Rizal Technological University

College of Engineering and Industrial Technology

BS in Civil Engineering

Report Outline in
Hydrology
Streamflows

Group 3 Members:
Salamat, Kent John F.
Quejado, Mae Ann B.
Delgado, Mary Joy C.
Gutierrez, Gemma C.
Calata, Glen A.

Chapter 4:RUNOFF
(Reporter: Salamat, Kent John F.)
Introduction
Stream Flow: Gravity movement of water in channels, it may be surface
and subsurface flow which is affected by climate, land cover, soil type, etc.
Watershed: The area of land where all of the water that falls in it and drains
off of it goes to the same place. Watersheds can be as small as a footprint or
large enough to encompass all the land that drains water into rivers that
drain into bays or gulfs, where it may enter the ocean. Larger watersheds
contain many smaller watersheds. It all depends on the outflow point; all of
the land that drains water to the outflow point is the watershed for that
outflow location. Watersheds are important because the stream flow and the
water quality of a river are affected by things, human-induced or not,
happening in the land area "above" the river-outflow point.
4.1. Components of Stream Flow

Terms:
Channel precipitation: The moisture falling directly on the water surface,
and in most streams, it adds very little to discharge.
Overland flow: A flow of thin sheet of water over the land surface,
Subsurface runoff: If there is a relatively impermeable stratum of the
subsoil, the infiltrating water moves laterally in the surface soil and joins the
stream flow.
Stormflow: The runoff of surface water from rainfall.
Base flow: The portion of streamflow that comes from "the sum of deep
subsurface flow and delayed shallow subsurface flow.

When the overland flow starts (due to a storm) some flowing water is held in
puddles, pits and small ponds; this water stored is called depression
storage. The volume of water in transit in the overland flow which has not
yet reached the stream channel is called surface detention or detention
storage. The portion of runoff in a rising flood in a stream, which is absorbed
by the permeable boundaries of the stream above the normal phreatic
surface is called bank storage.
4.2. Catchment Characteristics

The entire area of a river basin whose surface runoff (due to a storm) drains
into the river in the basin is considered as a hydrologic unit and is called
drainage basin, watershed or catchment area of the river flowing. The
boundary line, along a topographic ridge, separating two adjacent drainage
basins is called drainage divide. The single point or location at which all
surface drainage from a basin comes together or concentrates as outflow
from the basin in the stream channel is called concentration point or
measuring point, since the stream outflow is usually measured at this
point. The time required for the rain falling at the most distant point in a
drainage area to reach the concentration point is called the concentration
time. This is a very significant variable since only such storms of duration
greater than the time of concentration will be able to produce runoff from the
entire catchment area and cause high intensity floods.
Characteristics of the Drainage
Net

Number of Streams
Length of Streams

Stream Density
Drainage Density

The stream density of a drainage

basin is expressed as the number
of streams per square kilometer.
N
D s= s
A

where:
Density
Ns streams
A-

Ds -

Stream

Number of
Area of the Basin

Drainage density is expressed as the total length of all stream channels

(perennial and intermittent) per unit area of the basin and serves as an index
of the areal channel development of the basin
L
Dd = s
A
where:

Ls =Total Length of all the Stream Channels in the

basin
Drainage density varies inversely as the length of overland flow and
indicates the drainage efficiency of the basin. A high value indicates a welldeveloped network and torrential runoff causing intense floods while a low
value indicates moderate runoff and high permeability of the terrain
Total Fall of the longest water course
Ave . Stream Slope=
Length of the longest water course
Horton has suggested a method of determining the slope of large
drainage areas, i.e., the area is subdivided into a number of square grids of
equal size. The number of contours crossed by each subdividing line is
counted and the lengths of the grid lines are scaled. Then the slope of the
basin is given by
15 ( CI ) N c
S=
total length of the sbdividing lines
where:

S = slope of the basin

CI = contour interval
Nc= number of contours crossed by all the
subdividing lines
The boundary line along a topographic ridge, separating two adjacent
drainage basins is called the drainage divide. The line of the ground water
table from which the water table slopes downward away from the line on
both sides, is called the ground water divide.
The shape of a drainage basin can generally be expressed by:
A. FORM FACTOR
Ff=

Wb A
= where A=W bL b
Lb L2b
where:

Wb = axial width of basin

Lb = axial length of basin, i.e., the distance from the

measuring point (MP) to the most remote point
on the basin.
B. COMPACTNESS COEFFICIENT
Pb
C c=
2 A
where:

Pb = perimeter of the basin

2 A = circumference of circular area, which equals

the area of the

basin.
The compactness coefficient is independent of the size of the catchment and
is dependent only on the slope. A fan-shaped catchment produces greater
flood intensity since all the tributaries are nearly of the same length and
hence the time of concentration is nearly the same and is less, whereas in
the fern-shaped catchments, the time of concentration is more and the
discharge is distributed over a long period

(Reporter: Quejado, Mae Ann B.)

4.3 Mean and Median Elevation
Mean elevation is determined as the weighted average of elevations
between two adjacent contours.
Zb=

a1 z1
a1

where
zb = mean elevation of the drainage basin
a1, a2 = areas between the successive contours of the basin
z1, z2 = mean elevations between the two successive contours
a1 = A = area of the basin
4.4 Classification of Streams
Streams may be classified as:

Influent and Effluent streams

o If the GWT is below the bed of the stream, the seepage from the
stream feeds the ground-water resulting in the buildup of water
mound. Such streams are called influent streams.
o When the GWT is above water surface elevation in the stream,
the ground water feeds the stream. Such streams are called
effluent streams.
o Irrigation channels function as influent streams and many rivers
which cross desert areas do so. Such streams will dry up
completely in rainless period and are called ephemeral
streams.
Intermittent and perennial streams
o If the GWT lies above the bed of the stream during the wet
season but drops below the bed during the dry season, the
stream flows during wet season (due to surface runoff and
ground water contribution) but becomes dry during dry seasons.
Such streams are called intermittent streams.
o In the case of perennial streams, even in the most severe
droughts, the GWT never drops below the bed of the stream and
therefore they flow throughout the year. For power development
a perennial stream is the best; power can also be generated from
intermittent streams by providing adequate storage facilities.
Additional:
Mechanisms that cause changes in streamflow
Rivers are always moving, which is good for environment, as stagnant water
does not stay fresh and inviting very long. There are many factors, both
natural and human-induced, that cause rivers to continuously change:
Natural mechanisms
1. Runoff from rainfall and
snowmelt
2. Evaporation from soil and
surface-water bodies
3. Transpiration by vegetation
4. Ground-water discharge from
aquifers
5. Ground-water recharge from
surface-water bodies
6. Sedimentation of lakes and
wetlands
7. Formation or dissipation of
glaciers, snowfields, and
permafrost

Human-induced mechanisms
1. Surface-water withdrawals
and transbasin diversions
2. River-flow regulation for
hydropower and navigation
3. Construction, removal, and
sedimentation of reservoirs
and stormwater detention
ponds
4. Stream channelization and
levee construction
5. Drainage or restoration of
wetlands

6. Land-use changes such as

urbanization that alter rates
of erosion, infiltration,
overland flow, or
evapotranspiration
(Reporter: Delgado, Mary Joy C.)
4.6. Factors Affecting Runoff

7. Wastewater outfalls
8. Irrigation wastewater return
flow

Shape
Altitude (elevation)
Topography
Geology (type of soil)
Land use / vegetation
Orientation
Type of drainage net
Proximity to ocean and
mountain ranges
Storage Characteristics
o Depressions
o Pools and ponds/lakes
o Stream
o Channels

o Check dams (in gullies)

o Upstream reservoir or
tanks
o Flood plains, swamps
o Ground water storage
Basin Characteristics
in pervious deposits
o Size
(aquifers)
Low intensity storms over longer spells contribute to ground water
storage and produce relatively less runof, while high intensity
storms increase the runof.
Storm Characteristics
o Type or nature of storm
and season
o Intensity
o Duration
o Areal extent
(distribution)
o Frequency
o Antecedent
precipitation
o Direction of storm
movement
Meteorological
characteristics
o Temperature
o Humidity
o Wind Velocity
o Pressure variation

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Greater humidity decreases evaporation. Snow storage greatly

increases the runof.

Peak runoff decreases as the catchment area increases. Steep

rocky catchments with less vegetation will produce more runof
compared to flat tracts with more vegetation.

4.7

Yield of Catchment: Net quantity of water available for storage, after

all losses, for the purpose of water resources utilization and planning.

Estimation of Runoff

Maximum Flow Discharge: The discharge in times of flooding of the

catchment area.

Runoff estimation method

1. Empirical formulae, curves and tables

o R = aP + b (straight line plot since it is a linear equation)
o R = aPn (exponential curve)
2. Infiltration method
o By deducting the infiltration loss from the total precipitation
o By the use of infiltration indices
o The derived values are applicable only when the rainfall
characteristics and the initial soil moisture conditions are
identical to those for these are derived.
3. Rational method
o Yield of catchment = (Runoff Coefficient) (Area of Catchment)
(Precipitation)
ciA
Q p=
o
3.6 for Philippines

o The drainage area is divided into a number of sub-areas and with

the known times of concentration for different subareas the
runoff contribution from each area is determined.
4. Overland flow hydrograph

o Overland Flow: Occurs as a thin sheet of water over the ground

surface joins a stream channel, and then flows in the channel to
the concentration point.
5. Unit hydrograph method
o The hydrograph of direct surface discharge measured at the
outlet of the drainage area, which provides a unit depth of direct
runoff resulting from a unit storm of specified duration.

Theory of Unit Hydrograph

The net rainfall is of uniform intensity within its duration
The net rainfall uniformly occurs over the entire area of the
drainage basin.
For a given drainage basin, the base period of the
hydrographs of direct runoff corresponding to net rains of
different intensities but same unit duration, is constant
The ordinates of direct runoff hydrographs due to net rains of
different intensities (but same unit duration) are proportional.
A unit hydrograph reflects all the physical characteristics of
the basin.
6. Coaxial Graphical Correlation and API
Additional:
Relationship to the environment
Runoff of water in channels is responsible for transport of sediment,
nutrients, and pollution downstream. Without streamflow, the water in
a given watershed would not be able to naturally progress to its final
destination in a lake or ocean. This would disrupt the ecosystem.
Streamflow is one important route of water from the land to lakes and
oceans.
Relationship to society
Streamflow confers on society both benefits and hazards. Runoff
downstream is a means to collect water for storage in dams for power
generation of water abstraction. The flow of water assists transport
downstream. A given watercourse has a maximum streamflow rate
that can be accommodated by the channel, and which can be
calculated. If the streamflow exceeds this maximum rate, as happens
when an excessive amount of water is present in the watercourse, the
channel cannot handle all the water and flooding occurs

(Reporter: Gutierrez, Gemma C.)

Chapter 6:STREAM GAUGING
6.1. Methods of Measuring Stream Flow
A gauging station is the place or section on a stream where
discharge measurements are made. Some of the usual methods of
stream gauging are given below:

1. Venturiflumes or standing
wave flumes (critical depth
meter) for small channels.
2. Weirs or anicuts:
Q = CLH3/2
where Q = stream discharge
C = coefficient of weir
L = length of weir (or anicut)
H = head (depth of flow) over
the weircrest
3. Slope-area method:
Q = AV
V = CRS Chezy
1
V = R 2/ 3 S1 /2 Manning
n
Chezys C

1
R1 /6
n

, R =A/P

where
C = Chezys constant
N = Mannings coefficient of
roughness
R = hydraulic mean radius
A = cross-sectional area of flow
P = wetted perimeter
S = water surface slope (= bed
slope)
4. Contracted area methods:
The drop in water surface in
contracted sections as in bridge
openings, canal falls etc. is
measured and the discharge is
approximately given by
Q = Cd A1 [2g (h + ha)]
where Cd = coefficient of
discharge

A1 = area of the most

contracted section
h = difference in water surface
between the upstream and
downstream ends (of the pier)
ha = head due to the velocity of
approach.
5. Sluiceways, spillways and
power conduits. The flow
through any of the outlets in a
dam or the sum of the flows
through these gives the
discharge at any time.
6. Salt-concentration method.
The discharge is determined by
introducing a chemical,
generally common salt, at a
known constant rate into
flowing water and determining
the quantity of chemical in the
stream at a section downstream
sufficiently distant to ensure
thorough mixing of the chemical
with water. The discharge,
Q = q[(c-c2)/(c2-c1)]
where q = quantity of solution
injected (cc/sec)
c = amt. of salt in dosing
solution (gm/cc)
c1 = concentration of salt
originally (before dosing) in the
stream (gm/cc)
c2 = concentration of salt in the
sample downstream (gm/cc)
7. Area-velocity methods: Q =
AV

6.2. Current Meter Gaugings

The current meter is an instrument, which has a rotating element
which when placed in flowing
water, the speed of revolutions has a definite relation with the velocity
of flow past the element.
Types of current meters:
Pigmy current meter, whose cup vane assembly is about 5 cm in
diameter and is used for measuring velocities in streams of depth 15
cm or less
The cup type, which consists of a wheel with conical cups revolving on
a vertical axis
The screw or propeller type consisting of vanes revolving on a
horizontal axis.
Rating of the Current Meter
The process of calibration of the meter is called rating of the current
meter. The relationship between the revolutions per second (N, rps) of
the meter and the velocity of flow past the meter (v, m/sec) has to be
first established, or if the rating equation is given by the maker, it has
to be verified.
Stage-Discharge-Rating Curve
Once the rating equation of the current meter is known, actual stream
gauging can be done from bridges, cradle, boat or launch. The mean
depth (d) at the center of each strip is determined by sounding. The
revolutions made by the meter in a known time at the appropriate
depths are noted by an ear phone (connected through a wire to the
penta or monocounter of the meter and the other to a dry cell) from
which the velocities at the appropriate depths are determined.

6.4. Selection of Site for a Stream Gauging Station

Factors to be considered in selecting a site for a stream gauging
station:
1. The section should be straight and uniform for a length of about 10
to 20 times the width of the stream.
2. The bed and banks of the stream should be firm and stable so as to
ensure consistency of area-discharge relationship, i.e., the cross
section should not be subjected to change by silting or scouring, during
different stages of flow; a smooth rock, shingle or clay bed is favorable,
while a fine sandy bed is unfavorable.
3. The bed and banks should be free from vegetal growth, boulders or
other obstructions like bridge piers, etc.
4. There should be no larger overflow section at flood stage. The best
cross section is one with V-shape, so that there is sufficient depth for
immersing the current meter without being affected by the bed
roughness of the stream.
5. The part of the reach having the most regular transverse section and
steady flow with the current normal to the metering section and
velocities in the range of 0.31.2 m/sec should be selected.
6. To ensure consistency between stage and discharge, there should be
a good control section far downstream of the gauging site. This control
may be in the form of steep rapids, large rocky boulders, restricted
passages, crest of weirs or anicuts etc.
7. The sites above the confluence of rivers are best avoided if the flow
is affected by back water conditions due to the varying discharges in
the tributaries.
8. The stream gauging station should be easily accessible.
(Reporter: Calata, Glen A.)

Chapter 5:HYDROGRAPHS

A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus

time past a specific point in a river, or other channel or conduit
carrying flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or
cubic feet per second (cms or cfs).

A hydrograph is a graph showing stage, discharge, velocity, or other

properties of water flow with respect to time. In simplest definition it is
a graphical representation of runoff rate against time.

Importance of Hydrograph:

1. Hydrographs are important for forecasting floods, as they are able to

tell authorities the time they have until flooding occurs, the severity of
the flood and the area that could possibly be affected. It enables us to
act towards either prevention or to escape the scene without harm.
2. The development of flood hydrographs for extreme rainfall magnitudes
(for use in the design of hydraulic structures)
3. Extension of flood flow records based on rainfall records

Types of hydrograph can include:

1. Natural Hydrograph is one recorded at a stream gaging site and
is a finger-print of the upstream drainage areas response to rainfall.
2. Unit Hydrograph is a natural or synthetic hydrograph
representing one inch of runoff, uniformly from the watershed
during a specified time.
3. Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph is a generic combination of
many natural unit hydrographs.
4. Synthetic Hydrographs is calculated based on watershed and
storm characteristics. Synthetic hydrographs are used to simulate
natural hydrographs for ungaged watersheds.
5. Dam Breach Hydrograph represents the sudden release of
water from the impoundment due to a breach, followed by the
draining of the reservoir.

Rising limb: The rising limb of hydro graph, also known as

concentration curve, reflects a prolonged increase in discharge from a
catchment area, typically in response to a rainfall event

Recession (or falling) limb: The recession limb extends from the
peak flow rate onward. The end of stormflow (aka quickflow or direct
runoff) and the return to groundwater-derived flow (base flow) is often
taken as the point of inflection of the recession limb. The recession
limb represents the withdrawal of water from the storage built up in
the basin during the earlier phases of the hydrograph.

Peak discharge: the highest point on the hydro graph when the rate
of discharge is greatest

Lag time: the time interval from the center of mass of rainfall excess
to the peak of the resulting hydrograph

Time to peak: time interval from the start of the resulting hydro
graph

Discharge: the rate of flow (volume per unit time) passing a specific
location in a river or other channel

Baseflow (also called drought flow, groundwater recession flow,

low flow, low-water flow, low-water discharge and sustained or
fair-weather runoff) is the portion of streamflow that comes from

"the sum of deep subsurface flow and delayed shallow subsurface

flow". It should not be confused with groundwater flow.