TRANSMISSION LINE LOADABILITY

INTRODUCTION
Loadability of a transmission line is defined as the optimum power transfer
capability of a transmission line under a specified set of operating criteria.
The loadability of short transmission lines is limited by the thermal rating of
the conductors, medium line voltages regulation and long lines by stability
consideration which is lower than the thermal rating. Compensation can be
used to increase loadability of long lines toward their thermal limit.

OBJECTIVES
1. To understand the use of series compensation for increasing
transmission line loadability.
2. To compare effect of compensation at receiving end, sending end and
at both ends.

THEORY
There are some physical properties associated to the transmission system
that limit power transfer in spite of the capability of the generator or
therequirement of the load.Transmission systems are designed to operate
according to specific voltagelevels.
Depending on the characteristic of the transferred power, the voltage at
thetransmission line ends, for instance, can be either below or above certain
limits,modifying the system capacity to transfer power. Actions are
frequently taken to recover the assigned voltagelevels, allowing the system
to attend to the power demand at adequate operating condition.
The physical parameters of transmission lines, which depend upon the
linelength and voltage level, strongly restrain power transfer. As stated
before,the loadability of short transmission lines is limited by the thermal
rating of the conductors. This is the magnitude of the current, continuingover
time and increasingly heating the conductor that limits the loading.As the
conductor heats up, the resistance of theconductor increases with
temperature, it stretches, and the line sags (can be irreversible).
Series and shuntcompensations have been traditionally used to modify the
natural parameters oftransmission lines. Compensation generally describes

the intentional insertion of reactive power devices (inductive or capacitive)

into a power network to achieve a desired effect.
Series capacitors are sometimes used in long lines to increase the loadability.
Capacitor banks are installed in series with each phase conductor at selected
points along the line. They reduce the net series impedance of the line in
series with the capacitor bank thereby reducing line voltage drops and
increasing the steady state stability limit.
A disadvantage of series capacitor banks is that automatic protective devices
have to be installed to bypass high currents during faults and to re-instate
the capacitor banks after the fault has passed. They can also excite low
frequency oscillations (sub-synchronous resonance) which may damage
turbine-generator shafts. However, there are techniques to counteract this
effect such as use of static filters.

The characteristic of power transfer (P-V characteristic) relates the voltage at

the receiving-end bus bar to the active power reaching it, for a given
sending-end voltage, power factor and impedance of transference. It is
affected by changes either in the sending-end voltage magnitude or in the
impedance of transference between sending and receiving ends, or even in
the transfer power factor.
The graph below depicts a P-V characteristic where curves 1, 2 and 3 depict
reactance X1, X2 and X3 respectively where X1> X2> X3.The line VSM shows
the point with maximum power transfer.

CASE STUDY
The power system shown below was studied.

765.0 kV

677.1 kV

slack

Bypassed

1100.0 MW Bypassed
Line Angle Difference: -11.9 Deg
393.3 Mvar

1100 MW
825 Mvar

The generator connected at bus 1 represents a large power system with an

equivalent rating of 3750 MVA and the nominal voltage of both the generator
and the load buses is 765 kV.

PROCEDURE
1. The PowerWorld Simulator was started and case example 5_10 with
series capacitive compensation on both ends of the line in service was
opened.
2. The load was set such that PL = 0 MW and QL = 0 MVAr.
3. After running the simulation, the corresponding values of sending end
reactive power, QS, load bus voltage, VL and load angle, (measured
with VL as the reference) were tabulated.
4. The power factor was maintained as a constant (0.8 lagging) and PL
was increased in steps of 200 MW until the system became unstable
while corresponding values of QS, VL and were tabulated.
5. Steps 2 to 4 were repeated with series compensation at the receivingend in service and that of the sending-end out of service.
6. Steps 2 to 4 were repeated with series compensation at the receivingend out of service and that of the sending-end in service.
7. Steps 2 to 4 were repeated with series compensation at both ends out
of service.

RESULTS
The load power factor is kept constant at 0.8 lagging.
PL (MW)

QL (MVAr)

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200

0
150
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
1650

PL (MW)

QL (MVAr)

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800

0
150
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350

Compensation at both ends

VL (kV)
(deg)
QS (MVAr)
804.3
0
-842.9
790.2
-1.3
-685.6
775.1
-2.7
-512.2
758.8
-4.1
-321.4
741.2
-5.6
-109.7
721.9
-7.2
126.5
700.5
-9.0
392.6
676.3
-10.9
696.9
648.4
-13.0
1053.1
614.5
-15.5
1487.8
569.5
-18.6
2066.7
477.4
-24.8
3234.6
BLACKOUT

Compensation at receiving end

VL (kV)
(deg)
QS (MVAr)
821.6
0
-861.0
804.6
-1.6
-702.4
786.1
3.2
-524.8
765.9
-4.9
-325.1
743.6
-6.7
-98.8
718.5
-8.7
160.4
689.6
-10.9
463.2
655.3
-13.5
828.5
611.4
-16.6
1298.5
543.0
-21.2
2028.8
BLACKOUT

PL (MW)

QL (MVAr)

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800

0
150
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350

PL (MW)

QL (MVAr)

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600

0
150
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200

Compensation at sending end

VL (kV)
(deg)
QS (MVAr)
804.3
0
-842.9
787.3
-1.6
-684.0
768.7
-3.3
-505.8
748.4
-5.0
-304.7
725.9
-6.9
-76.3
700.5
-9.0
186.6
671.1
-11.3
495.6
635.7
-13.9
872.3
589.5
-17.2
1219.3
509.5
-22.7
2041.4
BLACKOUT

VL (kV)
821.6
801.7
779.7
755.3
727.5
695.3
656.1
603.9
502.0
BLACKOUT

No compensation
(deg)
QS (MVAr)
0
-861.0
-1.8
-700.9
-3.7
-518.2
-5.8
-308.2
-8.0
-64.0
-10.5
226.1
-13.4
584.2
-17.1
1064.7
-23.9
1994.3

Graph of VL vs PL
900
800
700

VL (kV)

600

Compensation At both ends

500

Compensation at Receiving
end

400

Compensation at Sending
end

300

No Compensation

200
100
0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

PL (kW)

Graph of QS vs PL
3500
3000
2500
Compensation at both ends

2000

Compensation at receiving
end

1500
QS (MVAr)

1000

Compensation at sending
end

500

No compensation

0
-500

500

1000 1500 2000 2500

-1000
-1500
PL (MW)

CALCULATIONS
Determination of the maximum amount of power that can be transferred to
the load
0.8 p.u. is the minimum value allowed for the load voltage. This means that
the corresponding power on the VL vs. PL plot will be the maximum amount
of power that can be transferred to the load since after this point the system
would be unstable. Transforming this to actual values, we have:
Vactual=Vpu Vbase
Taking the Vbase as 765 kV;
Vactual=0.8 765 kV

612 kV
Thus reading from the graph, the values can be approximated as:
a) Compensation at both ends: Pmax 1820 kW
b) Compensation at receiving end: Pmax1610 kW
c) Compensation at sending end: Pmax1520 kW
d) No compensation: Pmax1390 kW

DISCUSSION
For the VLvs. PL curve, it is observed that an increase in the line loadability
leads to a decrease in the receiving end voltage until the point where
maximum amount of power transfer is attained.Beyond this point the system
is unstable thus a blackout occurs.
This corresponding real power at this point is highest for the system
compensated at both ends (2200 MW), followed by those compensated at
either the receiving of sending end (1800 MW) and lastly is the system that
has no compensation (1600 MW).
The effect of transmission line reactance on the curve is to increase the
maximum real power that can be transferred at a given receiving end
voltage as is clearly depicted by the curves of the graph.The line that is
compensated on both ends allows for the maximum transfer of power as
compared to the rest.
For the QSvs. PL curve, it is observed that as you increase the line loading the
reactive power increases in an exponential mannerfrom negative values to
positive ones.QS is negative for PL<PO(where PO is the surge impedance

loading)and the system absorbs reactive power. This is when we have light
loading.
When PL>PO, QS is positive and reactive power is supplied to the line. This is
known as heavy loading. The effect of series compensation on the QSvs.
PLcurve is to increase the maximum power that can be transmitted for a
specific value of QS. It is also noted that when there is compensation at both
ends, the highest value of PLis attained.

CONCLUSION
Series compensation by using capacitors reduces the net series impedance
of the line in series with the capacitor bank thus increasing the line
loadability (power transfer can be increased). From the graph ofQS vs. PL, we
observe that when series compensation is introduced, we have an increase
in the maximum power that can be transmitted for a specific value of QS.
The lines compensated at either the receiving end or the sending end have
almost similar power transfer (P-V characteristic). However, the line
compensated at both ends leads to the most reduction in series impedance,
and as a result, to the largest increase in line loadability.

REFERENCES
1. Power Systems Analysis and Design, J. Glover, P. Sarma, T. Overbye,
pgs. 261 270.
2. Electrical Power Systems, Alexandra von Meier, pgs. 182 183.
3. Lecture Notes on Power Systems I, K. K. Kaberere.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND
INFORMATION ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
COURSE: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
EEE 2413: POWER SYSTEMS I

EXPERIMENT:

TRANSMISSION LINE LOADABILITY

GROUP MEMBERS
1. EN271-0294/2008
2. EN271-2181/2010

PETER W. GICHUKI
LAWRENCE T. KAGWAINI

3. EN271-1245/2008

JEAN CLAIRE OTSYULA

LECTURER: DR. K. K. KABERERE