaaresentintotheEarth's
atmosphereinatremendousexplosion.OntheislandofKrakatau,acalderatypevolcanoexplodedin1883ejecting75cubickilometersofmaterial
intheairandleftadepressioninthegroundsome7kilometersindiameter.
Apotentiallyverydestructivecalderacoveringanareaofabout2000squarekilometersexistsunderYellowstoneNationalParkintheUnitedStates.
Investigationshavediscoveredthatoverthelast2millionyearsthisvolcanohasexplodedonaregularintervalofabout700,000years.Thelast
eruption occurred 630,000 years ago and the next could take place anytime.When the Yellowstone caldera last erupted, it blasted 1,000 cubic
kilometers of volcanic ash and rock into the atmosphere.The ash ejected into the atmosphere created climatic havoc on a global scale.The ash
wouldhaveblockedsunlightfrombeingreceivedatthegroundsurfaceforafewyears.Areductioninthereceptionofsolarradiationwouldhave
causedtheglobleclimatetocoolsignificantly.OvertimethisashsettledbacktotheEarth'ssurfacecoveringmorethanhalfofNorthAmerica.

PhysiographyoftheEarth'sTerrestrialSurface
All of the continental masses on the Earth have a central foundation of very old basement rock. Basement rock is composed of mixtures of
ancientgranite, gneiss, schist, volcanic, plutonic, and sedimentary rocks. Some of the Earth's oldest rocks are found in this geologic formation.
BasementrockthatisexposedattheEarth'ssurfaceiscalledshield.Theshieldsextendforthousandsofkilometersanddipeversoslightlyfroma
slightlyelevatedcenter.

Layersofyoungersedimentarystrataupto2000metersdeepcovermostofthebasementrock.Thesesedimentarydepositsaresometimescalled
theplatformofthecontinents.Thedepositsmakinguptheplatformwerelaiddowninshallowseasinrepeatedepisodesoverthelast600million
years.Theplatformandthebasementrocktogetherformacraton.ThecontinentsofAustralia,NorthAmerica,SouthAmerica,andAfricaeachhave
asinglecontinuouscratonformingtheirnucleus.EurasiaiscomposedseveraldistinctcratonsthatareseparatedfromeachotherbytheAlps,Ural,
andHimalayamountainbelts.

Figure 10o1: Cross section showing the relationship between basement rock and platform sedimentary deposits. Note that the surface of the
basementrocks(theshield)isgentlyarched.

ThecratonofNorthAmericahasbeenrelativelystableforabout600millionyears.Priortothisperiod,theNorthAmericancontinentsawseveral
periodsofveryactivegrowthwiththeamalgamationofoncedistinctcratonsandtheadditionofrockalongit'smargins.Geologicevidencesuggests
thatNorthAmericaismadeupofseveralonceindependentminicontinents.Scientistsbelievethattheamalgamationoftheseminicontinentsintothe
coreoftheNorthAmericacontinentwascompletebyabout2.5billionyearsago.
Onaglobalscale,about70percentoftheEarth'scontinentalcrustwasformedby2.5billionyearsago.Overthenext2billionyears,theplanet's
continentswouldcontinuetogrowththroughtheaccretionofsedimentaryrockandtheadditionofigneousrocksalongthecontinentalmargins.This
growthwasalsodrivenbytectonicprocesses.Theaccretionofsedimentaryrockoccurredwiththecollisionoftectonicplateswhichpushedocean
sedimentsontothecontinents.Platesubductioncreatedenoughheattomeltrockintomagmabeneaththemarginsofthecontinents.Thismagma
thenmigratedupwardthroughthecrusttoformintrusiveandextrusiveigneousfeaturesanddeposits.Thisprocessalsoaddedsignificantmasstothe
continents.

MountainBelts
Numerousmountainbeltsarealsofoundonthecontinents.Thesefeaturesareoftenlocatedontheedgeofcratons.Mountainbeltsaretheresultof
tectonicprocessesthatcausetocrustalplatestocollide.Thiscollisionresultsinthefoldingandfaultingofrock,igneousintrusiveandextrusive
activity,andmetamorphism.Theelevatedreliefcommontomountainbeltsisgenerallycausedbythecompressionofrockintoasmallerarea.Uplift
may also be caused by the upward migration of magma through the crust to produce granitic batholiths. Some mountains occur in isolation like
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MountRainierinthestateofWashington,USA.Thesefeaturesarevolcanicandareproducedbylocalizedextrusiveigneousactivity.

ContinentalMargin
Located between the terrestrial continents and the ocean basins is the continental margin.Two basic types of continental margin are recognized:
activeandpassive.ActivecontinentalmarginsoccurinthePacificocean.Activemarginsaregenerallynarrowtectonicallyactiveareas.Theyare
also associated with earthquakes, oceanic trenches, and volcanoes. Passive continental margins are relatively wide and have a lack of volcanic
activity and few earthquakes. The continental margin is actually made up of three structures: the continental shelf, the continental slope and
thecontinentalrise.Boththecontinentalshelfandslopearestructurallypartofthecontinents,eventhoughtheyarebelowtheseasurface.
Thecontinentalshelfisashallow(averagedepth130meters)gentlyslopingpartofthecontinentalcrustthatbordersthecontinents(Figure10o2).
Theextentofthisfeaturevariesfromtensofmeterstoamaximumwidthofabout1300kilometers.

Figure10o2:Marginalfeaturesfoundattheinterfaceofthecontinentsandtheoceanbasins.

Thecontinentalslopeextendsfromthecontinentalshelfatanaveragedepthofabout135meters.Thebaseofthissteeplysloping(from1to25,
averageabout4)topographicfeatureoccursatadepthofapproximately2000meters,markingtheedgeofthecontinents.Thewidthoftheslope
variesfrom20to100kilometers.Theboundarybetweenthecontinentalslopeandshelfiscalledthecontinentalshelfbreak.
Atthebaseofthecontinentalslopeanaccumulationofsedimentsmaydevelop.Thisaccumulationofsedimentsisproperlyknownasthecontinental
rise.

Thecontinentalriseiscomposedofanumberabyssalfansthatrunsidebysidealongtheedgeofthecontinentalslope.Abyssalfansareusually
associatedwithadeepsubmarinecanyoncutintothecontinentalslope.Underwaterabyssalfanscanbecomparedtoterrestriallandformsknownas
alluvialfans.Thesedimentsthatmakeupthisfeaturearetransporteddownthecontinentalslopebyturbiditycurrents,underwaterlandslides,and
severaldifferentprocessesthatmoveclay,silt,andsand.Mostofthissedimentisterrestrialinorigin.Thedepthofthecontinentalriserangesfrom
2000to5000metersdeep.Thecontinentalrisecanbeasmuchas300kilometerswide.

TopographyoftheTerrestrialSurface
Figure 10o3 classifies the Earth's terrestrial surface in to six different categories based on topography. Most of the Earth's terrestrial surface is
dominatedbyreltivelyflatlowandhighplains.Thelowplainstendtobeareasofsedimentdepositionbecauseoftheirlowelevation.Thehigh
plainscanhaveelevationsashighas600metersandaremorestronglyinfluencedbyerosion.Bothofthesetopographicfeaturesareoftenassociated
withcraton'sandtheirexposedshieldandplatformsurfaces.

Localreliefonbothtypesofplainsislessthan100meters.ThethreetypesofmountainsshowninFigure10o3havelocalreliefinexcessof500
metersandslopeanglesgreaterthan5.Manyofthe"low"mountainsareveryoldstructuresthathavebeenreducedinheightbyerosion.Plateaus
have altitudes that are greater than the high plains but less than mountains. Local relief of this topographic feature varies between 100 and 500
meters.Someplateausaretheremnantsoferodedmountains.Othershaveformedbecauseoflargescaleblockfaulting.

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Figure10o3:TheEarth'svarioustopographicregions.Thelegendbelowdescribesthecolorsassociatedwiththesixtopographicregionsshown.
Glaciersarecoloredwhite.

PhysiographyoftheOceanBasins
Theoceanbasinsaretheresultoftectonicforcesandprocesses.Alloftheoceanbasinswereformedfromvolcanicrockthatwasreleasedfrom
fissureslocatedatthemidoceanicridges.Theoldestrocksfoundinthesebasinsareapproximately200millionyearsold.Thisisalotyoungerthan
theoldestcontinentalrockswhichhaveagesgreaterthan4billionyears.Thereasonforthisdiscrepancyissimple.Tectonicprocessesdestroyold
oceanic rocks! Oceanic rock is returned to the Earth's mantle when oceanic crust is subducted. Many of these subduction zones occur at the
continentalmarginswhereoceaniccrustmeetscontinentalcrust.Subductionalsocreatestheocean'sdeeptrenches.

TopographyoftheOceanBasins
TheoceanbasinsarenotfeaturelessEarthsurfaces(Figure10p1).Muchofourknowledgeaboutthetopographicfeaturesthatexistherearederived
fromthefollowingtechnologies:seismicsurveyingechosoundersidescansonarandthemeasurementoftheheightofseasurfacesbysatellites.
MostofthegeneralinformationconcerningthedepthoftheoceanbasinsweremadeafterWorldWarIwhentheechosounderwasdevelopedfor
military purposes.This instrument accurately determines the time between the emission of a strong acoustic pulse and the detection of its echo.
Usingthisprinciplescientistscandeterminethedistancefromthesoundertotheoceanbottom.

Figure10p1:ThefollowingimagedisplaysthetopographyoftheEarth'sterrestriallandsurfaceandoceanbasins.Datafortheimagecomesfrom
satellite altimetry and ship depth soundings, and U.S. Geological Survey digital elevation maps (DEM) of the Earth's land surface. In the ocean
basin,thegradationfromredtoyellowtogreentoblueindicatesincreasingdepth.Anumberoftopographicfeaturesassociatedwiththeoceanbasin
canbeseeninthisimage.Theredareathatbordersthevariouslandmassesisthecontinentalshelf.Thisfeatureisstructurallypartofthecontinental
landmassesdespitethefactthatitisunderwater.Theyellowtogreenzonearoundthecontinentalshelfisthecontinentalslopeandcontinentalrise.
Theblueregioninthevariousoceanbasinsconstitutestheoceanfloor.Inthecenterofoceanbasins,themidoceanicridgescanbeseenwithacolor
rangingfromgreentoyellowtoorange.(ModifiedfromimageavailableattheSeafloorTopographyWebsite,InstituteofGeophysicsandPlanetary
Physics,UniversityofCaliforniaatSanDiego).
Someofthedominanttopographicfeaturesassociatedwiththeoceanbasinsinclude:
Continentalshelfisashallow(averagedepth130meters)gentlyslopingpartofthecontinentalcrustthatbordersthecontinents(seeFigure10p1
andFigure10p2).Theextentofthisfeaturevariesfromtensofmeterstoamaximumwidthofabout1300kilometers.

Figure10p2:Marginalfeaturesfoundattheinterfaceofthecontinentsandtheoceanbasins.

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Thecontinentalslopeextendsfromthecontinentalshelfatanaveragedepthofabout135meters(seeFigure10p2).Thebaseofthissteeplysloping
(from1to25,averageabout4)topographicfeatureoccursatadepthofapproximately2000meters,markingtheedgeofthecontinents.Thewidth
oftheslopevariesfrom20to100kilometers.Boththecontinentalshelfandslopeareconsideredstructurallypartofthecontinents,eventhough
theyarebelowtheseasurface.Theboundarybetweenthecontinentalslopeandshelfiscalledthecontinentalshelfbreak.
Submarine canyons are Vshaped canyons cut into the continental slope to a depth of up to 1200 meters. The submarine canyons are cut
perpendicular to the running direction of the continental slope. Many canyons are associated with major rivers such as the Congo, Hudson, and
others.
Thecontinentalriseisfoundatthebaseofthecontinentalslope(seeFigure10p1andFigure10p2).Thedepthoftheriserangesfrom2000to5000
meters deep. Its breadth is up 300 kilometers wide.This feature was created by the merging of accumulated deposits at the mouths of the many
submarinecanyons.Eachcanyon'sthickfanshapedsedimentarydepositiscalledanabyssalfans.
Theoceanfloorisfoundatthebaseofthecontinentalriseinwater4000to6000metersdeep(seeFigure10p1).Theoceanflooraccountsfornearly
30%oftheEarth'ssurface.Thecompositionoftheoceanfloorconsistsofarelativelythinlayer(onaverage5kilometersthick)ofbasalticrockwith
anaveragedensityof3.0gramspercubiccentimeter(continentsgraniterocksdensity2.7gramspercubiccentimeter).
Numerousvolcanoespopulatetheflooroftheoceanbasins.Scientistsestimatethatthereareapproximately10,000volcanoesontheoceanfloor.
Midoceanicridgeisnormallyfoundrisingabovetheoceanflooratthecenteroftheoceanbasins(seeFigure10p1).Thesefeaturesareinvolvedin
thegenerationofnewoceaniccrustfromvolcanicfissuresproducedbymantleupwelling.Somevolcanicislandsarepartofthemidoceanridge
system(Iceland).Themidoceanicridgeconstitutes23%oftheEarth'ssurface.Inthecenterofthemidoceanicridgeisariftvalley,between30to
50kilometerswide,thatdissects1000to3000metersdeepintotheridgesystem.
Ocean trenches are long, narrow, steepsided depressions found on the ocean floor that contain the greatest depths in the ocean (11,000 meters
westernPacific).Thereare26oceanictrenchesintheworld:3intheAtlanticOcean,1intheIndianOcean,and22inthePacificOcean(Figure10p
3).Generally,thetrenchesmarkthetransitionbetweencontinentsandoceanbasins,especiallyinthePacificbasin.Trenchesarealsothetectonic
areas.

Figure10p3:Majoroceantrenchesoftheworld.TheMarianaTrenchisthedeepestat11,020metersbelowsealevel.

OceanBasinConfiguration
The current spatial configuration of the ocean basins is a by product of plate tectonics. The creation of new oceanic crust at the midoceanic
ridgemoves the continents across the Earth's surface and creates zones of subduction. At the areas of subduction, oceanic crust is forced into
themantleafteritcollideswithcontinentalcrust.Overthepast200millionyears,theAtlanticbasinhasbeenthemostactiveareaofoceaniccrust
creation. The Atlantic ocean formed about 200 million years ago as the Pangaean continent began rifting apart. 180 million years ago, North
AmericanseparatedfromSouthAmericaandAfrica.NorthAmericathenjoinedwithEurasiacreating Laurasia.By135millionyearsago,South
AmericabeganseparatingfromAfrica.NorthAmericaandEurasiasplitafewmillionyearsafter.

ModelsofLandformDevelopment
ThelandformsthatarefoundonthesurfaceoftheEarthcanbegroupedinto4categories:
(1) Structural Landforms landforms that are created by the solidification of large quantities of magma or by massive movements due or rock
becauseofplatetectonics.Thisincludeslandformslike:shield,foldmountains,riftvalleys,andvolcanoes.

(2) Weathering Landforms landforms that are created by the physical, chemical or biological decomposition of rock through weathering.
Weatheringproduceslandformswhererocksandsedimentsaredecomposedanddisintegrated.Thisincludeslandformswithsomeofthefollowing
geomorphicfeatures:karst,patternedground,andsoilprofiles.
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(3)ErosionalLandformslandformsformedfromtheremovalofweatheredanderodedsurfacematerialsbywind,water,glaciers,andgravity.This
includeslandformswithsomeofthefollowinggeomorphicfeatures:rivervalleys,glacialvalleys,andcoastalcliffs.
(4)DepositionalLandformslandformsformedfromthedepositionofweatheredanderodedsurfacematerials.Onoccasion,thesedepositscanbe
compressed, altered by pressure, heat and chemical processes to become sedimentary rocks.This includes landforms with some of the following
geomorphicfeatures:beaches,deltas,floodplains,andglacialmoraines.
Manylandformsshowtheinfluenceofseveraloftheaboveprocesses.Wecalltheselandformspolygenetic.Processesactingonlandformscanalso
changeovertime,andasinglelandscapecanundergoseveralcyclesofdevelopment.Wecallthistypelandscapedevelopmentpolycyclic.
Thefollowinggraphicalmodeldescribestherelationshipbetweengenerallandformtypesandthegeomorphicprocessesofweathering,erosion,and
sedimentdeposition(Figure10q1).

Figure10q1:Simplemodeloflandformdevelopment.

(d)WEATHERING
WeatheringisthebreakdownandalterationofrocksandmineralsatorneartheEarth'ssurfaceintoproductsthataremoreinequilibriumwiththe
conditions found in this environment. Most rocks and minerals are formed deep within the Earth's crust where temperatures and pressures differ
greatlyfromthesurface.BecausethephysicalandchemicalnatureofmaterialsformedintheEarth'sinteriorarecharacteristicallyindisequilibrium
with conditions occurring on the surface. Because of this disequilbrium, these materials are easily attacked, decomposed, and eroded by various
chemicalandphysicalsurfaceprocesses.
Weathering is the first step for a number of other geomorphic and biogeochemical processes. The products of weathering are a major source of
sedimentsforerosionanddeposition.Manytypesofsedimentaryrocksarecomposedofparticlesthathavebeenweathered,eroded,transported,and
terminallydepositedinbasins.Weatheringalsocontributestotheformationofsoilbyprovidingmineralparticleslikesand,silt,andclay.Elements
andcompoundsextractedfromtherocksandmineralsbyweatheringprocessessupplynutrientsforplantuptake.Thefactthattheoceansaresaline
intheresultofthereleaseofionsaltsfromrockandmineralsonthecontinents.Leachingandrunofftransporttheseionsfromlandtotheocean
basins where they accumulate in seawater. In conclusion, weathering is a process that is fundamental to many other aspects of the hydrosphere,
lithosphere,andbiosphere.
Therearethreebroadcategoriesofmechanismsforweathering:chemical,physicalandbiological.

ProductsofWeathering
Theprocessofweatheringcanresultinthefollowingthreeoutcomesonrocksandminerals:
(1).Thecompletelossofparticularatomsorcompoundsfromtheweatheredsurface.

(2).Theadditionofspecificatomsorcompoundstotheweatheredsurface.
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(3).Abreakdownofonemassintotwoormoremasses,withnochemicalchangeinthemineralorrock.
The residue of weathering consists of chemically altered and unaltered materials. The most common unaltered residue is quartz. Many of the
chemically altered products of weathering become very simple small compounds or nutrient ions. These residues can then be dissolved or
transported by water, released to the atmosphere as a gas, or taken up by plants for nutrition. Some of the products of weathering, less resistant
aluminosilicateminerals,becomeclayparticles.Otheralteredmaterialsarereconstitutedbysedimentaryormetamorphicprocessestobecomenew
rocksandminerals.

ChemicalWeathering
Chemical weathering involves the alteration of the chemical and mineralogical composition of the weathered material. A number of different
processes
can
result
in
chemical
weathering.
The
most
common
chemical
weathering
processes
arehydrolysis,oxidation,reduction,hydration,carbonation,andsolution.
Hydrolysisistheweatheringreactionthatoccurswhenthetwosurfacesofwaterandcompoundmeet.Itinvolvesthereactionbetweenmineralions
andtheionsofwater(OHandH+),andresultsinthedecompositionoftherocksurfacebyformingnewcompounds,andbyincreasingthepHof
thesolutioninvolvedthroughthereleaseofthehydroxideions.Hydrolysisisespeciallyeffectiveintheweatheringofcommonsilicateandalumino
silicatemineralsbecauseoftheirelectricallychargedcrystalsurfaces.
Oxidationisthereactionthatoccursbetweencompoundsandoxygen.Thenetresultofthisreactionistheremovalofoneormoreelectronsfroma
compound,whichcausesthestructuretobelessrigidandincreasinglyunstable.Themostcommonoxidesarethoseofironandaluminum,andtheir
respectiveredandyellowstainingofsoilsisquitecommonintropicalregionswhichhavehightemperaturesandprecipitation.Reductionissimply
thereverseofoxidation,andisthuscausedbytheadditionofoneormoreelectronsproducingamorestablecompound.
HydrationinvolvestherigidattachmentofH+andOHionstoareactedcompound.InmanysituationstheHandOHionsbecomeastructuralpart
ofthecrystallatticeofthemineral.Hydrationalsoallowsfortheaccelerationofotherdecompositionalreactionsbyexpandingthecrystallattice
offeringmoresurfaceareaforreaction.
Carbonationisthereactionofcarbonateandbicarbonateionswithminerals.Theformationofcarbonatesusuallytakesplaceasaresultofother
chemical processes. Carbonation is especially active when the reaction environment is abundant with carbon dioxide.The formation of carbonic
acid, a product of carbon dioxide and water, is important in the solution of carbonates and the decomposition of mineral surfaces because of its
acidicnature.
Water and the ions it carries as it moves through and around rocks and minerals can further the weathering process. Geomorphologists call this
phenomenasolution.Theeffectsofdissolvedcarbondioxideandhydrogenionsinwaterhavealreadybeenmentioned,butsolutionalsoentailsthe
effectsofanumberofotherdissolvedcompoundsonamineralorrocksurface.Moleculescanmixinsolutiontoformagreatvarietyofbasicand
acidic decompositional compounds. The extent, however, of rock being subjected to solution is determined primarily by climatic conditions.
Solutiontendstobemosteffectiveinareasthathavehumidandhotclimates.
The most important factor affecting all of the above mentioned chemical weathering processes is climate. Climatic conditions control the rate of
weatheringthattakesplacebyregulatingthecatalystsofmoistureandtemperature.Experimentationhasdiscoveredthattropicalweatheringrates,
wheretemperatureandmoistureareattheirmaximum,arethreeandahalftimeshigherthanratesintemperateenvironments.

PhysicalWeathering
Physicalweatheringisthebreakdownofmineralorrockmaterialbyentirelymechanicalmethodsbroughtaboutbyavarietyofcauses.Someofthe
forcesoriginatewithintherockormineral,whileothersareappliedexternally.Bothofthesestressesleadtostrainandtheruptureoftherock.The
processesthatmaycausemechanicalruptureareabrasion,crystallization,thermalinsolation,wettinganddrying,andpressurerelease.
Abrasionoccurswhensomeforcecausestworocksurfacestocometogethercausingmechanicalwearingorgrindingoftheirsurfaces.Collision
betweenrocksurfacesnormallyoccursthroughtheerosionaltransportofmaterialbywind,water,orice.
Crystallizationcancausethenecessarystressesneededforthemechanicalrupturingofrocksandminerals.Crystalgrowthcausesstressasaresultof
acompound'soranelement'schangeofphysicalstatewithchangeintemperature.Thetransformationfromliquidtosolidcrystallineformproduces
avolumetricchangewhichinturncausesthenecessarymechanicalactionforrupture.Thereareprimarilytwotypesofcrystalgrowththatoccur
theyareiceandsalt.Uponfreezingthevolumetricchangeofwaterfromliquidtosolidis9%.Thisrelativelylargevolumetricchangeuponfreezing
has potentially a great rupturing effect. Several researchers have discovered in the laboratory and the field that frost action plays a major role in
weatheringintemperateandpolarregionsoftheEarth.Thethresholdtemperatureforfrostactionisatleast5Celsius,anditisatthistemperature
thatthemosteffectiverupturingoccurs.
Thecrystallizationofsaltexhibitsvolumetricchangesfrom1to5percentdependingonthetemperatureoftherockormineralsurface.Mostsalt
weatheringoccursinhotaridregions,butitmayalsooccurincoldclimates.Forexample,cavernoussaltweatheringofgraniteiswidespreadinthe
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dryvalleyregionsofSouthVictoriaLand,Antarctica.Atthislocationoutcropsandlargebouldersarepittedbyholesupto2metersindiameter.
Researchershavealsofoundthatfrostweatheringisgreatlyenhancedbythepresenceofsalt.
Thephysicalbreakdownofrockbytheirexpansionandcontractionduetodiurnaltemperaturechangesisoneofthemostkeenlydebatedtopicsin
rockweatheringresearch.Knownasinsolationweathering,itistheresultofthephysicalinabilityofrockstoconductheatwell.Thisinabilityto
conductheatresultsindifferentialratesofexpansionandcontraction.Thus,thesurfaceoftherockexpandsmorethanitsinterior,andthisstresswill
eventuallycausetherocktorupture.Differentialexpansionandcontractionmayalsobeduetothevarianceinthecolorsofmineralgrainsinrock.
Darkcoloredgrains,becauseoftheirabsorptiveproperties,willexpandmuchmorethanlightcoloredgrains.Therefore,inarockpepperedwith
manydifferentcoloredgrains,rupturingcanoccuratdifferentratesatthevariousmineralboundaries.
Alternatewettinganddryingofrocks,sometimesknownasslaking,canbeaveryimportantfactorinweathering.Slakingoccursbythemechanism
of "ordered water", which is the accumulation of successive layers of water molecules in between the mineral grains of a rock. The increasing
thicknessofthewaterpullstherockgrainsapartwithgreattensionalstress.Recentresearchhasshownthatslakingincombinationwithdissolved
sodiumsulfatecandisintegratesamplesofrockinonlytwentycyclesofwettinganddrying.
Pressurereleaseofrockcancausephysicalweatheringduetounloading.ThemajorityofigneousrockswerecreateddeepundertheEarth'ssurface
atmuchhigherpressuresandtemperatures.Aserosionbringstheserockformationstothesurface,theybecomesubjectedtolessandlesspressure.
This unloading of pressure causes the rocks to fracture horizontally with an increasing number of fractures as the rock approaches the Earth's
surface.Spalling,theverticaldevelopmentoffractures,occursbecauseofthebendingstressesofunloadedsheetsacrossathreedimensionalplane.

BiologicalWeathering
Biological weathering involves the disintegration of rock and mineral due to the chemical and/or physical agents of an organism. The types of
organismsthatcancauseweatheringrangefrombacteriatoplantstoanimals.
Biologicalweatheringinvolvesprocessesthatcanbeeitherchemicalorphysicalincharacter.Someofthemoreimportantprocessesare:
1.Simplebreakingofparticles,bytheconsumptionofsoilsparticlesbyanimals.Particlescanalsofracturebecauseofanimalburrowingorbythe
pressureputforthbygrowingroots.

2.Movementandmixingofmaterials.Manylargesoilorganismscausethemovementofsoilparticles.Thismovementcanintroducethematerials
todifferentweatheringprocessesfoundatdistinctlocationsinthesoilprofile.
3.Simplechemicalprocesseslikesolutioncanbeenhancedbythecarbondioxideproducedbyrespiration.Carbondioxidemixingwithwaterforms
carbonicacid.
4.Thecomplexchemicaleffectsthatoccurasaresultofchelation.Chelationisabiologicalprocesswhereorganismsproduceorganicsubstances,
knownaschelates,thathavetheabilitytodecomposemineralsandrocksbytheremovalofmetalliccations.
5.Organismscaninfluencethemoistureregimeinsoilsandthereforeenhanceweathering.Shadefromaerialleavesandstems,thepresenceofroots
masses,andhumusallacttoincreasetheavailabilityofwaterinthesoilprofile.Waterisanecessarycomponentinseveralphysicalandchemical
weatheringprocesses.
6.OrganismscaninfluencethepHofthesoilsolution.Respirationfromplantrootsreleasescarbondioxide.Ifthecarbondioxidemixeswithwater
carbonicacidisformedwhichlowerssoilpH.CationexchangereactionsbywhichplantsabsorbnutrientsfromthesoilcanalsocausepHchanges.
Theabsorptionprocessesofteninvolvestheexchangeofbasiccationsforhydrogenions.Generally,thehighertheconcentrationofhydrogenions
themoreacidicasoilbecomes.

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