ADVANCED ENGINEERING

3(2009)1, ISSN 1846-5900

THE CALCULATION OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

AND THE 3D PROBLEMS
Sheypak, A. & Messineva, N.
Abstract: Modern hydraulic systems, as a rule, have a great deal of elements and a complicated
structure. Requirements of optimization impose the creation of compact constructions with
minimum linear size between separated elements. The calculation of hydraulic systems in the
steady case, as a rule, is performed on a base of Bernoulli equation being supplemented by
empirical relations. Non stationary regimes of operating of hydraulic systems are based on the
Cauchy-Lagrange integral as well as on the empirical relations obtained from steady-state
operating conditions. Described approach gives rise sometimes to the excessively high errors of
the calculation results. In practice the calculation method can be represented as the combination
of the traditional one-dimensional linear flow and the solution of 2D and 3D problems for
certain units of the hydraulic system. Nonstandard local hydraulic resistance is more often
considered. It is recommended to find the solutions for such systems using the standard
program complexes CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) of packets, such as ANSYS CFX or
STAR-CD.

Keywords: steady Flow, unsteady Flow, Bernoullis Equation, local Losses, friction
Losses

1 INTRODUCTION
In the nature and in technical facilities real flows are three-dimensional. However,
when solving the practical problems for channels having sufficient length without sharp
fluctuation of the shape and the section and the curvature of small size it is possible to
use the one-dimensional model the parameters depending on one coordinate linear or
curvilinear. If the curvature of current lines and the angle between them are small then
the flow is called a smooth variable flow (continuously variable flow). In such flows
within real cross section the pressure distributes according the hydrostatical law and in
certain case can be taken constant through the section. The value of flow velocity
through the section can be considered constant as well if we identify it with average
value of flow rate

VdA
Q
=
.
(1)
A
A
Thus, at the first approximation smoothly fluctuated flows may be considered as a
good illustration of one-dimensional model. For such flow, in the case when we accept
it as an elementary flow, Bernoullis equation appeared to be valid to some extent, in
particular, for incompressible liquid, for example, in the form
V=

z1 +

p1 V1
p V
+
= z2 + 2 + 2 .
g 2 g
g 2 g

(2)

123

Obviously, the availability of liquid leads to an irreversible transformation of part

of mechanical energy into the heat at the cost of friction. This part of energy dissipates
inside of the flow and outside it. On order to take into account this fact it is necessary
to insert into consideration so called hydraulic losses having dimension of components
of Bernoullis equation and characterizing energy transformation mentioned above.
By entering the notion of hydraulic losses we can write the following equation:
2

z1 +

p1
V
p
V
+ 1 1 = z 2 + 2 + 2 2 + h12 ,
g
2g
g
2g

(3)

denoted as Bernoulli equation for the flow of viscous liquid. This equation conceptually
inserts the notion of hydraulic losses for smoothly changing liquid flow.
h12 = z1 z 2 +

p1 p2 1V1 2V2
+
.
2g
g

(4)

Obviously, coefficient 1 , in this case at uniform in section the rate field = 1 , and
for turbulent flow 1 . In the case of laminar flow in tube with round section = 2.
From operational consideration of dimension the hydraulic losses can be presented
in the following terms:
h12 =

V2
2g

(5)

where V is a typical velocity (as a rule in section 1 or 2); dimensionless

coefficient.
It is obvious that to obtain the value of hydraulic losses, that is coefficient , it is
necessary to invoke either experimental data or the equations adequately describing the
behavior of viscous liquids.
Consideration of real natural channels and technical hydraulic systems gives us the
possibility to divide hydraulic systems into two types. In the first place, it may be the
loss of the full pressure head along the pipe being determined by flow friction
distributed uniformly along the length in the first approximation. Obliviously, these
losses as it is called, losses by friction, are proportional to the length or the channel or
pipeline. Secondary, it may exist local losses of full pressure head being caused by
local flow field deformation due to flow friction distributed significantly no uniformity.
Small part of the pipeline having sharp changing of the configuration or sizes is called
local hydraulic friction. Typical example of local hydraulic friction is a diaphragm, that
is, a thin plate with holes placed in the pipelines.
The dimension theory, similarity theory or the analyses of differential equations of
viscous liquid movements gives the type of formula for generalization of experimental
data at defining of local hydraulic losses. Firstly, the formula for the estimation the
magnitude of local flosses was entered in hydromechanics by German scientist
Weisbach in XIX century.
In equation (5) is a coefficient of local hydraulic flow feature or a coefficient of
local hydraulic losses (non dimensional value which is determined by the type of
hydraulic friction and by Reynolds number Re), V is an average flow velocity in
typical section before or after local hydraulic feature (as a rule, a large value of the rate
124

calculated using the least value of the flow section square is used). Coefficient has a
value of order 1, it is very rarely less than 0.1 and more than 10.
Flow head losses along the length (hydraulic flow friction) at the constant square of
section of the pipeline is generally agreed to calculate using the Darsis formula which
takes the following form for round pipelines:

h =

l V2
,
d 2g

(6)

where coefficient of hydraulic flow friction of the Darcys coefficient.

Coefficient is of the order of 0.03 and can significantly depend on liquid
parameters and micro geometry of pipeline surface. For turbulent flow the value of the
coefficient of hydraulic flow friction as a rule is within limits 0.01-0.05. At laminar
flow Darsis coefficient is theoretically easily calculated in the most cases.
Bernoullis equation for the unsteady liquid movement can be obtained on the basis
of Cauchy-Lagranges integral. Taking into account irregularly of the distribution of
the velocity and the head losses the distribution can be written in the following manner:

z1 g +

p1

+ 1

V1 V1
2

= z2 g +

p2

+ 2

V2 V2
2

VV
2

+ l

dV
dt

(7)

Entering the rate modulus into equation (7) allows us to consider the possibility of
the variation of the flow direction with the time without changing of the pressure
indexes. The application of equation (7) for the calculation of transient liquid
movement is the first approximation because the value of coefficients , and for
unsteady flow are unknown. It is essentially to pose the problem on base of equations
Navier Stokes equations for laminar flow and on base of Reynolds equations for
turbulent flow.

2 SOME RESULTS OF THE CALCULATION OF HYDRAULIC

SYSTEMS AT TRANCIENT (UNSTEADY) FLOW
Taking Korioliss and Boussinesqs coefficients to be equal to unity and neglecting of
the value of flow rate at the first approximation and of geometrical flow head we can
simplify calculated equation (7) in the following manner:
p1

p2

VV
2

VV
2

+l

dV
dt

(8)

Let us insert dimensionless variables. Dimensionless time is

t
(9)
= ,
T
where T is the characteristic time of the process, for example, the oscillation period at
oscillation process, that is, the time of increasing or decreasing of the pressure at the
monotonically character of its change.
Dimensionless pressure drop
p p2
f ( ) = 1
,
(10)
pmax
125

where p max - the maximum instant drop pressure in the inlet and outlet pipeline
sections.
Dimensionless velocity is equal to
V
x=
(11)
2pmax /

Substituting dimensionless variables into equation (8) after some simple

transformations we obtain:
dx f ( ) x x (1 + )
(12)
=
d
2 Sh
Complex Sh takes the form similar to Strouhal number which is proportional to the
ratio of local acceleration to the convective one. In our case the criterion have
physically other meaning: this is the ratio of assumed rate of the liquid particle at its
movement on the segment having length l in a time T to the instant maximum value of
the rate at the expensive the pressure drop without taking into account the

Sh =

l
T 2pmax /

l
TVmax

(13)

Thus we have obtained the Cauchys problem for the ordinary differential equation
of the first order. Dimensionless form of the equation notation is convenient for its
solving using electronic computer because the order of numbers is close to the unit:
this allows avoiding the overfilling or the appearance of machine unite.
In practice of engineering calculations at the unsteady movements of the liquid as
well at the steady flows it is appropriate to consider the problem of three types. In
particular one of the well-known problem, that is, the determination of the
consumption or of the average rate at the known law of the pressure changing on the
inlet and outlet sections of the pipeline, represent the problem of the second type. In
sufficiently short pipelines when the wave occurrence can be neglected as a rule
Bernoullis equation is used for unsteady liquid flow (8). The problems of such types
are inherent for those parts of hydraulic mesh which connect the tanks with a given
mechanism of the pressure change or with those defining by additional means (that is,
pump valves and jets of the system of fuel transfer of diesels, pipeline sections of
hydraulic transfer with accumulate pressure, artificial valves of the core and so on).
If the complex Sh==0, then the differential equation (12) is generated to the
algebraic one, solving which we can obtained the dependence of the quasistationary
value of the rate upon the time .
f ( )

1
1+

(14)

When comparing the solving of differential equation (12) at different values of the
complex Sh with the quasistationary value without taking into account the inertia of the
liquid coluomn the limit of application the hypothesis of quasistationarity can be
obtained. The equation (12) and its dimension analogue (8) can be represented by
Riccati equations. They are reduced to the quadratures only for certain types of the
function f (), in particular, for f () = const (pressure drop).
126

Fig. 1. Dependence of the velocity at linear law of the pressure change

The results of calculation for the case when pressure drop increases accordingly the
linear law (series of solid curves with Sh number as a parameter) is represented in Fig.
1. Curve 1 is consistent to quasi-steady case when Sh==0 (calculation was made using
formula (14)), curve 2 is consistent to Strouhal number 10-3, curve 3 is consistent to Sh
= 10-2, curve 4 10-1 and curve 5 1. For Sh<0,001 solution if differential equation
(12) practically does not differ from the solution which is done using equation (14).
For all criteria values Sh 0,001 the precise solution is more differ from quasi-steady
solution for initial period of time. For Sh 0,1 the final value velocity begins to
distinguish significantly from its final quasi-steady value. At Sh 1 even the quantities
character of the precise solution changes: the sign of the curvature is reversed in the
time dependence of velocity.
Curves 6, 7, 8, 9 10 give the results of the calculation for case of linear
decreasing of pressure drop till zero value and they are consistent to the following
Strouhal values: 0, 10-3, 10-2, 10-1 1. There is a final value of velocity in all cases for
Sh > 0 at decreasing of pressure drop till zero value.

Fig. 2. Dependence of velocity at sinusoidal law of pressure change

Dependence of dimensionless velocity at sinusoidal law of pressure drop changing

is shown on Fig 2. This law is typical for the hydropneuavtomatic systems.
127

Numerical simulation having been fulfilled for the case when Sh = 1 (curve 2),
essentially distinguished from the quasi-steady solution (curve 1): the amplitude of
oscillation decreases and considerable phase split is observed.
Mathematics model of unsteady one dimensional liquid flow represented above
does not take into account the change of the coefficient of hydraulic losses due to the
change of Reynolds number. It is possible that non steady state influences on
dissipative processes .
Let us insert the dependence of coefficient on Reynolds number into equation
(12):

l
d

(15)

Darsys coefficient and Reynolds number are calculated using formulas (16) and
(17), respectively:

0.316
VL
(16) and Re =
4

Re

(16)

At laminar flow Darsys coefficient can be calculated from the following formula

64
Re

(17)

Experimental data concerning the influence of non steady state on the value of
feature coefficient can be generalized with the help of the following dependence
2 D dv
,
(18)
u = s + a 2
v dt
where (accordingly to the experiments of Valuev E. P. And Popov V.N.) =
0,03 at flow acceleration and = 0,05 at flow deceleration. It is worth noting
that the data of different authors concerning the coefficient in equation (18)
are over the wide range of the coefficient values. Their minimum value is the
following ones: at flow acceleration = 0,01, at flow deceleration = 0,07
Minimum value of this coefficient at non steady flow is equal to 0,64.
The results of calculation with regard due to dependences (15)-(18) do not
exchange qualitatively, in this case these changes do not exceed 20%.

3 RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE ELEMENTS OF HYDRUALIC

SYSTEMS
The pipeline part of a small length having the sharp change in configuration or in the
size is called the local hydraulic feature. Typical example of local hydraulic feature is
the diaphragm, that is a thin plate with orifice placed into the pipe In the region which
immediately adjacent to the diagram the flow undergoes the sharp deformation
, and in this case we cant consider that the flow is smoothly changed, that is
why Bernoullis equation is not acceptable. At the certain distance up and down the
flow can be assumed to be smoothly changing, however, it is difficult to define this
boundary either with the help of the calculations or with the help of experiments. As a
result some parts of the pipe with considerable hydraulic features may fall within the
region of the local hydraulic feature.
128

Experimental data for different types of features are given in numerical references
concerning the hydraulic calculations (in Russia numerical values obtained by I.E.
Idelchik are the most popular). According to this author the local feature is held to a
very small part of the pipe (in the limit we can tell about Diracs delta-function). Since
at experimentally defining of losses we must take into account the part of final length,
which sometimes may be very great, so an experimental value of losses divides into the
losses along the length and inherent local losses. In this case it is suggested that the
coefficient of hydraulic feature is known and equal to its value at proper Reynolds
number for a long tube. Such approach is by far one of approximation the most roughly
approximation. In practice of numerical organizations the value of local hydraulic
feature is defined on the certain length which is necessarily denoted
One of the fundamental problems for numerical methods for solution of NavierStokes equations in laminar and turbulent regions of the flow may be considered the
determination of the coefficients of local hydraulic losses when solving this internal
problem. The regions boundaries of local losses may be refined. Prior definition of the
local hydraulic feature can be taken such part of the pipeline (channel) on which
boundaries distributions of velocities is close to the distribution of velocities in
endlessly long pipe (steady flow). In the case of practically calculations it is
appropriate to divide the hydraulic system into finite number of regions with the
known dependence of loss coefficient upon the similarity criterion without going into
the physical essence of the phenomenon. A necessary quantitative data can be obtained
considering numerical solutions for 2D and 3D models the corresponding regions of
the system.
Obviously, for obtaining the optimization by mass it is appropriate to have the
minimum distance between the elements on the system. However, this condition is in
contradiction with the universally rules for definition of hydraulic losses. Let us
consider as an example the part of the system including the turning of the flow. In this
problem we calculate the flat flow in two bends in each of which the flow is turned on
45 and two bends are connected by the tube having length l , and the value of the
length is varied. When the length is equal to zero a sharp turning of the flow on 90
happens. The results are represented on Fig 3.
Calculation were carried out in the medium of university version of the packets
ANSYS (region FLOTRAN). Rectangle net with 2000 units was used. Water was the
pressure liquid, Reynolds number was equal to 105.
The results of the calculations are coincided with experimental data obtained by
N.V. Levkoeva. When the distance between two arms is reasonable, l / d > 5 and the
losses becomes to be equal to the sum of hydraulic losses on each turning. There is a
zone where hydraulic losses are less than the sum of hydraulic losses on each turning
and a zone with raised hydraulic losses.
Further the influence of the distance between two regulating spray nozzles on the
value of hydraulic losses was considered. Hydraulic system was consisted from the
tube with internal diameter 20 mm and with two spray nozzles in the form of cylinders
with a sharp inlet edge. Internal diameter of the cylinder was 8 mm , its length was 16
mm. the distance between spray nozzles can be changed from 0 mm to 100 mm. Spray
nozzles can be set coaxially and with the eccentricity e = 3 mm.

129

Fig 3. Dependence of total coefficient of hydraulic losses upon the relative length
of the tube between two bends.

Fig 4. System with two spray nozzles set up coaxially

The fluid flow is described using the continuity equation

V = 0

(19)

and the movement equation in the form of Navier-Stokes equation

( )

1
V
+ V V = p + V + T V
t

(20)

In expressions (19), (20) V is velocity vector, p is pressure, is density, is the

coefficient of kinematics viscosity T is coefficient of turbulent viscosity.
130

Numerical solution was carried out in the medium of packets STAR-CD

(Simulation of Turbulent Flow in Arbitrary Regions). The main difficulties in the
formation of calculated model (sometimes till 90%) accounted for the formation of the
geometry of calculated region. The packet STAR-CD presents all possibilities for the
solution of this problem in automatic and semiautomatic regimes. For these purposes
mesh generator PROAM working in the medium of postprocessors is available. At the
same time the program PROSTAR provides the access to any elements of the
geometrical models for editing.
For the solving the problem the geometry of calculated region was build in the
medium PROSTAR/PROAM. Cylindrical coordinate system was used because
geometrical model is defined as a set of cylinders having different sections. In the case
of the spray nozzles having central orifice the solution becomes to be simplified as the
problem is coaxial. For its solution it is enough to consider the model consisting from
segments. The problem was calculated at the different sizes of the net, and the mesh
which gave the results close to the experimental data would describe below. The
cylinders in cross sections were divided into 72 segments with the angle 5 degree. The
model build with the help of one of the segment was examined. In this case in the
direction of the axis on each millimeter 2 units are accounted, and in the direction
perpendicular to the axis 3 units are accounted.
In our case on the inlet to the calculated region the boundary conditions Inlet (that
is, either the value, or the distribution of velocity vector or consumption) were
assigned.. On the outlet from the calculated region we prescribes the boundary
conditions Outlet (zero values of gradient of all parameters, the parameters from near
the boundary units transfer to the boundary, that is soft boundary conditions). On the
side bounds (plane) of the model the boundary conditions were prescribed by
Symplane (a surface of symmetry, a normal component of the velocity and gradients
on the normal for all other components are equal to zero). On the entire rest surface
the boundary conditions of type Wall are applied by default (impermeable
(impenetrable) wall on which in our case the conditions of adherence (sticking,
attachment) are preset). For solving our problem we use the standard k-e model of
turbulence for high values of Reynolds numbers. The amount of iteration numbers and
the accuracy (precision) were 1000 and 0.00,1 respectively.
The results of calculations and experimental data (with participation of A.Gusev
and E.Levintan) at coaxial disposition of spray nozzles (jets) are given in Fig 5.
The experiment was carried out using 6 values of Reynolds number from 12000 to
22000. The total coefficient of feature for coaxial spray nozzles (jets) is self-modeled
in this region.
For solving the problem with spray nozzles (jets) with eccentricity the geometrical
model was totally considered because the problem was not axially symmetric. As this
take place, the cylinder was broken into 36 segments, in this case there are two meshes
on each millimeter in axial direction and there are three mashes on each millimeter in
vertical (perpendicular) direction. On the inlet in calculation region we preset the
boundary conditions Inlet, and on the outlet from the calculation region we preset the
boundary conditions Outlet. On the all rest surface the boundary condition of Wall type
are overlaid by default. The rest conditions were identical to that in the previous case.

131

Fig 5. Dependence of the total coefficient of feature upon the relative length for coaxial
spray nozzles (jets). The curve is the result of the calculation, points are experimental data.

The results of the calculations and experimental data (with participation of

A.Gusev and E.Levintan) at eccentric disposition of spray nozzles (jets) are depicted in
Fig 6.

Fig. 6. Dependence of the total coefficient of feature upon the relative length for spray
nozzles (jets). with eccentricity 3 mm. The curve is the result of the calculation,
points are experimental data

The experiment was carried out using 5 values of Reynolds number from 6000 to
24000. The total coefficient of feature for spray nozzles (jets) with eccentricity 3 mm is
self-modeled in this region
Calculated and experimental dependences of the total feature coefficient upon the
relative length are close to each other, relative error being no more than 10 %. Only
132

one essential distinction on characteristics of two hydraulic systems is available. It

resides in the fact that for coaxial orifice at L/D=0 the total coefficient has a minimum
value and with the availability of the eccentricity the total coefficient has the maximum
value. At increasing L/D (relative length) till 0,5 the channel (passing) section
increases and the total feature coefficient. At the further increasing of the relative
length the smooth raise of the total feature coefficient till the maximum constant value
on the region L/D 5 happens.
Obtained data are coincided qualitatively with the results received by N.V.
Levkoeva for two diaphragms that is, the orifices in the thin wall.
It is necessary to note that the value of the relative length L/D 5 when the
stabilization of the flow and the constancy of the value of the total feature coefficient
observed and the constancy of the value of the total feature coefficient is not a critical
value for all types of hydraulic feature. Thus A.K. Dumchikov, Z.I. Geller and Ju.A.
Skobeltzin carried out the test of the cast iron valve placed to the end of the pipe
deriving water from the tank changing the distance between the valve and abrupt
narrowing. The results are given in Fig.7.

Fig. 7. Dependence of feature coefficient of the cast iron valve from the distance between
the valve and abrupt narrowing: 1 Re =l80000; 2 Re =220000

As it is followed from Fig. 7, at Re = 200000 the mutual influence of local features

ceases to be noticeable at 1/d >20; at less values of 1/d the local feature of the valve
decreases. By this means the recommendation for the size of the zone of influence of
local features L = 30d is justified.

4 CONCLUSION
1. Dimensionless criterion Sh =

l
l
=
permitting to determine
T 2pmax / TVmax

the regimes of existence of quasi steady flow when calculating the hydraulic systems
in one-dimension definition is proposed.
133

2. Mutual influence of local hydraulic feature in the real systems is shown.

3. It is proposed to use 2D and 3D models for determination of the summation
losses of the head for the parts having local features and the pipes of small sizes. The
coefficient of hydraulic losses obtained in simulations is recommended to use for
calculations of hydraulic systems in one-dimension definition.

134