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(Governs)
The value of the factored resistance, Tr = 1249 kN, can now be compared with
the effect of the factored loads in the member under consideration. It should also be
noted that the yield point of this steel was taken to be 300 MPa. In fact, the yield
strength of plates is a function of thickness. Table 4 of Appendix A shows that the
yield strength for Grade 300W steel is 300 MPa for plate thicknesses up to 65 mm.
Since the plate thickness used in this example is 25 mm, the assumption used here is
valid.
This example will not be used to investigate the possible block shear failure.
That will be illustrated later.
A ne = [ 200 ( 22 + 4 ) ] mm 25 mm = 4350 mm2
802
2
A ne = 200 2 ( 22 + 4 ) +
mm 25 mm = 4048 mm
4
115
53
Transverse
spacing or
gauge, g
1,2
Stagger or pitch, s
The capacity of this member can now be established. Since the plate thickness
involved is less than 65 mm, the yield strength of the Grade 300W material is 300
MPa. Checking Equations 3.1 and 3.2 gives, respectively,
Tr = 0.90 5000 mm2 300 N / mm2 = 1350 103 N,
or
The capacity based on the yield criterion (Equation 3.1) governs, and the
factored resistance of this member (1350 kN) can now be compared with the effect
of the factored loads.
In some instances, a member may be connected by using fasteners in more than
one plane. If the fasteners are staggered, such as those shown in Figure 3.10, the
usual procedure is to develop the cross-section into an equivalent flat plate by
revolving about the centrelines of the component parts. The critical net section can
then be established by the procedure described for plates. An illustration of the
calculations involved is given in Example 3.3.
54
3.7
Design Examples
The preceding sections have set out the basis of design of tension members. As
has been noted, one of the main criteria affecting the design will be the connection
details. If the end connection is to be made using welds, there generally is no
resulting reduction in cross-section and, if there is no shear lag reduction to be
made, the design of the member can proceed directly. When bolts are to be used,
however, the design of the member is influenced by the amount of material removed
in making the connection. In turn, the design of the connection itself cannot proceed
without a knowledge of the shape to be used. As with most design problems, the
engineer must work in a trial and error fashion until all relevant aspects have been
satisfied.
Example 3.1
Given
Design the tension diagonal of an all-welded Pratt roof truss in which the chords
are made from WT 265 61.5 sections (see Figure 3.11). The factored load ( Tf ) in
the member under consideration is 630 kN and its length is 4 m. Use G40.21 300W
steel ( Fy = 300 MPa, Fu = 450 MPa).
Section 1-1
P = 630 kN
WT 265 x 61.5
P = 630 kN
Since welded end connections will be used, the net and gross areas of the
cross-section will be equal (A). Examination of Equations 3.1 and 3.2 gives
Tr = A Fy = 0.90 300 MPa A = 270 A
or,
55
630 103 N
= 2333 mm2
270 MPa
As shown in Figure 3.11, it will be convenient to use a pair of angles, one welded
on each side of the WT. Since there is no reduction in member area due to a physical
hole, the only reduction that may be required is for shear lag, depending on the
configuration of the welds. From the CISC Handbook, try 2 76 64 9.5 angles,
long legs back to back. The area provided by two angles is 2480 mm2 and rmin =
13.3 mm for one angle (see Handbook, Part 6).
In order to determine if shear lag reductions apply, it is necessary to know the
configuration of the weld. It will be assumed here that the 76 mm leg will be welded
to the stem of the WT by a 120 mm long weld on the toe of the angle and by a 250
mm long weld along the heel of the 76 mm leg, as illustrated in Figure 3.11.
(Proportioning of the welds is covered in Chapter 9).
Considering the long leg first, the average weld length, L is (120 + 250)/2 = 185
mm. Since 185 is more than twice the leg width of 76 mm, it is not necessary to
make a reduction for shear lag (Equation 3.8b). Thus, for the connected leg we have
A n2 = 1.00 (76 9.5) mm 9.5 mm = 632 mm2
For the outstanding leg, the eccentricity of this element, e, is 64/2 = 32 mm and
L = 250 mm. Using Equation 3.8(e), the effective area of this leg is
A n3 = (1
32
) 64 mm 9.5 mm = 530 mm2
250
Finally, using Equation 3.9, the effective net area (for one angle) is
A ne = 632 mm2 + 530 mm2 = 1162 mm2
The governing value is 670 kN and we note that this is still > 630 kN.
Although there was a reduction for shear lag in this case, it was not large
enough to influence the selection of the member. In other cases, either a new
member size must be tried or a different weld arrangement used.
The radius of gyration, 13.3 mm, is the radius of gyration about the zaxis. Since
it has not been identified that the angles are interconnected along their length, the
least radius of gyration of one angle must be used in the slenderness ratio
calculation. Thus
56
630 103 N
= 2333 mm2
270 MPa
Try 2 102 76 11 angles, long legs back to back. From the CISC Handbook,
A g = 3710 mm2 for the pair and rmin = rz = 16.3 mm . Since the area provided is
greater than that required, it is obvious that the member selected will be
satisfactory if Equation 3.1 governs the design.
In order to check Equation 3.2 or 3.3, the effective net area must be calculated.
Since angles with leg sizes less than 125 mm can accommodate fasteners along only
one gauge line (Table 5 of Appendix A), the arrangement of fasteners must be like
that shown in the figure. (The bolt spacing shown meets the requirements of S16.)
Assume that at least three bolts will be required.
The two possible ways in which the angles can tear from the gusset plate are
indicated in Figure 3.12. Section 11 shows that one possibility is a tear that extends
across the connected leg (passing through the hole) and then moves up through the
unconnected leg. In this case, it is easier to simply deduct the area of one hole from
the gross area of the angle than to apply Equation 3.4. Thus, for Section 11
A n = 3710 mm2 [ ( 20 + 4 ) mm 11 mm ] 2 holes (one each angle)
= 3182 mm2
Since this calculation includes both area that is directly connected and
unconnected area (the outstanding leg of the angle), Equation 3.7 must be used to
calculate the effective net area reduced for shear lag, A ne . An angle connected by
one leg and containing three transverse lines of fasteners will fall under the
provisions of Equation 3.7(c). Therefore, the effective net area of Section 11
reduced for shear lag is
A ne = 0.60 3182 mm2 = 1909 mm2
Section 22 indicates a block shear failure mode with tearing of the connected
leg of the angle across to the first hole in combination with shear yielding down the
length of the angle. This condition was described by Equation 3.10. For one angle,
the net tensile area is
A n = [ 35 0.5 ( 20 + 4) ) ] mm 11 mm = 253 mm2 ,
58
For two angles, the block shear capacity is 864 kN, which is greater than the
applied member force. Note that no adjustment for shear lag is necessary for the
block shear failure mode since the failure plane is entirely in the connected leg.
Since the capacity calculated for tensile fracture along (Section 11) was only
657 kN, the governing factored resistance is the latter, i.e., 657 kN.
Recall that the member was selected on the basis of Equation 3.1, using the
factored load of 630 kN. Obviously, Equation 3.1 is satisfied. Since the calculated
factored resistance of 657 kN is larger than the factored load of 630 kN, the selected
member is satisfactory.
Finally, checking the slenderness ratio
max
L 4000 mm
=
= 245 < 300
r 16.3 mm
(Satisfactory)
Use 2 102 76 11 angles, long legs back-to-back, as shown. (If the number of
bolts finally selected is different than the three assumed, then the calculations must
be reviewed.)
Example 3.3
Given
The lower chord of a large truss consists of two C310 45 sections tied across
the flanges with lacing bars. The critical section of the chord occurs just outside a
panel point, where it is necessary to splice the member. As shown in Figure 3.13,
both web and flange splice plates are provided to transfer the forces from one side
of the member to the other. Determine the factored tensile resistance of the
channels if the fasteners are 22 mm diameter and G40.21 350A steel is used
throughout. (Use Tables 3 and 4 of Appendix A to establish that Fy = 350 MPa, Fu =
480 MPa.)
Solution
59
when a column buckles in the inelastic range, the initial motion is accompanied by
an increase in load [4.4]. Thus, the strain distribution is actually that shown in
Figure 4.9(b), with all elements of the cross-section subjected to an increase in
compressive strain.
sy
ey
et
er + ea
(a)
(b)
The load vs. deformation curve for the initially straight column is shown in
Figure 4.10, where the applied stress is plotted against the midspan deformation. As
the member continues to deform in its buckled shape, the load increases to its
maximum value and then drops off. During this process the cross-section continues
to yield. The maximum stress is not much greater than the stress at the instant of
buckling.
76
d
T
= 0.41
dx
GJ
( SV )max = G t
d
Tt
= 0.41
dx
J
The pure torsion stress is a function of the plate thickness, t, and will therefore
be different in the flanges and in the web. The maximum St. Venant shear stress,
SV , in the flanges is
( SV )max = 0.41
= 26.7 MPa
( SV )max = 0.41
= 16.3 MPa
The variation and magnitude of the shear stresses at the supports are shown in
Figure 5.22. The most significant shear stresses are the St. Venant shear stresses.
Because these stresses are maximum at the supports and zero at midspan, they
cannot simply be added to the normal stresses calculated above. The normal
stresses were calculated at midspan, where they are maximum. Since the shear
stresses are usually small and because the maximum shear stresses do not occur at
the same cross-section as the maximum normal stresses, it is common practice to
ignore the shear stresses when checking the cross-section for yielding.
0.50
0.40
mL = 6.0
4.0
0.30
3.0
0.20
2.0
0.10
df G J
dx T
0.00
1.0
0.5
1.5
-0.10
-0.20
-0.30
-0.40
-0.50
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
150
1.0
Example 9.5
Given
Design the corner connection between a column and a beam, both of which are
W410 60 sections of G40.21 350W steel ( Fy = 350 MPa ). Use E49xx electrodes.
(The notation of Figure 9.22 will be followed and details of the welding selected will
be shown in Figure 9.23.) The beam is to act as a Class 2 section. The behaviour of
the column will depend on the magnitude of the axial force.
60
60
10
10
30
13
350
350
15
15
C
13
5
5
6
6
350
40-100
40-100
W410x60
D
13
W410x60
Welds shown for near
side; far side same.
The connection will be designed to carry the factored moment on the section,
which has been determined to be 375 kN m . The effects of the axial thrust and
shear on the connection web can be neglected. These are small and are of the
opposite sign to shears produced by the moment. The factored shear in the column,
needed for the design of the weld between the column web and beam flange, is
680 kN.
The web thickness required, using Equation 9.14 is
w=
375 106
1
0.90 350 7.7 407
2
= 1578 mm
0.90 350 0.707 407
3
Provide 789 mm2 in each of two stiffeners, one on each side of the beam web.
324
280 kN
= 15.0 mm
0.156 kN/mm 120 mm
This is a large fillet weld and it has to be placed into a confined space. The
advantage provided by Equation 9.12b for a weld transverse to the direction of load
will be invoked. For = 90D , the increase is a factor of 1.5. Thus, the strength used in
the calculation above can be increased from 0.156 kN/mm to 0.234 kN/mm .
Noting that a matching electrode is used (E49XX electrode with 350W base metal),
the strength of the base metal need not be considered. Recalculation of the leg size
required gives 15.0 0.156/0.234 = 10.0 mm. Use 10 mm.
Finally, transferring the 280 kN force from either end of stiffener AD into the
beam web can be done by means of a fillet weld along its length of approximately
490 mm. Thus, the length available for welding along the sides of a single stiffener at
AD is 2 490 = 980 mm. Using a continuous weld of even the smallest permissible
size, 5 mm, results in a great deal more capacity than required. Therefore, an
intermittent fillet weld of 5 mm leg size will be tried, using the minimum
permissible weld length of 40 mm. (CSA W59 should be consulted for minimum
fillet weld lengths.) A centre-to-centre spacing of 100 mm will meet the
requirements of S16 Clause 19.1.3(b) and will provide a resistance of
Vr =
0.156 kN 5 mm 40 mm
= 0.312 kN / mm
100 mm
280 kN
= 0.286 kN/mm
980 mm
(Satisfactory)
327
Cladding
Girt
Inner
flange
(a)
(b)
Sag rod
(c)
For low buildings, the NBC prescribes pressure and gust coefficients for the
various structural elements and the wall cladding as a function of their tributary
areas and locations. These coefficients correspond to peak pressures due to wind
from any direction for the element under consideration. For the girts in this
example, coefficients are given for two areas of the building, w and e (Figure 10.10).
The area e identifies the portion of the structure over which higher localized
suctions and pressures will occur. The extent of the area e is determined by the
value of a quantity Z, shown in Figure 10.10, which for this example is given as 40%
of the height of the building:
Z = 0.40 6000 mm = 2400 mm
From Commentary I of the Structural Commentaries to the NBC and for areas
w:
e:
355
The loading condition that can give rise to the situation shown in Figure 10.9(a)
will occur when the girt is subject to a coincident maximum external pressure and
maximum internal suction.
e
z
z
z
where pi = Iw q Ce Cgi Cpi = 1.0 0.41 0.9 ( 0.7) = 0.26 kPa (see Section 10.2)
and p = Iw q Ce ( Cp Cg ) = 0.41 1.0 ( +1.5 ) = 0.62 kPa .
Therefore, the net pressure = p pi = 0.62 ( 0.26 ) = 0.88 kPa and the load
on the girt at the specified load level is 0.88 kPa 2 m = 1.76 kN/m .
The loading condition that can give rise to the situation shown in Figure 10.9(b)
will occur when the girt is subject to the maximum external suction and maximum
internal pressure. Thus, for area e:
p pi = q Ce Cp Cg q Cei Cpi Cgi
pi = q Cei Cpi Cgi = + 0.26 kPa
Therefore the net pressure = p pi = 0.70 ( +0.26 ) = 0.96 kPa and the load
on the girt will be 0.96 kPa 2 m = 1.92 kN/m (i.e., suction).
This loading will govern the selection of the girt because the load is larger than
in the first case and, in addition, the moment must be resisted in the laterally
unsupported condition. Figure 10.9(c) illustrates the detail at a sag rod location,
where a restraining couple can be developed by the action of the sag rods and the
attachment of the girt to the cladding [10.6]. Thus, the girt is laterally unsupported
along the compression flange over the 3125 mm distance between the sag rod and
the column, but is considered to be laterally supported at the columns and at sag rod
locations.
The sections normally used for girts are cold-formed sections of steel having a
yield strength of approximately 350 MPa. The factored design moment for a typical
girt, spanning a distance of 6.25 m between columns and subjected to a wind load of
356
where the eccentricity includes the half-depth of the column as well as an assumed
distance from the face of the column to the gauge line of the bolts in the connection.
Assuming that a W200 36 section will be used in this location, the interaction
equations developed in Chapter 8 will be used to check the adequacy of the section.
The W200 36 section meets the requirements for a Class 1 section and the
pertinent cross-sectional properties are listed in the CISC Handbook:
A = 4570 mm2
rx = 86.7 mm
ry = 40.9 mm
357
436 kN
259 kN
70 kN.m
11.7 kN
41.0 kN.m
70 kN.m
10.4 kN
41.0 kN.m
17.2 kN
17.2 kN
11.7 kN
61.8 kN.m
48.2 kN.m
24.0 kN
436 kN
259 kN
(a)
(b)
Since the frame is a braced frame, the second-order effects due to sway are
resisted by the bracing system. The elastic buckling strength of the member is:
Ce =
2 E Ix
L2
( 6 000 530 / 2 )2
Because the smaller end moment is zero, the equivalent moment factor is taken
as 1 = 0.6.
The magnification factor U1x
determined as
U1x =
0.6
1
=
= 0.76
Cf
436
1
1
Ce
2060
Since U1x is less than 1.0, U1x = 1.0 is used for the cross-section strength
interaction check. From interaction Equation 8.21a, we obtain:
Cf 0.85 U1x Mfx
+
Cr
Mrx
1.0
(Satisfactory)
359
For the in-plane strength check, the effective length factor K for strong axis
bending is taken as 1.0 and the strong axis slenderness ratio is:
KL = 1.00 ( 6000 530 2 ) = 66.1
r
86.7
where the length of the column has been taken from the base plate to the mid height
of the girder. The non-dimensional slenderness factor is calculated from Equation
4.20 as:
=
KL Fy
350 MPa
= 66.1
2
2
r E
200 000 MPa
= 0.88
Cr = A Fy 1 + 2n
1 n
1 1.34
(Satisfactory)
360
The buckling capacity about the y- axis is 1144 kN and the interaction equation
thus becomes:
436 0.85 1.0 70
+
= 0.88 1.0
1144
119
(Satisfactory)
Thus, the W200 36 section is adequate in this situation to resist the axial force
and bending moments produced by dead, snow and wind loads acting on the roof.
When lateral wind forces are taken as the principal forces, the snow load
becomes the companion load. Load case 4 from Table 1.3 indicates that the wind
load factor is now 1.4 and the snow load factor is 0.5. Under this condition the axial
force on the column is reduced, but the lateral wind forces, transferred through the
girts to the columns as lateral forces, increase. This maximizes the bending moment
in the exterior columns. The reaction from each joist on the girder system will be
reduced from 153 kN (dead and snow loads as principal loads plus wind as
companion load) to a value of:
Factored load (dead and wind as principal) = 1.25D + 1.4W + 0.5S
= (1.25 31.0) + (1.4 12.2) + (0.5 72.6) = 92.1 kN
The dead and live loads, 31.0 kN and 72.6 kN, respectively, have been
determined previously. As a result, the axial force on the exterior column is reduced
to 259 kN and the end moment produced by the load eccentricity is 41 kN m . In
addition, the wind acting on the wall cladding delivers concentrated transverse
loads to the columns at the third points, as shown in Figure 10.12(b). The factored
wind loads are based on a tributary wall area 6.25 m long 2.0 m high and on an
external suction of -0.72 kPa in zone e and suction on the exterior surface, combined
with an internal pressure of 0.26 kPa (both at the specified load level). The reaction
delivered by the girt to the column at the factored load level is then:
Girt load = 1.4 6.25 m 2.00 m (0.72 kPa 0.26 kPa)
=
17.2 kN
The total bending moment diagram, resulting from the transverse loads and the
eccentric vertical load, is shown in Figure 10.12(b). The maximum bending moment
is 61.8 kN m and 1 = 1.0 (point loads present between ends of member) and
U1x = 1.0 ( 1 ( 259 2060 ) ) = 1.14.
The cross-sectional strength interaction expression is:
Cf 0.85 U1x Mfx
+
Crx
Mrx
1.0
(Satisfactory)
The overall in-plane strength interaction expression is again checked, but this
time using
Cr = 965 kN m and Mrx = 119 kN m
361
Table 2
Grades, Types, Strength Levels*
Yield Strength, MPa
Type
260
300
350
380
400
480
550
700
260W
300W
350W
380W**
400W
480W
550W
WT
260WT
300WT
350WT
380WT
400WT
480WT
550WT
350R
350A
400A
480A
550A
AT
350AT
400AT
480AT
550AT
700Q
QT
700QT
See CSA-G40.20/G40.21
**
This grade is available in hollow structural sections, angles, and bars only.
Table 3
Structural Shape Size Groupings for Tensile Property Classification
Shape Type
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Super-Light
Beams (SLB)
To 28.1 kg/m
C Shapes
To 30.8 kg/m
MC Shapes
To 42.4 kg/m
L Shapes
To 13 mm
Over 13 to 20 mm
396
Over 20 mm
Table 4
Summary of Mechanical Properties
CSA
G40.21*
Tensile
Strength
Fu
Type
Grade
(MPa)
t 65
t >654
Fy (MPa)
min.
Hollow
Structural
Sections
Fy (MPa)
min.
Groups
1 to 3
260W
300W
350W
380W
400W
480W
550W
410-590
450-6201
450-6502
480-650
520-690
590-790
620-860
260
300
350
380
400
480
550
250
280
320
3
3
2
23
1
1
260
300
350
380
400
480
260WT
300WT
350WT
380WT
400WT
480WT
550WT
410-590
450-620
480-650
480-650
520-690
590-790
620-860
260
300
350
250
280
320
3
3
3
260
300
350
400
480
550
2
1
400
480
350R
480-650
350
350
350A
400A
480A
550A
480-650
520-690
590-790
620-860
350
400
480
550
350
3
2
350
400
350
400
480
550
AT
350AT
400AT
480AT
550AT
480-650
520-690
590-790
620-860
350
400
480
550
350
3
2
350
400
350
400
480
550
WT
700Q
800-950
700
620
QT
700QT
800-950
700
620
300
350
380
400
480
550
350
380
400
480
550
397