TRIBOLOGY

Friction Wear & Lubrication

Friction
z

Definition

z
z

Wastes Energy
Good

Bad

Resistance to Motion

Types
Dry Friction
Boundary friction
Fluid Friction

Tires and brakes

Air Resistance, Poor Bearings
Traian CICONE

1/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Wear
z

Definition
Progressive loss or redistribution of material from the
surface of solid bodies

Gradual Removal of Surface Material

Usually Undesirable
Basis of Some Machining Operations (e.g. Grinding)

Wear Mechanisms
Adhesive/Abrasion
Abrasive/Abrasion
Contact Surface Fatigue
Oxidation/Chemical Reactions
Fretting
Galling

Traian CICONE

2/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Wear variation in time

Wear
Wear intensity
Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 3

Wear

Wear intensity

Failure rate
t

t1

t2

Run-in

Normal operation

Traian CICONE

t3

3/29

Out-of-work

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Lubrication
Prevention of metal to metal contact by means of an intervening
layer of fluid or fluid like material
z
z

Lubrication
Lubricants (gas, liquids, greases solids/powder, special)
Mercury, alcohol, aqueous (poor lubricants & good coolant)
Gas (better lubricant)
Petroleum lubricants or lubricating oil (best)

Viscosity
Resistance to flow
Lubricating oils have wide variety of viscosities
Varies with temperature & pressure (sensitive if p > 200 bar)

Onctuosity (Lubricity)

Environmental considerations
Additives

Adhere to solid surfaces

z

(EP, VI improver, anti-oxidant, anti-foaming, etc)

Hydrocarbon Based Oils/ Natural Oils/ Synthetics

Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

4/29

Tribological PAIR
Type of Motion

Environment

Load

sliding
rolling

Relative
motion

spinning (pivoting)

Type of Contact

Engineering
surface

Traian CICONE

5/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Alternative Solutions for PAIRS

Main classes

Relative motion
Nature of contact

Higher

Lower

Rotating or
partly rotating and partly sliding
Counterformal (Nonconformal)

Sliding
Conformal

Contact

Concentrated contact
Elastic (Hertzian) mode on the footprints

Material combination

Hard against hard

Soft against hard

(Case-hardened or through-hardened steel)

(Conformal bearing material against steel)

Type of lubrication

Elastohydrodynamic (EHD or EHL)

Boundary or dry friction

Hydrodynamic (HD)
Hydrostatic (HS)
Boundary or dry friction

Predominant wear

Fatigue wear (Pitting)

Adhesive or/and Abrasive

Geometry of contact

Point

Line

Curved surface

Flat surface

Example of machine
elements

Ball bearings

Spur gears
Cams

Screw threads
Journal bearings

Slideways
Mechanical face
seal

Traian CICONE

6/29

Dispersed contact
Plastic mode on the total area of
asperities in contact.

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Nature of Metallic Surface

Dust particle
(110m)

Environment or
Lubricant

Contaminants
(Boundary layer)

Oxide layer

Friction and/or
manufacture
force

Deformed layer

10100m

Base bulk material

(Normal crystalline
structure)

Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

7/29

Nature of Metallic Surface

=
Actual surface profile

Error of form

Waviness

Roughness

Stylus radius < 2m

200

200

200

equal magnifications
Traian CICONE

20

unequal magnifications
8/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Surface Topography
Surface obtained by turning

Ground Surface

Traian CICONE

9/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Asperities Contact
B
Nominal Area
An=BL
L

Aparent Area,
Aa

Traian CICONE

Real Area

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

10/29

Contact aria
contact pressure
distribution

F
p
r1
2a

H
B
2a

r2
footprint

a=2

2 Fr

BE

p=

2F

aB

x
1
a

p max = H =

Traian CICONE

-a

F
= H
2aB 4

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Contact aria
p
a

max =const.

Linear
contact

0.304 H

Point
contact

0.33 H

Depth
0.786 a
0.638 a

Ff=0.5F

-a

z0=0.79a

Max. shear
stress

Traian CICONE

pm =

11/29

2F

aB

Max. normal
stress
FE
2 B r

H =2
H =

12/29

3F E 2
2r 2

max = const.

Footprint
width
a =2
a=3

2F r

BE
3F r
2E

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Friction
z
z

Force Is Required
Static Friction

Coulomb model

Also Need to Add Inertia

z

F f = Fn

Kinetic Friction
Usually the Most Important

Cause of Friction

st 2 k

Adhesion Theory
Abrasion Theory
z

Adhesive

Wear Mechanisms

Usually Bad
From Friction Bonding
Reduced by Using Dissimilar Materials (Nylon Bearings, Watch Jewels)
z

Abrasive
Usually Controlled/Desired - e.g. Grinding

Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

13/29

Adhesion Theory - Microwelding

HARD
Metal
Transfer

2
3

SOFT

Wear
Particles

Relates to the Contacting Surfaces

Contact Only with Asperities

z
z

VERY Small Fraction of Contact Area

Large Concentration of the Normal Force
Plastic Deformation

Bonding

Need to Break the Bonds to Move

Most Bond Theories Are Too High
Traian CICONE

14/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

WEAR - Transfer of material

z

Conformal Contacts

Adhesion

High speed and/or high load

Poor lubrication
High Temperature
z

Solutions against
HARD/SOFT Materials
Dissimilar materials
Lubrication
Cooling
Speed reduction
Roughness reduction

Traian CICONE

15/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Laws of WEAR

Q=K

F
H

Kg m 3 m
,
,

m m
m

H Hardness
K Experimental constant

1. The volume of material worn is proportional to the

sliding distance.
2. The volume of material worn is proportional to the
load.
3. The volume of material worn is inversely
proportional to the hardness of the softer material.

Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

16/29

Abrasion
Load
Relative
motion

2
3

Two-body Abrasion
z

Three-body Abrasion

Conformal & (rarely) Nonconformal Contacts

Solutions against
HARD/SOFT Materials
Lubrication
Adequate sealing
Adequate filtering

Contaminated environment (dust)

Poor lubrication/Old lubricant

Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

17/29

Abrasion
r

h
L

Traian CICONE

18/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Surface Contact Fatigue (Pitting)

inclusion

micro-crack

Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

19/29

Surface Contact Fatigue (Pitting)

z

Gears

Non-conformal Contacts only

High contact loads
Lubricated contact
Relative motion
High speed of evolution

Rolling Bearings
Cams

Solutions against

Durability Law

Hardened Surfaces (HARD on HARD)

High viscosity lubricants
Small relative velocity
Lapped Surfaces (low roughness)

Traian CICONE

LF 3 = const

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

20/29

Lubrication

Oils
= 0 e (T T0 )

Dynamic viscosity [Pa.s]

10

G lycerin

M ineral o il
ISO -V G 220

0.1

M ineral o il
ISO -V G 32
0 .01

M ercury
0.0 01

W ater

0 .00 01

Air
0 .000 01
0

20

Traian CICONE

60

80

Fluid Film
Large Gap Filled with a Fluid
NO Surface Contact
Requires Combinations of:
High Relative Surface Speeds
Higher Viscosity (Usually)
Lower Normal Forces (Usually)

40

T em p erature [ C ]

Theoretically no solid-to-solid contact

FLUID FILM Hydraulics prevails
21/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

100

Lubrication Fluid Film

z

HYDRODYNAMIC (HD), or SELF-ACTING.

Tangential motion wedge effect
Normal motion squeeze effect
p
p

F
Q

h(t)
Q

U
V
Traian CICONE

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

22/29

Lubrication
EXTERNALLY PRESSURIZED also called HYDROSTATIC (HS)
p

pb
x

Supply
lubricant

F
h
Q

Q
hb>>h

POCKET

Q, pb

Traian CICONE

23/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Fluid Film Parameters

Load capacity, F
z
Rate of flow (volumetric) required to operate, Q
z
Power loss (power required to drive the sliding
member), Pf
z
Effective temperature of the lubricant, T.
z

Functions of Engine Oil

z
z
z
z
z
z

Lubrication, thus reducing friction

Cools various engine parts
Seals the combustion chamber
Cleans the engine
Aids in preventing corrosion
Serves as a cushion between impacting parts

Traian CICONE

24/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Stribeck experiment
Friction
I

IV

Stribeck experiments

II

III

Relative speed
EHD Lubrication
Conformal contacts:
Low contact pressure

Boundary lubrication

Regime I

Non-conformal contacts:
High contact pressure

Extreme Pressure lubrication

Mixed lubrication

Regime II
Regime III

HydroDynamic (HD) lubrication

Regime IV

Superlaminar flow

Traian CICONE

ElastoHydroDynamic (EHD)
lubrication
_

25/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Lubrication - Alternatives
z

Boundary Lubrication
Adhering Films in the Lubricant
Lower Pressures and Temperatures Only
Wear reduced several orders of magnitude
Friction reduced un-significantly

Solid Lubrication - Special applications space industry

Prevents Contact Between Surfaces
Low Coef. of Friction and Shear Strength
Good for High Pressures and Temps.

Traian CICONE

26/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

DRY FRICTION
Solid-to-solid
contact
Technical clean surfaces
Perfectly clean surfaces
(vacuum)

a)
b)

No Lubrication

Use the Right Materials

Very Smooth Surfaces

Low Speeds and Pressures

Traian CICONE

27/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Characteristics of Lubrication Systems

z
z

z
z

z
z
z

Pressure Lubrication
Splash Lubrication and Combination Systems
In a pressure lubrication system, a mechanical pump supplies oil
under pressure to the bearings
Oil flows into the inlet of the pump through the pump and into an
oil manifold which distributes it to the crankshaft bearings

Although pressure lubrication is the principle method of lubrication

on all aircraft engines, some engines use splash lubrication also
Splash lubrication is never used by itself
All lubrication systems are pressure systems or combination
pressure/splash systems

Traian CICONE

28/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II

Ways for Reducing Friction & Wear

z

Use Proper Materials

Harder Surfaces
Reduced Adhesion

Smoother Surfaces
Reduced Adhesion
With Lubrication, Maybe Not

Specific Treatments of Surfaces

Harder Surfaces

Traian CICONE

29/29

mart. 2006 ME&M- II