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COUNTERPOINT
The Polyphonic Vocal
Style of the Sixteenth
Century
The
Prentice-Hall Music Series
Douglas Moore, Editor
COUNTERPOINT
The Polyphonic Vocal
Style
of the Sixteenth Century
by
KNUD
JEPPESEN
Professor of Music,
University of Aarhus, Denmark
Translated, with an introduction, by
GLEN HAYDON
Professor of Music
University of North Carolina
ENGLEWOOD CLIFFS,
N.J.
PRENTICE-HALL, INC
Copyright, 1939, by
PRENTICE-HALL,
Englewood
Cliffs,
INC.
N. J.
No part of this book may be

reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from
All rights reserved.
the publishers.
The
original Danish edition was published by Wilhelm Hansen, Copenhagen, 1931

the German translation, by Breitkopf & Hartel, Leipzig, 1935.
Current printing
19
(last digit):
18
Printed in the United States of America
18360-C
In grateful
my
memory
of
distinguished teacher and friend
Carl Nielsen
INTRODUCTION
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION
suggested by the
As the
polyphonic vocal
Dr. Jeppesen's Counterpoint
title,
nary textbook, because

theoretical
and
methodology.
it
style of the sixteenth century.
is
But
it is
a practical
between
rial
and
same time
at the
for the musicological seminar in
under consideration.
The
by
its
adherence to a definite
which
work
present
ventional treatise on counterpoint by

close
ordi-
and systematic
historical
manual designed
for classroom use in
teaching modal counterpoint, the logical successor of the old
academic counterpoint
no
on
maintains an unusually happy balance between
practical problems,
It
a textbook
is
its
style
it
or
problems are
style-critical
distinguished
is
strict
affords invaluable mate-
from the con-
freedom from arbitrary
rules
and
period as a standard of reference.
More and more, thoughtful musicians have come
to realize that
one can-
not teach counterpoint "in general" without inviting endless controversy

as to
what
is
permissible and
what
is
Hence
not.
a textbook based
upon
sound scholarly research in the music of a great period in the history of

the art brings
welcome
relief to the serious
but perplexed student and
teacher of counterpoint.
The following
suggestions
may
Although the book
be helpful.
is
gen-
erously supplied with musical examples, students should be required to
examine other works of the period

formance.
1
for purposes of
2
have found the Laudate Puen
collection of sixteenth cen-
See the translator's paper on "Music Research and Modal Counterpoint" in
the Music Educators' National Conference for 1934, pp. 217-222, in

at
comparison and per-
some
which
the Yearbook^ of
this point
is
discussed
length.
2 Laudate
Pueri: Sacred Music of the XVI th Century
being the first part of the Northlands
Singing Bool{, selected and edited by Donald F. Tovey (London: Augener Ltd., 1910).
Larger
libraries have the complete editions of the works of Palestrina by Hreitkopf und Hartel.
The follow.
Romanae, 6 vols., and

H. Rostagno & Giovanni d'Alessi, Quinta Vocalis Liturgica and Anthologia Sexta Vocalis Liturgica,
Editione Marcello Capra, No. 201-202, and Examples of Gregorian Chant and Worlds by Orlandus
Lassus and Giovanni Palestrina, compiled by Gustave Fredric Soderlund (Rochester, N. Y:. Eastman
ing editions are also recommended: Raph. Casimiri, Societatis Polyphonicae
J.
School of Music, University of Rochester, 1937).

vii
INTRODUCTION
Mil
tury vocal music, edited by
hands
two of
join
writing two-part motets using the motets of Lassus as
at
After the
models.
in this
Before beginning three-part writing, students should try
connection.
their
Donald Francis Tovey, very helpful
on imitation
exercises
first
The
these sections together.
in
two
parts,
have students
work
chief problems in this
are
the use of imitation, the treatment of the intermediate cadence so as to
avoid too pronounced a rhythmical break, and the construction of a strong

final
of
From
cadence.
modest dimensions
and pleased by such
efforts
an ample
a simple couplet or quatrain will afford
text.
course in
modal counterpoint
North Carolina.
the
first
in the sixteenth century style
Other
institutions introduce
And
studies in the graduate school.
may
justified
my
in the
what
to great
is
in-
in the second or even
others pursue such
still
enough
believe either
opinion the important point

first
program and, second,
of
that
all,
it
Opin-
that
characteristic of the period
musical compositions in
it
not
when
be introduced some-
style
and with respect
many
is
be taught so as to give the
dent some insight into the principles of musical

to
is
the University
on different grounds, of course.
be introduced but rather,
shall
where
strangely
at
vary as to the best time to introduce the study of counterpoint
in the curriculum, but in

it
it
year of the undergraduate course, while
one of these plans can be

ions
but they derive great benefits therefrom.
troduced in the third year of the curriculum in music

of
motet
Students are not only encouraged
but a step.
is
two from the Psalms or
verse or
The
this sort of exercise to the construction of a
stu-
both with respect
to
what
is
common
different periods.
Glen Haydon
Chapel
Hill,
North Carolina
PREFACE
book on the
My
which
style of Palestrina, in
investigated certain
polyphonic problems of the sixteenth century in
sively a historical study of style,
detail,
was exclu-
although the conclusions necessarily have
pedagogical importance because of the close relation of the subject to

In spite of the purely scientific character of the
contrapuntal theory.
treatise, therefore,
attempts have been
German
counterpoint at some
success.
believe,
however,
present time, a need
into consideration the
music.
this
more
am
to use
as a
it
textbook in
though probably with
little
concluding
that, at the
a textbook in counterpoint
which takes
justified in
recent research in the field of Palestrina's
This thought has given
me
the desire and courage to
work out
book.
have therefore based
felt for
is
made
universities,
my work
on the laws of the Palestrina
style,
an
idea which may seem strange to some. Of course I do not mean that
modern composers should make Palestrina's style of expression their own
for
I
am
that
that matter there seems to be
little
danger of
this.
Nevertheless
convinced, just as a whole series of theorists have been for centuries,
from the
style of Palestrina
we can
learn best
what has always been
the highest goal of the study of counterpoint.

It
is
recognized that musical theory has a retrospective as well as a
descriptive character.
out of whole cloth.

of
1
its
creation
The
Style of Palestrina
its
Nobody
First
has ever begun by manufacturing rules
came music
theory
be
itself;
deduced.
only later could the principles
Moreover
and the Dissonance, Oxford University
Press,
man edition was published by Breitkopf und Hartel, Leipzig, 1925.

2 The
contrary
that theory preceded practice
may at certain points
it
is
well
known,
1927; the original Ger-
in the history of music

seem more in agreement with the facts. For example, in the twelfth- and thirteenth-century art
of the motet (the so-called ars antiqua), the "Franconian" law, setting forth a prohibition against
dissonances upon accented portions of the measure, was formulated by the theorists some time
before it was carried out in actual practice.
Likewise, although the prohibition against parallel fifths
was proclaimed in the thirteenth century and was made more stringent by the theorists of the
ix
PREFACE
among
even
those only superficially acquainted with the music of various
epochs, that no one style has ever had a
peculiar fundamental problems
who
musician
first
deeide
of
all
aspects of musical
Usually each historical period or school concentrates upon
technique.
own
command
just
wishes to gain
what
who
study those composers
command
less
its
neglects the others.
of a particular technique
must
he wishes to acquire, so that he can accordingly
is
it
and more or
One wishing
mastered that technique.
to
acquire compact, forceful voice leading naturally would not go to Chopin;
nor would one study Obrecht for a refined, sensitive use of chromatic
harmony.
In counterpoint
the
art of preserving the
melodic independence of
the voices in a polyphonic, harmonically acceptable complex
only
two
periods are to be considered seriously: the culminations in polyphonic
Here we have
music characterized by the names of Palestrina and Bach.

a choice,
and here,
too, the
upon
divide.
extending far back into the sixteenth century based
series of theorists
their teaching
ways
Palestrina.
Cherubini, Albrechtsberger,
S.
Among them were Cerone, J.

W. Dehn, Heinrich Bellermann,
Rockstro, Prout, Kitson, Morris, Stohr, Schenker, and Roth.
J.
Fux,
Haller,
Another
group, which began with John Philip Kirnberger and included E. F.
Hugo Riemann, chose the art

Kurth, who has recently joined this
Richter, S. Jadassohn,
stylistic basis.
Ernst
and
clear, concise definition of the
of
Bach
as its
group, gives a
term counterpoint in the following words:
fourteenth, one cannot regard
it as having been fully observed until the appearance of the a capcomposers of the Palestrina period. Both prohibitions, however, present only apparent exeffects through whose operation theory and practice react upon one another.
Theorists
ceptions
discover in practical music a particular tendency, at first only slightly developed, and translate their
observations thereof into rules.
But, according to their professional custom, they formulate these
rules in an all too categorical and inelastic manner.
Later, young composers who wish to gain
pella
practical
knowledge study the writings
can exert an influence out of
all
of the
proportion
theorists.
rule,
once
it
is
formulated on paper,
importance previously attributed to it can,

becomes dangerous. Out of respect for what is
to the
an almost magic power. It

written down, composers strive, perhaps half consciously, to bring their practice into the nearest
possible accord with the inscribed rules.
And thus the influence of theory reacts upon practice. A
In Denmark, for
similar chain of reactions is to be found in the history of the Nordic languages.
example, at the beginning of the past century, pronunciations were common that varied more
widely from the older ones than do those of current Danish speech a fact that might suggest a
somewhat peculiar development curve. But here, too, the explanation is to be found in the influence that the written word exerts upon practice.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Thus, the written language,
in Denmark, there was an unusually great increase of skill in reading.
which, in comparison to ordinary spoken language, is always rather unchanging and conservative,
indeed,
exercise
upon the latter, and caused it to revert to earlier pronunciations.

Grundlagen des linearen Kontrapim\ts. Bern, Haupt, 1917. Page 143.
exercised an influence
3
Ernst Kurth:
PREFACE
The
XI
essence of the theory of counterpoint
how two
is
or
more
lines
can unfold
simultaneously in the most unrestrained melodic development, not by means of the
chords but in spite of them.
Here Kurth
undeniably right; but from his hypothesis he finds the
is
than Bach's
style of Palestrina less usable
He
counterpoint.
The
writes of the former:
inner dissolution of the linear foundation
is
shown
termined by the harmonic element; the
lines adjust
motions
to undulations
effects, especially of
It
more
is
the
de-
themselves to the progression of
the chordal structure; the play of free melodic invention

like
weakening of
more and more
in the
Their melodic treatment
melodic independence of the voices.
teaching of
as a basis for the
is
reduced to gentler, wave-
and range; and the melodic

are absorbed by harmonic effects.
levelled in contour
the middle parts,
cannot be denied that in the Palestrina
style, especially in
homophonic
passages and cadences, melodic idioms occur that are clearly the result
harmonic considerations.
of
On
in Bach's.
the other
For
These, however, are only exceptions.
that matter, similar passages occur in every
hand
kind of
have found
style
and not
least
that, in Palestrina's style,
the vertical, harmonic requirements assume merely the exclusively consonant, full
harmony
has indicated,
disposition
is
of the chords, in
which modulatory
relations play
In Bach, however, certain chordal impulses, as Spitta
only a small part.

lie at
the base of the musical structure; a certain modulatory
present.
Bach's and Palestrina's points of departure are antipodal.

starts
ideally
harmonic background, against which the voices develop with a
bold independence that
One
is
often breath-taking.
should avoid comparisons between music and other
on the whole
are
so different in character
apt to prove quite pointless.
is
that
feel
it is
and material that
Nevertheless, one parallel
worth mentioning, a
parallel juxtaposing,
the mutual relations between the polyphonies of Bach
on the other (in the
field of art), the relations
of expression of the renaissance
by virtue of the
Ibid., p. 123.
grew
they
comparison
a
is
so striking
on the one hand,

visual
forms
In the sixteenth cen-
into a unified
artistically controlled relation
arts;
and Palestrina and,
between the
and the baroque.
tury there existed a polyphony that

lines
Palestrina
out from lines and arrives at chords; Bach's music grows out of an
whole from single
governing them; and
PREFACE
Xll
in the
held of the plastie arts there existed the art of the renaissance, swayed
by a similar relation.
With
reference to this art, Heinrich Wolfflin has
written in his Kunstgcschichtlichc Grundbegrif}e:

In this type ot classical
gardless of
how
arrangement the separate parts
closely they
may
he
bound up
in the
assert
not the aimless one of primitive art; each separate detail
is
an independence,
re-
The independence
whole.
is
conditioned by the whole
without, however, ceasing to be an entity.
In baroque painting, for example in
no longer
is
Certain broad principles of construction, such as that
multiplicity.
fecting the
Rembrandt and Rubens, the unity

with unity and works toward
a result; the artist begins
fall
The
details that lend interest or suspense
for a
moment
is
grow out
of the whole.
observer from experiencing
pose, assailed the beholder of the paintings of the early
ing has pre-existence;
Again
it is
Middle Ages and
The
unity in baroque paint-
the point of departure
and the foundation of
the listener to the motets of the ars antiqua.
What,
Not
many details, standopposition to one another, may prevent the

a sense of unity. This danger, we may sup-
there a danger that the presence of too
ing strangely and coldly in
the whole.
af-
of the light, underlie the composition of the paintings.
should like to quote Wolfflin:
then, the baroque brings that
is
new
is
not unity in general, but that basic
is more or less
submerged in the whole. No longer do beautiful individual parts unite in a harmony
in which they continue to maintain their individuality; the parts have been subordinated to a dominant central motive, and only the combined effect of the whole gives
them meaning and beauty.
conception of absolute unity in which the part as an independent value
What
Wolfflin says of baroque painting
of music, to the art of Bach.
may
For example,
well be applied, in the field

as the light
brandt's "Night Watch," so a broad formative element
Bach's music.
tory one.
It is
This element
as if
Rem-
at the core of
a motivating impulse, a chordal-modula-
a streak of light
polyphonic approach,
play
is
permeates
is
which, to be sure, breaks up under the
through a prism, into a glistening, sparkling
a play whose variety, nevertheless, depends to a certain extent upon
illusion.
Naturally, nothing has been said regarding the polyphonic values in
Fourth Edition.
6 Ibid.,
p. 198.
Munich, Bruckmann, 1920. Page
16.
PREFACE
Bach's
art,
Xlll
From
or in Palestrina's; in both they are immeasurable.
the
pedagogical viewpoint, however, the art that takes chords into considera-
must doubtless afford the
tion the least
best starting point for acquiring
the technique of independent voice leading.

Especially in Palestrina's favor in this connection seems to be the very
strict
economy
lated means,
else
of his style.
and
it
can one better learn to
most minute
its
details.
functions with such small, nicely calcu-
It
husbands
effects so carefully, that surely
its
nowhere
know and understand polyphonic material in

may be said that in no other musical style
It
does the fundamental contrast between consonance and dissonance appear

so clearly as in Palestrina's.
This
an advantage that can hardly be
is
overestimated, especially in a period quite as prodigal with notes as ours.
Of all the tasks of music theory, among the most important is that
making us as vividly conscious as possible of what we are really trying
do,
and of how countless
musical means.
to
are the possibilities inherent in even the simplest
may
Musical theory
rary practice nor follow
of
blindly.
it
neither entirely disregard contempo-
It
may
even
at
times have the specific
task of vigorously opposing recent tendencies, of exposing deficiencies
of technique in contemporary composition, of pointing out the remedy,
the path toward recovery.
But
must keep anxiously up
to date.
it is
nowhere prescribed
duty
Its
is
only
that music theory
this: to
endeavor to
lead us to musical values, regardless of whether these are to be
found
in
the present or the past.
Whoever wants
to learn
must
know what he wants
of all
first
to learn
but he must also realize that he cannot learn everything from any single
source.
In each of the great composers
or one of the others
whether Palestrina, Bach, Mozart,
we find values that are most closely associated with
the personality of the particular
Hugo Riemann
artist.
of Palestrina)
at
it
the time of
so,
when he
its
because for
in turn
asserts that
is,
as
have
said,
a textbook
work was already out of date

Riemann naturally had to regard
him Bach polyphony was

it
intended that
outmoded
it
based on the style
Fux's
publication in 1725.
the only acceptable basis for
study of counterpoint, and to this type of polyphony the

not lead, nor was
therefore in
Kontrapun\t (based upon Fux's
error in his criticism of Bellermann's
Gradus ad Parnassum, which
is
should.
One
until another pedagogical
work
of
all
Fux could
cannot properly declare
work appears
that performs
PREFACE
XIV
the
same
tasks better, that
produces the same musical values in fuller
is,
But in 1725 the Gradus stood forth entirely unchallenged
measure.
manual
the best counterpoint
of
its
kind, and
it
without
its
maintained
justly
its
as
repu-
tation for a long time thereafter.

I
do not mean that the Gradus
On
viewpoint.
ists
who
the contrary,
is
faults
also believe that,
even
becomes decidedly vulnerable
whether they were able
to
make
a pedagogical
Fux and
have shared his stand have chosen a favorable
deed, for pedagogical purposes the most favorable

position
from
if
the theor-
stylistic basis (in-
stylistic basis), their
to criticism as
soon
full use of the possibilities to
as
we
which
ask
their
right beginning should have led.
We
example, that Fux,
find, for
who
expressly declares in his
that he has chosen Palestrina as his model, stands only in a
remote relation
to Palestrina's music.
Gradus
somewhat
There are three reasons for
this:
Fux could have known comparatively few of Palestrina's works, for they
were not commonly available in the eighteenth century; he was to a considerable degree dependent upon the older Italian theorists, who taught
counterpoint more as "harmony" (it was not necessary to dwell especially
upon the linear element because, at the time, such matters were taken for
granted)
and he involuntarily allowed the musical idioms of his own time
to creep into his style.
What
say about
Fux
applies also,
though perhaps
to the writers of nearly all textbooks subsequently
to a lesser extent,
based upon him.
The
objection has justly been raised against them, as against Fux, that they
promote
a chordal rather than a linear style.
Critics
have especially de-
plored the fact that these theorists begin with exercises in "note against
note."
These
might have
critics
to attain
say that whatever tendency the individual voices
melodic independence
such exercises, for with them
it is
is
completely paralyzed by
a matter not of setting one line against
another, but one single tone against another.
It
may
point that, even though the rhythmic identity of
does not help to give

of independence
all
them melodic independence,
may
hardly be denied that a
be attained through
style
this
such as that of the
be observed
the voices certainly

yet a certain degree
type of
first
at this
drill.
It
can
example on page 112
Each
is markedly linear.
two added voices is characterized by a strong, compact linear construction and attains a melodic climax with undeviating sureness. The
(which, to be sure, does not come from Fux)
of the
PREFACE
XV
upper added voice reaches

the lower one reaches
convinced
it
beginning of the musical
at the
it
only toward the end.
line,
while
am
firmly
as
models
polyphonic worth of the examples given
that, if the
by Fux and his followers
slight, the fault lies
is
but rather with inadequate application of

reality
In general
not with the system
its
latent
an almost entirely untapped mine of linear
itself
For
powers.
possibilities lies
in
hidden
here.
I
therefore consider
it
what
pelled to preserve
unnecessary to abandon the system.

parts of
it
spite of all
me
In the
most
place, they assure
first
difficult,
im-
feel
among
valuable
apparent pedantry, they are based upon an idea that
excellent.
easiest to the
as
to
and energetically attacked.
things, the "species" so frequently
and
seem
other
For, in
is
sound
graded progress from the
an advantage that Kirnberger especially praised
one of the most valuable features in the teaching of Bach.
Further, they
reveal the highly important relation of the tones to one another, their
vigor or feebleness, the strength of the culmination notes, and their de-
The
pendence upon the context.

one must
this: that
Only when one has
purely melodic elements.
phenomena
is
the
rhythm
freed.
problem
right to develop the melodic
to
employing what Fux
which the other

Also,
consider
it
at
indeed
just
which melody and rhythm
it
Above
much
stricter
found
in Fux.
all,
the
the teacher as well as
command
This
of the laws of the
theorist, as
was only moderately acquainted with the works of
method
is
in general
we should have
Palestrina's style than
was
far
much more
more
accurate
is
refined.
be utilized.
have
But
available
It
is
said,
to-
and
perfectly
knowledge concerning
to be gleaned in the eighteenth
Our advantages must
Palestrina.
day the large complete edition of Palestrina's works
centuries.
are free
or florid counterpoint,
cannot be too strongly emphasized that the
well seek a
natural that
pedagogically
merely preparatory.
Palestrina style than can be
musicological
is
it
But one would be wise
advisable to begin with the practice of writing pure
one-voice melodies, since
may
Certainly
calls the fifth species,
species are
mastered these basic
and more important place than has
linear idea dominates in counterpoint.
the pupil
fully
separately.
to provide, in the study plan, a greater
been customary for the stage

stage
is
simple as pos-
as
order to be able to concentrate the more intensively upon the
sible, in
musical
basic idea of the system
rhythmic problem be
at first let the
And,
and nineteenth
in conclusion,
what
PREFACE
XVI
has been implied
in the
foregoing
work on counterpoint may claim

books, by virtue of
greater stress
its
upon the
may
here be explicitly affirmed: a
new
distinction in relation to earlier text-
closer connection with Palestrina's style
linear element
and
stress that logically follows.
Knud
Jeppesen
its
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAG
Introduction to the English Translation
vii
Preface
Part I
PRELIMINARIES
I.
Outline History of Contrapuntal Theory

Counterpoint and
The Ninth
to the
Harmony
Contrasted
Fourteenth Centuries: The Beginnings of Contrapuntal
Theory
The Fifteenth Century: Crystallization of Principles

The Sixteenth Century: The Style of Palestrina
The Seventeenth Century: Some Pedagogical Developments
The Eighteenth Century: The Style of Bach
The Nineteenth Century: Palestrina or Bach?
The "Palestrina Movement" after Fux
II.
Technical Features
....
30
38
48
52
54
Notation
The
13
54
Ecclesiastical
Modes
59
Melody
83
Harmony
97
Part II
CONTRAPUNTAL EXERCISES
III.
Introduction
107
Two-Part Counterpoint
109
First Species
109
Second Species
114
Third Species
119
xvii
xvm
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
III.
IV.
V.
pAG
Two-Part Counterpoint {Continued)

Fourth Species
130
Fifth Species
135
Free Two-Part Counterpoint
152
Imitation
163
Three-Part Counterpoint
175
First Species
175
Second Species
178
Third Species
180
Fourth Species
188
Fifth Species
193
Imitation
198
Four-Part Counterpoint
203
First Species
203
Second Species
204
Third Species
205
Fourth Species
208
Fifth Species
212
Imitation
216
Counterpoint in More Than Four Parts
219
VII.
The Canon
234
VIII.
The Motet
241
The Mass
251
VI.
IX.
APPENDIX
The Vocal Fugue
265
Double, Triple, and Quadruple Counterpoint
280
Summary
of the
Most Important Contrapuntal Laws and
Rules
286
Melody
286
Consonant Combinations
287
Dissonant Combinations
289
Index
293
Part
Preliminaries
Chapter
OUTLINE HISTORY OF CONTRAPUNTAL THEORY
The
originated in the beginning of
word counterpoint presumably
and was derived from punctus contra punc-
the fourteenth century
tum, "point against point" or "note against note."
Counterpoint and Harmony Contrasted
When we
use this expression today,
we have
well-defined concept than was had formerly.
ing a part of more
same
modern
polyphony.
as
times, counterpoint
into
falls
two
mind
Just as
homophony
the correlative concept,
polyphony, in which
large divisions:
the
and homophony,
harmonic
These two
particularly
in
structure, or, as
styles
in
or types
so the
term coun-
For
we
is
to say, hori-
of
say, the vertical aspect of
musical perception are

In
distinguished
given and do not require any discusthem and attempt to derive the laws for
their
treatment out of their reciprocal relations and inner

is
quite different in counterpoint:
with chords but with melodic

several
lines
postulation.
lines.
Here chords
we
are the
of
states
begin not
result
sounding simultaneously; hence they are product,
As always
but also" relation:
we must
are
is
ourselves to
situation
also give
in matters of art, there arises a
we must
its
due
is
music.
harmony chords
we submit
The
music
perceive the
sion;
tension.
us,
which the fundamental consideration
we may
the attitude towards chords.
presupposed: they are what
one
as
polyphony im-
harmony.
chief structural elements in terms of melodic lines, that
zontally;
concrete,
meant quite simply the
other polyphonic types.
mediately suggests the contrasting idea,

terpoint calls to
much more
Today, however, we think of counterpoint
among
particular style
In the Middle Ages and dur-
not only achieve
to a
something
3
else,
this,
which
"not only
of
not
.
but at the same time

is
hardly compatible.
The problem
in
all
parts,
not only to write beautiful and independent melodies
is
but also
the
at
same time
We
nations as fully as possible.
to develop the chordal
must write
fresh,
lifelike
combi-
harmonic
progressions and yet preserve a natural, convincing voice leading.
Most
highly cultivated polyphonic music will hold up under investigation from

either the linear or the
The
harmonic viewpoint.
best results of con-
trapuntal and of harmonic instruction are, therefore, in the last analysis,
Indeed in counterpoint and in harmony
almost identical.
for the
same
we
strive
and work through the same materials, but the ap-
ideals
proaches are from opposite directions.
This difference in the point of
upon practice that it seems

where ideally one might be
departure, however, has such a telling effect
appropriate to maintain two disciplines

sufficient.
For practical pedagogical reasons
the subjects separate.
If,
it
on the other hand,
tion of the causes of musical effects
and laws
a
is
is
worth while
more
keep
to
scientific explana-
desired, then
one view-
If we wish to know, for

why a particular treatment in a harmonization is elastic and
we seldom find the answer in harmony alone. Usually special
point should not be isolated from the other.
example,
lifelike,
contrapuntal factors, such as voice leading, must also be taken into consideration, just as
out
we
could not get very far in the opposite situation with-
and more
tions in counterpoint
to
Many
considering harmony.
understand
this
simple
As has already been

significance.
It is
mistakes
especially in
and misleading explana-
harmony
are
due
to failure
fact.
said, the point of
departure
is
of very real practical
by no means immaterial whether we
say, as in con-
trapuntal teaching, "First the lines and then, in spite of them, the best
possible
harmonies"
and afterwards,
The Ninth
or, as in
the teaching of harmony, "First the chords
so far as possible,
good voice leading."
to the Fourteenth Centuries:
The
Beginnings of
Contrapuntal Theory
Let us return to the history of counterpoint.
Originally,
as
know, counterpoint meant polyphonic composition or composition

general.
The
first
textbooks of counterpoint that are
though they do not use
this
term
known
at all, are based, therefore,
we
in
to us, al-
on the
oldest
form of European polyphonic music of which examples are preserved

By "paralfor us, on the so-called parallel organum (about 900 A. D.).

lei
organum"
meant the
is
which
principle of musical construction by
a principal voice or part, generally a sacred "Gregorian" melody,
companied by one or more voices (by doublings in octaves)
is
ac-
chiefly in
parallel fourths or fifths.
This technique of composition
is
so
little
in accord with later con-
cepts of musical
law and procedure that in the beginning of the past
when a
was very much
serious interest in the history
century,
and evolution
evidence, people were inclined to look
in
Musica enchiriudis and the other
treatises
of
was
It
existed at
all,
form
asserted that such a
and what
is
theoretical fan-
its
"moral impossibility."
In
recent times, however, especially through the investigations of com-
parative musicology,
and
and
of musical composition never
more, from a viewpoint characteristic of the
nineteenth century, one even spoke of
more
upon the
Hucbald, Guido, and
the other earliest writers, as purely free speculations

cies.
music
of
fifths is quite
we have come
to realize that
by our standards, are on a low musical plane.
among
peoples of the Far East,
Indeed
China.
song in parallel fourths
an ordinary phenomenon among peoples who, judged
it
can
still
among
It is
found, for example,
others in
Burma, Siam, and
be heard in southern Europe,
without musical training improvise in several parts.
phonic theory, which plainly had some practical
when
people
This oldest poly-
basis,
is
of course as
upon which it is based. It has dissound good together, and it now exploits
primitive in character as the music
covered that fourths and

this discovery to the
no further thought
fifths
most extreme
as to
limits.
Otherwise, however,
what might sound good
together.
it
gives
Aside from
the favorite intervals already mentioned, consonances and dissonances
seem about equally good.
Hucbald
The
treatise
Musica enchiriadis, which was formerly attributed
Hucbald, contains
a rule
which
to
prescribes certain restrictions with refer-
ence to the range of the free lower parts for the purpose of avoiding
the dissonant fourth (tritonus).
Remarkably enough, however, Hucbald
himself does not even observe this rule logically.

are dissonances of
much
to avoid, are introduced in the
why one
Besides, seconds,
which
sharper character than those one was supposed
examples repeatedly.
There
is
no reason
should speak of any sort of dissonance treatment; the whole
must be characterized
as a very
on the one hand, and
not
general preference for certain consonances

too logical avoidance of certain dissonant
combinations on the other.
Contemporary music theory quite naturally

polyphonic music
Parallel
motion
the course of the
in
is
and mechanical but musically

a freer treatment in general
an earlier date).
Not
much more
this
that there can be
no
is
fruitful)
perhaps
and partly
fact,
just as
stiff
to facilitate
was not unknown
music of the twelfth and thirteenth
until the
of the dissonance begin to develop
theory of counterpoint.
(which
(which, as a matter of
centuries, the so-called ars antiqua,
sonance during
and eleventh centuries.
gradually abandoned, partly to be replaced by the
principle of consistent contrary motion
at
the evolution of
reflects
tenth
do more
stable rules for the treatment
and with them the rudiments of a
real
Indeed, the theory of the treatment of the dis-
period shows that theorists gradually
came
to realize
talk of an art so long as melodic dines proceed with
no regard for each other but ricochet along together without
Here
in harsh, unclear tonal combinations.
restraint
certain guarantees are re-
quired by the opposing viewpoint, by the vertical, the harmonic dimension.
Only where tension
phonic
art in the
exists
between the two dimensions
is
poly-
deeper sense possible.
The Franconian Law

In the Franconian law, which seems to have
come
into being about
the middle of the thirteenth century, we meet for the
first
history of musical theory a genuine contrapuntal rule:
ning of a measure in
all
modes
first
note
is
a long, a breve, or
This law really pertains chiefly

so-called accented beats in the
rhythm, since
to
measure
more prominent than the unaccented

extends far beyond the time in which
1
"At the begin-
(certain metrical orders), a consonance
must be placed, regardless whether the

a semibreve."
time in the
attract
ones.
it
It
more
it
considers that
attention,
and are
attains a validity
was formulated.
With
which
a single
"In omnibus modis utendum est semper concordantiis in principio perjectionis licet sit longa,
Typis San(Gerbert: Scriptores ecclesiastic! dc musica sacra potissimum.
brevis vel semibrevis"
Indeed, this rule is to be found in somewhat more indefinite

Vol. Ill, p. 13).
1784.
form in Johannes Garlandia's "De Musica mensurabile positio" (Coussemaker: Scripforum de
musica medii aevi. Paris, Durand. 1864. Vol. I, p. 107), whose treatise is considered some-
Blasianis,
what older than
that of Franco,

exception, the suspension dissonance,
it
which
more apparent than
is
real,
continues in force as long as the classical vocal polyphony prevails.
Not until about 1600, when modern music begins, is its force broken.
Even then it exercises a certain influence which is, to be sure, rather
hidden.
One
music
thus
is
of the most important rules in the evolution of polyphonic
comprehended by Franco and formulated
for musical
theory.
Another valuable advance

tistic
style
is
endeavor to find a
in the
and
the introduction of thirds
sixths,
on the other hand,
is
The technique
rests.
based chiefly on the
fifth.
ar-
'
upon which the
dental harmonies, but as basic consonances, as factors
musical structure primarily
more
richer,
not merely as acci-
of the ars antiqua,
one examines a motet
If
or any other polyphonic composition of the twelfth or thirteenth century,
one finds
fifths
on most of the accented beats
on the unaccented parts of the measure.
incidentally, generally
com-
in the measure,
Thirds and sixths occur more
bined for the most part with octaves.
They
are thus used as dissonances, a circumstance that accords very well with
the fact that throughout the greater part of the

actually regarded as such
many
and
Middle Ages they were
In the meantime, there are
so classified.
indications that in western Europe, especially in
perhaps also in Scandinavia, thirds and sixths were used

in other places
where
the art
developed (as in France)
the
contemporary musical works from
At any
rate,
and octave were

theorists,
who
further development,
is
and thereby naturally
still
used.
State-
seems, as well as
some
must be understood
is
whole
series of
important
within a short time exercise an influence on
and
new and
also
in France.
The most
which means most
art of these masters, that

a
when
towards the end of the fourteenth and the
the Continent, especially in the Netherlands
important thing in the
it
the British Isles,
beginning of the fifteenth century there

English composers
time
was nevertheless perhaps more highly

fifth
ments of various medieval English
in this sense.
England and
at a
fruitful attitude
for
toward the consonance
toward the dissonance.
While the
position
of the ars antiqua with respect to the matter of tonal combinations
was
rather indifferent
and negative, and while about the only requirement
was the demand
for consonances
on accented places (for the sake of
transparency), this attitude seems from

tive
form.
The chord becomes
a factor
now on
which
to take
on
more
posi-
receives careful attention,
and between the melodic and harmonic elements

in
which the melodic
ever,
it
a certain tension arises,
for the time being has the supremacy, which,
how-
gradually relinquishes in the course of the fifteenth century, so that
the state of balance between

Palestrina style
is
homophonic and polyphonic
made possible only after renewed
factors in the
inroads of the harmonic-
element (this time apparently through the popular music form of
vertical
the beginning of the sixteenth century in Italy, the frottola).
The Fifteenth Century:
Crystallization of Principles
In the course of the fifteenth century the polyphonic art develops and
becomes
established,
speak of a music that
and
is
which the non-essential
known enemy
first
in the
modern
and
in
arise
is
whose
art
Ockeghem, and Busnois and,

first
is
aesthetically satisfactory to us today with-
Among them
out further reservations.
these musicians, the
sense intellectually mastered,
the most dangerous, but not always equally well forcibly put on the defensive. Now
the
of all art
great composers
middle of the century one can
as early as the
are Dunstable, Dufay, Binchois,
in intimate relation with the practice of
great theorist in the
Johannes de Verwere, or Tinctoris,
as his
modern
name
is
sense, the
Fleming,
written in Latin.
Tinctoris
Tinctoris lived in Naples as Chapelmaster at the court of Ferdinand

I.
He
wrote,
among
other things, a treatise called
This dissertation
in the year 1477.
is
in Latin, like
De
Contrapuncto
most of the
literature
The introduction, a well-known prefKing Ferdinand, reads somewhat; as fol-
on musical theory of that time.

atory discourse addressed to
lows:
Before
began
to write, I strove to
equip myself with the necessary knowledge
and
do not write to bring
honor to myself, but for the benefit of others who wish to study music, and further
And therefore
in order not to bury the talent which God has bestowed upon me.
which is made up of
I have now undertaken to write briefly about counterpoint
of the various things pertaining to music, partly through listening to others
partly
by
my own
reading and incessant work.
God's honor and for the use of those who are

Before I proceed now with the work, I
excellent art.
well-sounding consonances
striving for skill in this
However
will not hide the fact that
in
have studied what the ancient philosophers, such as
2 For this and the following quotations

from the writings of Tinctoris, see Joannis Tinctoris
Tractatus de musica, edited by E. de Coussemaker, Lille, 1875,
Plato and Pythagoras, as well as their successors, Cicero, Macrobius, Boethius, and
believe concerning the harmony of the spheres.
Since, however, I have
found that they differ very much from each other in their teachings, I have turned
from them to Aristotle and to the more modern philosophers, and no one shall
make me believe that musical consonances arise through movements of the heavenly
bodies, for they can only be produced by means of terrestrial instruments.
The
ancient musicians, Plato, Pythagoras, Nichomachus, Aristoxenus, Architas, Ptolemaeus, and many others, indeed even including Boethius himself, dealt extensively
with the consonances, and yet we do not know at all how they arranged and classified
them. And if I must now refer to that which I have seen and learned, I must
confess that some old compositions of unknown composers have come into my
hands, pieces that sound quite simple and tasteless, so that they rather disturb than
please the ear.
However, what surprises me especially is that only in the last forty
years are there compositions which, in the judgment of the specialist, are worth
listening to.
Today, however, we have blossoming forth, quite apart from the
large number of famous singers
whether it be on account of heavenly influences
or particularly zealous studies
an almost unlimited number of composers, for
example Johannes Ockeghem, Johannes Regis, Antonius Busnois, Firminus Caron,
Guilelmus Faugues, and all can boast of having had as teachers the musicians who
died recently, Johannes Dunstable, Egidius Binchois and Guilelmus Dufay. Nearly
all the works of these masters excel in pleasant sound; I never hear or look at
their compositions without rejoicing in them or being instructed by them, and
therefore I too, in my own compositions, adhere entirely to the approved style.
Isidor,
It
is
evident that Tinctoris was a practical musician
an independence (quite foreign to
his time)
who
displayed
of the classic "auctores,"
otherwise regarded as unshaken authorities, and of their philosophical

speculations.
He
turned directly to the musical works.
He had
a re-
markable understanding of the decided break between the music of

his
time and that which immediately preceded
it.
Tinctoris thereupon introduces his actual textbook, according to the
custom of the time, with
a definition of the subject:
Counterpoint
is
an
artistic
tonal
combination which
arises
when one
placed opposite another, from which also the term contrapunctus,

against note, can be derived.
Counterpoint
is
that
tone
is,
therefore a combination of tones.
combination or mixture sounds pleasant, it is called consonance;

hand, it sounds harsh and unpleasant, it is called dissonance.
this
if,
is
note
If
on the other
Here Tinctoris gives no more comprehensive definition of counterWhat he says, however, is interesting. For example, he speaks
point.
exclusively of chords,
and he derives the word counterpoint quite rightly
from something purely

considerations, he wastes
vertical.
On
no words.
proper voice leading or melodic
As we already know,
this
omission
10
is
easy to understand, for the linear
for granted, that required
was
for that period
something taken
no further explanation, while the secondary

was more in danger of being neglected
consideration, the harmonic,
and therefore demanded

is
how
it
especial attention and emphasis.

This then
happens that a more prominent place is given to the harmonic
element in the theoretical exposition, which, however, did not actually

correspond to the practice.
Following
definition, Tinctoris observes that
this
he wishes
to
first
speak of the consonances, since they play the most important role in
counterpoint, whereas dissonances are admitted only here and there.
He
then
perfect
the consonances in different ways,
classifies
and imperfect consonances.
unison, fourth,
fifth,
and
In the
octave, which, as
among
he says himself, stand out
The
every composition and are the mainstay thereof.
in
he counts the
class
first
others into
imperfect
consonances, in which he includes major and minor thirds and sixths,
he considers
good.
less
and dependent on
On
this point
he
is
remarkably conservative
Concerning the minor
earlier theorists.
the older authors classed with the dissonances, he says, "In
sounds somewhat rough

that
it
when
it
sixth,
my
it
stands alone," and he therefore prefers
be excluded from the two-part composition where
noticeable.
which
ear, too,
it
most
is
Tinctoris then brings in a survey of the twenty-two con-
sonances which he considers usable and finally presents the different

possibilities of
how
and
He
combinations and progressions.
one can progress from a unison to a third,
how
one proceeds from a third
shows, for example,

or octave,
fifth, sixth,
to another consonant interval.
This
may seem somewhat pedantic and detailed to us, and yet we

must consider how new the richer and more varied use of the consonances
discussion
was
at that time.
It
bilities that existed
was by no means
possibilities that
In the second book of Tinctoris

tersely defined as
is
pointless to indicate all the possi-
were certainly surprising

the
list
of dissonances,
combinations that sound bad.
Among
to
many.
which
are
these Tinctoris
minor and major second, the augmented fourth, the minor

and major ninth, and so on. The perfect fourth he does not consider
places the
here, but remarks elsewhere that although the ancients considered
consonance,
really
it
it
sounds so bad to the ears of trained musicians that
can be used only
if it
occurs over a
fifth,
and
so does not
a fourth in relation to the lowest voice but only to the
middle
a
it
make
part.
We
might now expect Tinctoris
the consonances,
how
what combinations
all
apparently
He
it
he did with
to explain clearly, as
dissonances can be used with consonances and
But he does not discuss
are available.
this
point at
because he finds dissonances so unessential that such
a careful presentation
he passes
11
would be superfluous
At any
at this point.
rate,
over and goes on to the actual discussion of counterpoint.
two
divides counterpoint into
which notes of equal value
contrapunctus simplex, in
types:
and contra-
are placed against each other,
punctus diminutus or floridus, in which two or more notes of
lesser value
Both kinds of counterpoint
are placed against a note of greater value.
can be performed either from the notes (therefore previously composed)

or extemporaneously.
second, the
manner
over the book).
In the
first
of performing
case
is
it is
referred to as res facta; in the
called super librum cantare (to sing
counterpoint can be constructed either over a cantus
firmus in notes of equal length, which
is
called cantus planus, or over a
cantus figuratus, a melody consisting of notes of mixed time values.
In
"simple" counterpoint ("note against note") no dissonances are permitted

at all.
In counterpoint with
used under certain conditions.
more rhythmic movement, they may be

Tinctoris says in this regard that more
dissonances than consonances occur in the compositions of his predecessors,
but he observes further that in improvised counterpoint,
dis-
sonances actually occur only in short note values and on unaccented

beats, or as suspensions.
Dissonances must always be treated in stepwise
progressions; a skip of a third
considers
it
bad
is
rarely permissible.
to return after a dissonance to the
In other words, he forbids auxiliary notes even

short note values,
in accord
and he thereby formulates
preceding consonance.
if
a rule
they occur in very
which
is
not entirely
with the practice, but nevertheless which serves him
of departure.
There
length of note which

chief rule
Tinctoris further
is
is
also a discussion of the question
may
as a point
concerning the
be used as a dissonance, and here Tinctoris'
that the longest note
which may be dissonant
equal in length to one-half the unit of measure.
is,
in fact, a note
But he
also cites ex-
amples showing that contemporary composers, Petrus de Domarto and
Antonius Busnois for example, break
this
rule
and write dissonances
equal in length to the whole unit of measure.

In the third
and
last part of
the work, eight principal rules of counter-
point are finally stated, of which the content
is
substantially as follows:
12
One must
First rule:
one begins with
a rest
begin and end with a perfect consonance.

(upbeat), then the entrance
an imperfect consonance
as well.
may
wrong
also not
It is
If
made with
be
who
for singers
are improvising a counterpoint to close with an imperfect consonance.
must be for
In such a case, however, the composition
the sixth (or
Second
One must
sonances of the same
not accompany the tenor with perfect con-
but one
size,
may
very well do so with imperfect
Some permit the direct succession

upper voices even when these consonances
consonances.
in the
they allow such parallels

of composing, however,
attained by
is
or
it,
if
is
if it is
and
Third
perfect
sixths
good only
if
required by
may
same
are the
rest.
size,
and
Such a way
a particularly beautiful effect
strict imitation.
and octaves
This rule
says,
are not permitted, whereas
very well be used.
rule: If the tenor continues
on one and the same
and imperfect consonances may be added.
repeated in the added contrapuntal part.

is
of perfect consonances
they are separated by a
in other words, that parallel fifths
parallel thirds
and
octave) above the bass must not be used.
its
rule:
several voices
tone, both
Tones may
Whenever
also be
the counterpoint
over a cantus firmus in notes of equal value, such repetitions of tones
are not especially good.
tonal repetition
Fourth
even
if
rule:
or low,
if it
Sixth rule:
is,
in written counterpoint,
may well be used where the text warrants it.

The counterpoint must continue in good melodic form
the tenor
Fifth rule:
In res facta, that
makes
cadence
interferes
Re dicta,
large skips.
is
not permitted over any tone, whether high
with the development of the melody.

that
is,
repetition of the
same melodic idiom,
is
not permitted over a cantus firmus in notes of equal value, and least of
all
if
the cantus firmus
itself
contains such a repetition.
This applies
likewise to written compositions, although one uses such idioms occasionally in order to imitate the
sound of
bells or of horns.
Seventh rule: Over a cantus firmus in notes of equal length, one should
not allow two cadences on the same tone to follow one another too closely.
Only as a last resort, therefore, should composers choose cantus

which invite melodic idioms like the redicta.
Eighth rule: One should always earnestly
strive in
firmi
contrapuntal writ-
ing for variety and change, by altering the measure or time, using now
syncopations, now imitations, and the like. Yet one must keep in mind

that a simple song does not use so
a
motet likewise not so
By and
large,
we must look upon
Here speaks
who
as a
Tinctoris' contrapuntal
time, the result of his
motet; and
Behind
artist,
own
method
as
free reflec-
stands on the pinnacle of the musical
always understands
in their full significance.
can always recognize the
its
who
a musician
technique of his time,
means
different
as a mass.
accomplishment for
a brilliant
tion.
many
many
13
his
terse,
essential, central facts
its
matter-of-fact
the practical musician
words,
we
whose speech
is
from the circumlocutious or confused phraseology of most

works on music of his day. That Tinctoris deals almost exclusively with chords and harmonic problems in his discussion
is undoubtedly due, as we have seen, to the whole attitude and disposition
of the fifteenth century. Naturally, it would be fatal if this method of
pleasingly free
of the theoretical
presentation were retained and applied to a later time in which the linear
idea
no longer was held
basic.
always dangerous to dwell unduly
It is
on a secondary consideration, for one thereby
One cannot
point.
easily forgets the
main
help noticing this fault in a large part of the con-
trapuntal literature based
upon
Tinctoris
which
uncritically takes over
his teaching.
The Sixteenth Century: The Style

With
This
of Palestrina
the sixteenth century arose the golden age of vocal polyphony.
art
form, which had been most zealously cultivated during the
preceding centuries by the English, French, and Netherlanders, was

transplanted to Italy.
cially
Josquin des Prez,
school, in
With
it
Palestrina and
way prepared by
the
reached
its
consummation
his pupils,
and
great masters, espethere, in the
Roman
in masters of other nations
(such as the Spaniards, Morales and Victoria, or the Netherlander, Or-
landus Lassus),
who had
studied in Italy,
where during the following
centuries the most significant musical developments took place.

If
the art of this period of florescence between 1560 and 1590
pared with the music of the

differences will be seen.
In both
artistic
their
last
The
differences in
form
periods are found approximately the
masses, in
is
com-
part of the fifteenth century, significant

are the least evident.
same forms: the great
which the composers were able
to reveal all aspects of
remarkable technique; the motets intended for church and chamber

14
music, in which the art of fine detail was practiced; and finally the secular
and madrigals,
songs, chansons, Italian jrottole
German
as well as
Lieder.
In the secular songs technical refinement often suffered because of the
demands
first
of popular taste, but
of that time
and which were
Here
experiments flourished.
time are found most of the elements which were

to be
new
in the
means
the significant
for the
music
of further
development.
The
essential
difference between
these
two
stages
movement lay, therefore, rather

harmony of the fifteenth century was
development
of
within the same
in content than in
form.
often a
the
If
and thin (we
still
find definite traces of the fifth
little ascetic
and octave supremacy
of the preceding century) nevertheless the compositions of the period
when
vocal polyphony flourished were distinguished by perfection in
wealth and variety of tonal combinations.

least are
Empty
and octaves
fifths
at
much suppressed and are not chosen for the sake of the
when they do occur, they are always motivated by the move-
very
sound; but
ments of the melody, by voice leading, imitation, or the
like.
Imitation (a principle in accordance with which the voices imitate
each other by introducing the same theme in one voice after the other)
was employed
less fruitfully
and
logically at the
end of the
fifteenth
century, but began to play a principal role in musical construction dur-
In the
ing the sixteenth century.

imitation
ever,
the
was used
at times
first
half of the sixteenth century,
with almost pedantic
stiffness,
which, how-
seems to have brought about a natural and beneficial reaction in
works of Palestrina and other composers of the
late sixteenth century.
Treatment of the Dissonance
The
attitude
During the
played no
toward the dissonance must be mentioned
earlier years, as
role,
we
but were regarded as
therefore kept off the accented parts of the measure as
much
without, however, being subjected to any particular rules.

of the fifteenth century the
became
established, as has
at this point.
know, dissonances themselves

bad-sounding and unclear and were
already
as possible
In the course
law for the conjunct treatment of dissonances

been pointed out, not only to a certain extent
in actual practice but also in theory, especially as formulated
by Tinctoris.
Tinctoris suggested, however, the possibility that occasionally dissonances
might be quitted by
a skip of a third descending.
If
we
investigate the
<
practice of the great composers of the fifteenth century
Ockeghem, and Busnois
15
Dufay, Binchois,
example (and even Josquin des Prez,
for
we
really belongs to the early sixteenth century),
who
see that this rule
is
not merely one devised by Tinctoris, but one well-rooted in the practice
of the time.
During the
sixteenth century the rule concerning the step-
wise treatment of the dissonance became

often in
stricter.
Instances occur less
which dissonances were introduced or quitted by skips
third or the like,
and
in the Palestrina style this rule
was
of a
followed
strictly
with only one apparent exception: the cambiata.
While the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries (the ars antiqua
and the
greater part of the ars nova period) only took this purely negative
atti-
tude toward the dissonance, by the fifteenth century the situation began
to change.
The syncope
be used so frequently and under such circumstances that
used consciously for

for the
first
its
effect.
time, by Guilelmus
In theory
Monachus,
it
is
it
mentioned, apparently
monk, whose
Praeceptis artis musice et practice compendiosus libellus
De
much
treatise
contains
and unique material.
original
Guilelmus introduces the

values
came to
was clearly
dissonance, or suspension, gradually
treatise
with a survey of the various note
and the complicated proportions and meters of that time.
He
goes on to speak of the method of composition of the English, the faux-
bourdon
sixth).
(in modern terms, a style of writing in parallel chords of

Then follows a chapter on counterpoint as practiced by
English and French, in which he

(thirds
and
sixths
surveys the different consonances
belong to the imperfect consonances) and finally nine
contrapuntal rules.
cial interest
first
the
the
Of
these rules, only the next to the last
is
of espe-
here:
Although we have enumerated only twelve consonances (both perfect and imcustom and practice of recent times,
from using dissonances, as for example the second, which adds sweetness to the
low third; or the seventh, which lends sweetness to the sixth; the fourth, which
does likewise to the upper third; and this last again, which, according to recent
perfect) nothing prevents us, according to the
experience, lends sweetness to the
Thus
far Guilelmus.
He
fifth.
says
nothing to the
effect that
he
is
to the syncope dissonance, the suspension; but there can be
"'
Coussemaker, Scriptorum
Vol.
Ill,
p.
291,
referring
no doubt
16
that he
is
speaking of
The examples contained
it.
Guilclmus was familiar with precisely
that
in the treatise
form
this
show
dissonance
of
treatment; and the rules which he gives accord exactly with the laws
observed in practice.
It is
obvious that he understands the matter thor-
oughly.
When
third
(a
somewhat vague way
in the
lower voice), and
the rule says that the second
when
is
must
of saying that the dissonance
it
lie
further provides that the seventh should
be resolved in the sixth and the fourth in the "high" third (in the
must therefore be introduced
case the dissonance
low
to be resolved in the
obviously the very best and most
common
in the
latter
upper voice),
forms of resolutions of the
suspension dissonance are intended, as the practice of the fifteenth and

sixteenth centuries shows.
this
If
passage applied to the passing dis-
sonances, such a comprehensive exposition of the intervals of resolution
would have been superfluous;
for the passing second resolves just as well
into the unison as into the third, the fourth as well into the fifth as
and
into the third,
so on, according to
whether the movement
is
ascend-
ing or descending.
Of
great psychological significance
uses in
which they lend
indicates that the
men
we
the expression
expounding the use of the syncope dissonances,
of the "sweetness"
as
is
hear
it
in that
he speaks
to the succeeding consonance.
This
of that time heard the syncope dissonance just
today, as a conscious introduction of dissonance in aesthe-
tically stressed contrast to
avoided or softened as
of great value
which Guilelmus
consonance therefore not
much
as possible,
something
as
but as an effect which
and which cannot be replaced by any other
is
effect.
to be
in itself
Zarlino,
the great theorist of the sixteenth century, expressed himself in exactly

this
manner regarding
Not only
is
the suspension dissonance:
such a dissonance not displeasing but, on the contrary,
pleasure through the increased mildness and sweetness
ceeding consonance.
more
This
is
And
clearly as soon as
is
it is
this
for
the reason
the view of the fifteenth
more important than
conception
influenced
in advance
as
earlier times
that
placed in contrast with
its
specific
further
its
which
it
it
everything comes out
much
opposite.
and sixteenth
centuries;
and what
consequence, the suspension, this
development.
It
marks
compared with the crude, rather one-sided
toward these matters.
arouses great
lends to the suc-
great
step
attitude of

The
17
sixteenth century developed another feature in the use of the
dissonance, a feature which, as a matter of fact,

until the following century:
was not exploited
fully
namely, the dissonance as a means of poetical

This involves a factor in the
expression, as a symbol of the emotions.
process of evolution
which influenced the
history of music more, perhaps,
than any other.
The Origin
of the Style
Repeated attempts have been made

Best
of Palestrina.
known
is
to explain the origin of the style
the hypothesis of
Hugo Riemann, which
concludes from the assumption that most of the music of the fifteenth
century was intended for instruments, that the evolution took place
when
people gradually went over to vocal performance of compositions, and

various so-called "instrumentalisms" (idioms
as
which Riemann conceives
having been designed especially for instruments) proved impractical
because they were not suited to the nature of the
human
voice;
and that
the greater importance the singing voice attained in the process of evolution, the
more
the instrumental idioms were suppressed until they finally
disappeared entirely.
It is
when he assumes
is
right
is
instrumental music.
by no means certain that Riemann
possible but
that a part of the music of the fifteenth century
At any
rate
it is
most doubtful whether
at that
time musicians distinguished carefully between vocal and instrumental
Today
composition.
tinction;
it is
difficult to
imagine music without such
a dis-
we run the danger, however, of anachronistic thinking if we

way of feeling, highly developed in this respect, to a period
apply our
which apparently had not developed

It
much more
seems
been the impelling force in the
While the treatment

terized for the
effective,
rise of
toward the text may have
the Palestrina
most part by
a striking indifference,
in very rare cases in
as
means
was charac-
and while the use of

of expression can be
European music before
century brought a decisive change in this situation.

apparently, chiefly
style.
of the text in the fifteenth century
unequivocal tone painting
found only
it.
likely that the attitude
1500, the sixteenth
The tendency came,
from the madrigal (doubtless prepared by the
frottola,
however), the chief form of the Italian secular music of the sixteenth
century.
In general, secular music took the lead in the development,
for religious
music was almost always characterized by
a certain
con-
18
servative attitude.
In the beginning of the sixteenth century the jrottola
was Hourishing
Italy.
in
This was
short and concise form, with but
and simple throughout.
phonic,
Italian composers, but
it
with the
maintained in part
out in a richer and
its
affected
it
became
among
Netherlandian composers
the
in
its
character
observable;
is
was worked
Also a gradual change took place in
beginning
in the
rhymes with
change
refined musical manner, at times with imitation

devices.
little
by
little
an
it
was for the most part naively

matter of polished,
art of the court, a
a predilection for bombastic, exaggeratedly passion-
ways of speaking.
ate
was used almost exclusively by
As, however,
jrottola, a
more
Though
cheerful,
was chordal, homo-
original, vertical, chordal form, but
and other contrapuntal

the text.
It
the beginning of the century and began to occupy them-
at
selves seriously
It
polyphonic composition in a very

imitations.
corresponding forms are to be observed
contemporary Spaniards.
overran Italy
few
The
relation
between word and tone
is
not very
intimate in the jrottola in spite of obvious attempts at rapprochement.
In the madrigal, the more refined descendant of the jrottola, expressive

tendencies
felt
is
come
ever
more
distinctly to the fore
between the robust, emotional
text
marked incongruity
music, which is any-
and
and the
thing but overwrought, being excellent but remarkably abstract.
Like-
wise the fanatically humanistic attitude of the time, which placed the
study of the ancient writers and music theorists so prominently in the
foreground, had a pronounced influence upon

expressive musical treatment of the text.
the
People
evolution
now
an
of
heard of the
wonderful influence which the music of the ancients exercised upon their
spirits,
and among
scholars the slogan arose,
(give words living spirit by

all
means
"Dare
of tones)."
spirito vivo alle parole
They began
to strive in
conceivable ways to construct the madrigal in the light of this saying,
but the results in the beginning were strange and rather superficial.
When,
for example,
poems mentioned an
ascent or descent, the
conscientiously attempted in the music the corresponding

the scale.
Musicians did not as yet have
necessary musical
at
any
it
was unthinkable
rate learned
the singer.
was
so
means
sufficient
composer
movements
command
of expression, but they tried persistently,
one thing: a deep respect for the
text.
in
of the
and
From now on
that the placing of the text should simply be left to
Everything essential was carefully prescribed, and the music
composed
that the text, unrestrained,
came
fully into
its
own.

Pope Marcellus IPs famous admonition, which was sent
on Good Friday
singers
work
choral
to the papal
and which ordered the
in 1555
19
selection of a
suited to the sad character of this holiday, as well as the
most careful attention
with the
to clear enunciation of the text, together
re-
formatory attempts of the Tridentine Council which were founded upon

similar views, constitute interesting expressions of the general will to
make music
subordinate to the
sacred music
from the madrigal, where
and
music finds expression
in sacred
masters, such as Palestrina
chiefly
which flourished
directly influenced the later
The
it
first
begins to be noticeable,
with more conservative
it
and the madrigal, the
same time
in Italy at the
as the jrottola,
development of sacred music.
continues to be present.
and means of expression
and great
refined declamation
in
inclination toward the dramatic
nounced, but
transferred to
is
at least
Yet, besides the jrottola
respect for the text.
secular laude,
This tendency
text.
until finally,
and programmatic
It
is
constantly seeks for
less
pro-
new ways
toward the end of the century,
it
way through and creates in the opera the central form from
which practically all modern music comes. The decisive change, however, did not take place in the year 1594 or 1600, but at the moment when
forces
its
the concept appeared that music
means
of portraying
marks the sharp

attitude
human
distinction
toward the
text
is
is
ideas
not merely a decorative factor but a
and emotions.
This
new
point of view
between the older and the newer music; the

decisive in the evolution.
And
this attitude
characterizes especially the music of the later sixteenth century in
parison with that of a century earlier.
It
finement of musical technique and the superior culture.
more
definitely tonal in character
Melodies
use of the dissonance are here especially remarkable.
we must
re-
much
and treated with disproportionately
and
stricter
From our
present
greater architectonic mastery, greater fullness of the chords,
viewpoint
com-
accompanied the general
characterize the music of Palestrina in this manner.
Let us learn something of the judgment of
its
contemporary
theorists.
Vicentino
Vicentino's famous
tica,
work L! Antic a musk a
ridotta alia
moderna
prat-
published in 1555, states excellently the typical contrapuntal theory
of the
sixteenth
Reduced
for
century.
Modern
Even the
Practice,"
is
title,
"The Music
characteristic.
Don
of
Antiquity
Nicola Vicentino,
20
a priest
from Vicenza and
land chapelmaster
Adrian Willaert, the famous NetherMark's church in Venice, was a zealous advocate
at St.
a pupil of
which he considered ancient music.
of everything
In 1546 he published
a collection of "chromatic" madrigals, as
theoretical
work
just
he called them, and

mentioned he demonstrated, according
in the
to
the
ancient models, not only the diatonic but also the chromatic and en-
harmonic tonal systems.
Detailed discussion of this expansive work, to
a great extent decidedly experimental
afield.
and devoted only

would lead us too far
in character
slightly to the practice of the sixteenth century,
Nevertheless various portions, especially those dealing with dia-
tonic music, deserve consideration.
Vicentino emphasizes, for example,
among
that in the composition of madrigals,,
other things,
little
depends
upon the pedantic maintenance of the mode and the like; most important
is to see that life and breath be given the text by the tones and that the
music express the passions and
well as melancholy.
sions of the
feelings, bitter as well as mild, cheerful as
Elsewhere in his book he defends the use in suspen-
augmented
fourth,
for expressing something
which
is
otherwise generally in disfavor,
rough or unpleasant.
The same
line of
thought
can also be observed in the works of Zarlino and other famous theorists
of that time,
though one looks for
preceding century.
It is
it
in vain in theoretical
works of the
a truly typical trait of the sixteenth century.
Otherwise Vicentino, apart from somewhat misguided
efforts to intro-
duce the use of chromaticism and enharmonics, contributes

is
valuable and new.
much
Because he mixes long-known facts and
observations in a confused and unorganized manner, his
that
new
book makes
somewhat unfavorable impression; but it contains sufficient that is ingenious and significant to reveal Vicentino as an intuitive theorist and
keen judge not only of contemporary music but
Especially remarkable
rare at that time
genetic viewpoint.
is
also of the art of the past.
his feeling for history,
when men
which was decidedly
almost never showed any interest in the
In his discussions of the passing dissonances or "dis-
sonanze sciolte" (free dissonances),
this feeling
is
very noticeable.
For
example, he says
The
reader will realize that in music, from time to time, some progress
in old-fashioned
compositions
we can
see
that the composers placed
sonances in whole notes against a breve (which

they
let
the
first
is
is
made;
passing dis-
equal to two whole notes) whereby
be a consonance on the strong beat while the second was a dissonance.

Later they
felt
these dissonances to be too tedious
and abandoned
this
21
manner
of
com-
position; in order to disturb the ear less, they used half notes, the first being consonant
on the strong beat, the second forming a dissonance on the weak beat, and this practice
was continued for some time. Today this custom is no longer common because the
half note as a dissonance is too prominent, and not only it but the quarter note as well
is too sharp a dissonance if it is not used in a proper manner; we therefore are accustomed to use only quarters and eighths as dissonances.
Vicentino here gives us entirely trustworthy historical conclusions,

except that he
is
mistaken
when he
says that dissonant half notes are
completely excluded from the music of his time.

that they occurred
somewhat
less
It
true,
is
however,
frequently then than in earlier times
and that quarter notes appeared more frequently
as dissonances.
Vicentino also makes some pertinent and precise comments concerning
He
quarters.
speaks of three syncope forms: major,
a breve; minor,
is
if it
has the value of a whole note; and minima,
has the duration of a half note.

resolved by the
downward
is
if it
All syncopation dissonances should be
progression of the second, and where possible
an imperfect consonance should follow them because,

nature
the syncopation
if
as
Vicentino writes,
not fond of extremes but prefers the middle way; a perfect con-
sonance would
make
too sharp a contrast with the preceding dissonance.
In addition, Vicentino sets
up the reasonable
rule that the resolving tone
should have half the worth of the syncopation
itself.
One
can also use
syncopations without dissonance as long as syncopations do not occur
simultaneously in
all
parts;
if
they should, one would not be able to get
a clear impression of the syncopation at
all.
After accented half notes, whether syncopated or not, the
first
of
two
quarters descending stepwise can be a dissonance, but only in descending
motion; in the opposite direction only the second, unaccented, quarter

be
made
century
is
a dissonance.
That Vicentino
is
seen especially in the chapter in
which he
concerning the placing of the text under the notes
of imitation
among
easily
is
gives definite rules
such a matter would
scarcely have interested a theorist of an earlier date.
ment
may
a true son of the sixteenth
His detailed
also a typical trait of the century; here
we
treat-
are told,
other things, that in imitation one should keep the voices in an
understandable relation to each other and that imitations
second, seventh, or ninth should be avoided so far as possible.
one should not delay the entrance of the theme

voices too
much,
in the
especially with four beats to a breve.
at the
Further,
accompanying
That
theme
22
which begins on
strong beat
may
be brought in on a weak beat in the
imitation, provides for a valuable variation
One
which
will please the listener.
should avoid bringing in the soprano too high; doing so easily pro-
duces a harsh and unrefined
Vicentino further warns against
efTcct.
beginnings with runs; rapid movements should grow out of slower ones.
And
apparently Vicentino
the
is
first to
introduce the rule concerning the
tonal answer of the fugue theme: that a skip of the fourth
answered by
He
double counterpoint, compositions for several choruses,
also speaks of
and other problems belonging

Vicentino therefore makes
part,
must be
a skip of the fifth in order to preserve the unity of the key.
to a later time.
many
significant observations; for the
most
however, he has not progressed a step beyond the theorists of the
Times have changed and with them style. Therethe music which Vicentino discusses is different from that with
preceding century.
fore
which Tinctoris
real
Both, however, had only vague notions of the
dealt.
problems of counterpoint, simply because for those times, which
received the polyphonic style as a gift at birth, so to speak, such problems

scarcely existed.
But Vicentino
century, of the
is
representative of only a certain aspect of the sixteenth
"modern"
that time; to regard
be wrong, for he
ness
is
him
too
in terms of
what would be regarded modern in

whole sixteenth century would
as typical of the
much
With amazing shrewd-
of an individualist.
and astonishing boldness he discovered for himself the direction
evolution was taking and gave frank expression to his views.

typical of his age insofar as
questions
of
which most concerned the men
which
He
is
he expressed himself regarding some of the

of his time
and for
they were most eagerly striving, although with
the solution
little
success.
Although the sixteenth century quite unmistakably prepared the way for
the seventeenth
music,
it is
than in
its
and with
it
for the rise of emotional, subjectively tinged
clear that this characteristic
deeds.
The
is
manifested more in
depicted by other theorists better and, above
by Vicentino.
pressive
and
It
characterizes this
cut across
and
must be considered,
subjective,
its
attempts
real accomplishments of the sixteenth century are

all,
more temperately than
too, that the
which was predominant
tendency to the ex-
in the century
and which
period in comparison with the preceding epoch, was
by somewhat strong counter-tendencies toward the objective
universal.
23
La Music a Comuna
The
sixteenth century shows a certain preference for an aesthetic con-
musica comuna'/ a phrase which
cept, "la
which means something
The
academic music.
uralness.
It
not easy to translate but
is
comprehensible, regular, perhaps
easily
sixteenth century loves clearness, directness, nat-
wants order,
the superfluous.
like
conformity to
strict
more implacable
rule,
and not too much of
critique than that of the sixteenth
century has never been applied to the fantastic, ceremonious Gothic of the
For
Middle Ages.
century had
work out
it
and
ideas influenced
their art in such a
No wonder
is
highly suggestive of genius,
by romanticism, the sixteenth
The ideal of the composers was to

way that as many as possible could understand
understanding.
little
rejoice in
which
originality
modern
according to
it.
Palestrina
came
which cherished these views.

imitator of nature"
as the greatest representative of
Posterity has rightly called
and indeed
a gifted naturalness
is
him
an epoch
"the great
expressed in
all his
works, a sure feeling for the occasional, the easily comprehensible, in

short, for classical expression.
terized
His
art seeks universality
only slightly concerned with the new; the old
is
is
eternally
essence
is
in depth; experimental expansion of the
expression
is
foreign to
Its
and
is
charac-
by a deep joy in the development and fulfillment of the law.
it.
It is
new
means
It
to
it.
of artistic
the perfect, masterly expression of the
musica comuna, that movement within the music of the sixteenth century
which dedicated
itself to
the past, but
important and typical in the

forward-looking expressive
4 Indicative
art of
which
in
its
way
is
so
much more
music of the time than the more
tendency,
"la
musica reservata"
(as
the
is a letter which a certain Gian, an

agent of the Duke Ercolc Estc
beginning of the sixteenth century. He reports here the following
concerning two of the greatest composers of the century, namely Josquin des Prez and Hcinrich
of
Eerrara,
of this view
wrote
at
the
Isaac:
"I
call
your Highness' attention to the fact that the singer Isaac has been in Ferrara and has
composed
motet on the theme 'La mi la sol la si la mi' which is very good and which he
two days. From this one cannot conclude otherwise than that he works very fast;
besides this, he also composes in such a way that it pleases the people. ... I find that he is
better suited to serve your majesty than Josquin, because he has a more sociable manner and
writes more that is new.
It is true, however, that Josquin composes better; he acts, however,
according to his own desire and pleasure and not according to the wishes of the people."
According to our present standard Josquin is more of a genius than Isaac.
Even so, it is
certain that Isaac, according to the letter, much more nearly met the demands which people of
a
finished in
the sixteenth century
made
of a genius.
24
Netherlander Coclicus called the
To
understand
how
this
latter
about the middle of the century).
music a com una
the Palestrina
style,
the gener-
timewas formulated by the theorists,

we will have to consider a confusing number of statements, several of
which are quite convincing. When we observe, however, the number
of rules which were set up in comparison with the number which might
have been made, we are surprised to find that the former are extremely
few. The greater the interval between the theorist and the time of which
used style of composition of the
ally
he writes, the easier he finds

difficult to see events
near
at
it
formulate a theory.
to
hand
much more
It is
in perspective than to see
them from
a little distance.
The
result of the musical
lawmaking
ever, not only quantitatively slight, but
of the sixteenth century
that composers
and
disclosed their knowledge.

It
possible
also
is
theorists,
known
by the
at all
theorists,
remarkable circumstance which suggests
perhaps for business reasons, only partially
that* a
remark of the German
theorist
that theorists of earlier times spoke so
Luscinius (1487-1537)
how-
even important rules which every
contrapuntist observed often either were not

or they are not mentioned
is,
Ottmar
little
about
everything pertaining to the dissonance only because they regarded this
theme
as
pertaining rather to practice than to theory
apply to musical technique in general, so that
to
we
teachers initiated their pupils into various "secrets"
reasons did not see

It is
well
fit
known
to write
Rome
is,
which they
him were
for various
or to publish.
to
That Palestrina was a kind of conservatory
be sure, only a legend; however,
it
has been proved
that several of the important masters of the generation
following
extended
that several of the great composers of the sixteenth
century engaged in teaching.

director in
down
can be
can assume that the
instructed
and trained by him.
immediately
So far as
we know,
however, he did not leave any written documents which might enlighten
us as to the nature of his instruction.
comes
to our aid in this respect
wrote to the
Duke
is
The only
a letter
which
bit of
he, as a
of Mantua, Guilelmo Gonzaga.
writing which
famous master,
This prince was
the composer of Cremona, for example, that when in Padua

time a copy of Zacconi's Pratlica di musica which appeared in 1592, he
cried out in amazement: "Not for a thousand ducats would I have disclosed the secrets which
5 It
is
told of Costanzo Porta,
he saw for the
this
monk
first
has revealed here,"

zealous musical amateur and
composition for criticism.
had
sent Palestrina
But
Zarlino's doctrines.
this
pieces of his
comments on them
Palestrina's
somewhat general character and
of a
some
mean
are,
own
however,
agreement with
are obviously in
does not
25
them
that Palestrina took
over from the works of that great theorist.
But even
this
paucity of
comment
not by any means remarkable, for
is
history has demonstrated that great composers are often only mediocre
theorists, that
men who
and boldness
in their style are often
display in practice an astounding independence
remarkably naive and helpless in
found
theory, uncritically teaching rules that they have in their time

available in
selves
some book or other and
for the
most part
restricting
them-
merely to generalities.
Porta
Neither Palestrina nor the other great masters of that period wrote
theoretical works.
There
are,
however, in the Liceo Musicale of Bologna
which possesses one of the richest and choicest music

of the
world a few hitherto entirely unnoticed manuscripts of theoretical conlibraries
tent,
which come from important composers
of these
is
One
of the Palestrina style.
manuscript of the sixteenth century designated
as instruction
given by Costanzo Porta (1530 to 1601) to a certain Pater Tomasso
Gratiano of Bagnacavallo.
It
begins with a discussion of the intervals
Then
and follows with
a survey of consonances
the usual section
on the movement of perfect consonances into imperfect,
and dissonances.
of imperfect into perfect, of perfect into perfect,
subsequent remarks on
of note values.
by a quarter.
a case
it
had
initial
so on,
with some
idioms and cadences and on the succession
A whole note best followed by a half, and this in turn

A quarter can, however, also follow a whole, but in such
is
best be dotted.
somewhat
helter-skelter
imaginable
circle-canons,
rules of notation,
practically
and
follows
For the
and includes
rest,
the material
a colorful
ecclesiastical
modes,
mensural theory, and so on.
is
put together
mixture of everything
progressions,
interval
The
treatise
nothing really new or remarkable; rules such
contains
as those
here can be found in other contemporary or earlier theorists
more
given
clearly
and systematically presented.

See
Wagner.
my
study:
"Ueber eincn
Leipzig, 1926.
p,
100.
Brief
Palcstrinas,"
Festschrift
sum
60,
Geburtstag
von
Peter
-6
Giovanni Maria and Bernardino Nanini
The
in
situation
is
somewhat
Bologna and attributed
similar in another manuscript also preserved

to
the
two brothers Giovanni Maria and
Bernardino Nanini, famous composers
who
lived in Palestrina's time
are said to have been closely associated with him.

script as a
whole
is
not remarkable,
it
are surprising in their independence.
we come
across the rule that
this
Here, perhaps for the
first
two quarters may not occur alone
place of the accented half notes in a measure.
We
time,
in the
find also several other
important melodic-rhythmic rules which apparently are not stated
where
and
manudoes contain some passages which

Although
else-
until later in the seventeenth century: for example, the rule that
a stepwise progression in quarters should, so far as possible, be continued

until
if
it
comes
to
an accented half note; on the other hand,
such a movement in quarters ends on an unaccented half unless the
latter
is
tied over
and becomes
The manuscript also states

two steps of a second downward
a syncopation.
a rule that, so far as possible, one or
should follow an ascending skip of a fourth,

I
not so good
it is
know,
therefore, here
fifth,
or octave.
stated for the first time,
is
though
So far
in a
primitive way, the important law concerning proper balance
melody.
wise
Furthermore,
movement
measure;
it is
it is
as
most
of the
taught that an ascending or descending step-
in quarters should not begin
best to let these
movements
on the
first
beat in the
in quarters begin in the place
of the unaccented halves.

If this
manuscript really dates from the time of Palestrina,
able in that
it
it is
remark-
repeatedly anticipates subjects which otherwise were never
formulated and discussed until the theorists of the seventeenth century.
By and large, however, there is no essential difference between this source

and the other more official, theoretical works of the sixteenth century.
There is therefore hardly any reason for assuming that practical musicians surpassed the real theorists in knowledge to a degree worth mention-
granted
ing
that, in
accordance with a
only the rougher working
tacit
agreement, they published
rules.
Zarlino
Although the contrapuntal teaching of the sixteenth century by no
means encompassed the
positive side of the contrapuntal problem, several
27
things lead us to conclude that the peculiarities of the polyphonic type of
composition were by no means

Zarlino, the
most important
repeatedly that
harmony
unknown
For example,
to the theorists.
theorist of the sixteenth century, declared
arose out of melodies sounding simultaneously.
Also with regard to the concept of melody, he took more pains than any
him just as in general he treated all aspects of technique

more fundamental way than they were ever treated before. In
the Palestrina style itself, as is well known, the rule held that only perfect,
major, and minor intervals could be used in melodies, and that all these
intervals up to the fifth could be used without restriction in both directions.
Also the octave could be used, both ascending and descending,
while all other skips, with the exception of the minor sixth ascending,
7
were forbidden. Of this rule, Zarlino writes as follows:
theorist before
in a
The
octave, fifth, fourth,
and
third can be used, as well as the tenth,
One
uses (as a matter of fact he uses the twelfth in "Inviolata").
dissonances such as the minor and major second.

infrequently, ninth
still
and sevenths are used,
One
can observe today.
posers, avoid using the
One
sees at
as
one has observed in good masters and

is the practice with modern com-
should, however, as
augmented
fourth, the diminished fifth,
once that Zarlino, whose work
first
first
and similar
present the actual set of rules of the Palestrina

at that
Palestrina
and
it
is
That
style.
time for obvious reasons.
was not unusual, while
its
use
is
It is
work
already to be found in the famous
melody with larger
a rule they restrict
of the composition largely depends
Zarlino.
C,
says
but the rule
of the Swiss theorist
valuable
more
as a
is
in
no wise
striking.
themselves to generalities, such as Zarlino's assertion
that the voices should progress quietly
is
sixth,
Zarlino and the later theorists of the cen-
tury have to say about the finer melodic relations
As
something
worth noting that Zarlino
Glarean, in the Dodecachordon, which otherwise
What
is
extremely rare in the compositions of
his contemporaries.
collection of examples.
developed
For example, with
nothing concerning the possibility of using the minor

for
it
and that he does not
these earlier composers, such a freer treatment of the

skips
intervals.
appeared in 1558, deals
half of the sixteenth century in Italy,
he could not do
likewise uses
true that occasionally, but very
It is
principally with the practice of the Netherland composers as
during the
which Josquin
and stepwise, because the beauty
upon
this
VUtitutioni harm o niche, Tuttc l'Opere.
method.
Venice,
The requirement
1589.
Vol.
I,
pp.
251
fT.
28
that stepwise
movement predominate
is
based chiefly upon the idea that
such a treatment produces something which
is
easier to sing.
example, that melodies should move stepwise so far
says, for
because this method
is
with nature and
in accord
Artusi
as possible
same time
at the
is
convenient for the singer too; and in a contrapuntal work: Dialogo del
Don
Pietro Pontio Parmigiano, dating
custom of the time,
"How
arranged in the form of a dialogue, the pupil asks:
when he
art of this period,
mand
harmony
And
intervals."
to another;
Artusi
follows
such a basis for the laws
for a voice leading that
reason and
may
similar
it
of
line
confronts the
In view of the decidedly vocal character of the

is
quite comprehensible, but
nevertheless a certain superficiality about
doubtless based
by having proper,
forbids the chromatic step because
singer with difficulties.
is
sing with ease and
master replies: "By letting the parts proceed step-
wise and in progressions from one
thought
may
what one composes?"
this question, the
well-proportioned
there
1595, which, according to a
should one proceed in order that singers
pleasure
To
is
from
is
much more on
The
it.
insistent de-
stepwise and even, as far as possible,

a psychological than
on any
was
practical
very well have been connected partly with the strong
urge toward the simple and natural, which
and partly with an unconscious tendency

polyphonic element
is
characteristic of this century,
to strengthen
as against the chordal,
which
is
and
fortify the
noticeably gaining
in influence during the century.

If
we
turn
now
to the treatment of the dissonance,
to observe that dissonances for the
ornaments for consonances.
as
characteristic
most part were
What
we
will be surprised
still
regarded chiefly
Zarlino thinks in this respect
is
Although every composition, every counterpoint, indeed even every harmony is

and preferably made up of consonances, one nevertheless uses dissonances too,
although quite secondarily and incidentally {per accidente) in order to further the
beauty and ornamentation dissonances, which, although they sound somewhat unpleasant standing alone, are not only bearable but actually refresh and please the ear
These dissonances afford the
if they are introduced in a suitable and lawful manner.
musician two (among other) advantageous possibilities of significant value: the first
is that a dissonance may aid one to progress from one consonance to another; the
second advantage is that dissonances heighten the pleasure of the consonances which
follow immediately after them, just as light is much more pleasant and lovely to the
chiefly
Zarlino op.
cit.,
p.
212.
29
follows darkness, and just as something mild seems so much better and sweeter
something bitter. Experience teaches us that the ear which is hurt by a dissonance finds the consonance which immediately follows so much the more charming
and beautiful. For this reason the musicians of old were of the opinion that not only
eye
if it
after
and imperfect consonances should be used
perfect
in their compositions, but disson-
ances as well; they realized that the beauty of their compositions could be enhanced by
Compositions which are made up solely of consonances may

effect; but there is something imperfect
the use of the latter.
themselves sound good and have a beautiful
about them both melodically and harmonically in that the charm which may arise
from the use of contrast is lacking. And although I have said that one should for the
most part use consonances in composition and that dissonances should be used only
secondarily and more incidentally, one must not therefore assume that the latter can
be used without any rule or order, for from this use only confusion would arise.
With
respect to the treatment of dissonances, Zarlino's chief rule
may
that they
not occur in note-against-note writing or on the accented
part of the measure, because they are too obtrusive there.

half note
is
which may form a dissonance, and yet this

weak beat (hence on the second and fourth half
notes in a measure), and there

is
in the
Ordinarily the
the longest value
is
admissible only on the
That
is
to say,
same
not allowed
if
In a progression by skip only consonances
on the other hand,

is,
permissible only in conjunct motion.
approached and quitted stepwise and
For quarter notes approximately the same
at all.
quarters (that
is
But half-note dissonances that move by skip are
direction.
as for half notes.
it is
the dissonance
if
the
movement
rules apply
may
be used;
progresses by step the unaccented
may
the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth quarters)
be
dissonances.
Vicentino expresses this most briefly and clearly:

In composition one ordinarily uses a consonance as the
a dissonance as the second, a
fourth.
first
quarter in a measure,
consonance as the third, and a dissonance again as the
Where, however, only two quarters occur, and where these follow
a synco-
pated whole note or a half note and the progression moves in a descending direction,
the second
and not the
other hand, the
first
movement
two quarters must be
of these
is
ascending, the
first
a consonance;
if,
on the
quarter must be consonant, the
second dissonant.
Artusl, Tigrini, Ravn,
What
Zarlino and Vicentino teach with respect to the treatment of the
dissonance
''
and Sweelinch^
is
supplemented by Artusi
L' An tica musica ridotta alia
10
moderna
L'Arte del contraponto (1598),
p.
prattica
56.
as follows:
(1555),
p.
32
10
v.
"In stepwise motion,
30
composers commonly write two quarters
as
dissonances (in immediate
succession) and thereby obtain an excellent effect."
canon
Arezzo who
ot
musica, writes:
dclla
kind
ot a
such a
in
"
Oratio Tigrini, a
"Practical musicians,
if
they have to
cadence with the use of four quarters, ordinarily
way
Compendio
make any
arrange them
1588 published an excellent work,
forms
a dissonance."
Apart from
some explanatory examples which follow, Tigrini gives us only the most
meager information. He states merely that idioms of this sort are in
in
that the third quarter
general use and that Artusi regards the succession of two dissonances
(second and third quarters)

Tigrini does
nation.
make
as the
most remarkable feature of the combi-
the interesting observation, however, that
we
find this use of the accented quarter-note dissonance chiefly in cadences.
The Danish music
Hans Mikkelsen Ravn (Corvinus), who in

1646 published a well-written but not especially original work on music
theory, Heptachordum danicum, apparently bases his observations on
Artusi. At any rate, he writes, "In stepwise motion the first and last
quarters are consonant." He then introduces some explanatory examples
which
theorist
are quite in accord with Artusi, but
which he apparently took
from the Compositionsregeln Herrn M. Jokan Peterssen Sweetthe work of the famous Dutch organ composer Sweelinck, a pupil of
directly
ing,
Zarlino.
Here the example which corresponds
may make
with the statement: "Thus one

bad, but the
first
and the
last
any
rate
we
find
it
given in connection
both of the middle quarters
must be good."
based upon rather superficial considerations,

at
is
is
But
this rule,
apparently
which
much
is
older;
already in Pietro Aron's Toscanella in music a, a
work which appeared
in 1523 in Venice.
consonance and dissonance

author requires that the
is
first
stated in a
and
last
Here the
relation
between
most remarkable manner; the
of the four notes
which may follow
either a breve or a whole note must be consonant, though the two middle
may be
notes
dissonant.
The Seventeenth Century: Some
Pedagogical Developments
Cerone
We
only
11
obtain really satisfactory information on quarter-note dissonances
much
Page 33.
later,
through the
Italian Pietro Cerone,
who
for a
number
of

years
was
a singer at the court
chapel
Madrid, and
at
who
epoch-making work, El Melopeo,
lished in Spanish his
imposing not merely because of
whelming abundance
We
its size.
find in
it
31
in 1613 pub-
work
that
is
an almost over-
of excellent observations as well as valuable in-
formation about the use of dissonances on the third of four quarters.
Concerning
this
matter Cerone writes:
llj
Only in cases where the part moves downward conjunctly in four quarters and
where these quarters introduce a cadential device, is it permissible for the first and
fourth quarters to be consonant while the second and third are dissonant. One
should notice especially that under such circumstances all four quarters must move
stepwise downward and also that the note which follows the fourth and last quarter
is the upper second to this.
Cerone's rules are almost perfectly in accord with the laws which are
observed in the Palestrina
style: stepwise
descending movement of four
quarters and then a step of the second upwards,
melodic idiom:
vation
is
=j= ---" ==
which
gives the following
Nevertheless, even
Cerone's obser-
not entirely exhaustive, for in actual practice the figure just cited
almost always occurs in combination with a suspension dissonance in one

of the other parts.
particular
form
Cerone mentions,
just
Tigrini does, that the
as
of the quarter-note dissonance referred to occurs only in
cadences; that he
is
not thinking here exclusively of cadential formulas
with suspensions, however,
is
sufficiently evident
from the musical exam-
ples given.
Otherwise with respect to the treatment of quarters

is
remarkable that the so-called auxiliary notes,
common
in practice, receive only slight attention
the most part they are not mentioned at
all;
13
as dissonances,
which
from the
it
are unusually
theorists.
For
when any theorist does menOf the following idioms,
tion them, he usually merely forbids them.
Artusi says
it is
best for the highest tone of the
first, as
well as the lowest
12
El Melopeo (1613), p. 650.

Drehnoten I mean by this the device which consists of
lower second and subsequent return to the principal tone, thus:
13
= z==z
or
=:==:=:
"turning"
with
the
upper or
32
many seem
tone of the second, to be consonant, not dissonant as
rr
It
is
further worth
which
is
by the
theorists,
note
ap-
repeated (in which the dissonance normally can
although
everywhere in
it is
music of the sixteenth century.
tical
when an unaccented
arises
have only the duration of a quarter)
all
<v
noting that the so-called anticipation dissonance
(Portamentodissonanz)
proached from above
^Wf
to think.
Still
is
not mentioned
common
at
use in the prac-
more remarkable, however, is

and sixteenth cen-
the fact that one of the favorite devices of the fifteenth

turies, the so-called
theorists
noticed.
and even
cambiata,
not discussed by any of the contemporary
is
in the seventeenth century does not
"Cambiata"
is
the
name given
to a figure
seem
which
to
have been
arises
when an
unaccented dissonant quarter, introduced by step from above, instead of

continuing the conjunct motion downward, makes a skip of a third
downward and
is
followed by a step of a second upward, thus reaching
the tone of resolution, although
late.
very fond of using this device.
Angelo Berardi, who wrote

as
Berardi
calls
them
As has been
said,
Certain theorists,
composers were
among whom was
in 1689, introduce various "note
(literally,
"changing notes").
cambiate"
He means
by
this
term, however, chiefly figures like those previously mentioned in which

the
first
of
two descending quarters
after
an accented half forms a
sonance, or where the third of four quarters
know, the idiom with the skip

cambiata for the
first
So far
a dissonance.
is
of a third
is
dis-
as
especially designated as
time in 1725, the year in which the Austrian royal
chapelmaster Johann Joseph
Fux published
counterpoint, Gradus ad Parnassum.
his
famous textbook on
Concerning the treatment of eighth
notes, the theory of the sixteenth century has
nothing
much
to say,
and
concerning suspension-dissonances, the later theorists of this century say

little
more than Vicentino; about
the forms of composition and the like,
however, they do offer a great deal of information which
is
most
signifi-
cant in the study of the musical style of the Palestrina period but which
does not directly affect the special problem of counterpoint.
33
In summary, the music theory of the sixteenth century by no
same
perhaps
with even more justification
One must marvel
twentieth century.
which the time attempts
to describe
was more straightforward, valuable
changed
till
yet too
is
music theory of the
and
objectivity
with
music; in scarcely any other
field
work accomplished. These

the modern sense, for special
scientific
dissertations are not, of course, textbooks in
pedagogical concern
about
at the clarity
its
means
Indeed, one might say the
exhausts or covers contemporary practice.
much
in the
background
a situation un-
the development of the teaching of the "species" in the next
century.
two movements made themcomuna based rather upon the past.
In the sixteenth century, as has been said,

selves felt.
The
was
first
a musica
Especially evident in the music of the church,
secular music
clearly
its
movement prepared
tury with
its
found
most
its
distin-
the
and that church music which was more strongly influenced
by the madrigal, with

latter
it
The second movement was
guished representative in Palestrina.
new
the
emphasized expressive tendencies.
way
for the
The
music of the seventeenth cen-
forms: the opera, the solo-cantata, the concerto, and
others.
There has been
tendency to regard the events which took place about
1600 as a radical revolution in music.

in their tendencies
situation at the
than in their
But they were revolutionary rather
initial
manifestations.
The
musical
end of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the
seventeenth reveals, upon closer examination, a comparatively even tran-
from one musical
sition
The
style to another.
decisive factor really appeared at the
century,
when
the need for
making music
beginning of the sixteenth
serve the ends of poetic expres-
was first clearly manifested. This urge had no very striking results
show at first. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, however,
received a renewed, decisive strengthening from without, from the
sion
to
it
realm of
literature.
The
opera was created
dramatic form which in
the beginning used a kind of music as inadequate to express

desired as the madrigal music of the sixteenth century.
ever,
was present and
persisted
until
finally,
mastery over the musical means of expression,

jective
it
after
The
gaining
attained
its
what was
will,
how-
sufficient
goal: a sub-
music able to give expression to the feelings and passions of the
individual.
34
This development was made possible

removal of the
strict
by replacing the
first,
through the
polyphonic weaving of the voices of the preceding

style.
The
placed by the major and minor
scales.
became more
many ways:
treatment of dissonances according to law, further
artistic
time with a more chordal
tions
in
old ecclesiastical
The
refined, a sharper distinction
and instrumental writing, and shorter note
modes were
re-
feeling for tonal combina-
was made between vocal
values,
more
energetic
move-
ments, and stronger rhythmic accents were introduced.

Berardi
Doubtless the reason the theorists clearly comprehend the trend of
whole development
relatively early, in
so quickly
1689,
we
is
that the time
was
ripe for
this
Thus
it.
example, in a theoretical work,
find, for
Miscellanea music ale, by the previously mentioned canon Angelo Berardi

of Viterbo, a historical survey
cerning what was then

cussions of
Two
which
my
in
opinion
essential in the situation
is
better oriented con-
than most modern
dis-
Berardi writes:
it.
based upon Plato's words: music

which modern music belongs, but the
situation is reversed, for here music is servant of the text.
This music is called the
second practice because consonances and dissonances had to be used other than those
is
styles of
master of the
music are in use today: the
text; the
second
style
is
used in the practice of earlier composers.
first is
that to
In their compositions, our predecessors have,
for example, never used dissonant intervals such as diminished fifths, the tritone,
other dissonances.
new
These, recently introduced in the second practice,
"Lasciate
which
are necessary to express the
mi morire" ("Let me
works
of various
die"), the diminished fourth in a
signed to arouse the sympathy of the listener.
Nenna)
and
possible
words and which, if used in appropriate

famous composers attest. Montethe "Lament of Arianna," for example, introduces with the opening words
effects
places, are free of all banalities, as
verdi in
make
uses the
And Nenna
way
effectively de-
(the madrigalist
Pompeo
interval in the first of his four-part madrigals at the
same
word
Cipriano de Rore uses the augmented fourth in his madrigal "Voiche m'invitta amove" at the words, "Dolce mia vita" ("My sweet life!"), and
Giaches de Wert employs the same interval in the madrigal "Misera non" at the word
"umilita" ("humility").
"essangue" ("lifeless"); in addition Luca Marenzio and other excellent masters use
them, as the r works clearly indicate. And many examples can be found in which
;
modern comoosers use

cians in
genial
the seventh, too, unprepared
try to supplant the practice of
and accented.
former times,
Modern musi-
in that they seek to give
impressive expression to the text in order better to arouse the feelings and passions of
Our predecessors employed only
the listeners, as our predecessors were unable to do.
one and the same
stvle
and mode of treatment of consonances and dissonances,
in all
35
works they published. If we turn, for example, to Palestrina, the prince and
though by no means an especially old composer, we find only a slight
difference between the style of his motets (sacred compositions) and that of his secular
the
father of music,
madrigals.
And if we examine these secular songs with French and Flemish texts, printed
during 1545, 1546, 1549, 1550, and 1552 and composed by such masters as Crequillon,
Janluys, Petit, Jean de Lattre, Baston, Clemens non Papa, Ricourt, Josquin, Adrian,
Verdelot, and
many
other composers of various nations,
we
find here, too, very
little
and sacred compositions. One difference is that the

movements of the former are somewhat more lively where the words are gay and
playful, as in the songs "La bella Margarita," "La Girometta," and "La Battaglia" of
Jannequin and Verdelot. If, however, the content of the text is serious, then there is
little or no difference with respect to style and the treatment of consonances and dissonances between the masses and motets of these masters and their madrigals. From
difference between secular songs
obvious that the earlier composers
this
it is
and
that they used
it
knew
only one
for sacred as well as secular music.
way of writing, one style,

Modern composers have at
on the other hand, three style-species: a style for religious music, a style
and a dramatic style for the theater. And yet there are, as has
two kinds of practice (two chief style-species): in the first music is the
their disposal,
for domestic music,
been
said,
master of the
text,
but in the second the servant of the
Berardi goes as far as
this.
But
it is
text.
somewhat
of his clear conception of the difference
surprising that, in spite
between the music of
his
own
time and that of the preceding century, the rules of counterpoint which
he formulated should be almost identically the same

have very
little
do with the new
to
otherwise such a zealous supporter.
but also of
but hold
all theorists
own
without intention.
practice, of
The same
is
which he seems
true not only of Berardi,
of the seventeenth century: they preach the
Only
fast to the old.
idioms of their
those of the
Berardi's rules of counterpoint, there-
theorists of the sixteenth century.

fore,
as
occasionally one or another of the musical
time creeps into their musical examples
We
face
contrast between
probably
theory and practice
Yet
doubtless unparalleled in the earlier or later history of music.
should probably be taking this relation too seriously,
some conscious process

explanation
is
tion
of reasoning
we were
to
assume
at the root of the matter.
new
style, in spite
of
its
not well adapted to pedagogical uses.
lies in
if
we
The
conceivable, however, that the theorists of the seventeenth
century believed the

teristics,
new
the general
human
tendency
otherwise valuable charac-
Or perhaps
to resist
change, in
the explanainertia.
In
the course of the sixteenth century, contrapuntal theory had attained so
36
solid
it
an organization that
it
was not
to be cast aside casually;
if
necessary
could continue to exist for a time independent of practice.
Although we
find, in the seventeenth century, for the
same contrapuntal
rules as in Zarlino, Vicentino,
new element
way
in the
new element brings the
theorists of that
what we now regard
relationship with
cal
the teaching system
itself
most part the
and Artusi, there

was worked
time into a
much more
as counterpoint,
from
is
This
out.
intimate
a pedagogi-
viewpoint.
The Cant us Firmus and the
Species
For modern musicians counterpoint
and the
associated with the idea of a cantus firmus
the cantus firmus
is
we
concerned,
pedagogical term
as a
"species."
is
closely
So far
as
find this idea not only in the seven-
teenth century but also in the theorists of earlier times.
Originally
it
was not motivated by pedagogical considerations, but was taken over into
theory without further deliberation because
role in the earlier polyphony.
music,
it
rule
may
be
up
set
as a
this
it is
at a
so far varied that
viewpoint one may, with a certain
to this time, after a
ideas.
primary law in the evolution of
music: from a certain form A, one arrives

gradually until finally
up
played a very important
embodies one of the oldest and most profound musical
The following
From
it
Closely related to the innermost nature of
new form
it
B, by varying
justification,
regard
all
music
thousand years of continuous modification,
gigantic process of variation.
It is
becomes the new form B.
as a
an unending chain of variations,
all
naturally standing in more or less obvious relation to the theme, but all
having one thing in common, namely, the visible or invisible, actual or
ideal cantus firmus, to which they are linked and upon which they
continue to build. Polyphony itself is based upon this principle of variation in one of
its
most primitive forms, the
in the evolution of
of
our music
polyphony are transmitted
so-called
heterophony (which
before the time from which the examples
lies
to us).
certain rather accidental kind of
In heterophony there arises
polyphony when
several voices sing the
same melody simultaneously while each singer or instrumentalist
varies
melody according *o his inclination. And in the previously mentioned organum, which is the oldest western European form of polyphony
preserved for us, the compositions are built up by adding one or more
the
upper parts to
Gregorian melody.
This principle of construction
is

retained in the motet writing of the twelfth
indeed
The
influence
its
cantus firmus
and thirteenth
now
it is
an
ecclesiastical
melody or
occurs generally in the tenor but occasionally in

And
firmus technique
often of a
is
one of the other
For example, one no
all
voices in succession to use certain motives taken
deeper basis in the fact that music displays a certain gravitating tend-
ency and inertia in
this
its
evolution and adheres to
On
technique can assert
itself
in the process of
describing a style as best
Contrapuntal theory
is
it
it
is
its
principles with
first
more remarkable
that
within contrapuntal theory and that
it
only rarely treat the cantus firmus in such
Meanwhile
an obvious manner.
is
the other hand,
when composers
retained
theory
it
but here the cantus
felt,
melody.
remarkable tenacity).
is
was strongly
ideal character.
Hence it was not at all remarkable that the

Middle Ages should accept this technique (which thus has
this basic
theorists of the
its
more
obliged to give to a single voice the sole right to the cantus
felt
firmus, but allowed
from
a folk
for a long time, in fact until the ordinarium compositions of
the sixteenth century, this principle
longer
centuries;
strongly felt until well into the fifteenth century.
is
whether
song
voices.
37
it
is
quite significant that contrapuntal
changing from a discipline concerned with
can to one which emphasizes pedagogical ends.
not content merely to formulate the rules which
which
observes in practice or
it
thinks
it
observes there;
it
begins to
consider methods which will lead growing composers quickly and thor-
oughly
to the
mastery of the technique of music, methods particularly
them
useful to
in practice.
It
is
no longer
technique of the great composers and then
models
as best
are devised
to
describe the
the students imitate these
Special exercises involving special difficulties
they can.
which
let
sufficient
from
are not taken
signed to attain the goal
more
actual music, but
quickly.
which
are de-
These attempts appear most
clearly in the system of "species."
A common,
identical
end; but
in the
popular conception of counterpoint
is
to think that
Here the means
is
confused with the
with the "five species."

it
last
shows
how
closely the teaching of species has
it
is
become entwined
centuries with the definition of counterpoint.
At present
nearly every textbook of counterpoint divides the material according to

species.
However much
the views of the different authors
may
diverge,
they do agree, with very few exceptions, in the teaching of the species.
outline history of contrapuntal theory
38
The Eighteenth Century: The

Fax and
Style of Bach
the Species
This principle of division, with a motivation similar to that of more

recent textbooks,
author of
we
find
first
in the
highly respected composer, Johann Joseph Fux.

for instructional
others,
where
significance,
is
The
famous Gradus ad Parnassum.
book, published in Vienna in 1725 by royal subsidy, was the
this
This book
used
still
is
purposes in the editions of Bellerman, Haller, and

has been changed in
Its
practical
which no other work on contrapuntal theory has
attained,
it
due not only
less essential points.
to the pedagogically excellent
arrangement of the material
so that the difficulties increase gradually, but also partly to the fact that
Fux was one of the

point. The earlier
own
time
or,
first
more modern
to take a
theorists either concentrate
attitude
toward counter-
on the practice of
their
perhaps in accordance with long-established custom, follow
the theories of their predecessors without considering contemporary prac-
Fux, however, was fully aware that one
tice.
in the matter of
is
confronted with a choice
music theory; one does not learn everything of
cance from any one style-species.
Every
style
has
its
signifi-
particular technique
and therefore one must know exactly why he chooses some particular
style rather
than another
of the sixteenth
as the basis of instruction.
and seventeenth
Most of the
theorists
centuries, without giving the matter
work on the music about them and only

made some comment to the effect that this or that idiom is
modern or that another is old-fashioned or less usable. Fux,
further consideration, based their

occasionally
beautiful or
however, leaves the music of his
own
time, the Bach-Handel epoch,
and
chooses consciously and with clear foresight the music of Palestrina as

the basis of his teaching.
This
is
certainly not merely a matter of the
years old when he wrote

Fux was
for Fux belongs by no means the reaction-
conservatism of older people

the
Gradus ad Parnassum
aries
who
hold on with tooth and nail
sixty-five
to
to
what was the law
in their youth,
even though he speaks sharply about contemporary music, which,

writes in the
German
edition of his book, "has almost
become
as
he
perverse."
He is in fact a free spirit, a man who thinks practically and independently,

who recognizes the weaknesses of his own time to the minutest detail and
who seeks an effective remedy. But Fux's superiority has often been

The German
unrecognized.
39
Enlightenment,
theorist of the Period of
Kirnberger, in 1782 wrote a study called Gedanken uber die verse hiede-
nen Lehrarten
{Thoughts on the Various Methods
in der {Composition
of Teaching Composition) in which he criticizes Fux's procedure on the

ground that it is too "strict" {rein). Kirnberger examines Fux's method
in connection with the
does not correspond.

the
same
Fux
music of
own
his
time and rejects
Later theorists even to our
own
it
time have repeated
objections.
therefore chooses the style of Palestrina as his basis,
demonstrative manner indeed: in his preface he
whom
splendid light in music to
Even
science."
still
a very
Palestrina "that
calls
owe everything
stronger than his ability to do
is
intermixes elements of his
quite possibly
and in
know
of this
Fux's desire to learn and the will to master the teach-
if
ing of Palestrina
whole
because
it
own contemporary music
without realizing
a valuable
so,
it
nevertheless
his
work, especially with respect
and although he
in his discussions
Gradus
is
on the
division
to
and
organization of the material.
Fux
proceeds, as
easier to
more
have
difficult.
said,
He
by
from simple
steps
to
complex, from
begins the practical part of his book with
two-part counterpoint, and eventually goes on to three- and four-part

counterpoint, and then to imitation, to the fugue, and to double counterpoint.
he
sets
For each particular kind of writing, two-,
up the same
an upper
part,
five exercises or species.
and
three-,
In the
first
four-part,
species
he adds
then a lower part in whole notes to the cantus firmus, so
that the counterpoint
moves "note against note"
the preceding centuries contrapunto semplice.
same principle taught

in this species at
all.
in the
Fux
in earlier times, that dissonances
But he does not proceed,
theorists of the fifteenth
and sixteenth
as
form
called in
here teaches the
may
not be used
was the custom of the
centuries, directly
from simple
counterpoint, note against note, to that with motion, the so-called counter-
point by diminution in which different note values and rhythms are
used in an entirely free manner.

tematically
and
Instead
in the second species sets
note in the cantus firmus.
Fux continues
two half notes
to each
ters are
sys-
whole
Dissonances are admitted in this species only
on the unaccented portion of the measure, and then only

treated as passing notes.
quite
if
they arc
In the third species, consequently, four quar-
written against each whole note in the cantus firmus.
Here
the
40
weak
just
and fourth notes of each measure, may dissonate
quarters, the second
the second species
as in
third quarter
may be
as passing notes.
In Fux's opinion the
dissonant provided both of the quarters which
it on either side are consonant.

Where Fux found this rule I do
know; possibly he formulated it himself. At any rate it is not based
upon the practice of the Palestrina style. In this species, furthermore,
Fux mentions, apparently for the first time in music theory, the cambiata.
adjoin
not
In the fourth species again only half notes are used, but this time as
Every unaccented half
suspensions.
cented note.
tied over to the succeeding ac-
is
These accented half notes introduced by
sonate, but then they
must descend stepwise
portion of the measure.
ties
Finally the fifth species
may
dis-
unaccented
to the following
the so-called contra-
is
punctus florid us ("flowering" counterpoint) and corresponds to the con-
Fux
trapunto diminuto of the earlier theorists.

ticularly detailed rules but
introduces here no par-
he does observe that two isolated quarters
may
occur in the place of an accented half note only under certain restrictions.
This rhythmical arrangement of the species

vention.
The beginnings
of the sixteenth century.
work by Girolamo
notes (that
is,
mixed note
11
however, not Fux's
in-
Transilvano (1597), a well-known theoretical
Diruta, for the
time
first
the second species of Fux).
in syncopated halves
is,
of this procedure are found toward the end
and then
treats
counterpoint in half
After that comes counterpoint
in quarters,
and
finally exercises
with
values.
In Adriano Banchieri's Cartella music ale, a
1614 in Venice,
species as in
we
Fux:
find almost exactly the

first,
work which appeared
in
same arrangement of the
counterpoint in note against note, then two
halves against each whole note of the cantus firmus; after that, four
quarters, then syncopated half notes.
species,"
name
to
Banchieri mentions
the
However,
contrapunto fugato.
so-called
it
introduces a theme which
answered in the fifth later in the same part.

ostinato, in
at all
Then
is
follows the contra-
which the contrapuntal part has complete rhythmic
freedom within the

tones,
This
implies that the contrapuntal part imitates and obviously attempts
produce the illusion of a fugue in that
punto
in place of the "fifth
limits of a
melodic motive, an ascending scale of
which therefore must be rhythmically varied
so that
it
six
conforms
times to the cantus firmus.
Finally, Zacconi's Prattica di musica (1622), an excellent
and more

comprehensive work, introduces in the second part
in exact order:
whole
41
Fux
the
all
and mixed
notes, halves, quarters, syncopations,
number
In addition to these five species, Zacconi has a large
values.
species
of
other exercises: examples for counterpoint in which only stepwise move-
ment may occur and for counterpoint

which only skips are allowed; examples
a scalewise descending motion
in
in just the opposite
for imitatione per diretto,
answered
is
manner,
after the
manner
in
where
of the fugue
one and the same voice, and for imitatione per contrario, in which a
descending scalewise progression

in the
same part)
to think
up
and
number
imitated in the inversion (likewise
is
This tendency
of other similar species.
artificial, difficult exercises
seems
grow
to
in the course of
the seventeenth century.
In one of the most representative works of this century on the theory of

music, the
Documenti armonici
tioned before,
we
find, for
of
Angelo Berardi, who has been men-
example, a countless number of such
tricks,
which may possibly have stimulated the imagination of the pupil but
which were otherwise hardly of great
Berardi begins with the
value.
contrapunto alia zoppa ("limping" counterpoint) in which the rhythm

J
is
maintained
stepwise, progression, in
Then
strictly.
which
skips
Berardi presents counterpoint in
may
not occur
"skipping" counterpoint in which stepwise
the next chapter he introduces counterpoint in
the dotted half note,
is
which
and
finally a
forbidden.
is
In
a single note value,
used and follows this with counterpoint which
maintains the following rhythm
treats
at all,
movement
throughout:
counterpoint which moves exclusively in the rhythm j

:
and many other kinds of invariable rhythms.
He
J) J # J).
Berardi
tells
next
J) J)
further, as does
Banchieri, of contrapunto fugato and ostinato and in addition of counter-
point in which certain intervals such as
fifths,
octaves or tenths are
forbidden; of counterpoint in free note values in which dissonances
may
not occur
at all; of
counterpoint in ternary measure; and of counter-
point in saltarello, which moves in a certain dance rhythm:

J
In short, his
power of invention
is
almost inexhaustible.
However
color-
42
and confused
ful
all
this
may seem and however

may be inclined to
tendency here manifested deserves attention;
it
significance in
little
contrapuntal instruction one
attribute
to
it,
the
gives evidence of a certain
urge toward pedagogical arrangement of the material on the part of the
The examples which
theorist.
they introduce in their books are no
longer taken directly from actual compositions but constructed by the
Obviously no composer writes a compo-
respective authors themselves.

sition of
any length which progresses, for example, exclusively in halves
or quarters.
And
yet
may
it
be quite appropriate that the pupil should
disregard rhythmical problems and concentrate completely
at first
the treatment of the melodic line
which
difficulties,
arise out of the
to
come up only
be
difficult to find
clusively;
and
way
may
and
theoretical trifles
move
likewise
stepwise ex-
which employs only conjunct motion and maseven melody to a cantus firmus.
many
entirely superfluous exercises
were introduced in textbooks of the seventeenth
Fux
century; not until
is
would
of writing builds a reserve which will help a composer
cannot be denied, however, that
to five
It
conclude with some justification that the
to write a very free, flowing,

It
these.
compositions in which the voices
one
yet
upon
so that the further
combination of rhythms, are allowed
he has fully mastered
after
practice of counterpoint
tery of this
and the dissonance
takes the matter in hand, reducing the species
and increasing the
difficulties successively, is a
form evolved which
really practical for pedagogical purposes.
With
the
first
half of the eighteenth century, therefore, the primitive
stage of contrapuntal theory
is left
behind.
One no
down
longer writes
without reservation or critique the rules which he observes or believes he

observes in practice, but he begins to reason about
if
he considers
sure, a
this desirable;
much more
he
selects
harmonic
an entirely
new
them and
rejects.
The
to stylize
situation
is,
them
to be
complicated one than that in the sixteenth century.
In the interim an art has developed

sively, a
and
basis.
As
which has
definitely, almost exclu-
a result, in musical theory there has arisen
discipline: the thoroughbass system of instruction,
develops within a short time into the theory of harmony, with
plementary concept, counterpoint.
which
its
com-
Therefore, in describing music, one
must choose between the two methods where formerly there was no
choice.
Along with
this
development, polyphonic music attained
its
second

climax in the
We
Bach.
Bach
From now on
and although most

is
Johann Sebastian
are faced with a further choice in contrapuntal theory:
or Palestrina?
tions;
half of the eighteenth century with
first
43
have decided in favor of Palestrina,
theorists
among whom
not wanting in followers,
personalities.
One
of the
Bach
contrapuntal theory divides in two direc-
are
possibly the
first theorists,
many important
first,
to follow
Bach
was Kirnberger.
Kirnberger
Johann Philipp Kirnberger,

throughout his
life
personality of the
who
studied with Bach in Leipzig, retained
which he received from the
the deep impression

great master;
in
he even seemed somewhat
fact
ridiculous to his contemporaries because of the obvious fanaticism with
which he defended everything pertaining

His critique of every
art other
to Bach's
honor and greatness.
than Bach's was harshly derogatory, yet
he did not seem to have a truly
critical
Grundgedan\en uber
The
responsible for the best
unity and character, but
viewpoint.
and Fux, who
in his opinion are
Berardi's style displays
point.
little
not to be
Bononcini, to be sure,
may
be
less
limited in his
but he does not take care that the character of the
style,
consist
recommended because of its very

he does not discuss various more modern
it is
Besides,
advances in music.
Komposition
and purest works on the theory of music,
of a series of objections that have
strict
attacks in his
die verschiede?ien Lehrarten in der
directed against Berardi, Bononcini,
Only the
judgment himself.
positive aspects of his theories are of real value.
dominates the whole composition.
Finally, so far as
Kirnberger finds that his rules are too
strict
Fux
and that
initial
is
theme
concerned,
his textbook too
quickly takes up the fugue, which Kirnberger also regarded as by far

the most difficult
form of composition.
lacking in mature reflection.

the
Bach
with
style
this style
is
He
Kirnberger's critique
assumes quite
the only right one;
if
as a
is
obviously
matter of course that
the earlier theorists do not agree
then their teaching has thereby condemned
itself.
On
the
other hand, Kirnberger writes concerning his great teacher:

Johann Sebastian Bach uses a thoroughly pure
work
all
of his has a definite unified character.
that
makes
style in all his
compositions; every
Rhythm, melody, harmony,
a composition really beautiful, he has completely at his
attested by his works.
His method
is
the best, for he
makes
in short,
command
as
is
the transition from the
44
easiest to the
most
by step in a thorough manner, and for this very reason

no more difficult than any of the other steps on the way.
consider the method of Johann Sebastian Bach the one and only
difficult step
the step to the fugue itself
is
For this reason I

method. It is to be regretted that this great man never wrote anything theoretical
about music and that his teachings have come down to posterity only through his
pupils.
I have attempted to reduce the method of the late Johann Sebastian Bach to
its
my Kunst
basic principles and, in
world
to the best of
my
des reinen Satzes, to reveal his teachings to the
ability.
The work which Kirnberger mentions
here really contains such an
attempt, and comparison between the result here and the earlier contra-
may
puntal theory
As
therefore be of interest.
usual, Kirnberger begins with
material and of intervals.

in
which he
an acoustical exposition of the tonal
Then he
brings in
some
on chords
sections
forms and inversions of the
discusses the different
and chords of the seventh and gives

mentions the dissonant suspension.
rules for their treatment.
triads
He
also
Because the dissonances brought
about in this manner can be omitted without causing a mistake or a lack

of clearness, Kirnberger calls
other
hand he
them
"unessential" dissonances.
characterizes as "essential" those dissonances
in a chord, as for
On
the
which occur
example the seventh of the chord of the seventh.
Kirn-
berger writes in great detail about the treatment of both essential and
unessential dissonances,
about harmonic periods and cadences, about
modulation into nearly related and more distant keys, about harmonic
and inharmonic (consonant and dissonant) skips
in melodies.
More-
he discusses in general the whole material ordinarily included in a
over,
system of harmony, before passing on in the tenth chapter to the discussion of the
parts.
problem which he
And we
calls
simple counterpoint in two or more
find rather early in this section a
remark
characteristic
of Kirnberger:
Simple
strict
counterpoint can be in two, three, four, or more parts.
begin with four-part counterpoint because
it is
parts perfectly until four-part writing has been mastered.
harmony
is
in four parts,
For
which
arise
best to
since the complete
and three-part
from the harmony
unless he has a thorough knowledge of four-part
something must always be missing
works, so that one cannot judge safely as to what

in the different cases
It is
hardly possible to write in two or three
is
in two-
to be omitted
writing.
With one
tion
which
stroke this
remark actually
discloses the
whole transforma-
took place in the polyphonic art during the seventeenth and
45
Kirnberger no longer begins with the
eighteenth centuries.
line,
as
did his predecessors, but with the chord; and yet he wants polyphony.
But here he
entirely in the right because the
is
polyphony he
striving
is
the harmonically conceived linear music of the late baroque, of
for
is
the
Bach
His complete break with the practice up to that time,
style.
which began with two-part counterpoint and gradually increased the
number
of voices,
and
his departure in
an almost diametically opposed
power
direction give evidence throughout, of logicality and of a vigorous
The
of observation.
for
him
the chord
reasons he gives for this break are most significant
is
primary; the interval
constituent of a chord.
which
third, for
either the root or the fifth
because the intermediate third
From
plete triad.
here
it is
now
actually only a step to the
The
is
"empty"
it
Riemann
com-
defini-
nonharmonic element.
proceeds to describe
the four-part counterpoint
first
and
in "note against note," then the three-part,
nique.
as a
an incomplete triad of
which would make
lacking,
tion of the dissonance as simply a
Kirnberger
is
missing; the "empty" fifth
is
is
comprehensible only
is
example,
finally the two-part tech-
last-mentioned he designates, in connection with his earlier
discussions, the
most
difficult
ways of writing, involving
of all the
technique impossible to master without an accurate knowledge of the

After
four-part style.
this
he discusses
five-
and
six-part writing,
and
then proceeds to the so-called "ornamental" or "florid" counterpoint.
By
this
he means the same form
theorists
called
of
contrapunto diminuto
Fux), and he divides
species of
as that
which comprises the
which the
(hence, for example, the
this species into three
includes the so-called passing notes,
which can be
former occur on weak accents,
we know from Fux and

intervals of a third
the Italian theorists,
which adjoin them on
skips.
By
He
is
is
now
first
com-
either regular or irreg-
and generally
either side.
fill
which
out the
But these can,
be approached and quitted
"irregular" passing notes Kirnberger
passing dissonance, which
fifth
The second group
like the passing notes
in contrast to the practice of Palestrina's time,
by
groups, the
so-called chordal figuration, a technique
pletely foreign to the theory of the sixteenth century.
ular; the
early contrapuntal
means
the accented
called the appoggiatura dissonance.
concerned here with an idiom which significantly differentiates the
Bach polyphony from the Palestrina

not occur,
at
least
style
(where such dissonances do
not on the unequivocally accented portions of the
46
Where two
measure).
more
or
movement
provided the
is
lively
progress
voices
passing notes, up to four dissonances
may
simultaneously
with
occur directly in succession
and the melody
Yet
easily understood.
work somewhat cautiously. It is better,

says Kirnberger, to follow Chapelmaster Graun in this matter than
Handel or Johann Sebastian Bach, because Graun writes with the greatest
here one will be wise to
set to
of prudence-and in vocal writing aims for the

tions.
Bach
is
more venturesome
most harmonious combina-
in this respect than
anyone
else;
con-
sequently his compositions require a very particular performance, one
way
well suited to his
of writing, for otherwise listening to his
would often be unbearable on account

does not understand
difficult
One who
of their harsh effects.
harmony thoroughly should never play
works; on the other hand,
of performance, even the
if
one
is
most learned of
works
more
his
able to achieve the right sort

his fugues
sound
excellent.
Kirnberger here takes cognizance of a peculiar, essential side of the Bach

technique, where, in spite of the decidedly chordal basic viewpoint, the
linear elements
come
to the fore so strongly, so
independently
times, that the harshness of the tonal combinations
The
through the logic of the voice leading.

berger discusses
By
this
is
is
at certain
understandable only
which Kirn-
third group
the so-called "uneven progression" ("ungleiche Gang").
term he means the relation
in
which two
voices, originally in-
tended to move simultaneously note against note, are separated by a

reciprocal displacement, giving rise to a species of syncope, mostly in very
small note values.
With
these discussions Kirnberger closes the
first
part of his book.
The second
part begins with instruction concerning the four-part har-
monization of a given soprano.
Kirnberger then introduces a section
on the various older and more modern modes and

chapter
and
is
especially interesting because
of "flowing" melody.
of
rect
harmonies
as a basis
not palpable and

is
as possible.
the melody he remarks
easily
treats of
Kirnberger investigates
with which a melody should begin

nized as quickly
it
in order that the
With regard
that every
scales.
The
third
melodic progression
first
of
all
the tone
mode may be
to the further
recog-
development
good melody must have
certain cor-
melodies in which the harmonic foundation
grasped cannot be flowing.
is
Kirnberger's theory
here certainly most limited because of the time in which he lived, but

it
47
Very wisely
corresponds excellently with his whole basic conception.
he adds that one must not jump to the apparent corollary because not
every melody which rests
He
successful.
sarily
upon
a clear
and correct harmonic
basis
is
neces-
further observes that smaller intervals, such as
seconds and thirds, are better for the flowing progression of the melody
than
sixths, sevenths, octaves,
and
The
so on.
latter intervals, therefore,
should be used only where a stronger accent
smooth movement
is
desired or
is
where the
To
abandoned in consideration of the expression.
more quiet
movement must
gliding up and
express anger or joy, skips are most effective, but to express a
mood, stepwise movement

not be
down
is
best suited; but this
carried to excess, because
monotonous and irksome.
is
kind of
continued scalewise
Melodies that continue for long
periods with tones lying exclusively within one scale very easily
insipid; there
the
is
become
indeed only a hand's breadth between the flowing and
In order to obviate this sort of monotony, a tone foreign to
trivial.
the key should be

the passage
is
woven
in occasionally, especially
if
the chief accent of
transferred to this particular tone.
Kirnberger then discusses in succession the melodic use of the different

intervals without bringing in anything especially
finally
clusion
with a survey of the emotional
ends
This con-
in accord with the so-called theory of the emotions of the Pe-
is
The augmented prime
riod of Enlightenment.
ascending, for example,
tends to produce an effect of "anxiety"; descending,
The diminished
choly."
He
worth noting.
effects of the intervals.
it
is
"most melan-
seventh sounds "painful," the minor seventh
"tender and melancholy, timid," the major seventh "violent, raving, full
of despair"
all
in ascending
movement.
Descending, the diminished
seventh sounds "lamenting," the minor seventh "somewhat fearful," the
major seventh "terribly
The
fearful,"
and
so on.
fourth section of the second book deals with meter and rhythm
and now and then introduces something
two
last
and most extensive
really valuable
and new.
The
divisions finally discuss the subject of double
counterpoint.
By way
of
all his
of
summing up
Kirnberger's work, one must say that in spite
thoroughness and
the polyphonic values
which
ability
lie
he
is
able to
draw out very
hidden in Bach's incomparable
viewpoints upon which Kirnberger's
work
rests
little
art.
of
The
are often very nearly
48
Bach,
right.
who
method very
ger's statements
seems to have recognized the Fux
in other respects
method," apparently followed
in the instruction of his personal pupils
similar to that described by Kirnberger.
Both Kirnber-
and those of Philipp Emanuel Bach confirm the assumpJohann Sebastian
tion that the great
his pupils
let
begin contrapuntal
instruction with the four-part harmonization of chorales only after they
had worked through the whole of harmony.

Heinrich Nikolaus Gerber, his pupil,
Bach, for example,
let
go through the inventions and
first
then some suites and the "Well-Tempered Clavichord."
Later he pro-
ceeded to the thoroughbass and gave Gerber the task of working out in
He
four parts different basses from Albinoni's violin compositions.
used
a similar procedure in the instruction of another pupil, Johann Friedrich
Agricola, to
whom
he
playing, introducing
first
him
gave practical instruction in organ and clavier
later to the study of
The Nineteenth Century:

The
description of Bach's style
after Kirnberger.
the
nineteenth
Haydn
At
harmony.
Palestrina or Bach?
was meanwhile not directly continued

and the beginning of
the end of the eighteenth
centuries,
contrapuntalists
depended
instructed the young Beethoven according
The
Parnassum.
real progress in
music theory
mental and more refined working out

had already received decisive attention
to
the
on Fux.
Gradus ad
more fundaharmony, which
consists of a
of the theory of
in
chiefly
Rameau's Traite de I 'harmonie
(1722).
Richter
work begun by Kirnberger appeared only with

Ernst Friedrich Richter's Lehrbuch des einfachen und doppelten Koncontinuation of the
trapun\ts,
which was published
Berlin Professor A. B.
Marx
1872.
in
Much
earlier,
in
1838,
the
had, in the second volume of his Komposi-
tionslehre, treated the contrapuntal
Bach polyphony, although on
forms from the viewpoint of the
a broader,
more formal
basis.
enough, however, the newly awakened interest in Bach, which
Strangely
is
one of
the most significant features of the Mendelssohn generation, produced

14 Ph.
Spitta:
pp. 604-605.
Johann Sebastian Bach.
Leipzig,
Breitkopf
und Hartel,
1873-1880.
Vol.
II,
49
no comprehensive works on Bach's style, possibly because of the

role which strict polyphony generally played in the compositions
slight
of the
romantic composers.
method
Richter uses to a certain extent the same
He
Kirnberger.
as
assumes that the pupil has a complete mastery of harmony and begins
The
with four-part writing, note against note.
chords, including the chords of the seventh
is
that
all
their inversions,
may
be
Richter makes use of three species, coming closer in this respect
used.
Fux than Kirnberger comes.
to
chief rule here
and
note"; in the second,
The
two half notes
On
in the cantus firmus.
of these species
first
is
are written against every
accented beat passing dissonances
may
may
firmus.
Fux,
Here the
sets
first
is
may
ing notes
ment.
is
correctly treated.
smooth.
In third spe-
four quarters to each whole note in the cantus
note in each measure must be a
occur instead of the chord tone.
may
that
relatively
yet in exceptional cases a suspension that
note
the un-
even be approached and quitted by skips, espe-
where the harmonic progression
cies Richter, like
On
occur, but only so far as they are
some seventh chord or other chord
In such cases they

cially
whole note
the accented portion of the measure, only
consonant chords or suspension dissonances are permitted.
constituents of
"note against
is
harmony
well treated or a changing
Otherwise passing or chang-
be used anywhere, but always only with stepwise
treat-
Richter's further species include counterpoint with three or six
notes to each note in the cantus firmus.

since the objection can be raised against
These additions are
Fux
justified,
that he neglects the ternary
measure in accordance with the practice of the sixteenth century, a

ciency
similar
note,
which the
later revisions of the
manner Richter now
counterpoint.
Gradus seek
treats the three-part
to
remedy.
defi-
In a
and then the two-part
Later on, the larger contrapuntal forms and double coun-
terpoint follow.
Jadassohn, Riemann, Krehl

S.
up
Jadassohn's Lehrbuch des Kontrapunkts, published in 1883,
in accordance
with approximately the same principles.
is
drawn
In comparison
with Kirnberger, both Richter's and Jadassohn's works really represent

a retrograde step, for
of the
Bach
style
through them one attains even
than through Kirnberger's works.
less
of the greatness
Moreover, they are
SO
vacillating in their
method, intermixing the principles of the harmonically
oriented counterpoint with those of the Palestrina style.

actually neither
harmony nor
The
result
is
counterpoint, but a vague, characterless,
mongrel product.
Hugo Riemann,
in 1888, begins in
much
Lehrbuch des Kontrapunkts, which appeared

the same way as Richter and Jadassohn, but he has a
in his
better concept of the essence of the
harmony
is
the hypothesis through
which
of the earlier counterpoint textbooks are
Bach
all
style.
For him,
too,
the rules of voice leading
made
superfluous; for he says:
Two-part counterpoint knows only the laws which likewise govern four-part
harmonic writing. But these laws must, unconsciously guide the gift for melodic
invention; the imagination must be able to move freely without reflection within the
realm of the available
possibilities.
Riemann remarks, however,
Later
interpretation of a cantus firmus
there
that the possibility of a
harmonic
for the most part very limited; indeed
is
often the problem of finding the one and only possible solution.
is
Here Riemann obviously has some apprehension
lest
the counterpoint
should be too closely linked with harmonic considerations; therefore he
would
like to repress chordal feelings into the
realm of the subconscious.
handbook Kontrapun\t (1908), boldly

ventures to draw the conclusion which Riemann here avoids. Krehl
remarks that the pupil who proceeds from the thorough study of harmony
Stefan Krehl, however, in his
to counterpoint
becomes
mony
really
that he
is
of certain chords.
so
little
accustomed to combining melody and har-
compelled to conceive the tones
Therefore
it
is
not particularly
as representatives
him
difficult for
to
imagine the missing tones when he constructs a chord out of only two
tones.
Now,
in order to
produce the most favorable presentation or
representation of the particular chord, every

to be treated
ing, then, the
must
problem
melody or cantus firmus
be harmonized in four parts.
first
is
represent the harmony.
to select the tones
But
be paid to the voice leading.
at the
The
which
best
In two-part writ-
and most
clearly
same time, proper attention must
placing of counterpoint on a harmonic
more clearly.
both Riemann and Krehl, in spite
follow exactly the same procedure
basis could scarcely be formulated
Yet
it
is
remarkable that
an attitude toward chords,
of such
as
Fux;

that
they begin with two-part counterpoint and gradually increase
is,
number
the
They
of voices.
four, or six notes in the
we
In both
see,
also use the species
added part
with one, two, three,
to each note of the cantus firmus.
moreover, a kind of atavism: both use the
counterpoint, in that every separate voice maintains
more complex kind
of
movement,
After reading the works of
Fux.
that the former
right
is
its
'
own
has not had
particular,
Riemann and Krehl, we must admit
when, in an
the slightest success in
rhythmized"
contrapuntal practice before
just as in
entirely different connection, he
maintains that the more modern theory of music, in spite of
ony
51
making
all
attempts,
the laws of the Bach polyph-
clear.
Kurth, Krohn, Grabner
One work, however,
deserves to be mentioned in this respect, the
previously mentioned book of Ernst Kurth: Grundlagen des linearen
Kontrapunkts.
This work
is
no textbook
book dealing with
sense, but rather a
biological viewpoint.
of music theory in the real
from a psychological and

Kurth succeeds in presenting
style
In his exposition,
much of his unusual understanding of Bach's great boldness and power.

He calmly creates an entirely new symbolism for the description of music
and
carries
on more
viewpoint
historical
is,
one side of the Bach

to
intensive
fact of
its
and he disregards or attempts
resting
are for the time being at the
on
harmonic
basis.
With
end of the movement in contra-
puntal theory which proceeds from Bach.

to
His basic
however, essentially imperfect in that he has only
style in view, the linear,
deny the unquestionable
him we
work with melodic problems.
And
yet
should not like
omit mention of Ilmari Krohn's textbook on counterpoint (1927),
which
at
present
is
unfortunately available only in Finnish.
Krohn's
work, based on Bach, reveals an alert understanding of the rhythmical
problem and makes a noteworthy attempt

of the exercises.
ing viewpoint.
original
terized
to provide musical motivation
H. Grabner's Der lineare Satz also adopts an interestThis book, which appeared
at
the
Danish edition of the present work (1930),

by an energetic emphasis on linear aims.
ever, the too indefinite stylistic
In
same time
is
as
the
likewise charac-
my
opinion, how-
background of the exposition does not
permit the plasticity and penetration necessary
in a textbook.
outline history of contrapuntal theory
52
The
"Palestrina
Movement" after Fux
Martini, Cherubini, Bellerma?in
The
movement" and
"Palestrina
progress since Fux.
its
development record no important
Padre Martini, the great counterpoint teacher of the
eighteenth century, has
no
left
really didactic
work.
His Saggio fonda-
mentale pratico di contrappunto (1774-76), although intelligently and

interestingly annotated,
is
rather a collection of examples of vocal polyph-
ony than an actual textbook

theorists of the eighteenth
But the majority of the
of counterpoint.
and nineteenth centuries follow Fux without
important alterations in his teaching.
special place
is
occupied here
by Cherubini's well-known Cours de contrepoint, which systematically

adheres entirely to
Fux with an
more modern
taking the form of some dissonances on the accented
taste
part of the measure.
occasional license in accordance with a
The Gradus experienced a revival in 1862 through

The author enriched the
Heinrich Bellermann's significant revision.
work with
varied material, chiefly of a historical nature, concerning no-
tation, scales,
and
so on.
Bellermann, however, does not come
much
He follows the Fux rules

Hohn, and the rest, neglects to determine
rules in Fux are really those of Palestrina.
closer to the real Palestrina style than Fux.
and, like his successors Haller,
by investigation whether the

This task
is
now
contrapuntal theory until

If a brief
we cannot progress further in

we know something about this
before us;
review of the trend of contrapuntal development
must conclude that everything that composers and
theorists
and imagined through diverse times may be traced
One
has been expressed most clearly by Zarlino:
cantare, che fanno insieme
le parti delle
the simultaneous singing of melodies).
to
two
this field of
question.
is
15
made, we
have created
basic ideas.
"Uharmonia nasce dal

(harmony arises from
cantilene"
The
other was apparently
first
formulated by Rameau: "La melodie provient de V harmonie" (melody
comes from harmony).
and
This
is
the source of the
the theoretical disciplines associated
for both
had temporary
two forms of polyphony

Both are justified,
with them.
validity in the history of music.
15 1 should like to mention R. O. Morris's Contrapuntal Technique in the Sixteenth Century

(Oxford, 1922) as a worthy work, although not really adapted for teaching purposes.

But from the historical-biological standpoint, doubtless only the
basic idea
is
sound: melody came
harmony found.
take
who
And
surely this
first
is
and only
also the
later
53
first
was the way
to
view which everyone must
analyzes the nature of counterpoint.
Chapter
II
TECHNICAL FEATURES
Notation
In
addition to the
the
clef
on the second
clef
on the fourth
use today, classical vocal polyphony
which
indicates the position of
frequently on the
first line:
^=
("alto clef")
on the second
clef
frequently and
since the
is
middle
C on
line:
fEE
it
clef,
clef could
used most
is
fifth line
was used
less
("baritone clef"),
which means the same
line,
The
("tenor clef").
("mezzo-soprano clef")
on the third
of the
This
but
five lines,
found only very rarely on the
clef
the
staff.
and
are in general
("soprano clef"), on the third line:
and on the fourth
line
which
makes considerable use
on any one of the
theoretically be used
line (the "discant clef")
line (the "bass clef"),
thing,
was
generally preferred:
m
This comparatively large selection of
clefs, characteristic
music, was for the purpose of avoiding as

leger lines,
It
which could
was preferable
to
easily
change
make
clefs
have gradually gone out of
as possible the use of
the note-picture vague
and
indistinct.
and thus avoid having the notes too
often exceed the limits of the five lines.

clefs
much
of the earlier
use.
It is
The
to
tenor clef especially
missed, since neither the treble nor the bass clef

54
be regretted that these
is
is
sorely
suited to the range of
TECHNICAL FEATURES
To note
the tenor.
55
G clef an octave higher than
the tenor in the
always will be a miserable makeshift.
musician to be accustomed to the
valuable in general for the
It is
very great and sublimely beautiful a cappella literature.
be of use to
him
him
the
They can
also
open
since they
clefs,
sounds
it
to
in the matter of transposition.
In the vocal polyphony of the sixteenth century the following note
maxima
values were used:
= eight whole notes):
(large
longa
;
|
(long
= four whole notes):

;
semibrevis (semibreve
= one half note)

quarter note)
following
rests
(breve
brevis
= one whole note)
= two
whole notes):
minima (minim
= one
semiminima (semiminim
and fusa (one quaver or eighth note)
crotchet or
The
correspond to these note values:
i
Maxima
Longa
Minima
Semibrevis
Brevis
Semiminima
In addition to these symbols of notation, certain so-called ligatures were
used to indicate that the notes concerned were to be slurred and executed
one breath.
in
this
ligatures are not used in the exercises in
book, the most important rules regarding their treatment are very
briefly
first
Although such
given here, since one must
know them
hand with the contrapuntal music
centuries.
The
of
become acquainted at
the fifteenth and sixteenth
to
ligatures are divided into
two groups: ligaturae
rectae, in
which
the quadrate notes are written close together, for example:
Eighth
More
rests are
detailed
notenschrijt des 12.
not used in the vocal polyphony of the sixteenth century.
information
und
on these questions
13. ]ahrhunderts.
noten und Taf{tzeichen des 15. und

Handbuch der Notations kunde, Vol.
will
16. ]ahrhnnderts.
1.
be
Berlin, Springer,
Leipzig,
found
in
Jacohsthal,
Die
Mensural-
1871; H. Bellermann, Die Mensural-
Berlin, Reimer,
Brcitkopf und
1906; and Johannes Wolf,
Hartcl,
1013.
=
TECHNICAL FEATURES
S6
and ligaturae
in
that the beginning
two notes united
The
finalis;
first
where they are written with an oblique figure and

and end of this figure indicates the
obit quae,
way
such a
example:
in the ligature, for
note of every ligature
is
called nota initialis, the last, nota
and the notes which may happen
between are called
to lie in
notae mediae.
If
the nota initialis has
no descending cauda
than the following note, then
whether the ligature
These two
is
it
recta or obliqua:
ligatures, therefore,
the nota initialis has
no cauda
(tail)
and
if it is
higher
has the value of a longa, regardless of
<j
mean
the same:
yet
lower than the following note,
is
If
t=M
it
counts as a breve whether recta or obliqua:
^=b
If,
side,
=^%
on the other hand, the

then
it
initial
counts as a breve whether the ligature
whether the following tone
is
a line
upwards on the
is
the left
recta or obliqua or
higher or lower:
With
downward on
tone has a line
3=:
left side (ligatura
tt
cum
opposita propnetate),
the initial tone and the following tone each counts as a semibreve, whether
the ligature
is
recta or obliqua or
whether the motion
is
ascending or
descending:
I
I E
p^^
XE
3X
Here, however, another rule also comes into play, in accordance with
which every note belonging
to a ligature
which has
a tail
extending up-

TECHNICAL FEATURES
57
ward on the right side counts as a breve, while a descending tail on the
same side of the note gives it the value of a long, for example:
m
All notae mediae, that
notes lying between the initial and final
all
is
:m
tones of a ligature, are breves, unless they are changed into semibreves
as
members
of a ligatura
cum
opposita propnetate or given the value of
by the descending stem on the right
a long
The
side.
final tone of every obliqua counts as a breve:

I
^^
w^m
if it
lower,
is
it
is
use of caudae in ligatures
1.
m-
a breve
descending stem on the
may
if it is
higher than
a long:
is
The
H^gl
In ligaturae rectae, too, the closing tone

the preceding note;
~]
be briefly summarized:
left side of
the note gives
it
the value of
a breve.
The ascending stem on
2.
the
left side of
the note
makes
this
note
and the following note semibreves.

3.
If
the note has a line
long, but
downward on
the right side
has an ascending stem on the same side,
if it
it
it
counts as a
has the value
of a breve.
The following examples show

1
r~
N &54- P3
e-J=J
t~l
"H
~i
""*""w
i*
ty
U-
r"a
t
1
'
r~
their solutions:
4 = -4 t=t -^r =
and
typical ligatures
L
1
=L
^^
*<^)
*i
ii
In the sixteenth century as in
ening of the note by one-half

used.
its
fi
modern music,
i>
*i
the dot meant the length-
value; the double dot, however, was not
But dotted rhythms could be indicated by
white or open notes.
4>
filling in the
normal
TECHNICAL FEATURES
$8
In such cases the following
form of notation was most frequently used
g=g
2^:
Besides the arrangement of the clefs
which was most
common
in the
sixteenth
century:
the
>/
fol-
lowing
may
also
be found
n
The
latter
arrangement was called chiavette or
and
(transposition clef),
position could be
noted.
Thus
if
it
performed
the
first set
was used
a
chiavi trasportate
to indicate that the particular
minor or
com-
major third lower than actually
of clefs in the following
example
is
mentally
replaced by the second and the proper key signature kept in mind, a
transposition
is
easily effected.
-e-
&
m
I
m
m
331
as
technical features
The
The music
tical
59
Modes
Ecclesiastical
is
based upon the so-called ecclesias-
modes, a system of modes that existed in the music of western
Europe from the origin of the Latin Church and dominated music
when
the seventeenth century,
until
the transition to our major-minor system,
long under way, finally began to prevail.
The
oldest practical evidence of the existence of the church
modes we
rind in the Gregorian chants, in those time-honored melodies of the
Catholic
Church which apparently
constitute the earliest art
music pro-
duced by our Western culture.
The
modes was not brought about by solemn agreeforms to which composers of Gregorian melodies
evolution of these
ment upon certain

then had to adapt themselves, any more than spoken languages owe
fields, practice
the oldest
notation
form
is
in
The music
has preceded theory.
which
it
has
In music as in
an alphabet.
their origin to the establishment of
other
come down
to us (and, at least so far as
concerned, this can scarcely go back further than the ninth
or tenth century), affords clear evidence that the ecclesiastical
were
all
of the church in
not, so to speak, a priori to
as certain principles of
aid the attempt
and
that
we must
modes
them
rather regard
organization coming from without, with whose
was made
semblance of order to
it,
to bring, in the best
way
possible,
some
somewhat disorganized and
a material originally
intractable.
The fundamental
principle of organization,
which was
called o\toechos,
was founded upon a system of eight modes.

Originally only four
modes were
(the third),
two forms,
deuterus (the second), tritus
first),
and tetrardus (the fourth).
later divided into
These were designated
actually used.
with the Greek numbers protus (the
Each of
these four
modes was
lower called plagal (derived) and a higher
In spite of having different ranges (the be-
called the authentic form.
ginning tone of the plagal scale was always a fourth below that of the
corresponding authentic), both modes had the same
The system
of the eight
modes seems
time of Pope Gregory the Great,

gorian chant was apparently
who
named
to
have appeared
ruled
after
final.
from 590
him.
Already
system had the form shown on the next page, which
it
as early as the
to 604.
at that
The Gretime the
has since retained:
TECHNICAL FEATURES
60
Mode
First
(authentic protus, later Dorian)
r
Mode
Second
(plagal protus, later Hypodorian)
r^
Third Mode
(authentic deuterus, later Phrygian)
p^
Mode
Fourth
Hypophrygian)
(plagal deuterus, later
p^3
Mode
Fifth
(authentic /ntaj, later Lydian)
Ê
Sixth
Mode
(plagal tritus, later Hypolydian)
p^
Seventh
Mode
(authentic tetrardus, later Mixolydian)
'
'
i
i
i
TECHNICAL FEATURES
61
Eighth
Mode
(plagal tetrardus, later
IPi
Hypomixolydian)
These eight scales, which were originally only designated with their
numbers within the system, apparently in the ninth or tenth century
received names borrowed from the ancient Greek scales, but now applied
in a different
That
way.
is,
while in the middle ages the succession,
Dorian-Phrygian-Lydian-Mixolydian, through the respective beginning

tones, represented four tonal series
the
same succession
with
in ancient
beginning with
Greek times referred
and then descending:
and going upward,
to a series
Mm
Ancient
Mixolydian
I
r=F#
beginning
Medieval
Lydian
3=
Phrygian
Phrygian
Lydian
j
Mixolydian
f
certain principle operates here even
this error crept in
evidence perhaps
Dorian
I
r*
Dorian
~d
if it is
erroneous;
when and how

Some
must for the time being remain unanswered.
justifies the
assumption that the confusion arose
in
the
TECHNICAL FEATURES
62
ninth or tenth century and that
ference of the
modes.
Yet
have occurred
Merely
names
it
it
can be explained as a mistaken trans-
Greek "transposition scales" to the Gregorian

remains open to question whether the change may not
still
of the
earlier in Asia
range of the
Minor or Byzantium."
be clearly understood that scale and
modes helps little.

mode are two very different
mode
only a dead abstraction, the material
ecclesiastical
living music; but the scale
is
of the
to cite the
mode arranged according
is
to pitch.
It
must
things:
one could scarcely
Just as
explain the playing of chess by merely arranging the pieces in order,

so
one could scarcely define the notion of mode by means of such a
abstraction as the scale.
which
a given
mode
So, for example,
takes the tones
the
mode
is
it
needs for
deal.
we
something
select the tones
Whereas
the scale
is,
and therefore
living,
it can never be defined.
One
as
its
could define
harmonic motive-impulses attached
from
particular purposes.
scale into
which we
with which our major
we know, an abstraction,
meaning is hard to grasp
sum
as a
it
of melodic or
tones and to a certain
to certain
extent tending toward the principal tone or final.
its
from the twelve-tone chromatic
ordinarily divide the octave,
and minor modes
lifeless
Scales are merely collections of material
The way
certain tones
Besides the actual (original) modes, the Greeks had a system of so-called transposition scales
so constructed that the original scales
were
all
ing eight-tone series were so supplemented
transposed within the octave
that
were expanded
they
into
E-E and the resultforms identical with
our pure minor scales extending through two octaves:
Dorian
juji
Dorian
rrr
rn'
Phrygian
Phrygian
j,jj
j.J
IJ
r"n
ri'i
msmmmm
Lydian
Lydian
Mixolydian
Mixolydian
jij
J^rr
rir
rrtff
etc.
As may be
to
Dorian-Phrygian-Lydian-Mixolydian here refer, as in the ecclesiastical modes,

a set of four tonal series ascending by degrees even though beginning on another initial tone.
2
Compare Peter Wagner, Elemente des Gregorianischen Gesangcs. Regensburg, Kosel-Pustet,
1917.
seen,
Page 111.

TECHNICAL FEATURES
are
63
emphasized while others are subordinated
chiefly
determines the
mode.
Certain relations in Gregorian music are preeminently suited to
between
trate the difference
and mode.
scale
Here, for example the
(Dorian) and the eighth (Hypomixolydian)
first
range in that both go from
same tonal
The
materials.
whether a melody
is
scales
one can nevertheless
in one or the other of the
and
An
are preferred.
between
scale
The
B
dorian) mode.
the scale thus has

this tone.
two modes depends, among
mode
and
The
equally interesting example of such
mode
scale of this
as its
situation
is
extends from
second tone, the

similar in the
mode
mode
Mode and
almost never
make
and
identical,
if
use of
it.
is
to
A, but while
almost always avoids
Hypophrygian mode, with
the lowest tone, melodies in this

scale are, therefore,
by no
one wishes to learn more of the nature of the
Gregorian modes he must not stop with the tones, but must come
understand the melodic laws which govern their use.
here
and mode may be observed in the second (Hypo-
range from B to B, where, although
means
easily decide
most plainly emphasized, whereas in the Hypomixolydian
are the tones
a conflict
have the same
D, and they therefore use exactly the
to
fact that
other things, upon the circumstance that in the Dorian
mode
illus-
to
Most important
the question of the basic pillars of melodies and, therefore, of
is
modes: tonic (principal tone, which could perhaps

of resolution"),
also be called "tone
and dominant (which might be designated
as the "sus-
pense tone" or "tone of tension").

It is
generally
known
that these
two concepts
are inextricably connected
not merely with the Gregorian chant but with the idea of "modes" in
general.
the tone
we
this
If
we
hear a melody
we
are inclined to look for the keynote
upon which the melody seems
to rest
among the
involuntarily pay less attention to the higher tones.

is
surely that
of resolution.
It
we
associate
lower tones;
The
reason for
with the term keynote the feeling of
rest,
seems almost unthinkable to us that a melody should
end otherwise than on the tonic or on the tonic

miss the feeling of completion.
triad; otherwise
we
should
This fact depends in part upon the
tra-
dition gradually established that the tonic close has the effect of a con-
ventional signal to announce with unmistakable clearness that the music
has
come
to
an end.
energy doubtless
The
lies at
conception of music as a sort of unfolding of
the root of the origin of such a tradition, an un-
TECHNICAL FEATURES
64
folding which starts out from
composition
to a close
and returns
rest
natural way.
in a
to
Now,
again, bringing the
it
so
it
happens that we
the feeling of increasing energy with an ascending series of
associate
tones, just as, in general,
we
more
get
of an impression of tension
from
higher tones than from lower tones, a fact that probably depends upon
The normal
natural physiological causes.
relaxation of the vocal chords
at
the close ol a spoken sentence quite mechanically produces a falling
oi
the voice.
It is
natural and easy to explain, therefore, that the dominant
the tone about which the tension of the melody
centered
is
above the tonic, the tone of resolution, both in the
m major and minor.
and
But there
is
this difference
should
ecclesiastical
which the dominant
much
while the medieval are
Evidence of
recitative-like
this fact
is
is
always a
fifth
this respect.
found in the psalm melodies (certain
part of the music in the Catholic mass).
first
dies occur in all eight
ciated with
short,
Gregorian melodic formulas), which are used in the per-
formance of the verses of the psalms with the doxology

(the
a constant
above the principle tone,
and more varied in
freer
modes
between the modern
and the medieval modes: that the modern are characterized by

relation in
lie
them
in the introit
Since the introit melo-
Gregorian modes and the verse of the psalm
naturally
must use the mode of
intonation of this kind for every mode.
In the
their introit, there
mode
first
assois
an
as follows
it is
(here cited only with the text of the doxology)
i
GJo-
ri
Pa-tri,
Fi
et
et Spi-ri
li
JSi
cut
e- rat
prin-ci
in
sae
et
tonic)
final
is
develops
the
o,
et nunc,
i
The
pi
tu
(which
in
cu
its
"state of tension"
therefore, the
same
D.
is
interval
as in the
San
J J
et
sem
cto.
J
-
per
<CS
cu
The
men.
lo-
Gregorian melodies
here, as can be seen,
example given, the
sae
la
is
as a rule identical
with the
tone around which the melody
A, the dominant of the
first
mode.
between the tonic and the dominant
modern modes: namely,
a fifth.
In
is,
TECHNICAL FEATURES
65
Passing on to the second mode, however, this relation changes
I9
ii
Glo-ri
As
as I
rat in prin- ci
sae - cu
in
pi
et
o,
tu
nunc,
cu
San
sem
et
The dominant, however,
the interval between the tonic
and dominant
per,
that the plagal
corresponding
as the
no longer A, but
is
cto.
men.
Note
the principal tone.
is
rum.
lo
always has the same tonic
said,
authentic mode.
In the third
sae
la
mode, the
have
Spi-ri
et
in the first
mode,
Fi-li-o,
Pa-tri, et
cut
Si
et
F,
and
thus a third.
is
mode:
Glo-ri
Pa-tri, et
Fi-li
PiPP?
et Spi-ri -tu
o,
San
cto.
J
r
Si
cut
(t'
etis
rat
in prin-ci
et
in
the tonic
sae-cu-
r
la
r r
-
pi-o,
etnunc,et sem
r'r
sae-cu
lo
\^h
per,
rum. A- men.
(the piece ends irregularly, as occasionally happens in
melodies of a more recitative character).
The dominant
is
not B, as
we
might expect, but C.

Originally
B was
actually a
dominant; laterpresumably about the
1000 the dominant function was transferred to C, apparently because by that time musicians had become more sensitive to the
dominant
relation B-F (diminished fifth, augmented fourth) and
consequently did
year
not wish to accept, for such an important place as the dominant,

a tone
that
might
so easily
In the fourth
produce a dissonance.
mode, E
is
the tonic
and
the dominant.
Originally
TECHNICAL FEATURES
66
mode; but
preceding mode:
was the dominant
as that of the
*_J J^
Glo
ri
cut
is
on A)
dominant
r
Glo
ri
Si
cut
i
et
r
Pa
cu
et
Fi
r
prin
sae
In the sixth
r
tri,
in
in
r
-
mode
ri
lo
Lr
cto.
'-r
sem
et
per,
mm
A- men.
rum.
^
San
(the intonation closes here irregularly
cu
r
-
li
o,
et
pi
r
-
mm
r
-
ci
la
sae
r
et
is
F, the
Fi
Pa-tri, et
^
nunc,
sem - per,
et
rum.
men.
dominant A:
^JJ
^^
3E
o,
et Spi-ri
San-cto.
JJ
li
lo
tu
cu
- ri
the principal tone
Spi
o,
nunc,
et
cu
m
Glo
'
o,
sae
mode
pi
tu
C:
is
la
rat
&m^
same time
at the
sae
in
the
the tonic of the fifth

;
rat in prin-ci
*
et
j j
was changed
it
a Pa-tri, et Fi-li-o, et Spi-ri
Si
of this
tu
j
San-cto.
te
Si
cut
rat
sae
in
prin
ci
pi
et nunc, et
o,
sem -per,
^m
et
in
In the seventh
mode
cu
the tonic
la
is
sae
cu
lo
G, the dominant
rum.
men.
TECHNICAL FEATURES
67
ipuse
n
Glo
Pa-tri,et Fi-li-o,
mm
Si
#
et
in prin-ci
sae-cu-
in
mode
In the eighth
la
sae
the tonic
is
et nunc,
pi- o,
tu
San
- i
^
-
etc
e-rat
cut
et Spi-ri
cu
i"
et
^
per,
r'r?
lo-rum.
sem
men.
As
G, the dominant C.
in the third
mode, the dominant here was originally B, but it was changed to C at the
same time as the dominant of the Phrygian mode and for the same reasons:
Glo-ri
if
rnnr
Pa-tri, et Fi-li
r r
e-rat
cut
r
et
The
in
relation
mode
1st
T.
5th
4*^ J
As an
aid to
T.
D.
r
la
o,
pi
et Spi-ri
in prin-ci
sae-cu-
et
o,
tu
r
-
nunc,
lo
is
r.
r.
memory,
T.
D.
mode
sp
T
T.
7th
D.
always be thought of as merely a rule, as

origin of the practice): (1) In the authentic
is
D.
mode
T.
rum.
sem
cto
per,
A-men.
mode
i
D.
T.
8th
D.
may
the following rule
above the tonic; the B, however,
et
San
4th
^m ^m
6th
therefore as follows:
mode
3rd
2nd mode
T.
r
sae-cu
between tonic and dominant
D.
mode
mode
T.
t>.
be formulated
(it
must
has nothing to do with the

modes the dominant is a fifth
it
not used as a dominant but
is
replaced
6$
In
TECHNICAL FEATURES
the C.
modes
In the plagal
the dominant is
dominant of the corresponding authentic mode; and
dominant is replaced by C.
(2)
a third
below the
here, too,
as
In addition to the relation between tonic and dominant,

a certain element of "pentatonic" musical feeling is also characteristic of the Gre-
By "pentatonic" music
gorian modes.
style associated
which
tones,
with the pentatonic (five-tone)
is
It
make
Rvc tones for
use of any one of
cially the
scale.
This succession of
characteristic of primitive music, seems consciously to
avoid the half-tone step.

its
occurs in two forms, and each series can
or
In this scale
meant, of course, the musical
is
we can
beginning tone
as desired
#f
recognize the tonal language of exotic peoples, espe-
music of the Far East; but European folk music, for example
that of Scotland
and the contemporary folk melodies of the Hungarians
and the Russian-Tartars,
is
strikingly influenced
by
this particular
As an example of such a pure pentatonic melody,

Hungarian song may be taken: 3
idea.
i
9
i
r
A
bol
#a
ha
ker
the following
9=3=f
tek
Ka
latt,
ta,
ta.
iHi
De
sok
Min
van-nak
tak
Iw
musical
le
Ka
ra,
den
ar
geny
egy-gyet
t
csi
nal,
S3 I
I*
Ki
az
j'dn
ba
ba
ja
hoi
PPrll
jar,
This melody keeps unusually close to the pentatonic
scale;
Ka
its
ta.
entire tonal
material consists of:

See Kodaly, Zoltan:
A Magyar
Nepzene.
Budapest, Egyetemi nyomda, 1937,
p.
32.
TECHNICAL FEATURES
$
Without being
69
Gregorian chant
really pentatonic, the
is
marked by
a high degree of pentatonic feeling; the pentatonic idea, the original
source of the "monophonic" ecclesiastical modes,
Likewise in medieval folk songs
which
linear treatment,
is
we
as possible)
is
and pure
find traces of the strong
relation
combined with
about using the half-step progression (the
much
not to be denied.
characteristic of this type of music.
Although the tonic-dominant

avoided as
is
E-F and B-C
a certain shyness
progressions are
characteristic of the ecclesiastical
modes,
certain other particular melodic motives so characteristic that they almost
have the power of determining the
we
find, for
mode can be
J
j
The following
progression
I
is
fifth
mode makes
modern music
too, a certain
first
mode
J
r
typical of the third
4 In
In the
example, the distinctive idiom:
and the
found.
mode:
considerable use of the following figure:
tendency toward the pentatonic can be observed.
The
entire
Leading-Tone Step: how this

effect was found originally in certain Gregorian modes; how in the beginning it was carefully
avoided until gradually musicians learned to appreciate it and introduced it in modes to which
it was foreign;
and how, with the transition to polyphony, it then took an established form in
the dominant-tonic cadence and finally led to the whole Wagnerian and Post-Wagnerian chromathistory of music could justifiably be written as the History of the
icism.
In
our contemporary music pentatonic usages

-
may
be clearly
perceived,
as,
for
example,
in
modern French, Russian, and Hungarian music entirely independent of each other, as
This
well as in the work of Nordic composers such as Sibelius and especially Carl Nielsen.
similarity between older and more modern music, however, depends only to a slight extent upon
pieces of
direct connection.
Historically, the actual circumstance is apparently that the evolution had
reached a point at which two movements separate, namely, a trend toward the dominant seventh
a
in an opposite direction.
The latter is most characteristic in modern music
through pentatonic practice or atonality constitutes an entirely comprehensiblecounteraction to the usually strong emphasis on the cadence customary in the eighteenth and
chord and
and
movement
whether
nin< '" nth
<
<
ntui u
TECHNICAL FEATURES
70
(and for that matter
In these formulas
many
in
others, about
which
cannot go into detail here) the tonic generally has such a clear-cut and
definitive effect that the
because of
mode can
be determined easily and the
sounds convincing.
this,
Yet
sometimes happens
it
final,
in
Gre-
gorian melodies that the final stands in an arbitrary relation to these
formulas which are typical of the particular mode.

ample, the figure cited as characteristic of the
diately inclined to regard
should like to
mode and
has
cite the
Ky
ri
figure
it
D-A-C
in the third
J
-
JJ
le
j
-
-H
son.
obviously plays a prominent role here, and one
melody
to
actually closes with an E.
torium Invocavit, which

has
As an example
It is
J7 r~
..J
involuntarily expects the

tations
begins:
The
as a rule, the
be deceived.
'
It
hear, for ex-
mode, we are imme-
Kyrie melody, "Fons bonitatis."
as the principal tone.
may
first
mode, and,
in terms of this
But occasionally we
will be the final.

I
it
we
If
as principal tone,
is
end on D; but in
spite of all expec-
Another interesting
case
mode and
actually in the sixth
is
the Offer-
consequently
but which nevertheless begins in true Dorian
fashion
I1
t,
only to end, otherwise quite correctly, according to the usual convention

of the sixth
mode.
This and similar cases are often found in Gregorian melodies.

fact leads to the conclusion that there
was
still
good way
to
This
go before
the domination of the tonic should completely penetrate the style.
Simultaneously with the transition from the Gregorian

to the
polyphony of the middle
ages, a decisive
The Gregorian modes
place in the history of the ecclesiastical modes.
(which one might define

passed over into the
new
as a
sum
monophony
change gradually took
of melodic characteristics) apparently
art, so far as
the
form
is
concerned.
But from
TECHNICAL FEATURES
now on
71
they were subjected to the growing
demands
of the opposing
viewpoint, that of harmony, and were thereby forced into a subordinate

position
and
ended in the major and minor forms which are
finally
upon chords.
sentially based
the transition
The
form between the
Although harmonic considerations already begin
system.
melodic viewpoint
role, nevertheless the
a definition of these
and melodic
es-
modes of polyphony are

Gregorian modes and the major-minor
ecclesiastical
"polyphonic" modes
is
still
quite noticeable, so that
possible only
is
to play a strong
if
both harmonic
factors are taken into consideration.
In the transition to polyphony, the chief modification in the ecclesiastical
modes was
the introduction of the leading-tone cadence (the half-
tone step between the seventh and eighth degrees) in almost
Although the Gregorian modes used the
all
modes.
which
will be
discussed in detail later) only as a sign of alteration, nevertheless
some of
these
modes
(the fifth
and
sixth)
had
flat
(the use of
a half-tone step
below the principal
tone and thus the possibility of leading-tone cadences.

of this effect,
which we
call the full close,
was
music; henceforth
it
have a convincing
effect:
felt that
such cadences
But appreciation
came only with polyphonic

as the
following did not
B=
-e-
whereas raising the third of the
A minor triad resulted in a much
stronger
and more convincing cadence.

third in the
Soon, therefore, the use of the major

became the rule, and indeed in modes, too, in
tone was originally not available. To this end differ-
dominant
which the particular
triad
ent chromatic signs for raising a tone were introduced that were foreign to
The C
the Gregorian modes.

sharp,
and similarly
in the
Aeolian
step
8
was
raised
in the
mode
from
(to
which we
to G-sharp.
Another important change might
stood in a changing interval
formly fixed on the

modes.
ecclesiastical
fifth
in the
to C-
F was changed
to F-sharp;
shall refer again later)
the seventh
In the Phrygian mode, on the other
mentioned here: that the melodic dominant, which

modes, is unithe scale (calculated from the tonic) in the "polyphonic"
also be
relationship to
dcyjee of
Dorian mode was changed
Mixolydian the
the tonic in the different Gregorian
-:
TECHNICAL FEATURES
hand, the
was retained; the D-sharp was
in general used only in very
Moreover the tonic
with minor third was seldom
exceptional cases.
triad
used as a closing chord (often the third of the final chord was omitted).
This led to the raising of the
G was changed
Phrygian the
F-sharp in the Dorian mode; in the
to
to G-sharp,
and
in the
Aeolian
to C-sharp.
Finally, just as in the case of the Gregorian chant, in descending pro-
gressions or in figures
in all
modes
which turned back from
instead of B.
If,
B was not lowered.
to the C, the
B, B-flat
was often used
however, the progressions continued upward
And where
it
was necessary
dissonant intervals such as F-B, the B-flat was introduced.
F had
tendency to go to the G,
F was
chromatic alterations
illustrate these
as
to avoid
When
modes
theorists
in
give
modes
Notice the
Christe.
although
still
maintained
caused no particular modifications in the treatment.
The following example

introduced
is
from the end of the motet Adoramus
in the third
flat
measure from the end.
same measure the
editor
has likewise introduced a
usually valid rule states that
when
flat
above the
In the
last
note
the upper auxiliary
Dorian
te
Palestrina
doubtless because of the descending progression.
it
of the bass.
is
Palestrina
3X
IT
W
i
exclusively in authentic modes, since in polyphonic style the dif-
ference between plagal and authentic
by
To
often changed to F-sharp.
well as the ecclesiastical
general, let us introduce at this point several cadence structures.
them
the
'
isr
l
zn
-e-
The motet appears
Hartel), Vol.
5,
pp.
in the
176
f.
complete edition of the works of Palestrina (Leipzig, Breitkopf und

is edited by Franz Espagnc.
This particular volume
TECHNICAL FEATURES
3Z
73
*=t
^
^
W
fe
used, the
so well
minor second should be employed
known
possible.
have in the third from the

of the seventh degree
last
From
and
to C-sharp,
raised for the sake of the
ZSL
it
himself.
and
In the tenor,
we
%m
mode
in the alto
Ludovico Victoria
HX
the use of the
phonic" Phrygian, where

this
final chord.
Domine, non sum dign us
ZL
and
but
in the final bar the
major third in the
the motet
^m
raised,
flat at all
in the next to the last bar the raising
Phrygian
In this
This rule was
that the composers often did not write in the
assumed that the singer would introduce
is
if
it
is
flat
is
less
frequent.
common
The
than
in the
"mono-
third in the final chord
is
change makes the raising of the F necessary because other-
74
TECHNICAL FEATURES
wise there would be an augmented second.
In the Phrygian
mode we
frequently find the following cadence, too:
mU
tj:
HI
or perhaps
u-
more frequently
^&-
JU.
tt
*T
ja
*
The Lydian mode really exists only in the monophonic ecclesiastical

modes. As soon as we go into polyphony, the lack of a consonant triad
on the fourth degree becomes too noticeable, and the B is changed to
B-flat in order to provide for a major triad on the subdominant.
By
this the mode is changed into F Ionian; with the B-flat constantly used
it
like a transposed
is
major
scale.
It is
significant that in the poly-
C antic urn
phonic treatment of the Magnificat (the
B. Mariae Virginis,
Luke I, 46-55, written in the eight ecclesiastical modes after the eight
modes of the Psalms) Palestrina allows the fifth mode to cadence on A
in the Gregorian example the A is the finaland in the sixth mode
he uses the
B-flat,
which
From
also avoids the
Lydian form.
the motet Lapidabant
Stephanum
Mixolydian
Palestrina
&
I^P
r-x-A
&
<^
4r9
'
'
rJ
rJ
s;
-m
it
F=F=H=a
rJ
rJ
_h
it
"
IB
IB
-ri
-X
=\
cJ
i-"
TECHNICAL FEATURES
75
m
m
xj:
first
makes
feeling of complete finality
is
a full close (measures 2-3
as
means the mode
at
Palestrina's
later
the
we now
followed by a cadence:
called in the nineteenth century).
commonly used
in all modes.
striking in the Mixolydian, for by this
measures of the Benedictus
sanctificatus:
IE
is
as in the closing
mass Dies
JBii
\
is
flat is
although
times gets into a remarkable situation hovering be-
tween major and minor,
from
was
it
This type of cadence structure

frequent use of the
avoided through the use of what
"deceptive cadence"), which
1V-I (a "plagal cadence,"
The
xr
xr
Palestrina here
call the
-e-
TZ
HX
jm
TECHNICAL FEATURES
Q
3
p^p
P^
-o-
The
reduction in the
number
the fusion of the authentic
the addition of
of the ecclesiastical
and plagal
scales
was
modes produced by
offset in
polyphony by
two new modes, the Aeolian and the Ionian, which are
Although practical musiofficial Gregorian theory.
not included in the

cians
had long used both of
these modes, they
were nevertheless not
recognized in theory until the sixteenth century.
The
cate their adoption in the legitimate family of
modes was
theorist,
Glareanus,
who
in his
one
formerly did.
ought
To
10th mode, Hypoaeolian:
11th mode, Ionian:
/?
the Swiss
to consider twelve
the eight Gregorian
he added namely the following:

9th mode, Aeolian
ian:
to advo-
famous work Dodecachordon, published
in 1547, seeks to prove that the theorists
instead of eight, as they
first
m^
m www^
mi
Ig#
12th mode, Hypoionian:
gj
44i
modes
modes
TECHNICAL FEATURES
77
These modes, whose authentic and plagal forms also fuse in actual
practice, play an important role, especially in the polyphonic music of
the sixteenth century.
Indeed, by their transition into the major and
minor (which they resembled greatly from the beginning) they gradThe following is an example of an
ually superseded the earlier modes.
Aeolian cadence:
From
the motet
Hie
martyr
est vere
Palestrina
Aeolian
It
Pi
*\
-e-
SS
-e-*-
J , P
,J
HT
i
5
IQ
^V
s
The
as
it
flat
is,
can be used in the Aeolian, but
for example, in the Dorian.
it
s=
is
hardly as
common
here
TECHNICAL FEATURES
7S
From
Ave Re gin a coelorum
the mass
Ionian
Palestrina
*^m
*v
rF^
^V
3X
^=zz
-&
xc
-e-
3CL
^^
3=
The Ionian mode

ner, as in the
in the
uses the flat frequently and in a characteristic manexample below and on the facing page (from another place
same mass).
In summary,
tury
I
made
we have
learned that the polyphony of the sixteenth cen-
modes
use of only five
have said)
(the Lydian passes over into Ionian, as
Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, Ionian.
These original modes could be transposed, however,
P=î
^m
Z2I
sr
F
ICE
f
g
'J
a fourth higher
Gm
--
TECHNICAL FEATURES
79
ICE
O-
ie
ie
3T
^
by the use of a
By
this
means
flat
(the only fixed signature that
was normally used)
the following scales are obtained:
PrTTTR
Dorian transposed:
Phrygian transposed:
Iw^
Mixolydian transposed:
Aeolian transposed:
Jf
Ionian transposed
iw
[,
!>-
PPE
These transpositions were used with unusual frequency during the

sixteenth century in order to bring compositions into a
and singable
7
Note that E-fiat in the transposed modes corresponds to

was ordinarily used only to supplement the Hal
it
but that
original scales.
more pleasing
register.
B-flat
in
the
in
the
mm
signature,
transposed
scales,
and hence not
in
TECHNICAL FEATURES
To
understand the essential difference between the "polyphonic"
ec-
modes and major or minor, one should study the problem of

A modern ear, accustomed to hearing a half step
clesiastical
the leading tone.
between the seventh and eighth degrees of the
charm
definite interval at this place, but use

a half step.
produce harmonic variations
Every
strange.
ecclesiastical
mode
B-flat for
we
scale)
on the
which occurs with equal
actually has at
second degree there are two
mode, but only one for the
illustration
minor
minor:
As may be
minor
II
III
II
we have
major,
'
l
Jff IV IV
in the
On
scale has only one.
the
scale.
JJT
II
seen,
minor,
If
shows the resources ordinarily
which
A
major,
In addition to the greater richness
available:
im pu
less
VI
VI VII VII
VI
VII
than
six
IV
Dorian no
most valuable tonal combinations

major,
many more
we compare,
disposal
possibilities available for the ecclesiastical
m pl''Bli'
Dorian:
its
scales.
minor (the two having almost the same

the Dorian has two triads (D major and D minor)
degree, whereas the
The following
melodic reasons and
Dorian with
see that
first
use one single
which sound refreshing and
chordal possibilities than the major and minor

for example, the
a peculiar
feels
sometimes a whole and sometimes
Likewise the free use of the
the raising of the third of certain definite triads,
freedom,
scale,
modes do not
in the fact that the ecclesiastical
deviate
minor, and
which the
pure triads
from
the
D
minor:
major.
particular ecclesiastical
modes thus possess within their respective fields, they have the greater
number of modes. While modern music has only two modes, major
and minor (modes which may, indeed, be transposed to every degree
of the chromatic scale, but which maintain the same arrangement of
intervals), the
than
If
five
former polyphony
modern music
is
its
employ,
as
has been said, no
own pronounced
The diminished and augmented

This will be discussed
it is
matter of modulatory resources.
triads can
later.
less
individuality.
inferior to the older style in this respect,
theless greatly superior in the
trina style.
may
modes, each of which has
never-
Perhaps
be used only as chords of the sixth in the Pales-

TECHNICAL FEATURES
it is
81
a question whether, in connection with the ecclesiastical modes, one
can speak of modulation
passes over
Thus
from
quite
is
unknown
At any
the term.
at all in the real sense of
change of signature
rate,
here (because one never
mode, or
a transposed to an untransposed
vice versa).
intentional contrast between the transpositions of the modes,
which modern music depends for one of
its
most important
And
entirely foreign to the ecclesiastical system.
for variation can be observed here as well.
upon
effects, is
yet a certain striving
Since
would naturally
it
be tiresome and inartistic to have the same cadence constantly returning

in a composition, provision
made
many
for as
different cadences as
This provision, however, really only corresponds to
possible to be used.
modern music one
the "transitions," as in
feeling of tonality
is
by
attempts to enliven the
calls
slight incursions into the territory of other keys
procedures which have no lasting influence and which do not introduce
genuine modulation (that
new
the transference of the tonic feeling to
is,
chords).
Each of the "polyphonic"

of the
modulation in
transient
modes (and
ecclesiastical
"monophonic" modes)
reveals
individual way.
its
deed cadence on any desired step of the
may be
mode depends
traditional accidentals
used).
each particular
largely
avoids.
closes
this
tendency toward
its
is
also true
sort of
this
Theoretically, one can in-
(and
scales
to this
end the
But the individual character of
upon what cadences
it
favors or
Thus, for example, the Dorian, apart from the tonic cadences,
most frequently on the dominant,
(A: V-i or V-I). In
on the other hand, the subdominant plays
relatively
mode,
this
modest
role;
F (mediant-mode), are preferred. The

common, while E (Phrygian) is rarely used.
cadences on the third degree,
cadence on
(Ionian)
is less
In the Phrygian next to the E, the
cadence tone; but cadences on

In addition, cadences on
(Aeolian)
(Mixolydian) are very
In the Mixolydian
or without F-sharp), and
is
likewise quite
dominant E
strikingly
mode
much
favored.
rarely selected for a
is
G, the
(Dorian, with
(Ionian) are the most favored cadence tones;
subdominant
as a closing
unimportant
after the
common, but F and E
In the Aeolian the

to the
preferred as a
(Dorian with or without F-sharp) and
(Ionian) are used quite often, whereas the

closing tone.
is
role).
are used
(Dorian)
much
is
tone (cadences on
less often.
"obviously preferred
In addition, C, G, and
in general
are used.
play
The
TECHNICAL FEATURES
82
Ionian
mode
uses
dominant
its
most of
E and F
likewise appear quite often, while
Less
Common
D,
A,
E,
A,
Mixolydian
Aeolian
G,
A,
Ionian
C,
D,
D,
G,
C
C
A
"polyphonic"
we
ian
mode,
C
C
G,
D,
modes follow
We would expect the
E
F
F,
G, F
F,
E
E
neither the Gregorian music
own
special pro-
C, the dominant of the Gregorian Phryg-
one of the chief
phonic Phrygian; nevertheless the
we
see that in their relationship to each other, the
ecclesiastical
to play
and
Rare
nor the major and minor system, but exclusively their

cedures.
more unusual:
Cadences
Phrygian
the table
are
Common
Dorian
From
next to the C;
all
roles as a
is
cadence tone in the poly-
preferred.
If
on the other hand
look at the modes from the major-minor viewpoint and consequently
think that the tonic, dominant, subdominant, and relative tonalities must
constitute their chief
harmonic supports, we
will also be disappointed.
In the Dorian and Ionian modes, for example, the subdominant by no
means
attains the expected significance; in the
dominant
falls
the mediant
As
mode
is
to the tonic, the
and
in the Mixolydian
not so important as might be expected.
a general rule for
cadence tone.
Phrygian and Aeolian the
surprisingly into the background,
all
dominant
the ecclesiastical modes,

(fifth
above the tonic)
we
is
can say
that,
next
the most important
Only where the dominant chord must
fall
on B (which
drops out of consideration entirely because of the lack of a usable, consonant fifth) does the subdominant come into prominence as a substitute.
much
Otherwise the subdominant plays for the most part a
less
important
than in the more modern scales; however, the position of the relative
mode is, as a rule, quite significant.
One characteristic of the ecclesiastical modes is, briefly, that they have
greater variety but less logic than the modern modes. The illogicality
found in this aspect of medieval music, as in many other aspects, is felt
role
today as a peculiar charm, as the expression of a pleasant, unaffected

naturalness, of a refreshing, unrestrained musical feeling,
contrast to that which, in
later
pedantically exact schematization.
times,
is
often
and
as a
happy
an unattractive and
technical features
83
Melody
The polyphony
upon simul-
of the Palestrina style rests essentially
taneously sounding melodic lines;
its
basis
is
melodies.
These melodies differ in many respects from the concepts associated in

more modern times (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) with the
word melody. In the first place the treatment of intervals is much simpler and stricter. All chromaticisms and all dissonant skips are avoided,
and the
toward the rhythmic-metrical problem
attitude
ately less one-sided.
rhythms in contrast
The
to the poetic, strict
and nineteenth centuries

its
accurately measured
chiefly of
Palestrina music
(especially that of the
Vienna
indeed sought after in every
and inelegant and
prose-like
classicism) with
groups of from two to four measures) which,
and
rejoices in the free
if
consists
carried to ex-
limited.
music reveals a marked inner
linear treatment of the Palestrina
is
free,
symmetry (the constructive material
coherence and an understanding of what
which
proportion-
rhythmic pattern of the eighteenth
tremes, can be unbearably conventional
The
moves in
is
is,
in the truest sense, organic,
style species.
and
It
natural.
It
abhors the rough

avoids strong, un-
duly sharp accents and extreme contrasts of every kind and expresses
itself
always in a characteristically smooth and pleasing manner that
may seem
at
According
somewhat uniform and unimposing but
first
famous
to a
Alberti, "Beauty
is
the different units
Italian Renaissance architect,
a sort of chordal combination, a
which does not allow anything
away without having an
injurious effect
Leone
Battista
harmony between
to be
added or taken
upon the whole."
tion applies also to the Palestrina music, in

is
that soon
shaded expression of a superior culture.
reveals the richly
This defini-
which the constructive sense
strongly influenced by the viewpoints of the late Renaissance.
contrast to the often
somewhat
ages, the Palestrina style rested
many or
too few.
fantastically diffuse style of the
In
middle
on the principle: not a single note too
All details must unite in entirely undisturbed harmony,
must fuse into a higher unity in

absolute, completely free balance
spite of individual
independence.
An
between the elements was required; no
one element could be emphasized
at the
expense of another; everything
must work together smoothly and harmoniously.
Let us examine one

TECHNICAL FEATURES
84
of the melodies of Palestrina: the beginning of the upper part

five-part offertorium
from
his
Ave Maria:
5
XE
I
-e
h^
ve
-*-
FFFf^
Ma
ri - a,
Ma
ve
10
nm
ve
The
15
ro
(o
which
from beginning
much
p f
e sa
-
g =
three times.
it
between any two notes; one note
as the point of a knife
5%
for the second,
Genuine sequences do not occur.
whole
impossible to insert
is
follows the other in an unbroken, organic unity.
third of the text,
The melody,
closely knit into a continuous
is
exact symmetrical phrase structure;
a,
Figuratively speaking,
to end.
ri
"Ave Maria" repeated
measures in length,
fifteen
is
Ma
text consists of
even so
a,
2%
There
is
no
trace of
measures are used for the
and 6V2
for the
first
last.
In general, Palestrina uses
them only
rarely (mostly in earlier works), since the balance of the linear treatment
can easily be displaced by the overemphasis which they place upon a

particular motive.
The
line of the
Ave Maria melody forms
tively
high on E, moves downward
to the
after
which
F and
it
touches upon the
it
takes another turn upward, reaches
somewhat abruptly
ascends
finally glides
1
The following
downward
a curve
A, and then
which begins
rises
In bar 7
lowest point (F) in bar
its
after a small
again to the E,
descends gradually.
to the culmination point
rela-
8,
then
(bar 11) and
opposing curve (bars 12-13) to
sequences, however, are exceptions which are frequently found in
works
of
the best composers of the sixteenth century generally:
The
and
r
11
parallel construction of
must not be considered
measures 4
a genuine sequence,
to 5
of this
melody
however, but
is
related to the last example.
as a scalewise
It
spinning-out of the figure.
TECHNICAL FEATURES
8)
Obviously the melody
the closing tone A.
treated throughout in a
is
movements
masterful and even fashion; ascending and descending
are
Bach, on the other
balanced according to Palestrina's usual practice.
hand, prefers to begin low and slowly work upward with a steadily
increasing tension to a point of culmination and,
when
this
descend to the cadence suddenly, almost explosively.
by far the most interesting and most broadly developed
which
and then
glides
down
tirely in
monic
is
fre-
is
quickly and
again in broad circles like a bird, floating
slowly with almost imperceptible movement.

Palestrina time
rises
The
part.
so characteristic of Bach,
is
quently found in the Gregorian chant where the melody

lightly
reached,
Here the ascent
to
is
contrast to this type of curve,
is
The melodic form
of the
an intermediate type between these two extremes, en-
accordance with the constant striving toward balance and har-
rest characteristic of this style.
Note
in the
melody above
we
the larger intervals
Of
that stepwise progression predominates.
find only the fifth (both ascending
and descend-
ing) at the beginning and the ascending skip of the fourth in bar 9;
otherwise there are only ascending and descending skips of the third.
This preference for conjunct motion

trina
melody
(as
is
it
most
is
characteristic of the Pales-
of the Gregorian chant).
But
melody which
proceeded exclusively in small seconds and thirds would eventually
produce a
dull, soporific effect;
would be an
it
Gregorian chant ordinarily uses large and small seconds and

fourths and
tervals, as
Major and
minor third.
see, therefore,
Ascending only
Perfect
Perfect
fourth.
fifth.
octave.
that
Minor
augmented and diminished

is
which
arises
is
likewise avoided, and sevenths and
the chromatic half-tone step (the
from the progression from
to C-sharp or
to B-flat).
a tone to
Furthermore,
its
we
all.
Likewise
minor second
of the melody, for example,
is
The
filled
step
chromatic alteration,
see that the larger
intervals are subject to very particular treatment in that they arc
pensated by stepwise progression.
sixth.
intervals are ex-
intervals greater than the octave are not considered at
foreign to the style
as
Perfect
cluded; as a rule the major sixth

all
pure
already seen:
Ascending and Descending
We
thirds,
the
the Palestrina style normally uses the following in-
fifths,
we have
Major and
minor second.
While
absurdity.
com-
skip of the fifth at the beginning
out in the following measures, as
TECHNICAL FEATURES
S6
the skip of the fourth in measure 9 (although
is
so on.
It is
by stepwise progressions or
same
in the
as
But
the opposite direction.
and skips
it
later),
somewhat common
also
is
same
direction alternate (whether the skip
The
direction.
by
and
limits are
made
skips in
movement
often happens, too, that stepwise
or after the stepwise progression), or that a skip
skip in the
somewhat
thus normal in the Palestrina style that skips are compensated
comes before
followed by another
is
too narrow
if,
as in
some
counterpoint books, the succession of two skips in the same direction
where the
entirely forbidden (except
skips occur in quarters
The
note values that are one-half the unit of measure).
that
1.
is
in
practice of the
more accurately defined by the following

In ascending movement it is better to have the larger
Palestrina style
is,
rules:
is
intervals at
the beginning of the curve; the large skip should therefore precede the
Ad
smaller as in the opening theme of Palestrina's four-part motet

levavi:
te
i
Ad
te
le
va
cu
VI
los
or in his motet Surge propera:
Sur
2.
7^
9-s-
zr
-
ge,
pro
pe
ra
mi
me
ca
In descending motion, on the other hand, the smaller intervals
generally precede the larger, as in the following measures
from
Palestrina's
offertorium Dextera Domini:
mm
XL
ta
me
If
vit
non
mo
ar
the progressions occur in greater note values (in whole notes and
in halves,
when
the half
is
the unit of measure) these rules must be
considered tendencies which must not be disregarded but which under

certain circumstances
2
Here we have
must give way
a suggestion of tone painting.
to
more important
The words mean: "To Thee
considerations.
I
raise
mine
eyes.
87
TECHNICAL FEATURES
But
if
continues in quarters (halves of the units of measure),
movement
Indeed
then the rules are carefully observed.
style are
most
strictly
melodic connection
weaken
to
is
this
true not only with
is
melodic laws of the Palestrina
regard to the succession of intervals; all
observed in the use of quarters (because here the

keenly felt, whereas increasing note values tend
this feeling).
Another of the chief melodic laws of the Palestrina
In the stricter sense, this law
ascending skips from accented notes.

applies only to quarters;
it
does not apply
in progressions in half notes the

is
fully valid.
Thus while
f
so rare that
In quarters the law
fore, to
skip
its
most
is
it
J
r
foreign to the
style,
style.
we must
J
"
confirm what
J
r
ii
wish, there-
avoid the ascending

skips
"
from accented
all
have
^
r
we
If
The following ornaments,
in Palestrina's works, will
'
in Pales-
inversion:
from the accented quarter, though descending
common
is
remain within the norms of the
quarters are entirely correct.
common
one must consider
and even
notes,
frequently broken, although there
is
the following idiom
trina melodies:
whole
at all to
undeniably a tendency to observe the law.

3
is
law
warns against
style
of
which
are
said:
p^$
r
ii
*=
''
See
The
Style of Palestrina
del I'alcstrina-Stils
lx
\n
and the Dissonance, pp, 54 H. and my article: "Das 'Sprunggesetz'

Viertdnoun (halbcn Takt/atrn)," Bertcht fiber den murikwU
tontcn
scnschaftlichen Kon^ress in Basel
1924, pp. 211
II.
Leipzig:
Brcitkopf unci Hartcl,
1^25.
'
TECHNICAL FEATURES
88
But
as
may
skip
is
it
upwards from unaccented
quite permissible to skip
be seen from
many
quarters,
and the descending
of the examples above;
also possible:
is
'
1
i
From
H
i
"
the foregoing
m
f
r
r
it
m-
'
^4=
r
i*
^F"
---4
will be seen that decided differences exist
11
between
the treatment of the intervals in the Palestrina style and in the Gregorian
song.
For example, while the Gregorian chant abounds
in
pentatonic
figures such as the following:
or
3=*
the Palestrina style avoids such figures because the succession of intervals
is
contrary to
its
basic principles.
idiom of
this
kind:
We
can easily understand
an
(the cambiata, an extremely well-
=:
liked device)
why
was preferred
to this:
'j
and why the
version of the cambiata, although permissible in longer note values,

2
not
3^
==.
written in quarters :==j
is
in-
Equally enlightening
is
the fact
that figures such as the following are avoided

2
or
-**-
This idiom is rare in the Palestrina style.

Likewise very rare.
The theory of the seventeenth
6 This follows, of course, from the rule mentioned above.
and nineteenth centuries
century (which clearly perceived this relation, whereas the eighteenth
statement that it is always best if stepwise prolost sight of it) motivated its restriction with the
Compare, for example, the citation from
gressions are continued on to an accented half note.
5
Andreas Lorentes: El Torque de
la
musica (Alcala, 1672)
in
The
Style of Palestrina, p. 67.
TECHNICAL FEATURES
The
if
is
figure
the lowest tone
is
89
g.
is,
on the contrary, usable only
followed by the second above.
(If the
second below
written, the larger interval precedes the smaller in descending
mo-
Larger skips than the third are nevertheless not permissible
tion.)
under similar circumstances, even
Examples such
if
the intervals are correctly arranged.
as the following:
2
'
ii
Nor can two or more

when the movement is in
are accordingly contrary to the style.
skips in the
same direction come
quarters, as
in succession
for example:
On
the other
opposite
hand two
directions
cadence figure
is
even
skips
in
may
come in succession if they are in

quarter-note movement. The following
well
one of the favorite devices (and rightly
so,
because
it is
unusually well balanced)

3
m^
tt
Ascending skips which follow quarter-note movement descending by

step are generally usable but
to
an unaccented half or to
more than
produce the best
three successive quarters:
quently the following
is
is
made
Conse|
not so good
'
In such cases as the foregoing,
over:
effect if the skip
a relatively accented quarter note after not
o
it is
best to skip to a half note
which
is
tied
TECHNICAL FEATURES
90
A>
Such
ICT
I
which
figures,
are
most usable when the ascending skip occurs
after a quarter introduced by step from above, are most rare in the
inversion, that
is,
if
the quarter note
and the succeeding skip

are nevertheless fairly
inversion) while
tically
is
downward.
common
introduced stepwise from below
is
Devices such as
(although not nearly so
common
or
is
prac-
excluded.
In the music of Palestrina in general, a striking difference
the treatment of the ascending
here that ascending skips are

filled
as the
and descending
much more
While
out than descending skips.
intervals.
carefully
is
found
It is
in
evident
compensated for or
figures such as:
-eI
occur rather often in half notes,
them, such
much
less
often do
we
find inversions of
as:
Z2
Similarly a larger skip
downward
is
the opposite direction, of course).
ward
is
often followed by another skip (in
On
the other hand, a large skip up-
almost always followed by a descending stepwise progression.
This must be so because the tone to which one skips in the first case is
the "low tone" and the other is the "high tone," and because ascending
skips attract the listener's attention
more than descending
ones.
There-
always taken that the former are softened by effects less energetic in character (since the whole might otherwise easily sound too
Descending skips have, on the other hand, a less
restless and active).
fore care
is
and therefore do not require compensation by being

followed by particularly smooth progressions.
In quarters the stepwise, or, more accurately, the stepwise-passing kind
pronounced
effect
TECHNICAL FEATURES
of
movement,
is
91
But in stepwise movement
by far the most common.
one sometimes "turns" and comes back to the same tone, for example:
or
3W3
These two figures are equally usable

But
return to a half note.
upper or lower second

the turning
is
if,
is
Apparently the identity of the

the upper auxiliary
was
in the viewpoint of
felt to
is
a difference: for while
is
the inversion
which one returns from the
a quarter, then there
on the lower second
most
common.
century,
in the figure
with
Berardi expresses this
be too inexpressive.
the seventeenth
very
rare in the Palestrina style.
and third quarters
first
example, they
as in the present
the note to
if
which
is
more chord-
conscious, as follows: "Moreover the figure called girandoletta or gioco
is
forbidden, particularly where the cantus firmus remains over the same
chord":
PiPp=
12
12
12
f*
gioco
^v
Miscellanea musicale (Bologna, 1689),
(Bologna,
1693),
p.
32:
"The reason
the
p.
136.
Compare
girandoletta
or
further Berardi:
gioco
is
U pen
prohibited,
he-
musicale
especially
when
one hears two octaves or two fifths repeated over the

same chord; moreover in quarter-note passages one should use the figure called the condiu imento,
."
which is a stepwise movement from low to high and from high to low.
the cantus firmus does not
move,
is
that
TECHNICAL FEATURES
92
XT
tr
XT
12
m^
xe
Berardi
be
^v
xt
xr:
^^
12
is,
xt
therefore, of the opinion that such auxiliary figures should
forbidden, especially where the position of the other part
strictly
produces the return not only to the same tone but above
chord.
But
the rules of
tion.
He
we compare the practice of the

Berardi, we soon find that he makes
all
too broad a generaliza-
between figures employing the
upper second and those using the lower second
As
have
the same
sixteenth century with
if
does not distinguish at
all to
as the auxiliary note.
existed nevertheless, doubtless because
said, this distinction
particular care and attention were involuntarily given to the continuation

from the upper auxiliary, which is very strongly emphasized by its posiConsequently the upper auxiliary is not used very much, especially
tion.
when rhythmic
identity
of the effect thereby

said,
is
added
becomes
so
to
melodic identity, because the
much more
striking.
Thus,
as
triviality
has been
one should be able to use the upper auxiliary before either a half
note or a
(This rule
still
is
longer note value, but not before another quarter note.
valid regardless of
whether the upper auxiliary
Such
second or the fourth quarter.)
figures
as
is
on the
the following occur
relatively often:
3
The following
it
device,
XE
XE
on the other hand,
is
so rare with Palestrina that
can be called unusable:

TECHNICAL FEATURES
Nevertheless,
its
inversion
93
common:
is
to
p^m
jt=
Likewise figures like the following can be found in Palestrina, though
they are rare:
Ezr, while the inversion was most rare
even in composers of the earlier part of the sixteenth century and was
not used any
more
EzE=z
in Palestrina's time:
Eighth notes were normally used only in groups of two

teenth century.
They were introduced and
in the six-
quitted in stepwise move-
ment:
.
1
An
p-
I,
j-1
J J __
1=
rJ-
interval of the fourth, therefore,
may
be
^L_e=
j1|
||
filled
out by two eighths
The preceding
but may be a quarter:
both in ascending and descending motion.

not absolutely need to be a dotted half
note does
mm
m&
*-+
II
gLi
Auxiliary notes are likewise possible, but only with the lower second.
That the second of two eighths should be

conceivable in the Palestrina style only
tinues
Furthermore
it
few
that eighths
rare exceptions
in
The
first
movement
is
con-
ti
P
may
occur only on
Therefore they cannot come after
than a dotted half.
following are foreign to the Palestrina
have cited
second above the
but not
must be understood
a note value greater
the stepwise
upward, thus:
unaccented quarters of the measure.
if
Thus procedures such
style:
Style of Palestrina,
pp.
l.?Hi".
as
the
94
TECHNICAL FEATURES
mm
Let us turn back to the

(p. 84).
melody which served
as our initial example

note that the repetition of tones occurs scarcely at all.
We
This is, however, rather accidental, for tonal repetition is a very

common
occurrence in Palestrina melodies, especially with longer note values
such
as breves, whole notes, and half notes.
The matter of tonal repetition
depends upon the setting of the text, in that when several different
syllables are sung on the same pitch, the note is divided,
for example:
-(V
r
do
With
na
no
vit
is
common
may
and, furthermore,
thirteenth measures of the given
1
i
no
a syllable
by step from above.
melody
(p. 84).
without being followed by a suspension.

it
vit
if
they
may
also be
m^
it
The
found
all
is
It
generally occurs
does appear quite often

anticipation usually fol-
after quarters, for
example:
Anticipations may, under
This
be observed in the seventh and
before a syncopated note (as in bar 13), but
lows a dotted half, but
only one form of repetition in the music of
Palestrina: the anticipation approached
very
na
which cannot carry
respect to quarter notes,
are in succession, there
do
bis,
circumstances,
come only on unaccented
quarters of the measure and (in Palestrina melodies) they are used only
when approached by
from below
is
step
from above.
The
approached
anticipation
often to be found in early Italian composers
from the
be-
ginning of the sixteenth century and also in the contemporary Netherlanders, as:
ill
Here,
is
too, the anticipation
unusually
common,
approached by a descending skip of a third
especially
with Josquin des Prez, to
can almost attribute the most frequent use of
this figure, as:
whom we
TECHNICAL FEATURES
HE
ZEE
95
IE
Sta
ma
bat
These early composers
make
also
do
ter
ICE
ro
lo
sa
fairly frequent use of the anticipation
approached by a descending skip of a
fifth.
In the Palestrina style the attempt to give the melodies harmonic poise,
however, never leads to tedious

a certain sprightly
energy in the linear treatment
Particular care
is
its
that the culmination note
when
mination point, even
is
we
would thereby be
observe accordingly
(bar 11) occurs only this one time and that
the other high points do not
go beyond the F.
comes in
it
Furthermore the
cul-
and achieves
entirely fresh
its
not in the least overaccented and does not stand out harshly.
full effect, is
We
itself
In the melody discussed
force.
repetition
not be diminished by having that tone
occur shortly before, because the culmination
robbed of
insipid
exercised that the effect of the high tone in
may
the melodic culmination
on the contrary,
preferred (although
is
and every heaviness and
completely controlled)
avoided.
stiffness or to dullness;
have here one of the best characteristics of the genuine,
stylistically
pure Palestrina melodies in contrast to later somewhat misguided imita-
Everyone
tions.
who
has even a slight feeling for what
distinctive in this style will be
following (which
is
from
who
Do
te
Palestrina style
''
With
J.
we can
respect
to
has been mentioned earlier)
mi -ne
and although
va
to be in full accord
this
with the laws of the
an excellent and beautiful melody
is
but feel that the total impression has a somewhat

the
as the
PP
-
Although everything seems
in itself,
J.
and
Fux, the so-called "Palestrina
Ad
essential
guard against a theme such
his
a motet of
of the eighteenth century,"
i t o
on
is
treatment of culmination
tones,
these
may
occur at the
modern
beginning of
melodies, although they rarely do, and at the end, provided the range of the particular melody
is
not especially large and the

In
melodies
half
notes.
may
be repeated, but only
movement
progresses
with quicker rhythms

if
it
(in
in
such longer note values as
halves
and quarters)
comes on two tones which are separated by
the
whole and
culmination tone
a single tone, as:
TECHNICAL FEATURES
96
sentimental touch which
foreign to a great
is
This impression
style.
docs not depend upon the intervals themselves; the same
movements
that
begin the melody are found (in the same order) in the theme from Palestrina's
motet Surge propera (see
which
is
trina style
iP
The
we
if
86).
We
It
'
much
nearer the Pales-
as follows:
less
theme the high tone
the rhythm, however,
is
shall be
Fux theme somewhat
alter the
explanation for the
in his
p.
the deciding factor here.
elegant effect that
B-flat in the first
Fux
attains
may
be that
curve receives a very strong
A
accent.
It
gets this accent because the
rhythm
derlining the
is
first
likewise
besides un-
tone energetically (presumably because this
comparison with the following notes),
in
i
j
made prominent
is
melodically, that
is
long
so arranged that the note

is,
as the
culmination note
At the beginning of the third measure the situation becomes

more acute in that, in addition to the rhythmic and melodic accent,
B-flat.
still
there
is
superimposed a third, namely, a "reminiscent accent" on the
high tone D.
phasizes
(That the motive of the second measure
to the third
This
last
power, and under
like ringing steel

tirely
more pronounced
strongly and produces a
it
the higher range.)
an
effect
culmination
is
in
its
repeated em-
effect
because of
thereby, so to speak, raised
this threefold accentuation
which
is
it
has an effect
sharpness and exuberance
is
foreign to the soft and natural linear characteristics of the Palestrina
music.
It
cisive role
becomes obvious from the foregoing comparison what a de-
rhythm
plays in the Palestrina
melody
10
and
how
cautiously
and carefully every unusual accentuation of the culmination point

avoided, indeed
how
everything
produce a rough or obtrusive
human
speech.
In this connection
10
11
is
shunned which might in any way
is
effect.
I
This suggests a comparison with

should like to introduce a citation
from the textbook on phonetics by the Danish

sen:
en-
philologist Otto Jesper-
11
This problem will be treated more in detail in the section on the

Otto Jespersen: Lehrbuch der Phonetik, 2nd Ed. (Leipzig, 1913),
fifth species
p.
229.
(p.
135).
TECHNICAL FEATURES
97
The speech of the uncivilized is characterized by great, uncontrolled tonal

modulations, while civilization puts a damper on the passions and their expressions
.
in gesture
and speech.
Politeness
demands
that one should not use
in order to call attention to himself; a sensitively educated taste

in a preference for small, fine, expressive
see
is
any coarse means

revealed likewise
nuances in which the outsider
unable to
is
anything but dull monotony.
Naturally
do not mean that
melody must be
as velvety
and subdued
as possible in
order to conform to the ideals of the Palestrina
the contrary,
it
can never be lively and expressive enough.
On
style.
In order to
master a certain nuance
achieve this effect, however, one must, above
all,
Melodies which continually
should like to
try to
call it
the melodic piano.
be impressive by the use of excessive movement and the
no more able
to express
genuine emotion than an orchestra can give the
impression of real power by constantly playing fortissimo.

fields, so
who
like, are
As
in other
here too: he alone will attain really genuine and deep expression
understands the art of restraint.
Harmony
Although the music of the sixteenth century
lines,
we must by no means assume
that
based essentially on
is
interest
in
the contrasting
dimension, that of chords, was therefore completely lacking.
For the sixteenth century, harmony

the sake of linear effects than for
its
exists
own
admittedly
sake.
much more
In order to be able to
follow the various melodies in their simultaneous course without

clearness
and beauty
in the chordal combinations
course of the sixteenth century the

pleasantness
of
teaches in his
the
work
the third and fifth
demand
harmoniche (1558)
(or sixth)
difficulty,
were required.
for fullness
harmonies gradually increased.

Istitutioni
for
In the
and independent
Zarlino
already
that so far as possible
should be written over the bass tone.
Artusi, indeed, goes so far as to give only complete triads as usable at

all in
it
compositions with more than two voices, because, as he expresses
"la richezza dell'
feeling for
harmonia" can be attained only
"harmonic richness" has doubtless deeply and
fected the evolution of music.
If
and on through
Palestrina,
and then make
the percentage of incomplete and
This
decisively af-
one should go through the
of the Netherland composers of the fifteenth
how
in this way.
literature
and early sixteenth centuries

a tabulation,
he would
sec
empty combinations constantly
TECHNICAL FEATURES
98
decreases
and
how
the filling out of the chords with thirds and sixths
simultaneously increases.
cases
where the melody
happens
With Palestrina apart from more exceptional

built up on the harmony or where the reverse
is
one can always observe
a masterful balance in the regard for
the melodic and harmonic requirements, although, as I have said, the

harmonic demands are generally rather more for the sake of clearness
than for anything
The same
else.
wariness against abrupt or unclear effects which
acteristic of the Palestrina style in the linear
is
char-
evident in the
is
Dissonances are used only in restricted forms and
treatment of chords.
in places
treatment
where they do not produce an obtrusive
Their use
effect.
may
be divided into three principal categories:

1.
Passing dissonances.
2.
Suspension dissonances.
3.
Auxiliary dissonances (that
is,
dissonances which are introduced
by step on weak beats and then return

In addition to
all
sevenths, ninths,
to the preceding tone).
and
so on,
are classed
intervals, seconds, fourths,
The
dissonances.
as
however, occupies a very particular, individual position:
fourth,
hovers be-
it
tween consonance and dissonance and, under certain circumstances which

will be discussed later, can be treated as a consonance.
the fourth
is
The same
considered a dissonance.
But
as a rule,
thing applies also to
other mildly dissonant tonal combinations, such as diminished and aug-
mented fourths and
fifths.
In accordance with long-standing tradition, the consonances are di-
vided in the sixteenth century into two groups: perfect and imperfect.
The
perfect consonances are: unison, fifth, octave, twelfth,
the imperfect consonances are: third, sixth, tenth,
and
and
so on.
so on;
In the
sixteenth century, too, perfect consonances are preferred to imperfect at
the beginning and end of a composition.
One
of the chief theoretical rules of the century forbids the direct
progression
from one
perfect consonance to another.
parallel octaves or fifths are not permissible:
=d=J=F.J
[1
-I
II
-I
I
Broken chords and the like are very rare in the Palestrina
.1
if
style.
In other words,
TECHNICAL FEATURES
It
99
that this rule applies only
must be pointed out
occur between a given pair of voices;

voices,
then
it
makes
parallels
they are avoided by crossing the
if
whether or not they are present
difference
little
in the sounds actually heard.
where such
good example
found in the following
is
Domine
passage from the Credo of the four-part mass of Palestrina, In te
which would sound
speravi,
on the piano:
as follows
IP^
but which in reality does not have parallel
since
fifths,
it
is
noted
as
follows:
SO
y
/L
O'
fr\
Vy
'
Et
re
p>
1
s ur
re
ter
xit
it?
IPS
no
^
*
-*
sur
-
re
xit
1'j
* m
_
Here the
is
re
h"
re
This
Et
ifl
Ik*
I^S
ILJ
ti
r>
lift
sur
fifths are
not, as
re
ter
xit
ti
avoided by the crossing of the two upper parts.
one might assume, purely
of evading the rule.
On
the contrary,
it
matter of form for the sake
is
an expression of the essence
of the law, for the tonal quality of the different voices enables one to
follow the individual melodies and easily to see that the fifths do not
occur in parallel motion.

It
is
not desirable for two or more fourths to follow each other in
similar motion.
in
The only
exception
modern terminology, would be
is
the following progression which,
called a series of parallel chords of
the sixth:
i9
But progressions such
Palestrina:
as
the following are foreign
to
the
style
of

100
TECHNICAL FEATURES
mm
Such procedures are more
likely to be
found in the Franco-Burgundian
Thus very common
composers of the fifteenth century.
in the
work
of these masters are cadence formulas such as the following:

dOL
If
The
O-
sixteenth century, however, modifies this cadence into the following
^=
1*
Major
voices
thirds, too, are
move
-e-
used with a certain cautiousness.
in parallel thirds, generally a
minor third because two

tritone effect
if
moves
would be too
it
entirely.
strict to
major third
Where two
followed by a
is
major thirds always produce the
successive
the lower part
pi
But
XE
whole
tone, as for
example
forbid the succession of
Palestrina himself fairly often uses
two major
thirds
two and sometimes even three
such thirds in direct succession, as in the Gloria of his four-part mass
Lauda
Sion, in which, however, only the last
two
thirds produce the
tri-
tone effect:
Do
pt^
mi-ne
Fi
mi-ne
li
^^
pm
Do
Fi
li
11
ni-
Finally, the so-called "covered" fifths
IEC
ni
ge
ni
te
3H
ge-
ni
te
and octaves occur
Je
in the
music

TECHNICAL FEATURES
101
of Palestrina very rarely in two-part writing,
and then they
are generally
used in connection with an imitation, as in Palestrina's four-part motet

In die bus
ill is:
TE
P=P
-O-
^
In
di
bus
il
lis,
O-
In
But such
fifths
p^
TfZ.
bus
di
and octaves can
without any imitation.
in
also occur
il
even in two-part
writing
In such a case, however, one generally finds that
one of the voices moves by
step, as in the
following passage from a litany
by Palestrina:
XE
Fa
Sam
vus
It
Fa
Only
rarely in two-part writing
so
nis
do both voices skip
in the
In general one hesitates to allow
tion to a fifth or octave."
skip in the
nis
ie:
Sam
vus
SO
same direction unless
at least
one of the parts
is
same
two
direc-
parts to
an inner part.
Summary
Although the harmony of the Palestrina
extent by chordal feeling,
melodic considerations.
to
from
it
full
beauty
style
is
is
dominated
to a certain
revealed only in relation
we cannot appreciate fully the melody

Ave Maria, mentioned in the preceding
alone (for, unlike most modern melodies,
Just as
Palestrina's ofrertorium
chapter, so long as
it
its
stands
can very well stand alone), so the harmonic course of the progressions
which we find
in
this
composition, in
Several characteristic exceptional cists
tr'ivas"
mentioned on page 25.
may
he found.
itself
See
my
perfectly
beautiful
and
study "Uchcr cintn Brief PaltS
TECHNICAL FEATURES
102
logical, will not
produce
profound
whole,
t
W
it
must be perceived
o
(!
ve
Ma
as such:
7~V
O
n
a,
ve
Ma
*v
xt
rx
thematic
Because this work of art was conceived
development remains concealed.

as a
effect if the relation to the
JOE
ve
M;
ve
-e-
II
I
^^
f^ mm
SB
HH
xj:
ve
a,
3X
i
Ma
-e-o-
A-
ve
Ma
Ma
TECHNICAL FEATURES
103
*-F
i I
r
ve
a,
^^
ve
a,
JJ
^ O
xe
-e-
XT
30:
Ma
XT
331
Ma
^p^p
Ma
ve
ri
a,
a,
<>
>
a,
ve
Ma
ri
ve Ma-ri
^VTZ>
xe
i
XT
XE
XT
Ma
a,
gra
xe
pie
ti
i
gra
ti
pie
^>
ve
Ma
ri
<y
e-
>
gra
Let us see
how
everything
lives
and breathes below
haps slightly classically cool upper voice.

color
and
life.
this quiet
Only now does
it
and
per-
achieve
Part
II
Contrapuntal Exercises
INTRODUCTION
Most of the following exercises involve
the addition of one or
parts to a given melody, the cantus firmus

as
it is, still
continues to have decided practical value.
The melodies given below

or the pupil may,
posed a fourth up or a
may
also
Note
fifth
that the melodies given here
down
(with a signature of one
may
be trans-
flat)
and that
be transposed to the upper or lower octave, according to
whether they are put in

practice, the
will serve as cantus firmi; but the teacher
he so chooses, compose for himself similar basic
if
melodies to work with.
they
more
a technique which, old
a higher or a
lower
part.
Since, in polyphonic
Lydian mode coincides with the Ionian, only Ionian cantus
firmi are indicated.
There
is
of course nothing to prevent those
who
so
desire
from experimenting with the Lydian, but they must understand
that
does not have any particular practical application.
it
difference
since
it is
between authentic and plagal cantus firmi
Similarly, the
disregarded,
is
without significance in polyphonic music.

Dorian
Ê>-
iX
2
1
1
1
1
3
J
S>
o o
o
cantus firmi numbers
1,
6,
3X
11
B.
The
3H
o o
i>
^^ O
O U-
_Q_
331
xv
and 20 arc by Fux; the others by the author.

107
o ^-
CONTRAPUNTAL EXERCISES
108
Phrygian
HI
IB
IPS
111
11
i>
It/
..
" I
II
_4i_
33:
*>
II
o "
^>-
10
i>
g IE
33.
.
-e- 33:
331
"
Mixolydian
12
11
1 "
"
33:
3X
,.
33
-*>
o 5
z E o
S
1)
**
14
13
ti
,.
33
331
" o
3X O
rr
*>-CT
Aeolian
15
16
t>
LJ
n
t/
17
\
LI
*S
t/
o ^
^ o
^ o
"
18
r
O
*>
^
v
i>
11
4>
r*
4*
Ionian
19
_Q
-e-
O-
"
&
3X
"
il
20
--
3X
21
331
<>
22
n*J
i t
o "
>
Chapter HI
TWO-PART COUNTERPOINT
First Species
In
the
first species,
or lower part
whole notes
in
as
which
added
is
is
also called "note against note,"
does the cantus firmus.
Most important
may
have the
it
is
new
that this
and beautiful melodic
part (the counterpoint) acquires an independent
form; under no circumstances
an upper
This added part moves
to the cantus firmus.
effect of
being "contrived"
or "forced."
Preliminary Exercise
We
shall try to write a single
selves to the ecclesiastical
tonic or the dominant.
minor
intervals
up
in
whole
as
notes, confining our-
modes beginning and ending with either the

As already mentioned, all perfect, major, and
to the fifths are permitted in
descending motion,
is
melody
is
ascending as well as in
the perfect octave, whereas the
minor
sixth
The rule that the larger skips must precede

movement while in descending movement
must not be applied too rigidly where the movement
allowed ascending only.
the smaller ones in ascending

the order
reversed
is
takes place in
is
it
whole notes (each whole note receiving two counts)
well to observe
and sure
in
its
knows where
it
whenever
movement,
it is
possible.
so that
going and not
as a
dering willy-nilly here and there.
vague and cramped
It
effect;
it
it
is
The melody must be
felt
as
but
quiet
an individuality which
mere victim of circumstances wanmelody like the following has a
lacks "direction":
should be emphasized again that, in the "polyphonic" ecclesiastical modes, the

(set- page 71).
is always the dominant
the tonic
109
fifth
above
110
"
t*
*i
"
In the main, the dull impression
result
is
much better. The melody does

too many F's in it, but it does
very
there are
thing of a musical
is
Naturally
character.
due
not necessarily beautiful
production of beautiful melodies does not
effect
A
not
at
may
stepwise progression
sufficient.
without
not become really good, for
melody which
possesses
guaranteed procedure for the
That the
exist (fortunately!).
inartistic
is
l>e-
....
-35"
good enough in
KJ
itself,
t>
but scales alone are
a question of creating melodies clear in design
It is
and
be admitted without argument:

-
**
replaced by a G, the
is
following melody, although well defined in contour, has an
monotonous
to the cir-
acquire, nevertheless, some-
still
"direction"
as
stick at the highest note
the sixth note
If
it.
"
must be considered
cumstance that the melody seems to

being able to go beyond
"
the same time varied in the assortment of tones used.
It is
and
especially
important, as has already been mentioned, that the highest tone be used
in a fresh
tone
and
effective
more than once
of the lowest tone.
demands
it is
especially where
One
in these exercises.
it
way; therefore
the melodies are fairly short, as
should exercise similar caution in the treatment
Although
amount
a certain
well to avoid introducing this
it is
not so important as the highest tone,
of consideration; hence
repeat this note too frequently in the
melody
a considerable interval of time intervening.
in
It
it
is
best not to
any case not without

is
moreover necessary
We
to keep each separate part within a reasonable or singable range.
assume the exercises for chorus, and therefore we do not let the soprano
or below
go above ^
Ê
-e-
II
kept
is
XL
<\
'
v'
T tf
9)
tenor 3 n
yS
within the range fg
likewise the alto
and
-+
jQ.
the bass
/'
s'
As was mentioned
in the section
on
o
ecclesiastical
modes, the seventh degree
is
raised at the cadence in
all
the
scales except the
111
Phrygian, in which half steps do not already exist be-
tween the seventh and eighth degrees.
In a cadence
it is
not so good to
approach the seventh degree (leading tone) by an ascending skip as

to introduce it by a stepwise progression, but it is permissible to approach
it
by
is
not permissible, but
ter
descending skip of
ftp
In melodic construction, too

is
constantly skipping
of sequences, since
is
no melody
less
is
-e-
useful
*>
Much
bet-
IE
melody which
skips are bad; a
Likewise
at all.
"
acceptable.
is
3X
many
j jj
they generally sound very
cantus firmus, for example,
On
IE
=DI
i>
this:
is
Therefore
third.
on
this
ie
we must be
careful
Fux's Aeolian
trivial.
account/
the other hand, melodies like the following are good:
-e-
Aeolian:
it
zz
-e-
-^
-O-
HE
Doriai
48
Mixolydian:
The
IE
repetition of a tone
and there
is
IE
-e-
-e-
ie
permitted occasionally in the
first
IE
species,
only.
Counterpoint
Bearing in mind so far
cussed,
let
us
as possible the
melodic considerations
just dis-
add parts above and below the given cantus firmus, pro-
ceeding according to the following rules:

1.
Only consonant combinations may be
the fourth
To
thr.
is
used.
(Do
not forget that
considered a dissonance.)
must be added
that
the beginning suggests broken chords
(compare
p,
)H).
One must begin and end with
2.
and
so on).
If
the counterpoint
lies
a perfect consonance (octave, fifth,

in the lower part, however, only the
may be used at the beginning and ending.

Unisons may occur only on the first and last notes
octave or unison
i.
of the cantus
firmus.
4.
Hidden and
parallel fifths
and octaves
are not permitted.
It
is
therefore not permissible to approach a fifth or octave in similar motion.
Hidden
I
5.
Only
Hidden octaves
Parallel fifths
fifths
Parallel octaves
#
The
cantus firmus and counterpoint must not be too far apart.
for the sake of a beautiful voice leading should the interval of the
tenth be exceeded.
6.
thirds
The
counterpoint and cantus firmus must not
and
sixths for too
counterpoint
is
long
at
thereby destroyed.
It is,
to be sure,
more than four such parallels are

in this species, move in whole notes.
Caution must be exercised with regard
7.
skip in the
same
direction.
If
hard to
fix a definite
to allowing
voices, as
both parts to
they do, none of the parts ought to skip
more than a fourth. (This does not include the

must be considered a sort of tone repetition.)
is
in parallel
not good where the
limit; but
8.
move
a time, since the independence of the
skip of the octave,
type of motion that produces the most beautiful effect and
The
most in accordance with the nature of polyphony
Wherever melodic considerations permit,
it
is
contrary motion.
should be preferred.
Examples
Dorian
_Ql
which
nr
II
XT
c.f.
11
XE
Vr
ir
xe
2xe
XE
XE
XE
XE
-0-
*t
*t
Phrygian
113
CL
"
3E
XE
c.f.
IE
XL
XE
**
3?
Mixolydian
4?
XE
II
331
C.f.
XE
XE
cp
XE
"
<
>
fa
II
tt
^^=^
Aeolian
Q_
XE
tt
C.f.
*
3
To
versa)
this
no
"cross"
is
real
Two
arpeggio.
XE
^>
the
to
let
the
is
Hefc
**
DDE
lower part go above the upper
which cannot be recommended
polyphony
of
(occasionally
parts
technique
skips
XE
<v
XE
sufficiently.
One may
say
part
or
that
without
vice
possible.
third
in
the
same
direction
are
permissible
and are not regarded
as
an
114
Ionian
it*
ti
^^.
"H
1*1
t
mJ *p
fi
115
\f\ j
\h* fl*
c.f.
ffS
12
im
%J
I,-'
1
1
v
Y
t>
i>
-e-
ir
*p
>
*>
s
Second Species
two notes
In these exercises
are set in the counterpoint against each
note in the cantus firmus.
Preliminary Exercise
Write melodies in half
notes.
beat; in such cases, however, the
of the scale.
tone must be the tonic or the fifth
Likewise in the next to the
last
and third
whole note may be substituted for the two half
ures, a
last
permissible to begin with an up-
It is
first
note in this as in
all
to the last
meas-
notes, while the
other species must invariably be a breve.
The
repetition of a tone, being permissible only in the first species (see p. Ill),
is
accordingly forbidden in the second and in the remaining species.
The
rule previously
intervals in the
than where
notes;
mentioned about the succession of larger and smaller
same direction must be observed more
(as in the first species) the
however an idiom
like the
movement
following
may
carefully here
takes place in
whole
be used:
9
but only
when
the descending progression of the second follows
diately after the ascending skip of the third,

to rule.
The following procedure
is
which
not so good:
is
imme-
introduced contrary
However,
line
it
may
But in the
be used.
such as the following
is
style
under consideration,
melodic
lacking in form and design:

2
115
if
Let us consider the following counterpoint:
"
f
r
seems unsatisfactory
stantly
knocking
a climax that
its
of the
melody
[F-sharp]
head against the twice-lined
seems natural and
monotonous use
because
chiefly, perhaps,
To
free.
irregular progressions of intervals at (a)

a
(b)
*M
It
4^
"2
(a)
of the tonal material
in question, the notes
occur, respectively,
which
this
and
must be added
the twenty-two notes
closely adjoining
repetition of the tonal material in the eighth
B, A, G,
Furthermore the
and 4 times).
3, 5, 6,
also the
(b) in combination with
(among
lie
appears to be con-
it
without ever achieving
and ninth measures
must be
is
monotonous.
Such redundancy
avoided.
especially important in these short melodies to strive for
good
It is
classical
style,
which implies the
material and the avoidance of

the preceding
(as well as sequences)
all
economy
strictest
With
padding.
if
lr
of
melodic
the following changes
melody becomes acceptable:
p -Mr
definitely
^>
p-
Counterpoint
In trying to
we must
combine such
melody
observe the following rules:
in half notes
with
cantus firmus.
116
1.
The
arsis
(the accented portion of the measure)
may have
only
consonance.
2.
The
thesis
(the unaccented portion of the measure)
dissonance
may
be used only
if
introduced conjunctly and
is
it
way
conjunctly continuing in the same direction (in this

interval of the third
may have
Consonance may be introduced
either consonance or dissonance.''
between the two notes on either
it
fills
freely;
left
is
in the
side of it),
as
follows:
if
?
8
Ig-Tfi
\&-*
r
7
f*
s
but not:
tr
(9
-n
v..
BIT
'
1
'ID
(4
<E-G
l\
Here, to be sure, a dissonance
is
introduced conjunctly and proceeds
from
conjunctly, but in the opposite direction
The following methods
introduced.
that
in
which
it
was
of treatment are of course entirely
inadmissible:
m
3.
3X
The unison on
and the
last
the strong accent
notes of the cantus firmus.
nr
3X
xr
is
331
3X
permissible only on the
first
In the remainder of the counter-
5
It is to be noted here once and for all that all the rules in this manual are based on the
premise that the half note is the unit of measure (it takes one beat).
point, however,
measure.
It
it
may
also be used
117
on the unaccented portion
should be noted in this connection that
it
is
of the
best that the
unison introduced by skip be quitted by conjunct motion in the opposite
may
direction, although this
not always be possible.
xe
3
m
4.
XE
Accented
fifths or octaves
following each other
(fifths or octaves
on successive accents) must be used
even
carefully,
if
they are not
excluded entirely.
3E
5
XE
2ZI
XE
XE
t>
-e-
Examples
Dorian
IS
c.f.
6 Since bar
One
5*
lines are
&3Pa=*
^ ^
when
XE
XE
|5=tt
nz
superfluous in exercises with cantus firmi,
should observe that
immediately following.
m
XE
XEZ
sB^
book.
~71
we
shall
not use them in this
bar lines are not used, accidentals apply only to the note
^
118
Phrygian
a.
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119
Triple time with the half note as the unit of measure requires, in the
Palestrina style, that each half note be a consonance.
not in accordance with the laws of the style
and others permit the second and third half
when
Thus
in 3/1 time only every other half note
tion are 3/1 time
The
measure
may
rule
may
is
be
be dissonant
Consequently, only by the nota-
in 3/2 time every other quarter.
and
therefore,
is,
to be dissonant.
that in triple time only the second half of each unit of
dissonant.
It
Bellermann, Haller,
and 3/2 time distinguished, and there
therefore
is
no
reason for treating triple time before the following exercises in third
species.
Third Species
In these exercises four quarters are to be set against each note in the
cantus firmus.
Preparatory Exercise
movement.
First, write exercises in quarter-note
species,
rest,
in the preceding
permissible to begin with an up-beat, therefore with a quarter
it is
and occasionally
next to the
As
also
with a
rest of
two or three
quarters.
two half notes or one whole note may be
last bar,
for the four quarters, while the last measure, as in all species,
breve.
With note
necessary, as
said, to
observe
more rapidly moving
no exceptions are permitted
is
opposite.
7
same direction permitted.
larger
Nor
possibilities
notes.
p.
&9.
movement, and
in the
is
of the melodic
must precede
vice versa,
where
successive skips in the
same direction
much more
In reality only
able: the ascending third followed
Compare
it
rigidly
In these exercises, therefore,
two or more
are
with quarter notes are
more conscious
more
But even where the correct succession of
and smaller movements
greater note values.
is
to the rule that larger intervals
smaller ones in continuous ascending

the direction
the melodic rules
all
than with slower rhythms, because one

context in the
substituted
must have
values as comparatively short as quarter notes,
have
In the
by
is
observed, the
limited than with the
two usable combinations

its
U-'
are avail-
upper second, for example:
120
and the descending step of the second followed by the skip of the third
same
the
in
direction, for
example:
If,
he
fL
in
limits
for
fourth
case,
this
style
this
is
substituted
is
for
the skip of the
have already been violated.
therefore most rare in Palestrina,
third,
figure
like
and with the
downward
skip of the fourth, for example
does not occur
^t
at all.
Furthermore, the rule that no upward skips from an accented quarter

Therefore, movements
note are permissible must be closely observed.

like the
following must be avoided:
ii
On
the other
hand
the inversions of these figures are quite permissible:
I
Likewise, one must take care as far as possible to
mediately.
figure such as
but
may
JL
also be
is
fill
out skips im-
best continued thus:
continued by upward skips, for
.'xample
but under no circumstances by continuous
Likewise of great significance
is
downward movement.
the rule
which
is
partially covered
by
what has already been said (compare p. 92) and according to which
an unaccented quarter note, introduced stepwise from below, is preferably
continued upward by
step,
hence treated
as a passing note.
Violations
121
of this rule are very rare; the only fairly usual exception to this rule
is
the descending skip of the third following an unaccented quarter note
introduced stepwise from below, for example:
The unaccented
quarter note introduced from above
The
greater freedom.
best proof
for this
lg^?
figure
^^
But
is
also
is
treated
with
the much-liked cambiata
comparatively
common
figures like the following:
serve to illustrate the
Sequences like
same
point.
must of course be avoided.

3
Generally, descending skips from
good
are not so
(if
two
successive accented quarter notes
they are ascending, they are of course
Repetition of the tone of the

trivial effect if the third
first
quarter
is
still
worse).
quarter on the third quarter has a
introduced from above.
The same
holds true under similar circumstances for repetitions of the second to

the fourth quarter.
never met with
Therefore, idioms like the following are rarely or
in the stylistically
while such repetitions of tone

quarter note
ornament
is
is
pure music of Palestrina:
may
pass
where the third or the fourth
introduced from below.
exceedingly popular and
For example, the following
common
in the sixteenth century:
I
8 It
note,
is
to be
noted, however, that a skip of the third
irrespective
the second
of
upward.
the other
rhythmic circumstances,
downward from an unaccented

must
always
be
followed
by
.i
quarter
Step
of
122
Likewise idioms such
as:
are in constant favor in the sixteenth century, even
popularity
if
the height of their
somewhat further back.
lies
In this species unusual possibilities for beautiful melodic progressions
and
are afforded,
it is
now
important to use them so that the structure of
the melodies in the broader sense of the word

artistic.
It is
beautiful
and
impossible to give a definite outline for the architecture of
such a melody
even
within a
style so definitely
of the time of Palestrina melodies
ways and
may become
the one that has
be good.
yet each
its
may
circumscribed as that
be written in a thousand different
particularly beautiful form, however,
is
climax (highest note) toward the end of the melody
and gradually reaches
its
culmination in a
soft
and natural chain of
smaller ascents and descents:
-9
m
i
It is
inadvisable to put the point of culmination at the very end of the
melody;
It
pp
it
may
would be
easily
have the
effect of a
sudden and dramatic conclusion.
better to place the culmination note at the beginning of the
melody, although even then
it
might be
difficult
to bring
about the
necessary tranquillity and balance.
Not
to criticize,
which
in
most
cases
is
a relatively easy matter
when
system of teaching has reached a certain age, but to demonstrate the
between the older counterpoint, more harmonically based and

the newer of stronger melodic tendencies, we will take from Fux an
example which later has gone into more modern manuals:
contrast
123
Lvdian
m
r
Bi
pe
f
r
^m
t=t
Although one cannot deny
that this
in the linear treatment (it reaches
of a logical
melody manifests
its
climax, a
Thus we
major chord of the
a certain sureness
for example,
and purposeful ascent), nevertheless,
by purely harmonic impulses.
it
is
by means
strongly
marked
find in the second measure, a
sixth sketched in (which, moreover,
is
contrary to
the rule constantly observed in the style of Palestrina that in quarter-note
movement two
skips in the
same way measures 5
progressions
i s
is
ft
Measure 9 has
note.
This
clear to the earlier students of the style,

7, as
well as
have carried too

is it
because of the sequential
also twice violates the rule that there
from an accented quarter

and
In the
harmonic
way
in
still
more awkward
effect
not only consists of a sequence (the repeated skip of the third:
it
C-E) but
as figurations of the
accented (measure 7 has the same motive
but in reverse order).
as 5 to 6,
are not to be written).
be regarded
==
which the skip of the third

because
same direction
to 7 are to
4.
It is
possible to reach a
which was not quite
violated, moreover, in
generally evident
much weight
rule,
last
is
should be no upward skip
how harmonic
measures
considerations
Only by "thinking horizontally"

genuine polyphonic manner of writing.
here.
Counterpoint
The
1.
may
rules for the chordal
On
the
be used.
however,
combinations
in this species are as follows:
and the third quarters of the measure, only consonances

Concerning this rule, Fux remarks that occasionally (only,
first
when the first, second, and fourth

may be dissonant. However,
third quarter
quarters are consonant) the

this rule,
adopted by most
124
of the
manuals founded on Fux,
few exceptions which,
both voices
stricted to
On
2.
move
not borne out in the style of Palestrina.
is
when,
one voice
as in this case,
the second
and fourth quarter, dissonance may be used.
may
was possible
in half-note
movement
same
words,
is
it
may
But while
is
not restricted to the continuation
return to the tone from which one started;
permissible here to use dissonant auxiliary notes.
Fux, to be sure, does not use such dissonances, and Bellermann says in
regard:
The composers
he
is
of the sixteenth century likewise
this
it,
and then only
On
more examples,
it is
procedure
very popular.
and
eights.
Meanwhile
is
rare in the
From
a thousand
us take the following from the beginning of
motet
Magnum
haereditatis mysterium:
3X
ICE
Mag- num
f
hae
re - di
ta
XE
-e-
Mag
The
kind of dissonance
this
their use henceforth.
asserts that this
the contrary,
let
Palestrina's four-part
Ml
when he
knew
in notes of shorter value, quarters
remark Bellermann forbids
definitely in error
sixteenth century.
or
this
10
but they rarely used
With
it
to use only the so-called "passing note
dissonances," in the third species one

direction, but
The
occur are, as in the second species, the
stepwise introduction and continuation of the dissonance.
in other
re-
is
whole-note movement) will be mentioned later on.
conditions under which this
in the
when
in two-part counterpoint, can occur only
freely (but not
num
my
tis
ste
ri
3X
re-di
hae
ta
tis
my
third quarter in the fourth measure in the excerpt above does not
continue the conjunct descending
second quarters, as
it
movement
started
on the
first
and
should have done according to the rules concerning
the treatment of dissonance as formerly given, but returns to the starting
note
A by which
the dissonance
were, around the A, becoming
it
on the second quarter takes a turn,
Credit for having proved this convincingly goes to the
in a
10
German
theorist
review of Haller's Kompositionslehre in "Gregorius Blatt" 1892, points out
Kontrapunkt
p.
154.
as
thereby a returning (auxiliary) note.

Franz Nekes, who,
this relation clearly.
125
Note, however, that while this type of dissonance

style of Palestrina
when
the auxiliary dissonance
is
preceding accented quarter note, the contrary

auxiliary note
the second above.
is
It
very
is
common
in the
the second below the
the case where the
is
follows, moreover,
from what has

*
w^
I
been said
earlier
under "Melody," that idioms
like
were already avoided for purely melodic considerations.
more reason
the
11
There was
all
idiom when, in addition, there was

harmonic beauty of the composition with
to avoid this type of
a possibility of threatening the

a relatively strongly
marked
therefore, allow the
dissonance.
we will,
The upper auxiliary
movement takes place
In the present exercises
lower auxiliary dissonance.
dissonance cannot be used when, as in this case, the

exclusively in quarter notes.
Counterpoint in mixed note values presents
to a certain extent a different
problem
The main
of which, more will be said
rule for the treatment of dissonance in quarter-note
must
later.
move-
on the unaccented part of the

measure and must be introduced and continued stepwise. There is,
ment
therefore, that they
is,
however, one and only one
fairly
fall
common
exception to the rule about
the stepwise continuation of the dissonances: the so-called cambiata.
term
this
is
meant the idiom
in
wise from above (which, like

species, falls
which the dissonance introduced
all
dissonance in this
on the unaccented part
skip of the third
step-
and the preceding
of the measure)
downward followed by
By
is
quitted by the
the step of the second upward,
example:
for
3.
It is
r
5
also the rule in the third species, as in the

If,
1
1
Aside from the

Compare
p.
J\
first
and
last
preceding species,
however, the counterpoint
begins with the up-beat, imperfect consonances

4.
EC
begin with the perfect consonance.
to
may
be used occasionally
measures, the unison
is
not allowed on
126
the
first
quarter
ol
the measure but
may
be used freely on the remaining
heats.
Accented
5.
each other
may
fifths or octaves
on successive accented quarters following
be permitted very rarely.
following are so
flat as
Especially octaves such as the
to be practically unusable.
-j
$
If
TT
they are four quarters apart, they are acceptable, especially in the
following cadence:
I
The same
applies to the fifths.
Examples
Dorian
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128
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The
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129
XE
3T
rules for binary meters apply also to ternary meters.
For example
Dorian
^
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c.f.
j
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XL
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frfrrrrrff^rrr^frrrrrr
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130
Phrygian
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Fourth
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Species
two half notes
In the fourth species, as in the second,
counterpoint against each note in the cantus firmus.
are written in the
In contrast to the
practice in the second species, the unaccented half note
is
tied to the
accented one immediately following, so that a chain of suspensions
formed.
same way
as there.
the
same
Thus
in reality the counterpoint
as in the first species,
The
moves
species than in the
may
first.
whole notes
and the same melodic
rules for the sequence of larger
direction
in
The melodic
rules apply here
and smaller
much more
be interpreted
continuity
is
in the
intervals in
freely in the fourth

is
weakened by the
formation of the syncopations, and the exercises of the fourth species

have, therefore,
more
vertical character in contrast to those of the pre-
ceding species, because they serve mainly as practice in the use of

pension dissonances, while they emphasize linear aspects to a
lesser
extent.
Consequently
preparatory exercises.
we may
sus-
much
disregard here specific melodic
The more important
Dissonances
1.
may
rules for the chordal combinations are as follows
be used only on accented half notes, and so used

is
tied over
ceding measure, where
it
must be
from the unaccented part
that the dissonant tone
After that
it
131
of the pre-
a consonance with the cantus firmus.
must be taken stepwise downward
to a
consonance on the
unaccented part of the measure, for example:
XE
While the dissonances
-e-
in the preceding species are placed only
unaccented parts of the measure where they are
more
it
easily, the
less
on
noticed and pass by
fourth species follows exactly the opposite procedure:
uses the dissonance for
its
own
sake.
Here we want expressly
to hear
dissonance and dissonance only; presumably in order to be able to enjoy

the artistically valuable contrast between consonance
and dissonance.
the second and third species, the dissonances were only tolerated.
theless,
even
so that
it
if
in the fourth species
stands out clearly,
is,
we must
the dissonant tone
must be
of the preceding measure
where
the dissonant tone
felt in
is
thus
immediately before the harsh
and
to
Never-
have the dissonance placed
be constantly on the alert for acrid
Consequently the dissonance must be "prepared";
or obtrusive effects.
that
we wish
In
it is
tied over
from the unaccented part
introduced as consonance.
Because
consonant relation to the cantus firmus
effect takes place,
any shock
is
removed,
descending resolutionperhaps one of the most
also the stepwise
quieting musical effects
serves to tone down and smooth out the rough-
ness.
Dissonances
2.
wants
to
may
be resolved only to imperfect consonances.
hear after dissonance a really
full
fore one resolves to a third, sixth, tenth,

to
"empty"
the
demand
fifths
and
octaves.
It
and harmonious
and the
like,
One
effect; there-
but not so well
follows, therefore, in connection with
for stepwise descending resolution, that with the counter-
point in the upper voice, only the seventh and fourth

a suspension dissonance;
may
be used as
and with counterpoint below the cantus firmus
only the second and ninth, as follows:
13
m
6
J3
cf.
*\
tf
C.f.
l\
n
)
li-'
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10
10
^J
Irn
I.J
gj
'
Accordingly, in two-part counterpoint, the ninth and second in the

upper voice and fourth and seventh in the lower part should be disre-
garded
entirely, since they all resolve into perfect consonances:
if
5>
'j
ll?\
l^r
IIS
-9
10
cf.
l\*\
\\k?
|tS
liil
In the fourth species as
many
zt
suspension dissonances as possible
However, out of regard for the voice leading and
harmonic progressions,
on the
3.
ft
3X
4
are used.
/J
*>
cf.
12
arsis.
it
is
for the
occasionally necessary to put a consonance
In this case the continuation of the syncopating tone
optional, for example:

Similarly one ought to avoid
all
intervals in suspensions
is
stepwise descending continuation
syncope
is
obligatory only where the
dissonant.
is
syncopated consonance occurs on the strong accent
If a
4.
ice
ICE
C.f.
The
133
missible to take a passing dissonance
on the following weak
only in accordance with the rules of second species,
Occasionally
To do
it
may
is
per-
for example:
m
8
^m
13
it
beat, but
ZEE
be necessary to break the chain of syncopations.
so gives rise to episodes of the second species
which
are handled
according to the rules of this species, for example:
c.f.
w
i
P
XE
e-
The unison may
5.
and
thesis.
If
be used freely in the fourth species both on
arsis
the suspensions are broken, the rules of the second species
hold also with respect to unisons.

6.
It is
a perfect
is
consonance
In the fourth species,
7.
it
permissible to begin with the up-beat, which then must form
if
the counterpoint
lies
in the
upper
cantus firmus in the upper voice, the suspension of the second
voice,
best to use the suspension of the seventh in the cadence; with the
S"
pp.
116
f.
is
the rule.
134
W O - P A R T COUN T ER POIN T
Where
it
is
whole note
demanded by
the cantus firmus, however, one
next to the
in the
last
if
may
put a
measure.
\=f=f=\
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in
c.f.
"
is
c.f.
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Examples
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Compare
%
p.
142.
rT^/n
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135
Aeolian
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Fifth Species
Preparatory Exercise
Write melodies with mixed note values.

In the fifth and most important species of
exercises are only preparatory, the
rhythm
limited to one specific note value, but

notes, quarters, or eighths.
ad libitum; the rhythms

artistic laws.
When
complex and
subtle.
We will
free; that
must be held
therefore limit ourselves to a
flexible.
no longer
not be used
within certain broad limits.
fluid
few
is still
Only
generalizations.
In spite of
all
well in the future.
first
stiff
is
at
first
quarter notes, and so forth.

in continuity.
once both fresh
and abrupt
poor melody would have the
would seem awkward and lacking

the
may
values, however,
Everything which might have a
in half notes, the next four in
fill
are
important to create variety in the melodies; consequently the
be avoided.
to
we
is,
use breves, whole notes, half
note values must be arranged so that the impression
and
which the preceding
also as well as the intervals are subject to certain
an "aesthetic of rhythm"
It is
1.
may
for
melody and rhythm unite the relation becomes very

It becomes increasingly difficult to formulate im-
pressions into rules; they
efforts,
These note
is
all,
It
effect
must
four measures
Such
would be
melody
still
worse
four measures with whole notes and the next four with
quarter notes, since rhythmic contrasts should not be so juxtaposed but

should be introduced smoothly and evenly. Just as the intervals demand
a balanced treatment so that after larger skips smaller
movements
are
introduced and vice versa, so rhythms require compensation: after longer

note values a need
is
felt for
shorter ones.
classical
example of such
rWO-PART COUNTERPOINT
136
completely beautiful rhythmic balance
is
the
famous beginning of the
Sanctus in Palest rina's Marcellus Mass:
TT~ZZ2
pi
r>
ctus,
San
San
After the smoothly introduced syncope in measures
movement
two quarters
of the
second measure
in the
resolution, which, however, contains the elastic
With
in
three,
and leads by virtue of
to 2, the receding
felt as a
is
power
increasing rhythmic and melodic energy the
measure
movement
in
phenomenon,
that inevitably
must be
this
of a natural
presence one feels a deep conviction
its
just so, as
duces rings in wider and wider
and natural use of
from the slower
are here developed
from the lower, has almost the quality
in the sense that in

it
The melody
one above (or around) the other, and the way
which the more rapid movements
ones, the higher curves
continues
organic development to the
its
extremely expressive and nobly accentuated climax on G.

consists of three curves
natural
for continuation.
when
circles.
a stone falling into a pool pro-
Most of
theme reminds one
all,
perhaps, the tranquil
of a noble
and gracefully
splashing fountain.
The syncope which
plays such a decisive role in the
constantly felt as a rhythmic element
pensation because
of the halting effect
melody above
which requires some
which
it
special
is
com-
produces in the movement.
Often, therefore, shorter note values are put immediately before the syn-
cope
as in the
following example, with
pi
Similarly,
it
is
its
anticipation figure
3X
r
"
a favorite practice to allow the syncopated note to be
followed by eighths:
^
2.
It
tinuity.
is
J
\
gp
in:
important to create "organic" melodies of unbreakable con-
Therefore, to develop the faster movements gradually from the
slower ones and (especially in the cadence) the slower from the faster
As has been pointed
good.
137
from the Marcellus Mass

from quieter to more lively movements, but almost every beginning theme in compositions of the sixteenth
is
out, the excerpt
ingeniously shows such a transition
century
is
An
of this t^pe.
mic crescendo with
of Palestrina's four-part
de
Val
found
is
motet Valde honorandus
IT
example of such
especially beautiful
a consequent decrescendo
est:
ho
no
ran
dus
ho
est,
no
might think
glance, one
first
ran
3X
zz
At
a rhyth-
the beginning
at
that the
dus
est
composer proceeded
pedantic and mechanical way, since he puts a breve in the
first
in a
measure,
whole notes in the second, and half notes very methodically in the third.
However, no dry calculation lies behind this procedure; everything is
Try once
inspiration.
words,
how
worth while
There
is,
melody and
and naturally
how
to note
same way
ically in the
Mass.
to sing this
beautifully
let
how
feel
well
expresses them!
it
fits
Likewise
the
it
is
is formed rhythmically and melodmelody given above from the Marcellus
the climax
as in the
moreover, something very natural in
dwell on the higher notes, especially
experiment
it
when
this
tendency to
As an
they are accentuated.
us undertake to rhythmize the following descending series:

_o_
-e-
%
How much
note than
more
xc
beautiful the effect
when one
In the
last
case the
breath, while the
form
r_
in
when one
is
felt
lingers
on
its
highest
values and there-
example:
whole
XE
more rapid note
begins with the
after goes over to the slower ones, for
l<\-
is
-e-
to be a bit
Valde honorandus
est
awkward and
short of
has a free and natural
138
What
effect.
make
also serves to
descending from measure 4 to
5,
portions of the measure, since the
the latter
rests
it
first
note
form
falls
nounced
if
both
rests
were
The
is
that,
on the third (accented)
half note of the measure, while the fifth note falls
accented) half note of the measure.
so beautiful
on two rhythmically varied
effect
on the second (un-
would be much
less
pro-
on rhythmically similar parts of the
laid
measure, for example:
i BE
I
The striking difference in the treatment of ascending and descending

movement which we have observed earlier meets us also in the rhythmic
field.
Though it is best in descending movement to have the longer
note values come before the shorter ones, it is quite correct in ascending
movement to begin with the quicker notes. The following is fairly common:
# 5
i
especially where, as here, the last note in the ascending series
but
at least just as
is
suspended;
frequently one finds:
i ?
while the inversion of
P
is
seldom
this figure:
seen, since the corresponding
melodic situation
is
almost always
balanced as follows:
15
I
15 It
is
almost
as
other natural laws.
non occurs
that
we
though one had submitted himself involuntarily

If
we
observe
when
falling
the
law of gravity and

same phenome-
body moves with constantly increasing speed
approaches the earth; and the fact that one moves faster
he has gone part of the
to
liken the lowest tone to the surface of the earth, then the
way seems
to
be illustrated here.
at the
as
it
beginning of an ascent than when
The following
applies further to the treatment of quarters:
best generally
It is
3. a.
139
unaccented half note.
if
the quarter-note
movement begins on
This rule applies especially to descending move-
ments; where melodies ascend and consequently the
may
the accent.
If
one descends thus in quarter notes from such an accented
most natural form
I
One
note values
lesser
movement may begin on
well precede the greater, a quarter-note
half note, the
the
the stepwise, for example:
is
<
can, however, advantageously use also figures such as:
pp i
on the contrary, melodies ascend in a similar manner, the

scalewise procedure has a somewhat sharp effect:
If,
direct
IW^F
and
only infrequently found in works from the florescent period of
is
vocal polyphony.
the beginning.
16
It is
much
better here to place a skip
Then, by the law of balance,
opposite direction.
Especially fine
l *
but also with fourth,
fifth,
is
it
downward
moves naturally
at
in the
the following idiom:
PP
and even octave skips the figure
is
excellent,
for example:
$*
b.
It is
rrrr
ii
J^rrmg
best, as a rule, if the quarter-note
movement
continues up to
an accented half note, hence rather:
16
This
is
quite in keeping with the idea that a certain thrusting energy
get the ascending
movement, which
on the accented part
of the
offers the greatest resistance,
measure (where
it
is
is
required in order to
under way again
especially noticeable).
after the halt
140
p^&
Even with
than
pi rn
the best composers of the sixteenth century, one finds,
idioms of the last-mentioned type, but most often in such
ever,
unaccented half note holds over to form
movement
quarter-note
Even
c.
whole
if
or
one will tolerate more quarters in succession than half or
notes, naturally a time
here to
It is difficult
suspension before which the
stops, thus:
m^
Jz
set
comes when one
any definite
desires other rhythms.
limit; but a selection like the fol-
lowing (taken from the Credo of Palestrina's Missa sine

in his complete
works)
may approximately
of successive quarter notes:
3E
d.
suggest the
titulo,
Vol. 24,
maximum number
Preferably two quarters should not stand isolated in the place of an

In order to
accented half note in a bar.

asthmatic in
after.
how-
cases, the
effect,
is
it
make
such a
movement
less
necessary to add quarter notes either before or
Therefore not:
i
but:
Img
or
However, the two "accented" quarters can remain,

half note
is
suspended:
$
See
p.
JE
3T
too, if the
subsequent
or
if
the
first
of the
two quarters
i
4.
what was
to
said in the section
5.
In regard to syncopation:
a.
The
is
preceding half note
=s
Concerning the treatment of eighth
added here
value
tied over to the
is
141
notes, there
is
nothing to be
on melody (pp. 93
f.).
note of least value to be syncopated with another note of equal
the half note.
Therefore a quarter note cannot be tied to a
quarter, for example:

18
Iw
b.
It is
p^t
not permissible to
greater value:
tie
notes of
^m
i
less
value to subsequent notes of
The
opposite
may
take place,
but in such a case only values can be tied that are in relation to each
other at 2:1.
In other words, one can dot breves, whole notes, half notes,
or quarter notes, but one cannot use the double dot,
obliged to do
if
which one would be
(according to sixteenth century practice) one wished to
write the following rhythms without the bar line
IE
IE
The rule that shorter values may not be tied to longer

when it is the last note to which the former is tied.
has no validity
In the use of dotted half notes the rules for the third species apply to
the last third of the note value.
Therefore the following quarter note
18 As a precaution I should
The rule stated
like to call attention to the footnote on page 116.
In four-four time, which is often
above applies only where the half note is the unit of measure.
used in the madrigal music of the sixteenth century, there is nothing to prevent the- suspension of
one quarter
to the next.
142
may
be cither a passing dissonance or a dissonant auxiliary note, for
example:
je
i
3
o
may
It
IV
not,
IV
however, proceed upward by skip.
Hence, the following
is
not permissible:
m^t=^
J
/i
\j
i:*\
\\ij
~~^x.
rj
C'
15
115
5
i*\
ij it
~
i>
^S
t)
or
"
<>
i\
\&~l
-e
Ifr^
>
>
theme of Palestrina
than
all
these rules.
most beautiful,
From
a great
what we
many
pa
Hie est
it
are concerned with better
possibilities I
speak for
itself.
nis
p?
de coe
Whoever
lo
more than
de
seen- dens
fully understands the lucid
excelled masterpiece that this apparently simple

in reality learned
choose one of the
fragment of the four-part motet Ego sum panis vivus:
Let
will indicate
all theorists
and
and un-
melody represents has
rules of style can teach.
Counterpoint
The
as the
rules for the preceding four species also apply to the fifth as far
dissonance treatment
is
concerned.
As
a result of the additional
by the use of dotted notes, some cases

Thus, the unaccented
arise that are not covered by the preceding rules.
half note that follows after a tie or after a whole note can form a dispossibilities afforded in this species
sonance
when
the dissonance
is
treated according to the rules of the
second species (but half notes of this kind
ceded by a quarter).
may
not be dissonant,
if
pre-
JET
The same
It
is
^^
&
TT
8
143
-e-
applies to quarter notes after ties or dotted half notes.
which
further necessary to observe that quarter notes
are tied
over from preceding unaccented half notes should rarely be used as

dissonances.
19
Wrong:
-
ii
J J
7
Right:
IE
-rx.
ZEE
d=i
ft
On
the other hand, a suspended quarter note can dissonate
on a weak
beat of the measure in either descending or ascending stepwise
ment:
N^
fc
In general
as in the
f-rr
it is
better,
where
not permissible to
let
when
another matter
XT
however, for both voices to proceed conjunctly
foregoing example.
the third species
the
is
in the fifth species (as well as in
While
movement
entirely in quarter notes
is
the note that
is
stepwise
and the melodic movement
While
downward.
19 Translator's note.
See
I
j).
this
p.
first
occur
all
the
is
unobjectionable.
Except, of course, in the ornamental resolution
here although n Can
12i.
is
this:
oi
148.
mention
Compare
it
absolutely forbidden, the following
lion.
-"
) it is
dissonating follows after an accented
p$*m
is
21
the third quarter in the measure dissonate,
half note (not after a quarter note)
way through
move-
in
free tWO-part writing.
the
dissonance suspen*
144
I
In other
ward,
tf
when two quarters move in

movement follows an accented
words,
the
if
^>
to let the first (or
hand, the motion
is
already
mitted,
used,
22
know,
is
not so good on purely melodic grounds)
which the lower
though only when
may
In contrast to the
dissonate.
auxiliary dissonance only
it
precedes a half or a whole note.
was
have until
movement
now had
to
per-
may
be
For example:
i\
6
We
on the other
If,
in the fifth species the upper auxiliary dissonance also
IW
down-
permissible
11
then only the second of these quarters

third species, in
is
it
stepwise ascending, for example:
we
as
half note,
second) of these quarters dissonate.
$
(which,
stepwise progression
do with the cambiata in the quarter-note
only, according to the rules of third species. 24
some rhythmic forms which occur more frequently
It
also appears in
in free composition
than the one already mentioned:
J*2
or
In
all
such
cases,
however, the dissonant note
itself
ICE
f
(the second note of
the cambiata) can. have only the value of a quarter note.

of the cambiata
and
22
23
is
a quarter, the fourth note also
in such cases the fifth note

Compare p. 125.
The Style of Palestrina and
See
24 See p.
125.
must
necessarily be the
the Dissonance, p. 162.
If
the third note
must have
that value,
upper second
to
the fourth.
145
the third note of the cambiata
If
is
a half note (it can in
general be only a half note or a quarter), the next note can be a half
or a
whole
note.
In such cases, the fourth note of the cambiata need
may
not be led on stepwise upward, but
be treated freely as in the
lowing excerpt from Palestrina's four-part motet
fol-
Misit Herodes:
Z2X
The
gfc
in
"
genetic history of the cambiata
may
be briefly outlined as follows:
This figure goes back originally to a sort of decorative note with which
the
downward
skip
^^
was not
of
the fourth
was adorned, where in place of

In this case one
was put
so particular
if
the second note (in the expanded form) was dis-
sonant here and there and did not
demand subsequent
resolution of the
dissonance.
Thus
at the
end of the
fifteenth
century, a very popular cadence
Jacob Obrecht
(ca.
its
%
^m
was
and the beginning of the sixteenth

as follows:
1430-1505). Mass: Je ne demande.
3
s
146
Originally the cambiata figure consisted of only three notes.
If,
as
example above, one did not conclude with the third note, one
in the
could put as the fourth note any one of the following: the second, third,
or fourth below, or the third, fourth,
fifth,
minor
sixth, or octave
In the fifteenth century, however, a
the third note.
form
was known. This form was the one with

after the third note, for example:
upward
second
called the "classical"

of the
Dufay (ca. 1400-1474).
Mass
Se
la face
above
that could be
the step
ay pale.
nr
^m
ICE
^
m
Well into the sixteenth century

and
in the style of Palestrina,
the reason for this
is
it is
this
form supplants
the others,
all
actually used exclusively.
that in this style the
continuation of dissonances
Undoubtedly
law or rule about the stepwise
applied practically without
is
While the other cambiata forms obviously contradict this

"classical" form is only an apparent exception to it, and may
stand even under the
more
strict
note
to be the note of resolution even
is
thought of
as a nonessential
able to hide the real
namely,
its
rule,
the
therefore
interpretation of the laws of the style.
Since the third tone of the cambiata goes to

is felt
exception.
if it
its
upper second, the
occurs
late,
latter
and the third
ornamental insertion, which
is
not
and perfectly normal treatment of the dissonance,
stepwise continuation.
At the same time
that the freer cambiata forms
mentioned above are
supplanted, the "ascending" cambiata disappears.
This figure, which
is
the exact inversion of the classical cambiata (and in which, therefore,
the dissonance
is
introduced stepwise from below and
is
continued by
the skip of the third upward, followed by a step of the second
was common around the year
1500.
For example:
downward}
Josquin des Prez
(ca.
1450-1521).
Mass: Hercules.
^z
77^
IE
147
3E
3ZX
The only
slightly irregular
form of the cambiata which
mon in Palestrina, especially in his earlier works,
is
the idiom
is
fairly
com-
which might
be called the "extended" cambiata, for example:

Palestrina, Motet:
Jh
&
Magnum
haereditatis mysterium.
XE
su
mens
m
mens
car
131
1E^
car
nem
su
as
As may be seen from the example given above, the third note
cambiata
by
of the
followed by the skip of the third upward, followed in turn
a step of the second
resolution
28
is
comes
The English
at last
downward, through which the
and
is
thus doubly delayed.
theorist Kitson puts things upside
25
real
In this
note of
way
the
down when
he says about the "free" and "ex

tended" cambiate, as they are found in the composers of the sixteenth century: ".
through con
'.
II., The An
2nd Ed.
(Oxford University Press, 1924), p. 51. Formulas ot this type do not
signify modernisms at that time but just the opposite; the "classical" cambiata was not the point
stant use, the real significance of the
Nota Cambiata
of Counterpoint,
of departure but the final stage in the
development.
lias
been forgotten."
Kitson, C.
14S
cambiata comes to contain

1
cambiata'.
five notes instead of the
we
In the present exercises, however,
four of the "classical"

shall use only the last
named form.
Cadence formations often occur
in
this
species with
an ornamental
dissonance suspension: instead of:
JL
(h
"
= we
"
In such extended formulas

or both eighths dissonate.
it is
If
jj
EJ
3X
J J
gj
immaterial whether the
first
or second
eighths in general are handled melodically
according to the previously given
write
rules,
27
they
may
dissonate freely.
cadence formula which one meets, though seldom, in the music
is
the following:
immM
Here
a quarter note
note of resolution.
its
is
inserted between a suspension dissonance and
It
a third
is
below the dissonance and forms
On
consonance in relation to the other voice.

used by
Fux and
is
nr
Undoubtedly one can find
it
the composers of the sixteenth century in rare instances; but
it
not in
common
use until the beginning of the eighteenth century in
Bach and Handel. Therefore Fux must have adopted

involuntarily from his own contemporary music.
composers such
it
3?
positively not in the style of Palestrina.
among
the other hand, the figure
the theorists that followed him:
I
is
as
Some comments on the anticipation may likewise be in order here.

The anticipation is an unaccented quarter note which anticipates the
following accented note. From the melodic requirements for its treatment mentioned on
26
Some
p. 94,
it
follows that
it is
used only
if it is
authors, for example Heinrich Schenker, assert that the classical
organic unit of five tones, whose succession remains invariable."
introduced
cambiata forms "an
(Neue musikalische Theorien und
Only if the fourth note of the cambiata is

Phantasien, Universal Ed., Vienna, 1910, Vol. 2, p. 308.)
a quarter note is it necessary to continue it to the upper second, according to the aforementioned rule
that unaccented quarter notes introduced stepwise from below must be continued by stepwise ascending
movement.
" Compare
If the
p.
93.
fourth note has another note value,
its
progression
is
free.
from above.
stepwise
In this case
149
it
immaterial whether
is
it
dissonates
or not, for example:
t##fe
or
i"
smooth and organic
Particularly
is
the effect of the anticipation
stands directly before the suspension dissonance
which
if
it
decorated with
is
eighth notes, for example:
:,',"
r
some examples
Finally
I
'
ni m
;,.
r
must be given.
of counterpoint in fifth species
emphasize again the great significance of these exercises and recommend
that one spend considerable time
The problem
on them.
mastery of the harmonious relation between
rest
involves the
and motion, the most
important problem of musical technique.
Examples
Dorian
in:
XT
I
c.f.
,E
#-
31
KF=f
*,
-f-fH^-p-
_- jez:*-
_=ta2=He!
-1 d=
e
if
rrrr
31
351
*9
iH
tf~~
r
'
|u|
ftr
-Irt
i*
i
"
150
Phrygian
c.f.
Ol
jfep^
rf
4ef
IE
Hoh
î_
Mixolydian
c.f.
ST
3CC
-e-
^~
is-
X5I
p^
IS ^
>
33:
a pp^
J
I
151
Aeolian
*=
=3
JX
c.f.
mm
rf f
gp^pF
331
<
ên
bEE=s
-^
f=P
rr-
rT r
IE
fel rr
St
; *
c.f.
'
r
Ionian
rJ
rj
IE
&
XE
-e-
3E
. =^1
&
rJ
rrr
( - z z>t
(-'
rrrrcr
-M
is
-M-

152
In ternary meter, exactly the
same
Ionian
&
?=E=p
a
(5
iM^==
O-
M^=^=
o-^
i*~P
P~~
,
r
-e-
^^
e^
6^
|V
0-^ f-f-p
i&-^
\%-
fd
AV
xcv
-o-
it)
^>
m.
f-
IB
rules apply as in binary meter.
ZEEX
i
a
Free Two-Part Counterpoint

(With some comments concerning the problems of
For these
exercises,
where two
free
free counterpoint in three
rhythmic parts are
other (and the cantus-flrmus principle
is
1.
The
make some
parts.)
set against
each
forsaken) the same rules as
for two-part fifth species are valid, for the
necessary to
and four
most
part.
However,
it
is
additions:
rule that dissonance
may
not take place in note-against-note
153
has unrestricted validity only where the voices
On
values than quarter against quarter.
among
move
in greater note
the other hand, one can find
the best composers of the sixteenth century
numerous passages
like the following from Palestrina's Marcellus Mass:
pm f
B!
331
XE
TT
ctus
di
p^pp
Here both
sonate.
Z5I
upward moving passing
From
first
measure, second quarter,
dissonance correctly in
treats its
This reciprocal correctness
against-note.
-O-
of the outer parts in the
But each voice
voice as an
ata.
is
time to time,
itself:
dis-
the upper
note, the lower as the classical cambiin general the rule in dissonant note-
also,
one or more voices use dissonances
with greater freedom, for example:
Palestrina:
Missa Brevis
^mm
ssi
^m
^m
in
zr
P
ex
as
n
san
In this
eel
na
example the dissonance of the upper voice
is
certainly used as an
ordinary passing dissonance, but the next to the top voice permits something so irregular as a skip of the sixth up from a dissonance which
has been introduced by a skip of the third.
But each voice
is
necessarily
154
correctly
treated
in
relation
The
the stationary voices.
to
for
rules
the dissonance treatment in "note against note" can be fomulated thus:
Greater note values than quarters
a.
same
the
voice
type.
must
when
treat the dissonance correctly
(i.
in the
e.,
same manner
written against a cantus firmus in whole notes).
also to writing in three or
quarter against quarter.
more
voices,
where
the voices
all
as
This applies
move
in
28
counterpoint in three or more parts, one or more voices have
If in
c.
not dissonate with values of
quarters dissonate against quarters in two-part counterpoint each
If
b.
may
voices simultaneously move in quarter

moving voices can make dissonances reciprocally
29
only if each part moves correctly in relation to the stationary voices.
The rule in accordance with which accented quarters may not be
2.
stationary notes, while
two or more
against quarter, these
used as dissonances
may
be infringed in free counterpoint under the
following conditions:
When
four quarters, of which the
28 Single departures
from
this rule
29
One
can be found even
Compare The
teenth century, but very seldom.
first is
fully accented (falls in the
among
the greatest composers of the six-
Style of Palestrina, pp. 159
f.
no comment concerning this subject among the earlier theorists. The first who, so
far as I know, referred to it is the Englishman W. S. Rockstro.
In The Rules of Counterpoint
(London, 1882, p. 102) he writes: "These Notes (quarters) must always be irreprochable in their
finds
relations to the Bass; but notwithstanding this, they frequently
other.
Now,
make
frightful collisions with each
of these collisions, the greatest of the Great Masters took
vided their Florid Parts
moved
place between them."
As evidence
no
notice whatever.
Pro-
well with the Bass, they cared nothing for the crashes which took
that this rule
is
insufficient,
however, consider
among
others
the following:
I
i
mm
IP m=m
i*=
Here both middle
voices are
#^f
quite clearly correct in relation to
the bass.
Nevertheless this
an impossibility in the style of Palestrina on account of the irregularly treated dissonance

on the third quarter, which the next to the top voice introduces against the stationary D in the upper
treatment
voice.
It is
bass; they
they
is
may
not
sufficient, therefore, that the
must be
occur.
correct in relation to
all
quarter-note parts be correctly treated in relation to the

the other longer note values also, in whatever voice
place of the
first
155
or third half note), stand together in stepwise descending
motion, the third quarter, as well as the second and fourth, can
dis-
The remaining conditions for this license are the following:

30
The fourth quarter must be followed by its upper second.
sonate.
a.
m $m
The
b.
counter voice must form a suspension dissonance to the
quarter-note part, for example
im
ppm
3X
"
Figures adapt themselves for such a use especially in the cadence
formula and
as
such were extraordinarily well-liked in the sixteenth
and in counterpoint with
century, both in two-part writing

Particularly characteristic
is
several parts.
the treatment in the following four-part
form:
&M
IB
IE
m^
v br
:
The
g
**
''
effect, in spite of
surely that they considered
kind of
30
-e-
reason the most conservative composers of Palestrina's time
frequent use of this

is
**
filled-out cambiata.
This provision
is
important.
it
made
the unusually strong dissonance,
a variant of the classical cgmbiata, as a
Behind:
Compare The
156
they seemed
XT
to hear:
Regarding the suspension dissonance, the accompanying voice

(the non-syncopating voice) does not, as in the fourth species, need to
3.
moving
wait for the resolution of the dissonance before

shift
on, but can
simultaneously with the syncopating voice, for example:
tones
i
In such cases there are
movement
a tone
is
particular restrictions
accompanying voice except, of
in the
which
no
is
course, that
it
goes to
a consonance with the note of resolution of the
sonance, and especially that
sonance
on the direction of the
it
way
does so in such a
followed by an imperfect consonance.
31
It is
that the
disdis-
also quite pos-
sible to let the
accompanying voice move on before the syncope dissonance
resolves; if
does, the only four possibilities for the melodic
of the
a.
it
movement
accompanying part may be grouped as follows

Either a lower or an upper auxiliary:
i
as
used in Palestrina's mass Viri Galilaei:
fe3(E
**
IB
a
31 In such cases,
resolve in this
3E
"bad" suspensions such as ninths in the upper voice can be permitted when they
manner
to
imperfect consonances.
and
in his
157
mass Laudate dominion:
s
-
It *=&
pp
la
Pi
la
e-
-eto
la
*
Pon
sub
>.
Or
ti
an ascending or a descending passing note:

-
as in Palestrina's
'
motet Doctor bonus.
3X
pu
v.
sci
in his
motet
di
sci
i
-
pe
S
and
P
lum
S
-
Domine quando
veneris:
^
1$
iii
ifc
<>
rae
s
1
iY
tu
vul
tu
rae
158
These
can be
possibilities
accompanying voice
summed up
the duration of a quarter,
it is
mopes on
first (ac-
The
only ex-
ception, merely an apparent one,
strive for
dimension.
take care that broad
rapid and energetic

is
an elegant and organic development of the
between the voices not only in the horizontal but
relations
vertical
the cambiata.
is
one writes two free melodies against each
as in these exercises,
one must
other,
a general artistic
also in the
Thus one should, without pedantic exaggeration,

movement in any one voice is opposed with more
movement in the other voice, and vice versa. This
principle to which music owes some of its greatest
moments.
Palestrina has mastered
mass Spent
in alium:
it
as
few have, for example
Ky
ne
lei
rie
Another thing which ought
nr
lei
3
Ky
in the
ICE
ZEE
3E
the
after only
necessary that (in this voice) the
cented) quarter be followed by two steps of the second.
When,
When
in the following rule:
to the dissonant suspension
mentioned
to be
is
that both voices should
not syncopate simultaneously, since to do so produces a vague and

unclear rhythmic
ought
to
manner
4.
mark
as to
effect.
the one voice has a suspension, the other
If
the heavy beat;
it
is
produce a dissonance.
more
In quarter-note values,
best
if
this takes place in
such a
may
be used
32
parallel thirds
and
sixths
successively than in notes of longer value, apparently because

teresting devices (such as contrary
motion) are not
more
in-
so effective in rapid
values.
On
Setting the Text
Throughout
we
use words.
this
32 Vicentino writes concerning this:
parts
make
when we work without
textbook
Without words vocal polyphony
a suspension at the
"And
it
will be noticed that
{L'Antica musica
1557,
p. 33.)
its
proper
when more than one
same time, the suspension does not occur
suspension will not be evident; the suspension can be discerned only

the beat."
a cantus firmus
in reality lacks
if
or two
in all the parts, for the
at least
one part sings on
foundation.
For these reasons,
should like to devote some remarks to
we
the placing of the text before
rules for setting the text, as they
159
turn to the practical exercises.
The
were formulated in the sixteenth cen-
tury by Vicentino and Zarlino, and as they were observed by the composers of Palestrina's day, can be
summarized thus:
1.
Every note value greater than a quarter note can carry a
2.
note and
quarter note can bear a syllable only

is
In this case
it is
3.
Several quarter notes
note value which
f
n
Ky
less
is
than a quarter cannot bear a
which stand together can carry a
zz
suf
So far
fert
as practicable, the natural utterance of the text shall
respected so that accented syllables
may
fall
upon accented note
It is
not good to change syllables of the text after note values
than the half note, since this makes the performance more
following placing of the text:
I9 ass
ful
get
ec
acceptable, therefore, only
syllable si falls
upon the
one should not
which
fall in
cle
when
last
it
shift syllables after
under
2).
an
following:
te
De
if
The
way
that the
Preferably
dotted half notes (except in cases
The
entirely satisfactory only
less
si
altered in such a
F
qui
note.
is
difficult.
half note of the second bar.
#
is
be
values,
vice versa.
6.
is
syllable.
single syl-
For example:
lable of the text.
I9
For example
preferable for each of the three notes to carry a syllable.
4.
and
follows a dotted half
followed by a half note or a greater note value.
5.
if it
syllable.
um
the syllable
um
is
placed under the
last
160
natural that the final syllable should coincide with the final
It is
7.
tone in the musical phrase.
forms such
Out
of regard for this one will often tolerate
as
3E
A
although
men
it
|Ê
or
goes against the rule
up
set
number
in
w
men
6.
It
one can find these and similar
especially in the cadences that
however,
is,
licenses in
the composers of the sixteenth century.

In imitation, the setting of the text at the
8.
theme must be maintained without change
new
Repetition of tones requires
9.
first
appearance of the
in all subsequent entries.
syllables of the text,
with the
exception of tonal entries that have ornamental character (as with the
anticipation).
Practical Exercise
Write some short compositions with two free voices

eleison,
to texts like
Kyrie
Amen, Alleluia or similar ones. Kyrie, according to Palestrina's

may be divided into two or three syllables. The best results will
practice,
generally be obtained
voice
composed
is
first
and then the other their merit
(This advice applies to
unequal.
may
both voices are written simultaneously;
if
case of
when
it
is
are
made
clear
final
tone of the next and which
by textual separation), occasionally forbidden
intervals
and
sevenths.
can be used, such
as the
$*
descending
sixth, the
from the Credo
is
A
I
is
In the
"dead" intervals (intervals which are found between the

initial
be
Unison
Repetition of tones
motivated by the text (compare 9 above).
note in one melodic phrase and the
one
if
easily
polyphonic composition.)
all
be used freely, of course, but with caution.
allowed
may
sixth,
of Palestrina's Marcellus Mass:
major
men,
un
have constructed the following examples on motives from Palestrina,
since
it
is
difficult to find
longer two-part episodes without imitation in
Palestrina or other composers
from the
period.
161
Examples
Dorian
Ky
31 3H
Ky - ri
J S *
te
3X
33:
-
m mm
m
#rv
33:
lei
o
lei
a m
o
son.
jj^rf
r^-
lr
J #
son.
Phrygian
$M
Ky
TT
n
3T
g
Ky
ri
3T
IPS
lei
o
son.
ff^ mpi
lei
son.
162
Mixolydian
-fcV
av
Kv-ri
r,
*.
^<,
P P
rj
&
lei
mm
son.
33
--
A^
XE
rie
PPP
-
P^ IT
rr
son.
lei
Aeolian
fen
xe
XE
Ky
ri
lei
XE
^>-
XE
xe
r>-
Kv
XE
tt
son.
JJJ
rrr
XE
lei
son.
Ionian
iae
XE
Ky
(5-o-
XE
e
rie
XE
Pp=
&-
grr
Ky
rie
Ky
son,
lei
lei
TAT/
XE
f
e
rie
Ky
pp?
rie
lei
where there are so many opportunities for variation, it

middle or lower voices, to observe the culmination note principle so
33 In free counterpoint,
especially in
son.
lei
*
son,
is
son.
not necessary,
strictly.
two-part counterpoint
163
Imitation
Imitation in music
means
mimics the
imitates or
manner
may seem
is
one of the means best suited to the polyphonic
strange, since
other, so
This
style.
appears to be contrary to the principle of
it
polyphony, in that the independence of the voices

the voices being limited to the
all
which one voice
theme of the
having the same melodic material.
that the voices enter in succession each
Imitation
of writing in
other, taking over the
apparently restricted,
is
One must
same theme.
take into
consideration, however, that "melodic independence" can be obtained
when
only with considerable difficulty

parts
is
On
the rhythmic
a characteristic theme,
life
is
when
it is
based upon
always effective and gives the impression of rich
and vigorous mental
in polyphonic writing are
activity.
woven
Through
imitation the voices
together so that compositions in this
style attain a stronger feeling of unity in spite of all individuality

trast in the diverse voices.
has gained
Imitation
and
real.
the
theme
From
and con-
fundamental approach to the uni-
this
requirement of antiquity, "unity in variety," imitative
versal aesthetic
style
of the
equal.
the other hand, imitation, at least in every case
musical
movement
its
may
enormous
vitality
and enduring
validity.
be divided into several different kinds:
Strict imitation
means an imitation
in
strict, free,
which the
tonal,
intervals of
are followed exactly, while free imitation allows, for example,
major interval
to be
answered by a minor one of the same kind, or per-
mits other slight modifications of the theme.

imitation in
which
particular attention
is
Tonal imitation means
given to the establishment and
maintenance of the tonality; for example, the tonic

with the dominant, and vice versa.
called real.
Tonal imitation was
and eighteenth
centuries.
If
is
the imitation
clearly
is
answered
not tonal,
it
is
especially popular in the seventeenth
With Bach and Handel,
tonal imitation
was
the usual procedure.

In the sixteenth century,
ject
was preferred:
motet Hodie be at a:
on the other hand, the
real
answer
to a sub-
for example, the beginning of Palestrina's four-part
164
1
I Mi
^!
HI
-o-
Ho
3CC
13:
o*
di
be
ta
be
ta vir
ri
^^
-go Ma-ri-
Ho
Ho
is
in the
g7TT<9
is
ta vir-
vir
by the bass and
to
G.
One
will ob-
alto, skips tonic to
the most
dominant-tonic,
common
D-G.
in the Palestrina period;
beginning of Palestrina's four-part motet Surge propera,

cited earlier:
an-
the
one can,
however, occasionally come upon tonal imitation; for example,
was
domi-
D-A. A tonal
As has been said,
the tenor and soprano answer with
swer would have required
answer
a,
Dorian mode transposed
serve that the theme, as given
G-D, while
be
p***5l
^S
be
di
This excerpt
"real"
Ma-
ide
^
nant,
go
-e-5-
Vir-
**=^
^J-ncr
Ho
-e-
at the
whose theme

p&
&*
=t
pro
ge,
Sur-
&
fS>
pe- ra
165
me
mi- ca
a,
mi - ca
me
ri
TE
Sur
ge,
pro
a- mi- ca
pe- ra
m
Sur
fe^
mi
a>
^^
me
ca
XE
me
a,
-e-
pro
ge,
TH
jFTT
9
i
a,
pe- ra
me
mi-ca
mi-ca
me
ge pro-pe-
-e-
ZZZZZ
sur
3a:
me
a-mi-ca
a,
Sur
In addition to the
more take place by

theme are answered
fifth
down, and
"inversion."
in contrary
so on.
motion: skip of the
B=
V
e
fifth
up by skip
pe-
of the
For example:
Ky
rie
pro
m-
This means that the intervals of the
ge,
manners already mentioned, imitation can further-
i%
Ky
a,
lei
CJ
rie
lei
o
-
son,
166
Answers may furthermore be formed by "augmentation" or by "diminution" where
the following voiees double or halve the original
all
time values of the motive.
illustrates
an answer
by augmentation:
1 !=*
m
>
t>
E=
Kv
ne
jg
fl
Ky-rie
Ty
e
^v
Ol
lei
-(V
son,Ky
lei
rie
e-lei
and the next an answer per diminutionem:
i
w
m^r
Ky -
m
*
rie
;
ZZ23
Ky
>
t>
rie
lei
son
famous example of diminution
is
in Palestrina's four-part Missa
Brevis:
-Q-
Ky
lei
-e-
_o_
Ky
XE
^31
son,
Ky
lei
Among
son.
lei
XL
3==&
XE
ri
E^P)
I
rie
331
HGh
son
the composers of Palestrina's time, a relatively sparing use
was made of imitation by inversion, augmentation, or diminution.
In
167
com-
the earlier part of the sixteenth century, the time of the Netherland
posers,
and
also in the following century, these procedures
were used more
frequently in polyphonic composition.
During the height of the polyphonic period a similar, more artistic kind
of imitation was commonly used: namely, the "stretto." The stretto
is a form of imitation in which the following voices enter with the theme
before the preceding voice has reached the end, as in Palestrina's motet
homo:
Fuit
34
ts
xr
XT
xr:
Fu
mo
ho
it
mis
sus
De
XE
XT
Fu
The motive
ho
it
X5I
mo
while (as always in the
last
begins with a full measure,
fu
and
a half bars of rest.
part of the sixteenth century)
it is
Imitation
ho
composers of Palestrina's time, even
may
Note
the
that
theme
answered by the following voice on the
the accents in the theme is thereby so completely

become unaccented, and vice versa. 35
is,
it
Such rhythmic modifications are extraordinarily
third beat in the bar.

in
o,
extends here over three and three-quarters bars; nevertheless
the upper voice enters after only one
common
De -
missus a
when
the relation of
altered that accented notes
occur in any interval relationship whatsoever.
the imitation can begin on any degree of the scale.
That
Likewise one can
begin with any consonance, perfect or imperfect, or with any note that
produces a permissible syncope dissonance.
But in the Palestrina
most common.
style itself, imitation in the fifth
is
by far the
Also imitations in the unison and the octave are often
same
used, especially in choruses of the
voices;
on the other hand, imita-
on other intervals occur only occasionally, for the most part in con-
tions
nection with artistic canonic developments.

It
is
cially
important
in imitation to
with longer imitations
it is
with constant use of stepwise

84
The hidden
85 Sec
tli<-
octave
is
choose motives that are effective. Espe-
dangerous to make melodies too smooth
movement
explained by the imitation.
quotation from
Vicentino, pp. 21
f.
or very small intervals; in such
168
Here
cases the imitations easily elude the listener.
have
to
like,
ful
a slightly
Notice
of course within the melodic rules of the style.
and nobly
motet
effective the
quantus luctus.
upward
desirable
skip of the octave
is
how
beauti-
in Palestrina's
Besides the expressive treatment of the text,
the strong emphasis placed on the

is
would be
it
abrupt movement, a large, striking interval, or the
word "quantus' through
The
doubtless for expressive purposes.
the octave skip
purely musical requirements
are fulfilled with extraordinary mastery.
h*
-^
rr~ &
MH
,.
tus
r^
-.
^.
iff fe^
P~t^
quan
lu
mi
-ctus ho
'
f\
-\
quan
tus lu
ctus
ho
llgl.A
-:- x
H5
^1=
S
-e-5-
num.
~ZZL
59
mi- num
XE
quan
r;
tus
lu
r,
ctus
IE
quan
ho
tus
lu
ctus
ho
Two
169
other singularly beautiful examples of imitation from the works
of Palestrina follow:
-O-
XL
Val
de
-e-
ho
xe
Hie
ho
no- ran-dus est
de
Val
&ji
no-ran-dus est,
Pm
it*
XE
xe
* jr>
val
xe
est
^^
xe
pa
de
nis
coe
XE
(Q)
Hie
est
pa
de
nis
coe
XE
de
lo
seen
^^
Palestrina
that
its
enhanced
in
^f=
its
example has already been
most beautiful form.
could be enhanced in any way.
in the two-part imitative
supports and strengthens the effect.
form.
It is as
voices, eye-witnesses to a divine miracle
witness.
de
voice in the last
melody
effect
dens
2X
lo
The upper
In
It
cited as a type of
may seem
incredible
Nevertheless the effect

all
points the lower voice
though one met,
who now
is
in these
two
unite into one entranced
This inspired example reveals the hand of a genius
in every
detail.
Practical Exercise
Write some two-part Kyries with imitation.
Since such compact two-
part compositions are not to be found in Palestrina's compositions (Palestrina
seems never to have written for
less
than three voices), and since
170
other two-part compositions
from the time
too extensive to be used as models here,
of Palestrina are generally
have provided examples, some
based on Gregorian motives and some on motives taken from Palestrina.

It
may
more
be remarked that the imitating voice
of the
is
not obliged to introduce
theme than the preceding voice has sung

and
the imitation
that
it is
permissible to
let
at the
entrance of
the second voice begin with
an imperfect consonance.
Examples
Dorian
15
it%
\ki * j
In
lJ T
t>
Ky-
ri
c*
Ky
lei
o.
o
Ky
rie
son.
ri
-e
-e^
Ky
36 It
s*
in the
son,
lei
ri
Phrygian'
iE
'
Ky
lei
t>
f
IIM "^
t
\13
ri
^ u
son.
lei
lei
son.
should be observed here that in the "polyphonic" Phrygian mode in imitation B (not
Gregorian music) is regarded as the dominant. See the footnote, p. 71.
as
171
Mixolydian
Ky
rie
^
Ky
rr
ne
fee
-e-
fe
son.
lei
lei
:
-
son.
Aeolian
_Q_
Ky
ne
XL
iz
Ky
rie
lei
"
jp
son.
lei
xt
J-în
son.
In ternary meters exactly the
same
rules apply as in binary, for
example
Ionian
Ky
i4^^7frr
u
-
rie
lei
son,
i
Ky
rie
lei-
frrr
Ky
172
r
e
rie
[Q
iS
1-
lei
it"
!*
MMqi
son.
9-tr-
lol*
son.
valuable exercise
theme
is
attempt to write imitations
to
to
Palestrina
imitation.
when they applied themselves to especially

The following may serve as models:
Imitation at the unison,
u:
Ky
artistic
forms of
Phrygian
-n
rie
son.
lei
^=d mKy
e-lei
rie
Imitation at the second,
k*
son.
Dorian
*>
-J
g-
==
m
rie
<*
4SH1
Ky-
i
1
m
son.
^
1
ir^
r
'-p
'
JlM
F~h*
lei
rie
r^
same
the
every interval, a procedure used by composers in the time of
at
f
1
lei
""1=1
'
son.
173
Imitation at the third, Aeolian

33:
r$j^
p*^ ^pp
33:
11
Ky
L
rie
jq:
Ky
ne
w
e -lei
son.
Imitation at the fourth, Dorian
P^
3X
ne
Ky
jQl
1>
231
ne
Ky
f^m^^
g
e
son.
lei
Imitation at the fifth, Aeolian
o_
?P^ sp=g:
3X
JE
Ky
^>
e-
Ky
rie
XE
ne
Imitation at the sixth, Ionian

--
%
Kv
i
Ky
g=
jq
ne
lei
11
w
ne
lei
son.
174
Imitut ion at the seventh, Mixolvdian
*
Ky
II
Kv
i!
rie
rie
lei
f
i
iii
^m
r,,.
son.
r
e
lei
son.
Chapter IV
THREE-PART COUNTERPOINT
First Species
three-part counterpoint, for the
In
consisting of root, third,
harmony
is
called a triad.
seek to introduce as
and
first
fifth
triads as
in the last analysis
thermore, in three-part counterpoint, which
we can
part,
possible to use a chord
it is
fundamental concept which
In this and the following problems,
many complete
good voice leading, which
time
is
may
is
less
we
in
should
be compatible with
more important.
Fur-
"transparent" than two-
take certain liberties with regard to the rules given in two-
part counterpoint:
Perfect
1.
and augmented fourths, diminished
exceptionally)
consonant combinations, but only

the bass.
when
they do not occur in relation to
like those
mentioned above, are allowed
they are put between the upper and middle voices or between two
middle
In other words, in three-part writing
voices.
and chords of the
in root position
sixth, for
i
On
The Evolution
use triads
JQ
the other hand, six-four chords
Translator's note.
we can
example:
must be handled
chords, since they involve a fourth relation to the bass:
Glen:
as
All dissonances are heard most clearly in relation to the bass
and hence weaker dissonances,
when
and (more
fifths,
diminished fourths can be considered and treated
as
l
:
4( i>
dissonant
One
For a more comprehensive discussion of the six-four chord, see Il.iydon,
of the Six-Four Chord.
Berkeley, University
175
oi
California Press, 1933.
176
can likewise permit the free use of the diminished triad as a chord of
example
the sixth (but only as such), for
also the
augmented
^^
and indeed
which, although
triad in first inversion,
rare, does
occur in Palestrina, for example in the mass Salvum jac:
QeS
V
re
sur^rec
fm
ti
nem
rz
r<
ICC
re
sur-rec
ti
LZ.
JT,
1
sur-i*ec
ti
*iF^
*C
o
H5I
*=^
sur-rec
re
2.
make
The
rule that
no one
of
two
in counterpoint in three
voices that skip in similar
and more
parts,
Concealed
all
but in
Hidden
this case the
voices,
is
valid,
when outer voice<Tare conmove in similar motion.
permitted between an outer voice
fifths or octaves are
Between outer
three parts).
ought
motion may
only
voices
and an inner voice or between inner
effect,
a skip greater than a fourth (not counting the octave)
cerned and even then only where

3.
- ti
voices
hidden
(when
fifths
there are
more than
can be used with good
upper part should move in conjunct motion.
octaves between outer voices (at least in less than four parts)
to be avoided.
from the next
They may occur
to the last to the last
in cadences at the progression
measure; but otherwise they must
be used with caution.

4.
Unisons can be used freely between two
can strike the unison only in the

5.
first
One can begin and end with
tonic triad.
voices, but all three voices
or last bar of the exercise.
the complete triad, but only with the
In such a case the beginning chord ought to have a major
third; yet only
if,
as in first species, all voices
begin together.
If,
on
177
the other hand, the thirds enter after the cantus firmus, they can very
In the final chord, the third should under
well be minor.
stances be major.
all
circum-
Besides closing with the complete triad, one can end
with a "triad" with omitted third or
fifth.
But,
on the other hand, one
can begin only with a complete or "empty" triad (with third omitted).
6.
Leading tones may not be doubled: C-sharp in Dorian, F in Phry-
gian, F-sharp in Mixolydian, G-sharp in Aeolian,
and B
in Ionian.
Practical Exercise
Set
two
parts in
whole notes
The
cantus firmus
can be treated in three ways: as upper, lower, or middle part.

Dorian
Si
-o-
XE
- &
-e-
*r
3E
st
c.f.
3E xr
XE
_Q_
"
XE
-e-
IT
.
<
XL
Phrygian
c.f.
XE
S!
m
m
_Q
XE
-Q-
--
XI
XV
Q_
**
XE
Mixolydian
x>
c.f.
15-IB
MM
e-
CL
-tv
n
o
^_=m
K
o
He-
^dgb
178
Aeolian
-JUL
K>
JX
B*
C.f.
=^=
c>
Q-
*v
H
XE
Ionian
J
c.f.
"
l^r
<>
i>
lr*l
115
*^ j
tr "/ '
*S
t i
1*^
liJ
/k
l*S
l*J lp
ll
CJ
H
JP
%
Second Species
In these exercises, one part in half notes
added
The
and one
rules are the
in
whole notes
same here
as in the
are
two-
part counterpoint, second species, with the exception of the extensions
may
given in the preceding section.
Cadences
cope
fourth species;
dissonances in the style of
lower voice
close
it
may
be introduced with synif
the syncope
is
in the
be resolved into a diminished triad, but always in
position, for example:
mF3f
^î
The
cantus firmus
may
be treated in
six different
ways, for the cantus
can be introduced in any one of the three voices, and the parts in
second species can exchange places in a
first
and
corresponding manner.
Practical Exercise
Combine
the cantus firmus with one voice in
species so that all
first
and one
in second
the various combinations are practiced in turn:
179
Dorian
L\ ^>\ r U'U^\'U[f\^<\f^
l^
c.f.
XEZ
XE
XL
C.f.
XE
XE
3E
Hh
c.f.
XE
W^
>r
=**=
XE
"
"
To
j^ffif
^g g
..
XI.
bo
-o^
XE
XE
XE
XE
ply-
XL
fm
XE
4F Id-
XE
3S i
**
tt
rr
XE
XE
;t f
XE
fe
-e-
IT
XE
5 n
i>
XE
^=r^
oô
g ô
IFnt
Hef
XV
n^ffff^.ff^rf
"^
180
c.f.
Hi
xv
,u
,,.,)>*
XE
XE
XE
-e
3E XE
m
B
-o-
XE
-o-
e-
XE
rj
Zi
I'N fe
<>
XE
xl
*>
**
*V
o
KIT
7-^
ZZ2I
tt
o
XE
\'i>
<>
*>
152 ti
c.f.
j2_
i'
azz2
rj
tt
Third Species
In these exercises one voice
one in whole notes.
Nothing
is set
is
to the cantus firmus in quarters
to be
added
and
to the rules already given.
Practical Exercise
The
in
cantus firmus
is
combined with one voice
in third species
and one
so that the six possible combinations are run through one after
first,
the other.
Dorian
c.f.
S
15
>
mm
XE
IE
XE
XE
m
xe

P
*\
181
JCE
-e-
IE
re-
Dorian
C.f.
M
ft
IE
IE
IE
_o_
IE
IE
^^
IE
IE
IB
^
j
^
J
j
j
^^
'
Phrygian
41
c.f.
j>
D^
jj^rrr
a.
7
r
-e
I-
PART COU NTUR POINT
If
I -
m
L-i-i*-=F=F
-+=^
< ~f
-+
P-tt
-f-4
i*
ttnl
if
HE
Mixolvdian
c.f.
HE
I
ff
XE
^>
-O-
1^
XE
P^
D3I
I5
XE
Aeolian
it*
i
'
m
c.f.
B^
J
r
#*
XE
xe
m m
xe
||
183
J
r
'
33:
331
3H
Hh
Ionian
33:
-e-
fe
c.f.
3X
_Q_
--
3X
1
E|
fe
18
f
'
e
in j
J
r
-e-
33:
i>
\m
=#-f
i)
- n
~^r-
-w-

1S4
Ionian
-3
^
rr
ci.
te
*v
<
SPP
<
m:
fc^
it
^tt
m:
^
1
izn:
tv
pp^p
i
-^-^
i
A
profitable but difficult exercise
it
especially in
xez:
and
a part in second species

sist
making
is
to try to set the cantus firmus
a part in third species.
the second species logical
comes against a part in quarters, one
listens in
The
difficulties
and flowing.
with
con-
When
terms of the four quar-
and the second half note (third quarter) is felt, therefore, as accented
and cannot dissonate. The problem is especially difficujt when the second species lies in the lower voice. If, on the other hand, it lies in the
middle or upper voice, one may use fourths (naturally legitimized by
ters,
having the third or
fifth
are thereby increased.
below), and
possibilities for stepwise
At the cadence
it is
permissible to
let
movement
the part in
185
second species introduce a dissonant suspension according to the rules of

fourth species.
may
In such cases such freer forms as the following
be
used:
ji
Bg
**
To be
sure, the
skip; but one

skips
down
is
upper voice skips to the dissonance and leaves
it
it
with a
inclined to overlook irregularities because the upper part
to the
middle voice (which
in the
relation to the dissonance)
which
is
correctly treated in
and immediately skips back
came, and to consider
as if
it
to the tone
from
were
it
**
>
Such dissonances occur when a
part, actually incorrect in itself in
one
more points, coincides with and hides behind a more correctly treated
voice which is more prominent. These "parasitic" or "covered" disor
among
sonances are not rare
ing characteristic case
Here the skip
of the tenor
Compare The
taken from Palestrina's canticum
in the first tenor
(dissonating with
the
is
sixteenth century composers.
C
is
in the
upper voice),
in unison
Style of Palestrina,
from
p,
with the
156.
to
is
G, which
made
is
The
Nunc
follow-
dimittis.
actually incorrect
possible
of the bass,
by the
and thus
fact that
is
correct
g
THRI-I--PART
186
fe
Cant.
COUNTERPOINT
nem
gen
Alt.
nem
Ten.
gen
nem
Ten.
gen
II
&
Bas.
xt
nem
gen
21
31
xc
nem
upper voices;
in relation to the
in the tenor are
gen
as a
found in the other
matter of fact
Dorian
JCC
sf^
c.f.
221
351
rrrr
_Q_
r'r
r'r
the last three tones'
voices.
Examples
BE
all
rr iJ 'r
XC
J
r
-'"r
'
J
r
187
Aeolian
=
c.f.
===
JT
jC
*.
363
XT
==?
XL
p~iy-*E
2Z
^ p
Hef-
Ionian
C.f.
XT
xn
it
=t=
=f=t=
T*r
^4= ^
|o|
:1k-
iit>
H^
=*=
'J
g>
is^=
?d
rJ
-4
-p
rj
K>|
188
Fourth
Species
and
In this species a part in the fourth

Here the
a part in first species' are
same
rules are the
fourth species, but with certain extensions.
added
as for the two-part
Thus "bad"
dissonant sus-
pensions such as fourths and sevenths in the lower voice, or seconds or

ninths in the upper voices,
pension
is
produced
at the
may
be used
same time
in
any such case a "good"
in relation to
(b)
(a)
if
sus-
another part:
(d)
(c)
J
i\
33L
Hip
I ii
TT
o-
ZEE
-e-
tn
1ZL
In (a) a fourth suspension in the lower voice
is
irreproachable, since
the voice at the same time forms a dissonance of the second with the
the middle voice.
voice for the
In (b) a seventh suspension
same reason.
is
in
acceptable in the lower
Likewise (c) and (d) contain a seventh and
a fourth suspension, respectively,
making
the suspended ninth between
the upper voices acceptable.

Practical Exercise
The "consonant
Set each cantus firmus in the various combinations.
fourth" used in the Aeolian example
is
discussed pp. 193
fT.
Dorian
i
c.f.
P=&-
XE
^rHeh
i
ICE
JQL
J3g=
^
r? jfn
ICE
_Q_
1
IE
ICE
1 r
|j
tt
tt
189
Dorian
c.f.
XE
XE
XE
"
XE
i1^
"
=e=
XE
*>
^
B5
^ g Pttp
Phrygian
IE
c.f.
rrffrr
rp fOJ
-o
g Q
XE
ô-
_Q_
XE
I it
^-W
jgt
da
Mixolydian
tr~
\ttr
4^c.f.
in) ip
-e
P~~l*
ti
F=f=
rj
e-
Q_
il
IT
r;
r^
g ^"g
<
>
r^
J P P ^
fB
E^
^-NfHe]
XE
$=T^
S$
Hoi
4=
Aeolian
(V
4=4=
//>
C.f.
o^ ô
w
P^M

THR
190
PA R
COUNTERPOINT
Ionian
C.f.
~rr
<
m
>ft
-r
a.
xt
xc
h*
xe
-o-
xr
>
I
A
valuable exercise
is
leh
p*
to
combine third and fourth
Dorian
Yz
c.f.
XE
XE
-e-
xe
s rrrrrrrr^t
^4
>
XE
>
the rules, p.
'
158.
w
r
'
ol
KC
#_# **
m
m
Compare
te^
P
(2
^
:i
species:
&
4eh
(9-
f3
191
Dorian
<hJJ
rrr
iiB
c.f.
rrr
JJ
ZEE
HE
Z^ZZji
c
_Q_
I5=xe
<S>
rrrrrr i
XE
V
5"
-H^
^t^p
3X
tt
^
g
Q.
tt
A
Phrygian
fe^
s*
B*
7
L
c.f.
ZEE
ICE
S
^m
p^
jO
O
o
w
Jjet
;oi
THREE- PART COU NT1-R POINT
19.
Mixolydian
b*
14
19^=
o
c.f.
t/ \
^^
i3^
^-
XT
i&-
tafc
s
tp
^=^
ol
'
xt
JDZ
xr
Aeolian
c.f.
xc
'
B M
m*
73
-r
1^
/c-
& ^^
^
gr
-i
O^
xr
XT
^ff
3X
fr
J*
^^ W
193
Ionian
jy
c.f.
15"
[-
'
)feM^ S=^=^~
p
18
"
te=n
|o|
rfTrrrrrrrrrpr
1
r
"
I*}
r^H^
'
'
11
Fifth Species
The same
rules apply here, as in two-part writing in the
as well as the mitigating qualifications just stated as
same
species,
applying generally
in three-part writing.
Here the concept "consonant fourth" must be mentioned. The socalled "consonant fourth" is a fourth brought in stepwise upon the thesis
(weak beat) over
a stationary bass tone.
the next following arsis (strong beat),
dissonance; but finally manages to
next thesis
make
(weak beat), for example:
i $ ft
Thereafter
where
its
it is
it
is
regular resolution
IB
4
The
of the middle part
is
covered by
its
tied over to
changed into
octave relation to the upper part.
a stronger
upon the
194
Thus
suspension
is
introduced, prepared by a dissonance, logically in
violation of the rules of fourth species.
mild dissonance
that,
The
is,
however, such a
when introduced smoothly and
in juxtaposition
fourth
with such sharp dissonances as seconds and sevenths,

like
With
consonance.
these
provisions,
it
almost seems
the "consonant fourth"
is
used very often by the composers of Palestrina's time.

Palestrina.
mm
Mass:
L'homme armc
i
po
ten
B^
m
m
xn
3X
JX
cto
rem
Examples
This idiom was used in the counterpoint written against the
sixth notes of the Aeolian cantus firmus at the
bottom of page
fifth
189.
Dorian
m
_o_
c.f.
l^^
3X
and
ir
p-
f^=f
e
m
M-=
118
F^^P
"
fir
h*
m
J
i^
^=
f=w
XL
m
rf
IHH
3XE
J
r
pî
w
I
rr
3s
^?
s
i
Dorian
c.f.
-Hoi
ftp
195
'
r.
^-
"
-e-5-
rf
m
w
w
4^
196
Phrygian
c.f.
t><t
M
n
AV
e-
'
.j
<
i>
i>
z
5
P~
r
1*
s-
)tM
Mixolydian
c.f.
IF=e=
ir?
j|
rrn
'
1
Aeolian
'.uj
35:
-^
"
jr
mm
JjJpff
f~>
rl*r
OW
^m
^m
rrn
P
3X
H'M
c.f.
XT
a
1
ICC
w
4ef
i>
197
Ionian
j-
j.
p^
^.
^&
c.f.
'<
1 i&
IE
tq:
as:
m
J
-
is
*^
-e-
Free writing without imitation
r"f
33T
unusual but worth trying:
IE XT
Kv
tu
rie
rr
r^
lei
^p*
Ky
-o-
rie
--e-*-
Ky
rie
53
fc"
-*-
3=t
tt
son.
^^^ g
r'
:!
son.
lei
&
-^:
^"*?
lei
son.
THREE- PART COUNTERPOINT
198
Imitation
Two-part imitation
is
written to the cantus firmus.
Exercises of this
type are most profitable and are therefore especially recommended, for
example:
Dorian
^3
c.f.
fJH^
^V
JX
XT
xi:
w^m^
it
_o_
-*^
0-^
zo:
**
ip^f
Concerning imitation
iof
in three free parts, nothing
is
to be
added
to the
rules already given.
One should
try to
especially beautiful efrect
way
that
it
An
use the most complete harmonies possible.

is
obtained
if
supplements the other voices
the third voice enters in such a

to
produce a complete
triad.
If
the third part enters at a suspension dissonance as in bar 7 of the following
Benedictus from Palestrina's Missa Brevis, the charm of the effect
hanced even more.

tirety, as
One
should like to give
an especially beautiful model
this
Benedictus here in
is
en-
its
en-
for three-part imitative writing.
should study the perfect suitability of both these themes for this form
of treatment
a thing which
is
very rare.
fcb=^
Be
ne
di
ctus qui ve
ne
Be
'
^^
p
XE
r>
qui
XT
Be
w
*>
ctus
qui
ne
2==^
xe
nit,
qui
XE
ve
nit,
qui
nit,
x_
ve-
qui
nit,
ne
di
ctus
qui
5 Irregular setting of
the text.
ve
xi
qui
ve
XT
nit,
ve
xe
XE
Be
di
-c
*=s
ctus qui ve
di
r
nit,
e r~[
xn
E
i
rrr
XE
IB
IS
\
199
nit,
r
qui
rn
ve
200
THRLE-PART COUNTERPOINT
J
I.
<>
^^
^>
nit,
111
ve
nit,
o
nit,
^ps
i
no
mi
u
g
in
r r r
r^
ne
ne
Do
mi
no
in
mi
ne
Do
mi
i
Do
ni,
mi
rfrf
ni,
in
^^
ZQI
no
in
fe
mi
5
no
in
ni,
-*.
mi
ne
in
no
mi
ne
r>
3CE
no
mi
ne
i
ne
Do
mi-
in
ni,
no
mi
wm
fes^FF
Do
r^
201
t~:
XT
Do
-g-T
ne,
no
in
mi
>
'.
xj:
XL
mi -ne
X>
no
mi
<
ne
Do
r
r fr r
no
mi
ne
Do
mi
-T
_^_
-2_
fiL
in
ni,
fr
no
in
ni,
XT
mi
ni.
-^-*
xt
'
Do
m.
-3-
ne
mi
Jill
fe^
pg
jq:
Do
mi
in
no
mi
ne
mi
ni,
Do
-o
e-
Do
mi
mi
ni.
ni.
Chapter
FOUR-PART COUNTERPOINT
First Species
The
following
rule
is
added
to be
when
the upper part
moves by
Covered
to the ones already given:
had
octaves between outer voices are admissible, but they
best be used
step.
Examples
Dorian
JJL
c.f.
B
S5
331
id:
Xt
-e-
33:
JO:
ft
<>
o
g
-e-
IEE
\>
Q-
p =^P
v>M
3X
tt
"
Mixolydian
c.f.
^^
<>
A^
35
B
I
15
IE
"
*>
TT
15
203
"
=^
n
lo
ftg
U_
:ui
204
Ionian
* "
w-
C.f.
<>
Ml
&i
-^\
-Hoi
Second Species
No
additional rules are necessary.
Examples
Dorian
i$
(fr
*j
V>
*>
PF^
c.f.
^fl
a P
gg
331
3d:
It
ferHef-
p|>
i*
<>
_Q_
**
zr
zee
>
Phrygian
rtr-e-
__
i>
^"^g
1
u
IB
1
c.f.
r>
xr
JCL
__
w
Xt
fib
3E
Si m
"
33l
205
Mixolydian
XE
c.f.
XE
"
^V
XE
m
p>A
_Q_
XE
-rrrf
^s
rr
-e
rn
v?rr tr
XE
e-
XE
Third Species
Examples
Dorian
iB ^^
c.f.
p
e
-e-
JJ 'r
XE
XE
xc
XE
x>:
I
y
i
9
*\
^^
rr'ff
^-Hf^-^FU'tt -H
*>
]lH
1
i>
;<>!
<>

206
Dorian
fnni
^
i
31
c.f.
<
t%
r
r
t)
o'
XT
XT
r
r
i>
X5X
XE
-e-5-
XET
xr
XE
1
XT
P
r
207
PE^
#*
331
m
wAeolian
/-Q^
c.f.
332
fa^
3
^
/C
nr
s
i
ff
1 1 1
OÎ
tj
rrrrrr-f-ff
u
XE
J r
r r r r r r"r*r"r r r
r*"
1-
&F
208
very difficult exercise but one that
part each
the
in
rirst,
is
most
instructive
is
to
add one
second, and third species to the cantus flrmus.
For example:
Dorian
MMH*
m
m
^v
il
o.
P
jO
'frrrrrfrr^r- rrr
XE
XE
gqf^
XT
M-
_o_
<
**
0-0
p
-e-
XE
quarters.
See the
comment on page
Fourth
One
part
is
added
added parts are
in
to the cantus
whole
notes.
<*
tt
fit
Notice that the unaccented half notes are
moving
m r^r
all
consonant against the
184.
Species
hrrnus in syncopes, and the two other
For example:
209
Dorian
-
-L
4eh
2ZZ22
xe
XT
c.f.
331
xt
1
SI
The attempt
3T
X>_
XE
XT
Xl_
xn
tt
to write
one part each in the fourth, second, and
species against the given cantus firmus
is
unaccented half notes of the counterpoint in the second species
first
The
a very useful exercise.
may
be
passing dissonances; and of course the accented half notes of the part in
fourth species
may
f=^m=
tr~
^7^ p~p
fr-^
1141
~b
\^
.'
point
is
to
the
same
taneously
little
-|9
rn^
kg n
Sh
rj-N
"Pf*
73
=#*=
tl
"
loi
-o-
difficult exercise of all in the
to the cantus firmus
species, so that
exercise.
all
i*ji
add
practice
will be
r>
\>
But probably the most
and fourth
r>
c.f.
For example:
be dissonances.
It
one part each
each of the four
may seem
study of counter-
in the second, third,
strict species is
represented in
almost impossible to observe simul-
the requirements, both melodic and harmonic; yet with a

it
can be done, and time devoted to exercises of
most profitably spent.
These
this type
exercises are excellent for teaching
210
under even the most
the art of the individualization of the separate parts

difficult
Several examples follow:
circumstances.
Dorian
J
f
jO_
$^
I
M
I*
^P
\>P
^^
'
XE
xe
<
tt
%G
=W
Dorian
c.f.
i$
XE
I ih=Î
-e-
=
r
^^
-O-
rr^ZZ2I
fe
**
P
r
j
r
331
XE
c.f.
211
U3I
I
^
Fs
tt
e^
IT
I
1
lot
^^
f r
#*
ftp
Mixolydian
c.f.
xj:
i^
e
J
n9
^-^
ib
lit)
_T/i
_J
^^?
r->
s
J
&_
~~r
,,
*!
^~~ _
1
=^=
"
r->
=P=
,
I
~^-
"
lol
lo|
^p
K*f
J
f
212
Ionian
=-d
Jrr
ms
rrr
J
C.f.
^
*
p
i
=g
XE
xt
#
=6F
(9
^^f
^^^
<5^
fr
* r
-e-
xe
xe
<>
j
JJj>
XT
(9
O-
XT
P^ M
r^
xe
XE
leF
**
Fifth Species
One
first
free part, according to the rules for fifth species,
Dorian
1=
$
c.f.
and two parts
species are written against the cantus firmus:
P&
1
F=
xe
xe
xe
xe
XE
in
gY
XE
XE
xe
XE
213
'
f=&*
-e-
B3T
m
^
*>
4of
Ionian
fj
t>
irf
f
c.f.
XT
HI
/j
IS
g
^
j
xe
XE
XE
-e^
xt
xe
-e-5-
^
5
M-
XEE
-e-8-
o-
4of
Wi
214
Compositions with four free parts without imitation are rare among
Palestrina's own works.
A beautiful example may be cited, however,
from the works of the Roman composer Costanzo

But even here there
who
Festa,
died in
some imitation in the second part. Otherwise the piece is constructed on a Gregorian melody; that is, the upper
part introduces a Gregorian melody almost note for note, though the
other parts show no relation to this cantus firmus. In the fourth measure
from the end an incorrectly treated cambiata is noticeable. This early
1545.
form was no longer
is
in use in the real Palestrina period.
Costanzo Festa
ie
De
i
De
rj
di
ca
mus
z= V
*v
di
ca
IE
-e-
De
ti-
p
IE
?
o
di
di
ca
#
gra
IE
ie
gra
gra
P
ti
&*-
as,
as,
IE
as,
The
IE
-e-
gra
-e-
mm
mus
IE
mus
ca
mus
IEI
as,
IE
IE
IE
1 See
gra
1
P-
De
&
IE
s
I
IE
De
This composition
is
given here in accordance with codex 21 of the Vatican chapel archives.
1
215
216
Imitation
An
exercise
which
is
not easy but nevertheless instructive
of three parts in imitation, for
is
the addition
example:
Dorian
c.f.
a P
SS3Z
. =fai
rrrr
JQ_
-e-
XT
IF331
iJ
i^
p^r^
rr
XE
IgjE
r^^r
r J
11
^v
tt
IE
**
Dorian
c.f:
f4^
40 "
a
i>
f=h
ff
ff-p-f f
r r
?"
=F#Ffi
^Heh
~1*t~
It)
lie
It)
<h
15
r^> g
r'fT'Pf
f#~f
-#H-
-e118
J &
Ip
j
\
j
\
Four-part compositions with imitation in

in the sixteenth century.
selected
From
a countless
"p FfT
all
voices are
number
most
common
of examples
have
one of the most beautiful, the beginning of the four-part motet
Ego sum panis by Palestrina. This composition is in the Ionian mode

transposed to F. The soprano begins with the dominant of the scale and
the other parts follow, entering alternately
with
strict regularity.
remarkable; one never
on the tonic and dominant
Moreover, the effective entrance of the parts

feels that the
entrance of a voice
is
is
superfluous or
The
pointless.
it
is
particularly effective,
coming
as
does on a suspended dissonance in accordance with a favorite procedure
of Palestrina
reins into his
at
entrance of the tenor
217
and
his contemporaries.
The
tenor seems to gather
all
the
hand, for with the entrance of the tenor voice one realizes
once that the somewhat indefinite, vaguely undulating beginning
is
merely the gentle introduction of a musical structure of unusual strength
and
solidity:
ur
P
nis
sum pa
go
VI
zm
,<:
-r
P J
tt
vus
nis
fe
VI
vus
P
E
go
sum pa
o
E
PP^
nis
O
-
go
VI
^m
sum pa
"
Chapter VI
COUNTERPOINT
German
In
IN
MORE THAN FOUR PARTS
a composition
" vielstimmig!'
which has more than four
Though about
parts
is
called
1500 most musical compositions were
written for four voices, in the course of the sixteenth century the situation
gradually changed so that by the time of Palestrina compositions in
than four parts greatly predominated.
difference between the
more
normal
polyphonic writing in the sixteenth century and that in the
style of
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

several voices strictly
way
to the
is
that the independence of the
maintained in the
earlier period frequently gives
doubling of one part with another in the
the polyphony of the composition
is
somewhat
later period, so that
illusory.
As Bellermann
says:
The
great composers of the sixteenth century always proceed very strictly in this
In their polyphonic works every single voice, regardless of
matter.
may
how many
there
was considered an independent being whose individuality should not

and could not be confused with another. By carrying out the principle of polyphonic
composition in this logical manner, they attained that remarkable harmony of sound,
that mighty development of the tonal mass which obtains when the various voices
enter one by one, in a word those tonal effects which the composers of later times
be in
all,
seek in vain.
The
tially
treatment of counterpoint in more than four parts follows essen-
the rules for four-part writing, but naturally the
more
voices the
composition contains, the greater the requirement for complete harmonies.
On
the other hand, the multi-part treatment affords greater freedom in
the use of hidden parallels in that covered octaves are permitted between
outer parts even

1
if
the upper part
The
Translator's note.
translator does not
exact equivalent of "vielstimmig."

2
Der Kontrapun\t Fourth

,
Literally,
Edition,
p.
it
moves by
know
skip.
In writing in five or
of an English word
means "many voiced."
420.
219
in current use that
is
the
COUNTERPOINT IN MORE THAN FOUR PARTS
220
more
parts
more
necessary to double one or
it is
two
there will be
is,
two
altos,
tenors,
and
of the voice types; that
in a composition, the greater the difficulties in
rich theme.
Thus we observe
The more
the parts
working out
a tonally
so on.
that composers of the sixteenth century
make
constantly increasing use of tonal repetition in their works, espe-
cially
in
and eight-part writing.
seven-
becomes increasingly
difficult
teenth century compositions of six

of
all
the voices
The
is,
as a rule,
And
the voice leading, too,
number of voices grows. In

or more parts the simultaneous
as the
following example of five-part writing
a large part of his life in Italy.
even
if,
as
an early work of
somewhat old-fashioned
trina
as
use
only for periods of short duration.

is
by the Belgian composer
Jacob de Kerle, a contemporary of Palestrina (ca. 1531-1591),
ability
six-
who
spent
The composition is refined and shows

this master, it may now and then seem
compared with the mature works
of Pales-
Jacob de Kerle
THti
Le
<v
ma
va
num
nn
Le
va
TZ2L
ma
num
m
b
s^:
Le
va
ma
m
3
The composition
is
taken from Otto Ursprurjg's edition of the selected works of
Den\maler der Tonkunst
in Bayern,
26th year.
J.
de Kerle, in
if
XE
Le
va
xe
ma
num
tu
221
am,
tu
-e-
"
"
22-
t^
r;
XE
num
tu
ma
am,
tu
ma
am,
*=F
s
Le
W?
am,
XE
ma
^-
num
tu
fc
-
w
p?
num
tu
^
-
XE
am
su
num
O
tu
tes
tes
-e
^
m
per
gen-
tes
per
X5
gen-
tes
o-
am
tu
gen
per
XE
gen
XE
XE
SU
num
per
su
XE
P=V-
am
ma
va
su
o
am
J?
COUNTERPOINT
F^
nas,
5-
'
-li
-o
-
li
su -per gen
nas,
JJ/
-
r
li
lit-J
rJ
li
nas,
a-
li
p
Ex-
nas,
e
su
per
fJJ
rJ
gen-tes a
fu
li
nas;
>
Ex
nas;
in:
ci -
ta
ro
XE
hi
nas;
P^F
Ex
nas;
fu
ci- ta
fu
ci- ta
Ex
epp
XE
f-
ro
P
-
li
ci
-ta
nas, a
"^
/
tes
=- ~M
*%
-U
r*
r
-
o*
r
li

;
)|JJrJ
IN
fu
ro
ZEE
rem
*\
XL
rem
ef-fun
et
_Q
TZ
rj
v*
fu
ci-ta
ro
rem
ro
ef
et
ef
et
ram, ut
vi
de- ant po -ten
de
S
i
et
ef
fun
et
XL
fun-de
ef-fun
<>
de
iL
ram,
de- ant
ti-
am
tu
po-ten
ti
am,
po
vi
de- ant po
ram,
ut
ut
Archaic form of the cambiata.
Compare
vi
pp,
ten-ti-
XL
Pî
ram.ut
am:
^z: -e-
i^w
-
xl
rJ
vi
fun-de
rem
rem
ut
(S
ram.
XL
^m
de
E
Ex
223
146
f.
XL
ten
ti-
^^
vi
de-ant
am
de-
am
o:
ant po-ten
po-ten
ti
COUNTERPOINT
224
IN
Ut
O-
co-gno
AV
rs
am
111
Ut
"7T
am
am
co-gno
scant
etc.
scant
etc.
am: Ut
tu
etc.
&
co -
P=F^
ti
scant
P$
Ut
im:
tu
JCL
co-
gno
331
gno
scant
etc.
XE
tu
etc.
am:
In six-part compositions the choir
is
two
often divided into
three-part
groups or into one four-part and one two-part tonal group, and the
These choirs then answer each other,
Among
lent
others, Palestrina's six-part
model
for this technique.
sopranos, one alto,
two
tenors,
times,
at
and
at
times unite.
motet Viri Galilaei affords an excel-
The composition is written for two

a bass.
The first soprano and the
and
alto
begin with the exclamation "Viri Galilaei," which
by a
five-part choir consisting of sopranos, tenors,
and the men's voices continue with "quid
is
and the
statis,"
the
then repeated
bass.
The
words "Hie Jesus" do
all
alto
women's (more
and only
accurately, the boys') voices with the second tenor repeat this,
at the significant
like.
the parts enter together:
^=B
o-
-e
1st
Soprano
Vi
2nd Soprano
5**
Alto
Tenor
2nd Tenor
VI
Ga
li
wp
lae
fe=a
ri
Ga
-e
e-
ri
Ga
li
lae
rJ
xe
lae
lae
r
Vi
&
ri
li
Ga
li
XT
i>
A o
a.
Vi
ri
tt
Ga
li
lae
IE
i>-
Vi
xe
IB
m$^
XE
-
Vi
>
lae
li-
Bass
Ifee
ri
XE
xn
Vi
1st
Ga-
ri
xe
225
ri
Ga
li
lae
*>
COUNTERPOINT
226
IN
"
quid
sta
?
tis
spi
ci
n:
quid
&
m
i^5
331
-
tis
spi
ci
en
spi
ci
en
spi
ci
en
tis
spi
- ci
spi
spi
- ci
spi
e^
quid sta
tis
XE
quid sta
sta
en
tis,
*
quid sta
quid
tis,
sta
tis
XE
quid sta
tis,
_a_
tes
coe
in
lum?
S^
-e-
f
tes
in
coe
lum:
IE
tes
in
coe
r
-
quid sta
lum,
XE
IE
quid
sta
tis
M
Cl
2==
-e-
ZZZZZ2
tes
in
coe
lum,
quid
sta
quid
sta
tis
P^
-
tis
ci
227
\>
Hie
&
t
en
f
Hie
XL
tes
in
o
!>'
en
tes
-e-
lum?
coe
Hie
fr e
a:
Hie
lum!
coe
TV
en
o
en
in
coe
lum?
tes
in
coe
lum?
tes
Je
sus
qui
7e"
sus
qui
IT
Je
TX
sus
3CL
Je
>\
>
(9
Je
J.
Je
Hie
sus
-o
Hie
sus
mr
sus
^
I
qui
|S*
^zz:
as
sum
ptus
as
sum
ptus
i
as
sum
r
-
ptus
228
Palestrina uses a very different technique, one based less

effects, in his
seven-part motet
Tu
Here
es Petrus.
upon
alto, tenor,
doubled, and the themes which are not particularly adapted to
are
polyphonic treatment are worked out beautifully and with apparent

It
tonal
and bass
is
Soprano
1st
Alto
2nd Alto
1st
m
w
w
Tenor
2nd Tenor
1st
ease.
worth noting that the composition does not actually become seven-
Bass
2nd Bass
Tu
s
trus
Tu
et
su
per
hanc
^m i
Pe

part until toward the
having
end (not included in the portion given here).
one part always
at least
229
at rest, the
treatment
is
By
sufficiently flexible
for the imitative character of the writing to be maintained without the

slightest difficulty.
i=3
hanc
per
^F
pe
r^S P^
^S ^
tu
Pe
es
hanc
trus
pe
1^ 3
^j
tram,
pe
i^P
I
et
su
per
i
Et
su
per
pe
hanc
et
su
pei
~o
hanc
tram,
pe
Pe
es
su
et
es
per
hanc
trus,
et
m=?
pe
^^m
Pe
trus
su
Si
j-
Pe
Pe
PP
r
tram,
M
pe
per
tram,
su
hanc
tram,
lv
COUNTERPOINT
230
fl
hanc
do
train
per
IS
tram
Tu
pe
hanc
pe
hanc
per
et
^M
IN
Pe
f-f-f
su
per
hanc
pe
et
I
Pe
Pe
Pe
trus.
Eight-part writing in the sixteenth century

like dual four-part composition, that
is,
common
of the
throughout
two choruses
all
is
Europe.
not
almost always treated
in double chorus style.
This
from Venice,
the Roman school and gradually became
type of composition, which seems to have
during the century spread to
is
strictly
As
come
a rule,
originally
however, the individuality
maintained.
Thus
the higher voices
combined with lower voices of another, and in

general nearly every tonal possibility is employed with a genuinely refined feeling for the color effect. Even eight-part writing requires in
of one choir are often
general at least
a more harmonic-homophonic
style of
treatment; with
in
still more parts the working out of themes that are largely stepwise
The voice leading
their melodic structure becomes almost impossible.
of tones to which
exchange
frequent
the
weakened
by
is likewise easily
one must here turn
two or more
as a last resort.
("Exchange of tones" means that
voices interchange tones, for
example
mw
.)
Palestrina
is
able,
however, even in eight-part writing
basic polyphonic character of the style.
type of composition
Laud ate Dominum:
may
to preserve the
His superior mastery of
this
be illustrated by the beginning of his motet

Chorus
iff
Lau
Tenor
Bass
?m
da
^m
Alto
y-
te
Do
Soprano
Lau
da
te
H^f
Do
rrini
rr"
mi-num o
ppiig
tes
gen
tes
Lau
da
lau
da
te
Do
Se
r
da
mnes gen
^
^
mnes
te
Do
1
-
mi
f
Lau
W T
231
r
Do
te
r
-
mi-nur
lau
tes,
gen
tes.
S
a
Z=l5
r
mnes gen
Chorus
-rotes,
II
Soprano
Alto
lau
mm m
-da
Tenor
lau
lau
Bass
lau
da
te
l<-
da
m
te
COUNTERPOINT
w
da
IN
fit
*>
lau
&^^
lau
3^
If
^
da
te
da
te
P^f
mnes
=1
da
iau
um
te
=l=c
If
lau
w^
da
um,
da
lau
rrrr Jj
da
lau
a
f-h^
ff
po
te
Q=
te
te
r
da
lau
1B
'
um
r
pu
BN
J
r
^^
pu
po
po
m
po
W
s
f'
mnes
pu
T?
pu
po
pu
po
^^
po
pu
COUNTERPOINT
ff
quo
IN
T^
ni
con
r
fir
am
con
fir -
f^
quo
ni
quo
lt_
!'
r
am
\'
t
quo
am
am
con
i
ni
con
fir
lr
233
ma
ta
est
ma
ta
est
r
ma
ta
est
ta
est
ma
su
per
T^
su
per
i
su
per
su
pep
*5F
quo
am
con
r
am
con
am
con
ni
5=^
r
quo
.J
quo
m
J
ni
*F
J
quo
quo
ni
quo
ni
quo
^^
am
con
g>
"
am
con
fir
ZZZI
fir
^fî
ma
ta
est
ma
ta
est
Chapter VII
THE CANON
canon
is
composition
a composition based on imitation in which
exactly the
same melodic content,
which begins the
so that the part
copied or imitated note for note in each of the other parts.
is
difference between ordinary imitation
former only the beginning (the theme)

immediately precedes, whereas in the
of this voice
voices have
all
is
and the canon
is
that in the
taken from the voice which
is
latter the
whole melodic structure
taken over either by simple repetition or by transposition
to another pitch.
The canon
is
the oldest of
early as the thirteenth century,
the so-called ars nova,
it
all
imitative forms.
and
often by Italian composers.
fuga
is
Towards
(flight).
In Italy
it
was given the
characteristic
and sixteenth centuries
it
name
was gener-
Relatively early, however, the latter term

its
was
present
the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of
the sixteenth, the canon
among
as
music of the fourteenth century,
in the
used for another contrapuntal form, and the canon was given
name.
found
to be
was frequently used by French and even more
caccia (hunt), but in the fifteenth

ally called
It
form had
the Netherland composers.
its
period of florescence, especially
Here
it
appeared
as a rule as a "riddle
canon"; the composer noted only the principal voice and added some
sentence from which one can puzzle out the nature and character of the
voices to be derived
follows
me
will not
from
walk
it.
For example, the statement "He who
in darkness"
means
that in the execution of
the canonic part the black notes of the written part are simply to be
skipped.
In the
first
half of the sixteenth century people began to tire
of these often artistically specious tricks, and with the music of Palestrina the
self
most
brilliant period of the
canon was passed.
did write one four-part Missa ad fugam,

234
in
Palestrina him-
which only two
parts are
THE CANON
235
written out; the other
two
parts simply imitate the first
and are therefore not written
But
out.
composition
this
two canonically
a
is
work
of his
youth, and later Palestrina seems not to have written any exclusively
canonic composition.
On
the other hand, he used canonic writing fre-
quently in combination with other voices using free imitation, especially

in the
Kyrie and in the Agnus Dei of a number of masses.
The procedure
canon
in writing a
and then the same succession of
is
One
quite simple.
intervals
is
voice begins,
taken up by one or more
voices in succession while the first voice or the preceding voices continue
with counterpoint.
This counterpoint
ing voice or voices, and so on.
phonic
is
style, it
must be broken
interrupted in next to the
canon
If a
off
last
then introduced in the follow-
is
with
is
to be
measure:
concluded in poly-
The following canon
a cadence.
m
0M-0
m^
3T
men.
t?
In the foregoing canon the imitation
ordinary imitation,
zans
is
the
name
can take place
is
Wmen.
in the fifth, but, just as in
any desired
at
Ol
interval.
Cancri-
given to a type of canon in which the melodic structure
of the initial voice

peats the
it
tt
is
imitated by retrogression: the following voice re-
melody backwards.
Canon "by augmentation"
(per augmentationem)
is
the
name
given a
type of canon in which the note values of the leading voice are doubled
in the following voice as
diminutionem)
one
half.
With
in
opposed
to the
canon "by diminution" (per
which the corresponding note values
the exception of the
last
are reduced by
two forms, none
of canons, however, has any great musical value.
of these types
THE CANON
236
canon combined with free imitative voices
from
Palestrina's five-part
is
given below
meum
mass Repleatur os
a Kyrie
All voices
laude.
begin with the same theme, but a canonical relation develops only be-
tween the second soprano and the tenor, when the higher part makes a
canon in the octave to the lower:
J
1st
fI
It) 13
T
Soprano
IP
|
^
â
5
P
-"
^
p
Ky
ri
- lei
son,
Ky-
ri -
- lei -
/>
*j
n?i
lUj T
2nd Soprano
Ho
If*
IP
IVl
hi I'
Alto
Fh
Ky
**
rie
ti
lei -
ifi
Tenor
IP
K
Bass
V
I.
j.
/b
I.J tp
15
>
J
r
mmm
son,
r;
Ky
'J
f
-
rie
lei
Ky
ri
son,
^
THE CANON
237
s*^
rie
p
Ky
Ky-
son,
lei
XE
Ky
xe
XE
Ky - rie
son,
lei
Ky-
rie
xe
son,
lei
F^^f
XE
XE
Ky
son,
lei
'J-
r^
son,
Ky
rie
XE
son,
lei
XE
rie
Ky-ri
^=XE
<V
Ky
H^T
XE
lei
lei
--
-r
331
XE
3=c
son,
*5
son,
lei
Ky
rie
%
Ky
rie
lei
Ky-rie e
son,
o.
lei
son,
Ky
ri
THE CANON
238
<>
lei
Ky
son,
ri
'*
f
-
lei
W
B
x>
Ky
,
lei
Ky
-son,
p
rie
son,
^>
son,
-\
zee
-tv
ZZj
-'
xe
son,
lei
XE
XE
-6>-
son,
Ky
Ky
ri
xe
ne
XT
lei
son,
xe
Ky
lei
xe
Ky
xe:
lei
zz-^
lei
^fc^
lei
Ky-ri
son,
lei
ne
ne
son,
lei
3
son,
Ky
ri
THE CANON
239
2Z3I
Ky
son,
lei
rie
XE
son,
lei
Ky
=32
ne
rr
i
Ky
^S
lei
21
lei
s
Ky
ne
rie
ICE
lei
son
gpp
e
lei
Ky
son,
*>
Ky
zr
son,
Ky
ne
^
II
rj
^^
son,
u.
son,
240
CANON
T.
J
*d
ne
lei
^^
lei
r
Ky
son,
lei
Ky
ri
rie
rie
lei
son.
3X
331
~^=f
Kv
rr
-e-
&
G
-
w^
r
son.
lei
TX
S
"
HI
son.
(5
*>
^
son.
lei
3
Ky
f^^
zz
rie
W^
lei
son.
lei
son.
Chapter VIII
THE MOTET
Besides the
mass, the motet
the sixteenth century.

certain, dates
to
is
the chief
The term
form
in the religious
music of
motet, of which the origin
from the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries,
when
it
un-
is
referred
one of the contrapuntal voices added to the cantus firmus of a poly-
phonic composition.
itself, at first if
or even
That
if
is,
Later the
a sacred text
name was
was used, but
one voice sang a sacred
in the
transferred to the composition
later also if the text
text while another
teenth and sixteenth centuries motets
meant
with the sacred Latin texts which then,
as a rule,
in
secular
text.
middle ages the concept of the motet implied that the
different voices should simultaneously sing different texts.
The words,
was
sang a secular
most
cases, are
In the
fif-
exclusively compositions
were used for
all voices.
taken from the Latin translation of the
Bible (the Vulgate), but occasionally independent religious
poems were
used.
Characteristic of the musical treatment of the motet
division of the text has
or
its
less strictly in all voices
is
that each line or
independent theme, generally imitated more

before the next portion of the text and the
corresponding theme are introduced.
The motet
thereby becomes an
aggregation of different imitations or of more homophonic episodes.
One
of the chief difficulties in the formal treatment of this type of
position, therefore,
is
to prevent all these
a mosaic-like structure
unite
them
often seem
made up
fragments from merely forming
of a disjointed series of sections,
into an organic whole.
Palestrina's
somewhat angular and
com-
and
to
Netherland predecessors
inelastic in this
respect; Palestrina
himself and his contemporaries, on the other hand, understood to a rare
degree the art of constructing transitions.
The
Palestrina four-part motet Dies sanctificatus will serve as an ex241
THE MOTET
242
ample
of this
and
filled
is
j -
m
g
form
of composition.
with exultant, pious
It is
joy.
intended for the Christmas mass
The mode
la
is
Mixolydian:
lb
XE
san
es
Di
cti
fi
ca
tus
lu
xit
no
lb
la
XE
xe
f
Di
san
es
cti
fi
ca
tus
il
m
EZIDC
I
I
"
XE
xe
bis,
g
lu
xit
no
o-
XE
no
bis,
bis,
la
XE
V)
K>
Di
es
la
XE
Di-
yn
10
i
f
in:
XE
dzz-fczg
di
es san
cti - f i
^^
^
^^
es
di
XE
san
cti
fi
ca
tus
ca
tus
san
cti - f
lu -xit
^-^
XT
tus
ca
p
no
lb
es
san
cti- fi
-e-
XE
ca
tus
il
a
-
lu-xit
THE MOTET
243
lb
15
IE
flu
lb
rr
f
il
b J
J J
bis,
no
il
lu
xit
rr
no
xit
f?
lu
^m
no
xit
ie
bis.
lu
il
xit
no
20
nx
-e-
no
-e-
bis,
zz
i^p
ve
te
ni
-e-
gen
tes,
2a
v
rJ
-O
bis,
ve -ni
ux
bis,
mm
ie
ve
2a
ni
-=
gentes,
te
ve
ni
te
ve-ni
gen
p*m t=*
te
gen
te
<>
gen
IE
2b
IX
J=t
gen
et
tes
<>
tes,
ve-
tes,
ve-ni
2a
m
ni
te
gen
p==*^
gen
&*-
o
Vf~
ni
te,
ve
tes,
25
JCL
tes,
ve-ni
IE
2a
gen
(5^
zx
bis,
te
:2z
ve
ni
te
gen
<g ?^
THE MOTET
244
ad
ra
2b
^f
te
es
num
mi-
xe
ad
et
ZEE
Do
te
*v
HU
30
\>
av
g a
ra
te
Do
2b
num
mi-
et
2b
F^?
tes
et
xx<
ad
XE
XE
ra
ZZ2
Do
te
mi-
2b
numet ad
XE
z n
-e-
tes
ad
fit
2b
XE
XE
^
ad
et
XT
<S>-
ad
o<9
O-
ra
ra-te
o -ra
35
XE
ra
te
XT
XE
Do
num,
mi
ZZZZ2
Do
mi num,
(& ?-
te
XE
Do -mi- num, Do
mi
Do
mi
40
XE
num,
2b
^F
et
te
&n
ad
ra
te
3a
xe
XE
ho
qui
de
di
seen
num,
dit
3b
qui
ho
di
seen
'd
lux
"o^t
3b
e-
-e
XE
i
qui
ho
XE
qui
ho
XE
ii
de-seen
ppî
-
di
lux
THE MOTET
245
zee
ma
lux
3b
45
XT
f
gna
ter
in
de
ris
zz
ma-gna
zee
ter
in
ns
3b
BiS
is
331
e-
zee
ma
gna
in
ter
ns
de-scen
3b
jCC
ZEE
de
seen
3b
_Ol
50
seen
dit
3
de-scen
dit
dit lux
331
ma-
3b
131
de- scen-
ditlux
ma
gna
ZEE
in
ter
-&
ma-gna
lux
dit
ns;
in
ter
ma
lux
ris,
3b
ZEE
de
seen
gn a
-e-
lux
dit
ma
ns;
55
es
haec
quam
fe-cit
b
^=n
f
haec
*\
r>
r,
*>
13
1)
ppp
haec
ns
ter
es
di
di
o
o
ris;
haec
di
es
es
quam
fe-cit
in
in ter
A3rrna in ter
~tv
gna
ZQZ
Do
Do

THE MOTET
246
P
5=3
o
mi
quam
fe-cit
4
Do -mi nus haec
XE
aec
quam
es
di
4=
XE
nus
22X
mi-nus
60
^
fe-cit
o o
quam
es
di
fe-cit
AV
XE
haec
di
65
IT
I
i
*V
XE
haec
rJ
es
di
XE
A o
Do-mi-nus
haec
quam
fe-cit
XE
quam fe-cit
es
di
&
XE
i)
P mi- nus
Do
Do
XEE
xe
XT
ZZZ
22:
^H2
-e-
S
.M
-O-
quam
fe
Do-
cit
XE
quam
es
fe
o
mi
nus:
6 "
mi- nus:
XE
Do
-e
mi
nus:
e-
XE
mi
nus:
Ex
o
-
ul
te
^^
Ex
te
ul
Ex
te
ul-
ul
u qg
-e-
mus
et
lae
te
&
mus
et
lae-
XE
-
mur
in
i>
te-mur
in
te-mur in
Pe
XE
-e-
f^F?P,
-
-e^
^m.
Ex
Do
70
cit
t>
-
te
mus
mus,
et
lae
THE MOTET
247
80
75
ZZZ.Z&.
<&-
-&*-
et
f^
x$
ex-ul
i
s
ex
^7
te-mus
et
lae
rv
&
mus
et
te
ul
p
ul
te-mus
mur
te-mur
in
in
a,
ex-
a,
ex- ul-
ul
mus
te-
mus
te
IE
e
-5
te-mur
lae-
cr
et
lae
7?
ex
te
lae
3CC
in
ex- ul
#
-
te
mur
te
in
ex-ul
a,
mus
3X
-
<>
^>
te-mus
85
JT
et
-e
e-
in
a.
6-
et
te-mur in
lae
p a
ex-ul
a,
i
et
lae te
o J
"S
O^
?te-mur
lae
et
From
'
mur
in
&
te-mus et
s>
~o
f
lae
s^
-(V
mur
in
^
XE
te-mur
XT
a,
O-
in
a.
ex-ul- te-mus et lae-te-mur in
a.
the viewpoint of technical musical construction, the composition
smaller sections:
1.
Dies sanctificatus
2.
venite, gentes, et adorate
3.
quia hodie descendit lux
4.
haec dies quam fecit Dominus:

cxultcmus et laetemur in ea.
.lae- te
ex-ul
^ ^v
" * ^
lae-te-murin e-
falls into five
5.
te-mus et
p a
-
ô
illuxit nobis,
literal translation
1.
2.
Come
holy clay has

ye people
Dominum,
magna in tern's;
would read
dawned upon
as follows:
us,
and worship the Lord,
248
THE MOTET
4.
For today a great light has descended upon the earth;

This is the Jay which the Lord hath made;
5.
Let us rejoice and be glad in
5,
The
theme
first
"illuxit nobis,"
two
consists of
and begins
it.
parts: (a) "Dies sanctificatus,"
in the soprano.
theme, how ever, the alto enters with an exact imitation in the
As often
and (b)
In the second measure of the
in his other compositions, Palestrina here
makes
fifth
the
below.
first
and
introductory period a canonic duet in accordance with Netherlandian
models.
In the eighth measure the tenor enters with the theme, a bar
on the
later the bass enters
below, and the two lower voices repeat
fifth
exactly the duet of the upper voices at the interval of the octave.
Mean-
while the soprano and alto continue in free counterpoint to the lower
This principle of construction,
parts.
developed independently, and

to
an end.
it
Now
new theme
follows a
at
new
decidedly Netherlandian.
is
separated from the
is
bar 17 the
first
first
and
part of the motet comes
part of the text (venite gentes)
two and
that, after
too,
theme
In bar 12 the second part of the
a half measures,
and with
imitated
is
first
in
the alto (in the unison), then in the tenor (in the unison in stretto), and
finally after
two more measures
in the soprano
and
bass, the
former in
the octave and the latter in the fifth below with the up-beat lengthened,
and
this
development
is
by the soprano, has no
The work continues

The theme 2b, which is sung
thereby brought to an end.
with the words "et adorate
Dominum."
really
independent character, but
of and in connection with the counterpoint which

alto
immediately before over the
ZEE
ve
This theme
beginning
tive
at the
ment
is
similarity.
tes
The remaining
The
as a sort of
imita-
technical structure of this episode
hybrid between polyphonic and homo-
Chordal considerations predominate.
series of
chiefly
gen
te
xj:
end of the following measure.
can be thought of only
descending
introduced in the
"venite' of the tenor:
merely suggest the theme somewhat vaguely, chiefly
through rhythmic
phonic writing.
ni
is
developed out
imitated exactly only once, in the tenor (in the octave)
is
entrances
last
is
chords of the sixth.
homophonic.
Where
As has been
there
is
It is
primarily a
stated, the treat-
an opportunity for imita-
THE MOTET
tion, Palestrina
249
makes use
of
but only in passing and without troubling
it
The
to carry out the imitations in detail.
homophonic
begins in pure
next section, "quia hodie,"
with the so-called "Stabat Mater triads"
style
(as Palestrina uses this chordal progression in a particularly expressive
manner
at the
beginning of his famous Stabat Mater,
it
has
come
to
be
designated in this way).
At "descendit"
The
a freely treated imitative section begins.
alto in-
troduces the theme; the tenor and soprano follow in stretto (in the unison
and octave
The
respectively).
but to compensate for silence,
bass
it
is
during
silent
this
development,
takes the lead in the next section
where
followed by the tenor, soprano, and alto in succession (likewise in
it is
These different entrances, however, have
stretto).
descending skip of the
fifth,
which
is
used
"descendit" ; after this skip each voice goes
drops out entirely.
fact,
fore,
is
As
is
in
common
own way;
its
only the
a setting for the
word
the soprano, in
a whole, the character of this section, there-
halfway polyphonic.
the other hand,
as
The
entirely strict
fourth and next to the
and
regular.
last part,
on
In the theme one will
recognize without difficulty the beginning of the Gregorian gradual
Haec
dies:
JZJE
Haec
di
canonic duet between the soprano and alto constitute the introduc-
As
tion.
in the
beginning of the
in the fifth, the only difference
The
the soprano answers.
the imitation takes place
first section,
being that
now
the alto comes
first
and
tenor (with the initial note lengthened) and
the bass (in the fifth below) enter after five measures, but with a treat-
ment which
the
theme
finally,
differs
from
that in the upper voices.
(in the soprano) closes this section.
rhythms which Palestrina and
With
entrance of
next and
last episode,
his contemporaries at times use to express
the exception of a single imitation between the soprano
tenor, the style
is
entirely
homophonic.
third half notes one will notice dissonances

trary to rule.
which
final
comprises one of those wonderful, dance-like portions in dactylic
artless joy.
and
The
is
In bars 71 and 82 on the
which seem
to be treated con-
Here, however, a modification of the rhythm takes place,
not apparent in the notation.
Measures 71 to 72 and 82
to 83

THE MOTET
250
really
change
to the large 3/1 meter,
and the dissonances referred
to are
therefore actually legitimate suspension dissonances:
70
7ft
$
u ..?
iir
-n-e
X5
Such changes from smaller meters

in the fifteenth
*V
^^
XJl
1
rhythm
lp
S^ w
a>
33ZZZ2
i^
and sixteenth
*>
-o-
TT
to larger are not
centuries,
i)
and
unusual in ternary
for that matter they
can be found even in Handel and Mozart.
resume of the different kinds of
Finally, a
sections of the
motet gives the following

polyphonic, (b)
styles
result:
1.
{a)
(a) strict polyphonic, (b) free polyphonic;
3.
(a)
4.
strict
5.
homophonic.
homophonic, (b)
is
listener.
free polyphonic;
polyphonic;
This resume indicates

vision
strict
in the various
polyphonic;
2.
strict
found
constantly
how
made
Avoided, above
for
one
change and
all, is
produces such a pedantic and

predecessors.
style gives
way
to the other,
relief so that
how
nothing
tires
pro-
the
the constant, exact imitation,
which often
Palestrina's
Netherland
trivial
effect in
Chapter IX
THE MASS
The
Catholic High Mass
consists of five principal musical liturgical
parts
1.
Kyrie
eleison.
2.
Gloria.
3.
Credo.
4.
Sanctus-Benedictus.
5.
Agnus
These
Dei.
which together
(or songs),
texts
constitute
the ordinarium
missae, are fixed in the sense that, except for certain services
which have
remained in an older arrangement, they are used with exactly the same
words and
same sequence
the
The proprium de tempore,
in every mass.
the other principal group of texts (or songs)
in the mass celebrations of the Catholic Church, likewise takes a regular
place in the liturgy; every mass and every sung high mass has an introitus, a graduate,
different
and
so on, but the texts or songs
forms vary from service to
service.
The
which belong
to the
principal portions of
the proprium are the following:

1.
Introitus (introductory, before the Kyrie).
2.
(a) Graduate, (b) Alleluia or Tractus (after the Epistle).
3.
Offertorium (for the taking of the offering).
4.
Communio
(for the
communion).
The polyphonic musical forms
associated
with
these
proprium are
called motets, while the
ordinarium
always designated as the mass whether
is
music to the
texts
of
the
five parts of the

it is
polyphonic or
for a single voice.
The complete
mass,
is
text of the Catholic mass, that
as follows:
251
is,
the ordinary of the
THE MASS
52
Kyrie eliison, Christc cliison, Kyrie eliison*
1.
Gloria in excSlsis Deo.
Et in terra pax hominibus bonae voluntatis. Lauddmus

Adordmus te. Glorificdmus te. Grdtias dgimus tibi propter
magnam gloria m tuam. Ddmine Deus, Rex coelestis, Dcus Pater omnipotent.
Ddmine Fili unigSnite Jcsu Christe, Ddmine Deus, Agnus Dei, Filius Patris. Qui
1.
Benedtcimus
te.
tc.
pecedta mundi, miserere nobis.
Qui tollis pecedta mundi, suscipe deprecaQui sedes ad dexteram Patris, miserere nobis. Quoniam tu solus
sanctus.
Tu solus Ddminus. Tu solus Altissimus, fesu Christe. Cum sancto
Spiritu, in gloria Dei Patris.
Amen.
Credo in unum Deum. Patrem omnipotentem, factorem coeli et terrae, visiI.
tollis
tionern nostram.
omnium,
bilium
Da
Et in unum Dominum Jesum Christum, Filium

Et ex Patre natum ante omnia sdecula. Deum de Deo, lumen de
verum de Deo vero. Genitum, non factum, consubstantidlem Patri:
et invisibilium.
unigenitum\
lumine,
Deum
per quern
omnia
factus
et propter nostram salutem

de Spiritu sancto ex Maria Virgine: Et homo
Crucifixus etiam pro nobis: sub Pontio Pildto passus, et sepultus est. Et
est.
resurrexit tertia die,
Et incarndtus
secundum
Et iterum venturus
Patris.
non
Et
erit finis.
in
unum
mortuorum.
cum
Dominum,
et vivificdntem:
Et
unam sanctam
catholicam et apostolicam Ecclesiam.
baptisma in remissionem peccatorum.
Et vitam
qui ex Patre,
Patre, et Filio simul adordtur, et conglorificdtur: qui
Amen.
Ddminus Deus
Et exspecto resurrectionem
ventiiri sdeculi.
Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus,
gloria tua.
Et ascendit in coelum: sedet ad dexteram

mortuos: cujus regni
gloria, judicdre vivos et
Spiritum sanctum,
locutus est per Prophetas.
Confiteor
est
Scripturas.
est
Qui cum
Filioque procedit.
4.
Qui propter nos homines,
facta sunt.
descendit de coelis.
Hosdnna in
excelsis.
Sdbaoth.
Pleni sunt coeli et terra
Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.
Hosdnna
in excelsis.
5.
Agnus
Dei, qui
tollis
Agnus
pecedta mundi: miserere nobis.
pecedta mundi: miserere nobis.
Agnus
Dei, qui
tollis
Dei, qui
tollis
pecedta mundi: dona nobis
pacem.
In the music of the fifteenth century the mass

cantus firmus composition; that
melody which
influence
is
usually treated as a
constructed on a sacred or secular
placed in the tenor and only rarely exercises a melodic
on the other
more important
is, it is
is
voices.
But, as imitation gradually comes to be
in the technique of composition,
little
by
little
the cantus
firmus mass disappears, and from the second quarter of the sixteenth
To
century on the purely imitative treatment of the mass predominates.
be sure, cantus firmi are often used in this period, but a particular basic
melody does not appear

least,
appear in
exclusively in one voice,
all voices.
sixteenth century
is
form which might be
transcription masses are
though portions of
it,
at
Especially characteristic of the masses of the
made
called "transcription mass";
of other smaller polyphonic compositions
THE MASS
253
(motets, chansons, madrigals, or songs) in such a

or paraphrase them.
The
way
that they transcribe
which might,
transcription mass,
therefore, in various
was often
stances be called a motet, madrigal, chanson, or Lied mass,
work
based upon an earlier
and
of the particular composer;
circum-
yet often the
composition of another master was used as the basis for the musical con-
Today, when ideas regarding musical property
struction of the mass.
rights are strict, such a procedure
century
it
seemed
might seem irregular; in the sixteenth
entirely legitimate
and proper.
Palestrina himself, for
example, used for his masses motets and madrigals of l'Heritier, Hilaire
Penet, Lupus, Ferabosco, Verdelot, Jean Richafort, Josquin des Prez, and
On
so on.
the other hand, other composers wrote masses on Palestrina's
motets and madrigals.
mass Dies sanctificatus
brief
may
examination of Palestrina's four-part
serve to explain the transcription technique
mass composition of
as well as the
This mass
is
Palestrina's time in general.
composed on the Palestrina four-part motet
name which was
it is
In accordance with the usual practice, the
first
I,
and Kyrie
The
Christe
parts: (a)
is
subdivision.
first
is
also in
more
two
Dominum!'
seen, this section likewise varies only slightly
The Kyrie
corresponding episode in the motet (measure 20).

is
as the motet, of
constitutes the sole
constructed on the second theme, which
"Venite gentes" (b) "et adorate
As may be
other hand,
II.
Kyrie begins exactly in the same manner
which the two-part introductory theme incidentally

thematic material of this
mixed chorus.
the Kyrie, falls into
first part,
Christe,
same
the exception of
also written in four parts for
three distinct subdivisions: Kyrie
The
With
cited in the preceding chapter.
the last five-part Agnus,
of the
free in relation to the motet.
from the
II,
on the
Here the theme
is
1
German musicology uses the term "Parodiemesse" (parody mass) in this connection, but this
term cannot be regarded as particularly appropriate since the psychological and historic-style-critical
elements inherent in this technique are based on a relationship other than that of imitation.
At any
rate, the
expression "parody" has a misleading implication, and
mass," but at the same time
therefore prefer the term "tran-
should like to emphasize that I use "transcription" in

broad sense as Liszt, for example, used it to apply to his piano compositions based on the
scription
its
songs of Schubert.
-
An
unabridged reproduction of
required.
Anyone
this
desiring to study
it
whole mass
is
unfortunately impossible because of the space
in greater detail
will find
it
in
Volume
XV
of the complete
works of Palestrina and in Proske's Mttsica divina, Annus I, Bd. 1. (Translator's note:
found also in the edition of Hermann Biiuerle, Brcitkopf und Hartcl, Leipzig.)
It
may
be
THE MASS
254
33:
Chri
iFS
<v
v
Chri
ste
o-
HZ
lei
Chri
m^
ste e
I ii
lei
ICE
Chri
ste
ste
mm
2=e^
zzzzzz
X3I
P=
lei
son, Chri
lei
ste
331-
3T
Chri
son,
ste
lei
son,
lei
lei
Chr:
son,
xn
son,
identical
ste
lei
with the form in which
31 to 34 (2b) with the
%
While the
words
is
presented in the alto in measures
"et adorate":
3X
3X
it
son,
3X
22X
f
Ky
first,
rie
lei
tripartite division of the
mass
is
imitative
and poly-
phonic in character throughout, the next part, the "Gloria in excelsis" beSee pp. 275
ff,
where the
entire piece
is
given.
THE MASS
255
gins with a syllabic, chordal treatment of the introductory
motet, which
is
here placed in the soprano:
iW
f
Et
ter
ra
pax
ho -mi
ni
bus
ter
ra
pax
ho
mi
ni
bus
in
Et
in
xc
bo
nae
nae
nae
bo
xe
Et
ter
in
ra
pax
ZEE
ter
in
XE
i
w
lun
lun
tis.
XL
3T
-ta
tis.
a
-
The bulk
lun
mi
ni
pax
ho
mi
ni
bus
bo
ta
tis.
bus
bo
mus
Lau-da
tis.
ta
ra
ta
vo
VO
P^
ho
31
Et
vo
of the
P^P
Yi
theme
Lau- da
-mus
nae
te,
Be -ne-di
te.
XT
Lau
Lau -da- mus
of the text in the parts of the mass
da-mus
te,
xe
Be
te.
which have many words,
such as the Gloria and Credo, does not permit the same musical
ment used
where the
tative style
texts
in the sections, such as the Kyrie, Sanctus,

texts are short.
If
one were
treat-
and Agnus Dei,
to write the "large" parts in imi-
throughout, they would be disproportionately long, and the
would no longer be
directly comprehensible.
Besides, the perform-
ance would require more time than could normally be devoted to these
4
In this connection, note that the Gloria and Credo in the Catholic Church are intoned by the
(in Gregorian chant), so thai the choir enters with "Et in terra pax hominibus" and
priest
"Patrem omnipotentem,"
respectively.
THE MASS
56
The
parts in the service.
homophonic
in
however, are nearly
Gloria and Credo are, therefore, usually treated
with
style,
all
of a slighter
These imitations,
intermixed.
imitations
and more transient character and of
shorter duration than the imitations in the other portions of the mass.
The
Gloria in the Palestrina period
the second begins with
themes
la, \b, 2a, 3b,
"Qui
The Credo
is
divided into two parts, of which
is
While the
first
section
and 4 from the motet, the second
The
eight themes of the motet.
same corresponding
tollis."
and
first
last
borrows only
section uses
all
themes here occur in the
positions; the other themes appear in another order.
divided into three groups in the Palestrina period: Patrem,
Crucifix us, and Et in Spiritum.
The
part begins with the intro-
first
ductory theme of the motet; the treatment, however,
is
here completely
different:
fe
9
Fa
iz
Fa
jq:
i
Pa
trem
i^
Pa- trem
mm
mm
po
ten
tern,
po
ten
tern,
fa
3X
cto
rem
coe
rem
et
W3
cto
li
coe
li
ter
xj:
3J1
et
1
cto
rem
coe
li
et
ter
ter
rae,
rj
xr
>
5 The fact that in suspension dissonances the note of preparation and the dissonance should sometimes carry separate syllables of the text, must be attributed to textual requirements.
THE MASS
257
ZEE
rae,
VI
um
bi
si
gf
VI
SI
li
mm
um
ZL.
i
rae,
VI
si
3H
bi
VI
The
rule that every return of the
first
entrance
treatment.
is
tenor instead of
bi
li
ICC
mm- um
theme should use the same
text as in
here disregarded in favor of a hastening of the textual
The soprano
At "Descendit de
um
li
p?
the
331
first
entrance continues with the text of the
at its
repeating the words which have just been sung.
coelis" the
same theme with the descending skip of the
used that appeared in the motet at "descendit" ; the words "de-
fifth is
scending from heaven" are generally used for tone-painting in the music
The
of Palestrina.
episode "Et incarnatus est" which
the liturgy by inclination
accompanied in
is
(bowing of the head or kneeling),
is
almost
always called to special attention in the sixteenth century by broad,
solemn chords:
$
Et
in-
EC
EC
ICE
na
car
u:
V,
it
Et
in- car-na
r-
Et
na
r-
o
in-
car
na
est
tus
de
ri-tu
Spi
ri-tu
is
actually to be
found
(at
san-cto
san-cto
rr-n
est
de Spi
ri-tu
Crucifixus shows only a slight relation to the motet; of
only 2b
san-cto
o
-
ri-tu
EC
de Spi
est
-tus
ec
tus
[i
The
car
in-
Spi
ec
ec
Et
de
est
tus
&&
e-
"cum
san-cto
its
themes
gloria judicare") in the
same
THE MASS
258
form
as in the Christc of the mass.
into heaven)
we
At "ascendit
in
codum"
(ascended
find the traditional tone-painting:

Al
^dfr*
$=5
et
a - seen - dit
in
coe - lum
Likewise the third part of the Credo, "Et in Spiritum" and so on, does
not follow the motet too closely; and yet four themes are used: namely,
2b, 3a, 3b,
The
and
5.
Sanctus begins with the introductory theme of the motet, but
Palestrina uses an entirely
new
treatment.
The theme
the soprano, while the alto brings in a contrapuntal
is
introduced in
theme which
is
then
imitated in the tenor and bass:
*
San
n^-^
San
ctus,
ctus,
==#
-&st-
San
ctus,
San
m
San
m
1
San.
31
^^
San
_Q_
I
ctus,
San
ctus,
ctus,

The mass
259
In addition to the introductory theme, lb, 3b,
The
in the Sanctus.
4,
and 2b
constructed with broad themes and complete imitations,

sively
J
upon 2a and
are also used
Benedictus, which, like the Sanctus,

is
is
based exclu-
Hosanna depends
3b, while the following
generally
entirely
on
lb.
The Agnus
begins with the theme la in the soprano, and this
is
accom-
panied in the alto with a counterpoint which the tenor imitates and
afterwards the soprano takes up while at the same time the bass sings la.
For the
themes la
rest, this
and
4.
P
i
somewhat
The
Agnus
II,
is
restricted to the use of the
which concludes the mass and
JJZ
f
gnus
De
i,
P^
3z
brief piece
five-part
A -gnus
De
gnus De
gnus
i,
iz
331
(9
xt
gnus De
i
a
1
W
o:
gnus De
De
I
gnus
\)c
qui
He vx
gnus
De
tol-lis
pec
"
THE MASS
260
in
which the second
alto
tenor, begins with the
Soprano
is
canon
in the fourth
theme 2a worked out
Iw V
F*
gnus De
1st
Alto
i,
gnus De
221
to the
strictly:
:kl
above in relation
'!
gnus De
g
-
gnus
2nd Alto
Tenor
Bass
3^
EE
1 IE
^ ^^
gnus De
De
nr
gnus De
up
Jr
rJ
gnus De
gnus De
g g
THE MASS
After
261
theme 3b
this,
and the mass
treated,
is
paraphrase on the dactylic episode
closes
with a kind of
at the end of the motet.
comparison between the mass and the work upon which
it is
based
must obviously reveal the richer and more varied technique of the
panded form.
as the
The mass
all
demonall sides
skill;
mass
tion of the variation to
siderations.
this
is
its
it is
theme.
somewhat
Transcription
type of work.
transcription technique
The composition
upon which
of artistic fantasy
first
just discussed bears a considerable
the variation technique.

original material
here a musician could
The
of his ability in composition.

trina uses in the
was generally regarded
in the sixteenth century
here he was afforded an opportunity to reveal
arena for technical
strate his dexterity,
ex-
is
here
is
based; and this
of
which
Pales-
resemblance to
closely related to the

is
not unlike the
rela-
Moreover, in the mass the free play
restrained by liturgical
and
practical con-
accordingly the most appropriate term for
Appendix
APPENDIX
section deals with certain forms which, although they did not
This
development in vocal polyphony, nevertheless grew
attain their full
out of
it.
The Vocal Fugue

meant what we
In the sixteenth century fuga (Latin for "flight")
day
"canon."
call
occasionally
Later the term was applied to a form which, although
found in
ment
until the time of
form
is
theme
Palestrina's time, did not attain
Bach and Handel
imitative but not canonic.
It
full develop-
its
in the eighteenth century.
This
begins with the introduction of the
in one voice (dux, "leader" or "subject") in either the tonic or
Then
dominant.
the
theme
is
"answered" by a second voice (comes,
"companion" or "answer") by having

subject begins in the tonic,
the theme, the
fugue
to-
is
first
and
it
begin on the dominant,
vice versa.
While
voice continues with a contrapuntal part.
in three, four, or
more
parts,
if
the
the second voice has

If
the
each voice enters in succession,
generally alternating on the tonic and dominant; the voices which have
already entered continue with counterpoint as each
When
the theme.
of the fugue,
all
which
transition follows
is
new
voice takes
voices have presented the theme, the
known
as the exposition,
is
ended.
first
up
portion
Often a short
(in the instrumental fugue this so-called episode
is
extended considerably, sometimes introducing motives from the theme),
and then the counter-exposition begins.

appears in
all voices,
As
in the exposition, the
theme
but the order of the voices and arrangement of the
entrances of subject and answer (repercussio) are preferably changed.

In the fugues of the sixteenth century, three sets of entries of the subject
and answer
are usually the
maximum;
indeed even in the eighteenth
century one often finds fugues with three such
be sure, often exceeds this
number
sets of entries.
Bach, to
or leaves out the transitions between

265
APPENDIX
266
the different sets of entrances, so that
ends and the next begins.

ourselves to the
which
last
is
normal
hard to
it is
tell
where one
maximum number
section
shall restrict
of three sets of entrances,
most appropriate for the length of the fugue.
group of
we
In the following exercises
In the third and
entries the imitation often takes place in stretto.
Here, too,
the use of ingenious devices such as imitation in contrary motion, by
augmentation, or by diminution
is
on imitation mention was made
(p. 163) of the fact that the
and
suitable
In the section
natural.
composers
of the sixteenth century at times used the tonal answer, but that they,
form.
as a rule, preferred the real
Likewise in the matter of the correct
answering of the sequence of whole and half tones, and so on, the
period was
If
than the
less strict
one would remain
earlier
later.
and not introduce any chro-
strictly in the tonality
matic changes, an exact answer to the theme in imitation in the
fifth
above or fourth below (as used in the fugue) can be carried out only
the
theme begins with the
so-called tonic
in
hexachord
tonic
and takes
(fts
major and F-sharp minor: A-F sharp,
represents the longest series of tones
tonal material
from the
(C major and
A minor,
^\
its
which
etc.), since this
is
if
hexachord
repeated exactly within the
scale:
Tonic hexachord
1
1/2
Dominant hexachord
1
fl
Consequently
a B, for
if
V2
i_
xm
331
TE
XT
theme
in
major which begins on the tonic uses
example:
(a)
IE
it
i
v^m
cannot be imitated exactly without the introduction of a sharp before
F, since the answer otherwise

to the third
would have
and from the third
has major seconds:
half-tone steps
to the fourth notes,
from the second
where the
subject

267
THE VOCAL FUGUE
$
Such
Vi
Vi
(b)
a consideration did not, as a rule, trouble the
composers of the
theme would usually be an-
Palestrina period; in Bach's time such a
swered thus:
(c)
i
That
cally
is,
this
theme
lies
within the dominant hexachord and can
be answered only in the
logi-
below or the fourth above:
fifth
Id)
\
1_
-&
i
Since the theme, however,
tonic, the
is
in
answer must necessarily begin on the dominant G, and one
therefore replaces the
first
tone in the correct answer (d) with G, while
the other tones remain unchanged.

If
major and the subject begins on the
In this
way
the
form
(c)
is
obtained.
the theme, on the other hand, begins on the dominant and introduces
an F, for example:
$v~7
Vz
Vz
it
then
falls
within the scope of the tonic hexachord and therefore can
be correctly imitated in the
fifth
above or the fourth below:
ic
C
is
Vz
1/2
1/2
Since the
1/2
^^
f'
the proper initial tone of the answer,
ing form:
Vz
f^r
V:
Vz
'
#^
we
get the follow-
APPENDIX
68
These
may
rules
be summarized as follows:
theme begins with the
If a
1.
hexachord, the answer in the

a
fifth
and then goes beyond the tonic
tonic
above or fourth below must be lowered
second from the second tone on.

If a
2.
the
theme commences on the dominant and exceeds the range
dominant hexachord, the answer
below must be
As has been
raised a second
said, these rules
of
in the fourth above or in the fifth
from the second tone
on.
did not hold in the sixteenth century, and
even in the time of Bach they were occasionally disregarded, especially
where
a treatment in strict accordance with the rule
theme
that
it
could not be recognized
easily.
would
so
change the
Especially in themes
which
begin with an octave skip or with tonal repetition, one must guard against
changes.
The following theme
(Ionian):
i
should, strictly speaking, be imitated as follows:
I s
But the character of the theme would thereby be
would always
so
changed that one
prefer the following:
fe
Likewise, a Dorian theme such as:
i
would
of course not be
xt
xr
answered
in this
way:
W
but would be lowered a second after the characteristic octave skip:
35
9J
XE
THE VOCAL FUGUE
269
In the choice of a fugue theme, the principles
on imitation are of the
emphasized
in the section
theme must be
greatest importance: the
striking,
hence rather somewhat angular than too smooth, since angularity helps
make
to
more
it
Moreover the rhythm of the theme
recognizable.
which accompanies
well as that of the counterpoint
uniform and even, or the valuable

is
is
For example,
at
so introduced that
therefore best
the
if it
must not be too
it
effect of contrast in the
most desirable between the different
must always be
it
voices,
is
as
rhythm, which
The theme
weakened.
can be recognized immediately.
It
enters after a rest or after a clear-cut melodic section.
would not be good
if the first note of the theme should

same time be the closing tone of the preceding phrase:
it
Theme
3X
TT
Here one would unquestionably misunderstand the

the
instead of the
clearest
if it
comes
as the initial
after a rest;
and
yet in this case
that the voice concerned drops out before the rest in

ner.
For example,
note,
and
In
it is
stretti slight
it
best for
first
It is,
makes
it
to
come
to
dominant
tion,
sure that the particular
as initial tones
ceding voice has sung
one
ble.
than a half
it is,
theme lends
itself to stretto
theme one
treatment.
moreover, not limited to the tonic and
but can also begin on other tones.
at the
try to write a
time of
its
as
much
of the
As in imitatheme as the pre-
entrance.
fugue for two
voices.
Since
must continue
it is
best for each
at certain places
Such episodes should, nevertheless, be kept as short as possiIndeed, the transition from the exposition to the counter-exposition
part.
must not be too noticeable.

a
less
in the theme may be necestheme must not be impaired in any
voice to enter after a rest, the composition

in
one must take care

an appropriate man-
therefore, advisable that in the selection of a fugue
now
is
an end with some cadential figure.
each voice needs to reproduce only
Let us
and take
entrance
rhythmic or melodic changes
the answer enters in stretto
If
The
should not close on a note value
sary, but the essential character of the
way.
situation
tone of the theme.
chain of small note values.
(often a general pause)
is
too noticeable transition can be avoided by
On
the other hand, before the stretto a stop
entirely in place:
"
W
270
APPENDIX
Exposition
iai
Ky
^m
Ky-
son.
Jei
^~
&
rz
rie
t
rie
Jei
Counter- exposition
p=^
Ky
rie
p^
lei
^^
1"
icl
ZZZZE
xt
son.
Stretto
ICE
Ky
son.
IE
1
Kv
n*
rf
rie
(S>
=
G
-It)
f
i
Is
rie
Tin
Ky
son.
lei
jDl
\>p
r
i
=s
-fl
rie
^=#^
rHej
lei
F^-
kS
M
son.
-M
\
son.
lei
Exposition
^^
Be- ne-
di
P
ca
^==ZZI
Do-
mus.
g^s
==*
Be
ne
tli
ca
THE VOCAL FUGUE
271
Counter- exposition
mi
-&
mus.
Do
Be
no.
Be
no.
fca
ne
di
ZZT
f^p3?
rJ
mi
#"
ca
ne
mus Do
ca
di
mi
^
Stretto
f=&
mus Do
mi
Be
no.
ne
ca
di
i
no.
J
mus
Be
HX
mi
PP
i
-
mus Do
ne
di
ff
Do
gg
ca
no.
o
-
mi
no.
Like three-part imitation, the three-part fugue also requires the most
complete chords possible. It is especially important to have the entrance
of the third voice produce a complete triad. A most effective entrance is
attained
if
the entering voice
note (compare p. 198).

tonic, the third voice
If
makes
suspended dissonance out of
a tied
the entrance of the preceding voice
is on the
normally begins on the dominant, and so on; but
sometimes happensespecially when the middle voice has the subjeel

first that the second and third voices enter on the same tone.
it
APPENDIX
272
As
in the
two-part fugue, one must also take care that the transition
from the exposition

though one often
aid of a cadence.
and third
effect,
sets off
as
is
the counter-exposition
smooth
from the
as possible,
stretto
with the
Since a close of the same kind at the end of the second
might
sets of entries
easily
produce an unvaried, monotonous
one often modulates in the second
the chief key

for
to the counter-exposition
(compare
p. 82) or
key related
set of entries to a
to
ends with a half, or deceptive cadence,
example (Aeolian)
1
9
The following
XE
XE
XE
xt
XE
nek'
three-part fugue treats an Ionian
the last in stretto; but there the imitation does not
dominant
as usual,
theme three times with
come on
but on the second and sixth of the
the tonic and
scale.
Exposition
II
XE
B5
-e-
men,
men,
men,
Counter- exposition
XE
VP-
wm
men,
V
i
IE
Kf
XE
men,
XE
PPP
J J r
r r
THE VOCAL FUGUE
273
xe
xe
33:
men,
if
2=^
*=*=
men,
men,
ppp
^=f=^ T=^=4.
men,
Stretto
XX
men,
XE
r
men,
T~"~
xe
j
o
men,
men,
men,
XE
**
men.
^
men,
men.
XI
men,
Two
men.
examples of four-part fugues are
now
Dorian, the other in the Mixolydian mode.
from the mass Dies

mentioned.
It
sanctificatus by Palestrina,
may seem remarkable
presented,
The
that this
latter
one
fugue
in
is
the
taken
which has already been

Mixolydian composition
274
APPENDIX
should begin with an Aeolian imitation on
mode
in the principal
because the theme, which

p. 244),
and
E and
of the mass only at the end.

is
But
that
this
is
it
brings
probably
taken from the motet Dies sanctificatus (see
begins there with A.
In the exposition, soprano and tenor each
introduce the theme twice in a slightly changed form; moreover, Palestrina uses stretto
only in the third
even here.
set
The
entrances follow each other very closely
of entries.
Exposition
"
2ZL
s
Counter- exposition
JF^
nn
men,
i=6
men,
m m
_o_
men,
wm
XE
xt
men,
rrf
THE VOCAL FUGUE
27$
w
*\
|V
men,
IE
P^
men,
--
325
men,
==&
IE
men,
Stretto
isi rrr
men.
-<S^
men.
ie
^P
A
men,
p^
IE
men.
Exposition
Palestrina
IE
!E
Ky
jo:
3E
Ky
rie
IE
rie
P=^
IE
lei
son,
lei
P^P
IE
is
Kv

276
APPENDIX
a:
Kv
rie
lei
*>-
i
i
-e
Ky
son,
rie
o-
lei
#-(9
Ky
e -lei
rie
V
son,
:zr
e
rie
ZE
son,
lei
Counter- exposition
lip
Ky
son,
-e-
3X
son,
lei
=*
mm
son,
lei
le
-son,
lei
*m
e
lei
ZEE
-e-
son.
lei
ZEE
i
Kyf/
^^
rie
-e-
331
3T
lei
i>
son,
rie
son,
son,
lei
3a:
lei
tm
-&
Ky
son,
i^
i
w
rie
-o-
Ky
rie
3E
THE VOCAL FUGUE
277
Stretto
e-
son,
ZSSL
Ky
rie
son,
lei
3X
zee
Ky
rie
33:
son,
lei
FF
-rrr
Ky
son,
lei
rie
Ky
son,
rie
p?
son,
lei
lei
zz:
son.
P i=i P
son.
lei
1^
lei
Fugues on two themes are

triple fugues,
and
33:
-
called double fugues;
son.
on three themes,
Such forms, however, did not occur
so on.
sixteenth century, but belong exclusively to the time of Bach.

trate this type of
fugue in
brief, a
below, a composition which
double fugue by
the Palestrina style and the eighteenth century.
constructed on two themes.

the tenor imitates
it
in
form
in
in
Fux
illus-
given
is
between
This Dorian fugue

first
is
theme,
the fifth above while the bass, as counterpoint
double fugues.
which each theme
are introduced together.
J.
After the bass introduces the
against the tenor, brings in the second theme.
quently used
J.
to a certain extent intermediate
is
in the
To
In
is
And
first
yet
This procedure
is
fre-
one can make use of another
introduced separately and (hen both
the fugue before us, both themes
wander
78
APPENDIX
from the bass on up through
in exact succession
the tenth measure, this

it
all
wandering of the voices comes
four voices.
With
an end and with
to
Before the upper part has finished singing the second
the exposition.
theme, the tenor begins the counter-exposition in which both themes

occur
and
all
in
is
The
four voices.
more
treated
theme I appears only in the tenor and

somewhat modified form) goes through all
indeed, sings it twice) and it is treated in stretto:
soprano, while theme

voices (the bass,
third set of entries begins with the tenor
freely in that
(in
II
J
S3fc
zr
IE
1,2
3E
2ZZ
1,2
mm
a
PÊ?
1,2
-e
1,2
!>e
8
J8
ILJ
r^ -i*-P
J-
_r
t
^y
^1
j-f
me
r r
r r
4
Ffd
;.
"
-p1 i
r^
2,1
grr
rT
-1
= u
THE VOCAL FUGUE
279
2,1
p ifl
?F?
33:
32:
o f o
2,2
jH
-s^*-
2,1
2,2
331
331
2,2
331
2,1
2,2
331
3,1
t/
P
3n
^v
J
3,1
J3_
1
o
(S>-
3,2
ti
p
3,2
<s
APPENDIX
80
1,2
fP
3,2
m
bee
rrrrrrrr
<
3,2
? - *
r<z
g r P
3,2
^P
ZEE
rp
ff
r p
Double, Triple, and Quadruple Counterpoint
Double counterpoint means
a kind of writing which, without violating
the rules of strict counterpoint, provides to the
melody
may be used either as an upper or lower part.

known in the polyphony of the sixteenth century,
a counterpoint
This technique was
that
but
it
first
achieved
great significance in the instrumental fugue of the eighteenth century.
Double counterpoint in the octave is most frequently used; here one

transposes either the upper voice an octave lower or the lower voice an
octave higher. By this inversion, it is well known that the prime becomes
an octave, the second a seventh, and
on
12
As may be
so
seen, all intervals retain their character as consonances or
dissonances, with the exception of the fourth,

vice versa.
The
which becomes
a fifth,
and
writing of double counterpoint in the octave offers no
difficulties, therefore,
and
it
is
done
in accordance
with the usual rules
concerning the treatment of the interval combinations with one excepIf one wishes
tion: that the fifth also is to be regarded as a dissonance.
to avoid crossing the
two
voices, the interval
between them must not
exceed the octave.
An example
of double counterpoint in the octave:
DOUBLE, TRIPLE, AND QUADRUPLE COUNTERPOINT
3E
JQ_
P^
IE
IE
m
similar
IE
*x
IE
*$
ie
ie
%
A
Mm
281
J*
ffiê
tt
example from the Credo of the mass
Confessor by Pales-
Af/<?
trina:
I
<fr
-*J~J
^L =^=^
Qui
pro
pter nos ho
Qui
pro
pter nos ho
IE
II
IE
S
-
If,
and
in
all
(^
r>
SZZSE
SE
f
eta
Et
sunt.
pro -pter no -stram
IE
sa
&
(9
P
eta
Et
sunt.
pro -pter no
double counterpoint in the octave, one avoids
suspended dissonances, one can add
the third or tenth above
W^
and
in this
way
to
stram
similar motion
each part a parallel part in
get a four-part composition:
all
j
etc.
3|EEE
APPENDIX
282
IV
i>
X5
1*1
fe^^
AV
A3
^V
XE
^P
i *B
^^
Outside of counterpoint in the octave, counterpoint in the tenth and

twelfth are
among
the
changes the intervals
more common forms.
23456789
98765432
10
Thus
all
The
inversion in the tenth
as follows:
10
1
consonances retain their consonant character, just as
sonances remain dissonant upon inversion.
become imperfect, the imperfect
all dis-
But the perfect consonances
perfect; parallel thirds
and
sixths, as
well as progressions in similar motion to thirds or sixths, are therefore not

usable.
In other words, only oblique and contrary motions are possible
Dissonant suspensions cannot be used, since correctly
in these exercises.
and seconds must
treated fourths, sevenths,
resolve as follows
sion: sevenths into octaves, fourths into fifths,
m
m
m
>
J
\
xe
xe
xe
upon
and ninths into
octaves.
$?=&
XE
XX
-&-
m
m
inver-
i2W
DOUBLE, TRIPLE, AND QUADRUPLE COUNTERPOINT
may
Exercises such as those above
either a parallel part in the tenth
be increased by one part
below
to the
fe
Xi_
xt
IQI
fcE
^fc&*-
\V
>
tt
irrrr
zzz
-e^
fc
i"
Tr
i
B5
one adds
upper voice or one in the
tenth above to the lower part:
if
283
In the inversion in the twelfth the intervals are altered as follows:
The
10
11
12
12
11
10
chief point to observe here
is
that the sixth,
comes a seventh and that, consequently,

nance:
^t-
upon
inversion, be-
must be treated
as a disso-
mP
p^m
rj
it
i)
<>
*>
>
r'
mm
n
u
APPENDIX
284
If
one avoids suspensions and progressions
make
in similar
motion, one can
the exercise three- or four-part by adding parallel voices in thirds
or tenths over the lower voice or under the upper voice:

J.
b*
pn=
^ wm
<=F3
^:V
32:
m
on.
all
if
^>
3X
-rV
33I
Invertible counterpoint in
point
3X
more than two
there are three parts, quadruple
It is
if
necessary for every single voice to
parts
is
called triple counter-
there are four parts, and so
move
correctly in relation to
the other voices in accordance with the rules given in
type of counterpoint,
when
it is
in the octave, all fifths
dissonances, regardless of the voices in

that fourths cannot be covered
simple counterpoint.
The
which they
occur.
this
book.
must be
It
In this
treated as
must be noted
by placing consonances below them, as in

illustrates quadruple coun-
following example
terpoint in the octave:
m
i
i9 it
PP m
i=
I
$
ix XE
p
X5I
^
etc.
&
3X
APPENDIX
Through
now be
285
the study of the exercises in this textbook the pupil should
in a position comparable to that attained in the realm of languages
For example, one who has made
he has mastered a basic language.
if
himself thoroughly familiar with the Latin language finds the

to a
noble world literature.
way open
Yet more important, he has assimilated not
only a single language but such a fundamental knowledge of language

in general that
will be easier for
it
European languages and

It is
exactly the
lems of
to
all
modern western
their literatures.
same with the Palestrina
species
style,
and where these problems
matchless certainty and naturalness.

does not subordinate
itself to
where the chief prob-
If
may
are treated with almost
one could imagine
music which
the expressive will of an artistic personality
or of a historic epoch but follows only

urges, one
understand
musical technique appear clearly and plastically as perhaps
all
no other style
in
him
its
own
purely musical laws and
ask whether such a music would not
come
closer to the
Palestrina style than to any other.
To
is
present this "pure" music
the ultimate
aim
with the Palestrina
of this book.
At
best, the
something about the inmost nature of music;

be hoped no one will come off so badly
kind of musical pasticcio through
at
style as the
pupil
may
worst
although
learn
he may acquire some
a vain
medium
from
it
is
it
to
skill in a
attempt to imitate a great
his-
torical style.
The
classical style
so that
its
understood.
fruitful
is
presented here not to be superficially imitated, but
and eternally valid fundamental principles may be
SUMMARY OF THE MOST IMPORTANT

CONTRAPUNTAL LAWS AND RULES
Melody
Intervals
The
All augmented and diminished intervals are forbidden (p. 85).
major and minor second and
and octave
third, perfect fourth, fifth,
can be used in both directions; the minor sixth
is
allowed, but in
ascending motion only (p. 85).

Succession of Intervals
In ascending motion
it
is
best for the large intervals to precede the
smaller; in descending, for smaller intervals to

rule
rigid
is
less
(p.
strict
87).
first
This
(p. 86).
it
is
Furthermore, in quarter-note movement the succes-
sion of stepwise progressions

a third followed
come
with the longer note values, but with quarters
and
skips
is
restricted to
two
possibilities:
by a second in ascending motion, a second followed
by a third in the opposite direction (pp. 119
f.).
Ships
Skips are to be filled in as
much
as
possible
(pp.
85
f.).
Skips
upward from the accented quarter note are forbidden (p. 87). Two
or more skips in the same direction are not allowed in quarter-note
progressions (p. 89). Skips of a third downward from an unaccented
quarter are always to be compensated by a succeeding step of the
second upward (p. 121).

Stepwise Progression
Unaccented quarters approached by step from below must,

rule,
be continued upward by step (p. 120).

286
as
SUMMARY OF CONTRAPUNTAL LAWS AND RULES
287
Rhythm
Eighth notes
may
be used only two
by
Two
time,
must occur
quarter notes
may
not occur alone in the place
must
of an accented half in the measure; either a quarter note
cede or follow them, or the
The
quarter (p. 140).
which may be used
smallest note value
suspension with a note of equal value
is
the half
(p.
suspension the only place where the smaller note value

the greater
is
pre-
two quarters must form part
of the
first
suspended half note must follow the second
suspension, or a
of a
in the
and must be approached and quitted
place of an unaccented quarter,

step (p. 93).
at a
in a
141).
In the
may
precede
in the cadence (p. 141).
Consonant Combinations
Consonances
In chordal combinations one regards as consonances the perfect unison,
and
octave, twelfth,
fifth,
so on,
which
are called perfect consonances,
and likewise the major and minor forms of the

and
which
so on,
Parallel fifths
Hidden
species
parts
two
are forbidden (pp. 98
and octaves are forbidden in
On
parts.
f.).
first,
second, and third
the other hand, in fourth
species
be used in a similar manner in
fifth
species in
In free two-part writing they can also be used in other ways
with the greatest care (pp. 100
and octaves
fifths
may
for the
two
in
are permissible
also occur
upper part
between outer and inner
move by
In four or
more
parts,
but here too
it is
parts.
but
only
In three-part writing hidden fifths
f.).
between outer
to
two
parts,
step.
but in such cases
Hidden
Hidden
voices.
octaves,
it
is
best
on the other
hand, are to be avoided so far as possible between outer parts
parts,
tenth,
where they are delayed by suspensions, they are permitted, and
may
they
sixth,
are called imperfect consonances (p. 98).
and octaves
fifths
in
third,
(p. 176).
hidden octaves can be used between the outer

best for the
upper part
to
move by
step (p. 203).
Accented Fifths and Octaves
These (a) must be used with care

(b)
may
in
second species (p. 117) and
be tolerated in third species in exceptional cases between two
quarters on
accents
which are
in
immediate succession; but octaves
APPENDIX
288
of this sort arc not SO
good
(p. 126).
They
(c)
are permitted in sus-
pensions (fourth species) and (d) are treated in accordance with the
same
rules in fifth
Parallel
free writing.
in
Thirds and Sixths
whole
In
and
species
notes,
more than four
possible, not
if
sixths should occur in succession
In half notes one should
112).
(p.
may
not go too far beyond this number, but in quarters one
more
and
parallel thirds
use
them
freely (p. 158).
The Unison
The unison may
(a)
last
measures
occur in two-part
(p. 112). (b) It
addition to the
of the measure,
first
and
last
may
(apart
(c)
but otherwise
first
may
The unison
and
last
and
enter in two-part second species (in
and the skip by which
f.).
from the
species only in the first
measures) only on the unaccented portion

it
balanced so far as possible by stepwise

tion (pp. 116
first
necessarily enters
movement
is
to be counter-
in the opposite direc-
forbidden in two-part third species
is
measures) on the
be freely used (pp. 125
in two-part fourth species (p. 133).
(e)
first
(d)
f.).
It
quarter of the measure,
may
It
can be used freely
be used in two-part free
counterpoint, but must be treated with care (p. 160).
(f) It
can be em-
ployed freely in three and more parts between two or more voices, but
only on the
first
or last tone
may
all
voices occur in unison (p. 176).
The Beginning
There should be
(a)
forbidden (p. 112).

fect
an upbeat (p. 125)
at the
beginning in two-part
(b)
The beginning may
and
(c)
it
may have
if
an upbeat
is,
it
may be minor;
is
occasionally have an imper-
the counterpoint begins with
the full triad in three or
but in such cases the third must always be major.
triad, that
The
consonance
consonance in two-part third species
parts,
as
a perfect
second, and fourth species, but the fifth below the cantus firmus
first,
If
more
the third enters
here one can begin only with a full or empty
one in which the third
is
missing (pp. 176 f.).
Close
(a)
The
close
part writing;
if
must always be made with
a perfect consonance in two-
the counterpoint
lower part, only the unison
is
in the

and octave may be used
(b)
(p. 112).
It
may
consist of a perfect triad
or of a "triad" with fifth or third missing in three
The third here must be major (pp. 176
289
and more part writing.
f.).
Dissonant Combinations
Dissonances
All augmented and diminished intervals, the perfect fourth, major and
minor second, seventh, ninth, and
so on, are dissonances (p. 98).
In the First Species
Dissonances cannot be used (p. Ill), but in three or more parts, the
fourth between an upper and a middle part or between two inner parts
may
be used as a consonance (p. 175).
remaining
This rule likewise applies to the
species.
In the Second Species
Dissonances
may
occur, but only as passing notes (p. 116).
In the Third Species
The dissonance can be used

or returning note, but
The
it
as a passing note as well as a
sole exception to this rule
is
the so-called carnbiata, in
accented dissonant quarter introduced by step from above

skip of the third
lower auxiliary
must always be approached and quitted by
downward followed by
step.
which an unis
a step of the second
quitted by a
upward
(p.
125).
In the Fourth Species
The
dissonance
such a case
it
must be
it
may
must be
occur on the accented part of the measure, but in
tied over
a consonance),
and
from the preceding unaccented beat (where

it
must be
led stepwise
sonance on the following unaccented beat (p. 131).

the so-called consonant fourth, a fourth
which
is
downward to a conThe sole exception is
introduced
at
the place
of the unaccented half note over a stationary tone in the bass, to be tied
over to the succeeding strong beat and finally to be regularly resolved on

the following unaccented beat (pp. 193
counterpoint
or
is
in the
upper
minor seventh can be used
part,
as
f.).
If,
in two-part writing, the
only the perfect fourth and the major
suspension dissonances;
if
the counterpoint
APPENDIX
290
in the
is
lower part, one can use (in two-part writing) only the major and
minor seconds
as
suspension dissonances.
intervals cannot be used here (p. 132).
other dissonances
may be
when
used
Augmented and diminished
In three or
more
parts,
however,
they occur simultaneously with "good"
suspensions (p. 188).

In the Fifth Species
An
unaccented half which comes after a suspension or a whole note
can be a dissonance
if
the dissonance
treated in accordance with the
is
rules for the second species, but cannot be dissonant
Likewise quarters can be dissonant

dotted halves (pp. 143
halves
ters
may
preceded by quarters.
On
the other hand, suspended quar-
they occur at the place of an unaccented half note
two quarters descending by step follow an accented half, the

of the two quarters may be dissonant; such irregular dissonances,
(p. 143).
first
if
if
they occur after suspensions or
Quarters which are tied over from unaccented
f.).
be dissonant only rarely.
can be dissonant
if
If
however, are permitted only in descending motion (pp. 143 f.). Dissonant upper auxiliary notes are permissible in quarters if they precede
a half or a
whole note
The
(p. 144).
first
note of the cambiata can be a
dotted half, and the third note can then be either a quarter or a half.
the other hand,
must then
if
the
tone of the cambiata
The
necessarily be a quarter.
tone of the cambiata)

(p. 144)
first
may
in
all cases
Anticipation dissonances
is
On
a quarter, the third tone
dissonant tone
itself
(the second
be only of the duration of a quarter
may be
used, but only as quarter notes,
approached by step from above (pp. 148 f.). Eighth notes may
be dissonant only if they are correctly handled in accordance with the
and
if
general rhythmic-melodic laws (p. 148).
In Free Counterpoint
(a) In two-part writing, one quarter can
quarter (note against note)

voice.
if
form
the dissonance
is
a dissonance with another

correctly treated in each
This applies likewise to writing in three or more parts in which
move
more parts stationary tones

occur in one or more voices while at the same time two or more voices
progress in quarters, these more lively voices may form dissonances with
all
voices
in quarters; but
if
in three or
each other freely, provided the relation of each voice

to the stationary voices (p. 154).
(b)
The
is
correct with respect
third of four quarters, of
which

the
first is
on the strong
accent, can be a dissonance
occur in stepwise descending motion and
upward by step while the other

to the
its
upper
f.).
(c)
upon imperfect consonances
may move on
of the second follow the
suspension
is
can in
same time
dis-
move
as the
ninth in the
this case
be resolved
if
only two steps
(accented) quarter in this voice while the
otherwise correctly treated (pp. 156
at the
simultaneously
(d) In suspension dissonances the
(p. 156).
half notes cannot be used at
another voice
may
after the duration of a quarter

first
moves
While the suspension
"bad" suspensions, such
part, are likewise usable, since they
other part
the fourth quarter
if
resolution the other part
to another tone; in such cases
four quarters
part forms a correct syncopation dissonance
motion in quarters (pp. 154
sonance proceeds to
if all
291
all if
there
(p. 184).
is
ff .)
(e) dissonances in
quarter-note
movement
in
Index
INDEX
B
A Magyar
Bach, Johann Sebastian, x
Nepzene, 68
Accent, "reminiscent," 96
Accented
and
fifths
45
Adoramus
Bauerle,
te Christe,
Hermann, 253
Banchieri, Adriano, 40
117
Bar
72
not used, 117
lines,
Adrian, 35
Baroque painting, unity
Aeolian (see Modes)
Baston, 35
Agnus
Beethoven, 48
Dei, 251
ff.
Bellermann,
Agricola, Johann Friedrich, 48
Leone
Alberti,
x, xiii, 38, 52, 55,
Benedictus, 251
Albrechtsberger, x
Berardi, Angelo, 32, 34
Giovanni
Binchois,
d', vii
Alleluia, 251
Answer
in, xii
119, 124,
219
Battista, 83
Albinoni, 48
Alessi,
xv, 38, 43,
Bach, Philipp Emanuel, 48
notes)
f.,
ff.,
48, 50, 85, 148, 163, 265, 267,
277
octaves, 117, 126
Accented quarters, 87 (see also Quarter

Accidentals, use of, 71
f.,
8, 9,
ff.
.,
41, 43, 91
f.
15
Boethius, 9
in the fugue,
266
Bononcini, 43
ff
Anthologia Sexta Vocalis Liturgica,

Antica musica ridotta
L'
Busnois, 8,9, 11, 15
vii
19, 29,
158
Anticipation, 94
.,
148
f.
Architas, 9
Caccia, 234
Aristotle, 9
Cadence:
Aristoxenus, 9
dissonance
Aron, Pietro, 30
intermediate,
Ars antiqua,
ix,
xii,
6, 7,
15
in
viii
"polyphonic"
the
ecclesiastical
modes, 82
Arsis, 116, 193
A is
178
in,
nova, 15, 234
leading tone, 71
Arte del contraponto, L' 29
plagal, 75
Art of Counterpoint, The, 147
seventh degree raised
Artusi, 28, 29, 32, 36, 97
suspension of seventh or second
movement, note
Ascending
138
values
Cambiata,
in,
Augmented
triad, 176
Auxiliary notes,
Ave Maria,
11, 92, 121, 141
84, 101
Cancrizans, 235
Canon, 234
f.
ff.,
265
Cant us figuratus,
ff.
295
ft.,
15, 32, 40, 88, 121, 125,
223
ff.
in, 71
11
110
in,
144
133
ff.,
INDEX
96
Cantus hrnuis. 36
Cantus planus,
Caron, Firminus,
t.,
107
Counterpoint: (Cont.)
f.
in the tenth,
c)
Cartella musicale, 40
Casimiri, Raph.,
Cauda, 56
283
45
florid,
Kurth's definition
\ii
of, x, xi
origin of term, 3
f.
x,
30
f.
Cherubinij
x,
52
Cerone,
282
in the twelfth,
Tinctoris' definition of, 9
and quadruple, 284
triple
Ch'uu> cue, 58
Cows
de contrepoint, 52
Chiavi trasportate, 58
Coussemaker,
Choirs, use of divided, 224
Credo, 251
Chopin, x
Crequillon, 35
Chords of the sixth, parallel, 99

Chromatic half step avoided, 85
Chromatic signs introduced, 71
Chromaticisms avoided, 83
Crescendo, rhythmic, 137
6, 8
ff.
"Crossing" parts, 113
Culmination note,
85,
136
122,
95,
f.,
161
Cicero, 9
Clemens non Papa, 35

Coclicus, 24
"Dead"
Comes, 265
Commumo,
251
Compositionsregeln
Hewn
M.
Johan
intervals, 160
contrapuncto, 8
praeceptis artis music e
Conducimento, 91
Consonance (see Dissonance)
138
Dialogo
Consonances, 98, 287
"Consonant fourth," 193
del
Don
Diminished
chord of the
as
in cadence, 178
in
the
16th
#., 253,
273
ff.
sixth, 176
Diruta, Girolamo, 40
anticipation, 32, 148
Contrapunto:
zoppa, 41
as a
fugato, 40, 41
means
34,
f.
of poetical expression, 17,
47
ornament
for consonance, 28
in saltarello, 41
as
ostinato, 40, 41
auxiliary, 125, 141
f.,
semplice, 39
cambiata, 125, 144
flf.
Contrary motion preferred, 112
"covered," 185
Counter-exposition, 265
essential,
Counterpoint:
fourth
and harmony contrasted, 3

as a pedagogical term,
36
f.
144
44
as, 5
"Franconian" law regarding,

Fux's treatment
in
fiF.
in the octave, 280
Par-
Dissonance:
Century, 52
double, 280
in,
triad:
simplex, 11
alia
15
Pontio
Pietro
Dies sanctificatus, 241, 242

45
Technique
f.
florid us, 11, 40
Contrapuntal
migiano, 28
f.
Contvapunctus:
11, 40,
Dehn, S. W., x
Descending movement, note values
Peterssen Sweeling, 30
diminutus,
De
Dc
of,
39
ix
f.
combined second and third

184
species,
INDEX
297
Dissonance: (Cont.)
in eighth notes, 148
in "note against note," 152
f.,
154
on the second and fourth quarters, 124

on third quarter, 31, 123 f., 154 ff.
Dominant, in "polyphonic" ecclesiastical

modes, 71, 109
Dotnine quando veneris, \57
Dorian (see Modes)
Drehnoten, 31
"parasitic," 185
Dufay,
passing, 20
Dunstable,
146
15,
8, 9,
8,
Dux, 265
quarter note:
after accented half, 143
f.
by skip, 185
sixth as, 7
Ego sum
suspension, 7
avoided in two parts simultaneously,

158
panis, 142, 216 f.

Eighth notes, use of, 93, 148
Elemente des Gregorianischen Gesanges,
entrance on, 271
62
Guilelmus's rules concerning,

in fourth species, 130
not
Este, Ercole, 23
ff.
on "empty"
resolved
Espagne, Franz, 72
16
fifth
or
octave, 131
of fourth or seventh in lower voice,
Evolution of the Six-Four Chord, The,

175
"Exchange of
tones," 230
Exposition, 265
132, 188
of second or ninth in lower voice,
131
f.
of second or ninth in upper voice,
Faugues, Guilelmus, 9
132, 156, 188
of
second
or
seventh
in
cadence,
prepared by dissonance, 194

resolved
156
Ferabosco, 253
Festa, Costanzo, 214
133
moving
against
quarters,
to
imperfect
consonances,
Vicentino's rules concerning, 21
with separate syllables of the

256
as resolution dissonance,
text,
hidden, 100
f.;
131
112, 176
parallel, ix, 98, 112
avoided by crossing parts, 99
third as, 7
Tinctoris and the, 11

of, in
15th century, 14
unessential, 44
use of, in second species, 116f.

sciolte,
Fourth:
as suspension
below cantus firmus, 132,
188
used in harmony, 98
Dissonanze
covered (see Fifths, hidden)
empty, 14
131
treatment
accented, 117, 126,287
concealed (see Fifths, hidden)
ff.
resolved
ff.
Fifths:
20
augmented,
in
consonant combinations,
175
considered as dissonance, 111
Doctor bonus, 157
"consonant," 193
f.
Documenti armonici, 41
diminished,
consonant
Dodccachordon, 27
Domarto, Petrus de,
in
combina-
tions, 175
11
perfect, in
consonant combinations, 175
INDEX
298
Franco, 7
Franconian law,
Frottola, 8, 14, 17
3,
Fuga, 234, 265
14
Fugue:
relation to
double and
theme
of,
vocal, 265
triple,
277
Fux, Johann Joseph,
ft.,
minor com-
pared, 81
Fuit homo, 167
122
in Palestrina style,
resources in Dorian and
ft'.
42
melody
83
269
40,
97-103
and 16th centuries contrasted,
of 15th
if.
Handel)
landel (see
Harmony,
ix,
49,
1'.,
x,
51
32, 38
xiii ft.,
95,
f.,
107,
f.,
111,
148, 277
Haydn, 48
Haydon, Glen, 175
Heptachordum Danicum, 30
Hercules, 147
Heritier,
1',
253
Heterophony, 36
Hexachord, 266
Garlandia, Johannes, 6
Gedanken uber
arten
die verschiedenen Lehr.
Hodie beata, 163

Hohn, 52
Homophony,
39
Hucbald, 5
Hyperdorian (see Modes)
Gerber, Heinrich Nikolaus, 48

Gerbert, 6
Hypoaeolian (see Modes)

Hypoionian (see Modes)
Gian, 23
Gioco, 91
Hypolydian (see Modes)

Hypomixolydian (see Modes)
Hypophrygian (see Modes)
Girandoletta, 91
Glarean, 27
Gloria, 251
ft.
Gonzaga, Guilelmo, 24
Grabner, 51
Graduale, 251
Imitation:
Gradus ad Parnassum,
48
xiii .,
32,
38
f.,
f.
Gratiano, Tomasso, 25
by inversion, 41, 165
Graun, 46
Gregorian chant, melodic
Gregory the Great, 60
Grundgedan\en uber
Lehrarten
by retrogression, 235
line in, 85
die verschiedenen
,
Guido,
free,
163
in four-part counterpoint,
216
and 16th centuries contrasted,
in 15th
43
14
Grundlagen des Uneaten Kontrapun\ts

x,
and the canon, 234 ft.

by augmentation or diminution, 166
in mass,
255
in stretto, 167
51
in three parts, 198
Guilelmus Monachus, 15
in
two
parts, 163
ft.
ft.
per contrario, 41
per diretto, 41
real,
163
163
Handel, 46, 148, 163, 250, 265
strict,
Haller, x, 38, 52, 119, 124
tonal, 163
Handbuch der Notationsûnde,
55
Vicentino's discussion of, 21
INDEX
299
Imitatione per contrario, 41

Imitatione per diretto, 41
Lassus, Orlandus,
In die bus Mis, 101
In te
Domine
Laud a
Intervals:
augmented and diminished excluded,

85
lk
dead," 160
succession
of
large
and
small,
86,
286
in halves, 114
viii,
13
Lattre, Jean de, 35
speravi, 99
f.
Sion, 100
Laudate Dominum,
Laudate Pueri, vii
157, 230
Laude, 19
Leading tone,
177 (see also Cadence)

Lehrbuch der Phoned^, 96
Lehrbuch des einfachen und doppelten
table of melodic, 85
Kontrapun\ts, 48
Lehrbuch des Kontrapun\ts (Jadassohn),
49, (Riemann), 50
use of, in Palestrina style, 85
Ligatura:
in quarters, 119
in
whole
ff.
notes, 109
Introitus, 251
cum
Invertible counterpoint, 284
obliqua, 56
Ionian (see Modes)
opposita proprietate , 56
recta, 55
ff.
Isaac, 23
Ligature, 55
Isidor, 9
Lineare Satz, der, 51
harmoniche, L'
Istitutioni
',
27, 97
f.
ff.
ff.
Liszt, 253
Lorentes, Andreas, 88
Lupus, 253
Luscinius, Ottmar, 24
jacobsthal, 55
Jadassohn,
x,
Lydian (see Modes)

49
Janluys, 35
Jannequin, 35
Je ne
demande, 145
Jespersen, Otto, 96
Macrobius, 9
Josquin (see Prez, Josquin des)
Magnum
haereditatis
mysterium,
147
Major
in
Kerle, Jacob de, 220
Kirnberger,
in final chord,
x, xv, 39,
Kitson, C. H.,
x,
43
ff.,
48
Major
f.
Kontrapunkj.
219,
Krehl, 49
Marcellus
xiii,
124,
f.,
153, 160
Pope, 19
Martini, 52
Marx, A.
(Krehl), 50
Mass, 251
ff.
Krohn, Ilmari, 51
Kunst des reinen Satzes, 44
Kurth, Ernst, xf., 51
Kyrie eleison, 251 ff.
II,
Marenzio, Luca, 34
48, 124
(Bellermann),
Kunstgeschuhtliche
177
thirds, parallel, 100
Marcellus Mass, 136
147
ICodaly, Zoltan, 68
Kompositionslehre
third:
beginning chord, 176
Grundbegriffe,
B.,
48
ff.
parody, 253
text of,
xiii
252
transcription, 253, 261
use of imitation in, 255
Melodies, psalm, 64
ff.
1.
124,
NDEX
300
Melody:
"Night Watch," Rembrandt's,
culmination note
in,
5 ()
Gregorian,
114
in half notes,
permitted in upper voice, 156
(!.
suspension
1.
in
quarter notes, 122
in
stretto,
Nota
Nota
269
286
interval succession in, 86,

in
below cantus firmus, 131
as suspension
In fifth species, 135
the Palestrina style, 83
whole notes, 109

Mclopeo, El, 31
in
xii
Ninth:
95
finalis,
Nunc
fT.
56
initialis,
Notation, 54
188
of, 132,
56
ff.
dimittis, 185
ff.
Mendelssohn, 48
Mensurtdnotenschrift
des,
12.
und
13.
Jahrhunderts, Die, 55
Tahj,zeichen
Mensuralnoten und
und
des 15.
f.,
250
145
Mode,
Modes, ecclesiastical, 59
Modulation, 81
hidden)
112, 176, 203, 219
f.,
parallel, 98, 112
Offertorium, 251
Oktoechos, 59
Ordinarium missae, 251
Organum,
parallel, 4
f.
f.
52
Morris, R. O.,
x,
Motet,
241
ff.
Motives, for imitation, 167

xiii,
f.
Octaves,
(see
flf.
Monteverdi, 34
Mozart,
accented, 117, 126, 287
hidden, 100
Morales, 13
7,
15
as resolution of suspension, 131
ff.
140
difference between scale and, 63
viii,
145
x,
f.,
empty, 14
Missa Brevis, 153, 166, 198

titulo,
covered (see Octaves, hidden)
Missa ad jugatn, 234

Missa sine
Ockeghem,
concealed
Miscellanea musicale, 34, 91
Her odes,
quantus luctus, 168
Octaves:
16. Jahrhunderts, Die, 55
Meters, ternary, 119, 129, 152, 171
Misit
Obrecht, Jacob,
Parallel chords of the sixth, 99
250
Parallel fifths, ix, 98, 112
Musica communa, la, 23

Musica divina, 253
Musica enchiriadis 5
Musica reservata, la, 23
f.,
33
avoided by crossing parts, 99
major
Parallel
thirds, 100
Parallel octaves, 98, 112
Parallel thirds
and
sixths, 112, 158
Parmigiano, Pietro Pontio, 28
Parodiemesse, 253
Penet, Hilaire, 253
Nanini, Bernardino, and Giovanni Maria,
musihalische Theorien
tasien, 148
v,
P ere he
und Phan-
Petit,
musicale,
II,
91
35
Phrygian (see Modes)

Plato, 9, 34
Nichomachus, 9
Nielsen, Carl,
f.
,
Nekes, Franz, 124

Nenna, Pompeo, 34
Neue
Pentatonic, 68
Per augmentationem 235

Per diminutionem, 166, 235
26
69
P or que de
la
musica, El, 88
INDEX
301
Porta Costanzo, 24
Rore, Cipriano de, 34
f.
Portamentodissonanz, 32
Rostagno,
Prattica di musica, 24, 40
Roth, x
Prez, Josquin des, 13, 15, 23, 27, 35, 94,
Rubens,
J.
H.,
vii
xii
Rules of Counterpoint, The, 154
147, 253
Proprium de tempore, 251

Proske, 253
Protus (see Modes)

Prout, x
Saggio fondamentale pratico di contrap-
Ptolemaeus, 9
punto, 52
Pythagoras, 9
Salvum
176
fac,
Sanctus, 251
ff.
Scales, ancient
Greek, 61
Schenker, Heinrich,
Quarter notes, 87
ff.,
119
Schubert, 253
ff.
as accented dissonances, 123
154
in
f.,
143
Second, suspension
ff.
mixed note
values, 135
Quinta Vocalis Liturgica,
f.
148
x,
ff.
vii
Se
of:
in
lower voice, 131
in
upper voice, 132, 188
la face
ay pale, 146
Sequence, 83, 115
Seventh, suspension
in
of,
lower voice,
132, 188
Rameau, 48
Range of voices, 110
Ravn, 29
Seventh degree, raised
in cadence, 110
Six-four chord, 175
f.
Real answer, 164
Sixths, parallel, 112, 158
Re dicta,
Skips:
12
Regis, Johannes, 9
compensation
Rembrandt,
dissonant, 83
xii
120
of, 85,
Renaissance, influence on Palestrina, 83
in half notes, 114
Repercussio, 265
in quarter notes, 87
Repetition of tones, 114, 160, 220
simultaneous, 112, 176
Repleatur os
Res
facta,
meum
.,
119
ff.,
286
cantus firmus and the, 36
Fux and
Rhythm:
in fifth species, 135
in relation to
the,
culmination note, 96
Spem
48
"Sprunggesetz" des Palestrina-Stils
of fugue theme, 269
Stohr, x
Richter, x, 48
Stretto, 167,
f.
Ricourt, 35
248
f.,
Style of Palestrina
Riddle canon, 234
The,
x, xiii, 17, 49,

x,
154
Das, 87
Richafort, Jean, 253
W. C,
f.
in alium, 158
Spitta, Ph.,
269
Riemann, Hugo,
38
Zacconi's use of the, 40
ff.
in 16th century, 83
Rockstro,
f.
Species, xv
laude, 236
1 1
in stretto,
f.
Sibelius, 69
51
ix, 86,
266
and the Dissonance,

93, 144, 154, 155, 185,
214
Super librum can tare,
INDEX
302
Unison:
Surge propera, 96
Suspension:
in
fourth species, 133
in free
IT.
quarter note, 141
in
Sweelinck, 29
counterpoint, 160
second species, 116
Syncopation {see also Suspension)

use oi in fifth species, 141
Text, placing of, 159
Theme, entrance
in three-part counterpoint,
Unit of measure, half note

Ursprung, Otto, 220
11.
Valdc honorandus
est,
137
Verdelot, 35, 253
Third:
Verwere, Johannes de, 8
minor, omitted in cadence, 72
two skips of
a,
Vicentino,
113
19
32,
29,
ft".,
36,
158
167
Thirds, parallel, 112, 158
Victoria, 13, 73
Tigrini, 29, 30
ff.,
176
as, 116, 141
256
f.,
of in fugue, 269
Thesis, 116, 193
Tinctoris, 8
f.
in third species, 125
Vielstimmig, 219
13
ff.
Viri Galilaei, 156, 224
Tonal answer, 164

Tone-painting, 258
Toscanella in musica, 30
Tovey, Donald Francis,
vii, viii
Wagner, Peter, 62
Wagner, Richard, 69
Tr actus, 251
Traite de I'harmonie, 48
Transilvano,
II,
Wert, Giaches de, 34
40
Whole
Transition, 265
note in next to
last
measure:
Triad:
in second species, 114
diminished, in cadence, 178

in third species,
"empty," 177
119
Willaert, Adrian, 20
in three-part counterpoint, 175
ff.
Triple time (see also Meters, ternary),
Wolfflin, Heinrich,
xii
Wolf, Johannes, 55
119
Tu
es Petrus,
224
U
Zacconi, 24, 40
"Ueber einen Brie]
Palestrinas," 101
f.
Zarlino, 16, 20, 25
ft.,
36, 52, 97, 159
f.,
197 3
OCT 2 4
198!
NOV 2 a
m
;
NQV
CAYLORD
Q<TC
333
PRINTED
IN U.S.A.
MUSIC
MT55 J54 K63
1960,
3 5002 00239 5379

Jeppesen, Knud
style
Counterpoint: the polyphonic vocal
Music
MT
55
J54K63
1960

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LIBRARY OF

Digitized by the Internet Archive

Style of the Sixteenth

Douglas Moore, Editor

of the Sixteenth Century

Translated, with an introduction, by

No part of this book may be

original Danish edition was published by Wilhelm Hansen, Copenhagen, 1931

Printed in the United States of America

distinguished teacher and friend

Dr. Jeppesen's Counterpoint

nary textbook, because

style of the sixteenth century.

for the musicological seminar in

ventional treatise on counterpoint by

for classroom use in

teaching modal counterpoint, the logical successor of the old

maintains an unusually happy balance between

affords invaluable mate-

from the con-

freedom from arbitrary

period as a standard of reference.

More and more, thoughtful musicians have come

not teach counterpoint "in general" without inviting endless controversy

sound scholarly research in the music of a great period in the history of

relief to the serious

but perplexed student and

Although the book

erously supplied with musical examples, students should be required to

examine other works of the period

have found the Laudate Puen

collection of sixteenth cen-

See the translator's paper on "Music Research and Modal Counterpoint" in

the Music Educators' National Conference for 1934, pp. 217-222, in

comparison and per-

Romanae, 6 vols., and

School of Music, University of Rochester, 1937).

tury vocal music, edited by

writing two-part motets using the motets of Lassus as

Before beginning three-part writing, students should try

Donald Francis Tovey, very helpful

these sections together.

chief problems in this

the use of imitation, the treatment of the intermediate cadence so as to

avoid too pronounced a rhythmical break, and the construction of a strong

and pleased by such

a simple couplet or quatrain will afford

in the sixteenth century style

studies in the graduate school.

in the second or even

others pursue such

opinion the important point

program and, second,

characteristic of the period

and with respect

be taught so as to give the

dent some insight into the principles of musical

on different grounds, of course.

be introduced but rather,

vary as to the best time to introduce the study of counterpoint

in the curriculum, but in

year of the undergraduate course, while

one of these plans can be