Can

Meaning

Additional information

Examples

1) physical/mental
activity

ONLY with Simple infinitive

Ha can read/swim;

a)unreal ability

Could + Perfect infinitive

I could have swum across the

river, if I hadnt been ill;

2) possibility
(absence of
possibility)

I can help, Ive got some time;

I could help you, if I had time;

a)unreal(unrealized)
In questions

Could you help me?

a) permission

In affirmative sentences

You can do it. I allow you.

4) prohibition

in negative sentences

You cant do it.

5) uncertainty
(doubt)

ONLY in questions ( in
combination with Simple,
Perfect, Perfect continuous
infinitives)

Could he have been there? I

didnt see him

3) request

...?

Can implies a higher degree

of doubt than could
6) disbelief
(improbability, i.e. we
are sure it isnt so)

ONLY in NEGATIVE
sentences
(in combination with all
kinds of inf)

Can/could he be at home? Im
calling, but there is no answer.
Can/could he be working?

He cant have arrived

He cant be at the office
He cant still be working

( ,

/ )

7) wonder/surprise
(emotional, spoken
English)

ONLY in special questions

(in combination with all kinds
of infinitive)

He cant have been there till 6;

Who could be there?

What could it mean?

May
Meaning

Additional information

1) supposition
(implying
uncertainty or
doubt)

In affirmative & negative

sentences (in combination with all
types of infinitives)

Here: MIGHT expresses a higher degree of

uncertainty

Examples
He may not know about it
He may come
(refers the action to the
future)
He might have come
(, -,
.)

2) possibility (when
no circumstances
prevent you)

Synonymous with can (2)

(Can is more common in this
meaning)

Such books may be found

everywhere

a) unrealized

might + Perf.Infinitive

He might have been killed.

( )
- May I come?

3) request

in questions
- Yes, you may come.

permission

in affirmative sentences
- No, you may not come.

prohibition

4) irritation &
reproach

in negative sentences (NOT

COMMON), better can not or
must not
ONLY

Might + Perfect Infinitive

(usually)or Simple infinitive

You might have waited!

( !)

Must
1)

obligation
(duty)
(from
smbs point of
view)

in affirmative sentences

Children must brush their

teeth.

2) prohibition

In negative sentences

You mustnt do it.

3) supposition
(implying strong
probability)

Combined with various Infinitives

I must have been waiting for a

long time.
He must still be walking.

Is not used to refer an action to the

future. We can use Can/Probably/

He is likely/sure to come.

to be likely/no doubt/evidently
instead!
To express negative meaning:

He must have failed to come.

He must have been unaware of
it.

4) suggestion
(invitation)

Polite
Meaning: we insist on it.

Its lovely to have you home.

You must come.

* MUST remains unchanged in indirect speech.

Have to
obligation

It has all the necessary forms.

Im having to work hard now.

( )
Ive always had to work hard.
He said he had had to go there
the day before.

negative
interrogative
tag questions

He didnt have to do it.

Did he have to do it?
He had to do it, didnt he?
But Ive been having to give
you a lot of thoughts to my
feeling to you. (
)

* Note the difference: I dont have to(absence of necessity ) vs. I mustnt (prohibition)

To be to.
1)

obligations
resulting from
some
arrangement or
plan

In affirmative and interrogative

sentences

He is to arrive. ()weve just

arranged)

prohibiton

In negative sentences

Children are not to touch

things in the dining room.

2) something that is
destined to
happen

/
Perfect Infinitive is not used

They were never to see him

again.

3) orders &
instructions

Is often used in reported speech

(official)

He says I am to leave you

alone.

4) possibility

An equivalent to Can & May,

Is used with Passive Infinitive, in
Present & Past tenses.

Nothing was to be done under

the circumstances.

He was to have arrived. (but

he didnt => the action was
not performed)

* What is to become of me? ?

What am I to do? ? ?

Had better/would rather

Id better - expresses strong advice, e.g., Id better do it (I realize that some action is
necessary under the circumstances), Id better not do it.
Id rather/sooner preferences in a particular situation, e.g., Id rather have tea.
Compare: I prefer coffee (always = general preference)

Need
1) As a defective
verb:
necessity

2) as a regular
verb:
necessity

Has present form

Is followed by Infinitive without to
In negative & interrogative sentences

You neednt be afraid of me.

You neednt meet him unless
youd like it.
I dont think we need give her
any more of our attention.
You neednt worry. (
)

Need + Perfect Infinitive expresses an

action which has been performed
though it was unnecessary

You neednt have come. The

deal is off.
It was obvious. You neednt
have protested.

Has all the necessary forms

Is followed by the Infinitive with to
Is mainly used in interrogative and
negative sentences (like the defective
need)

He didnt need to explain.

Did you need to read all those
books?
(this need is in more common
use than the defective need,
esp. in AmE)
* If we say that somebody need not have done smth, we mean that he or she did it, but that it
was unnecessary a waste of time (, ):
e.g., You neednt have woken me up. I dont have to go to work today.
If we say that somebody did not need to do smth, we are simply saying that it was not
necessary (whether or not it was done):
e.g., It started raining, so I didnt need to water the flowers. (Compare: I neednt have
watered the flowers. Just after I finished it started raining.)

Should.
Less categorical than must
In affirmative sentences
Generally refers an action to the future
(Simple Infinitive)
To refer to the present should +
Continuous Infinitive is used

You should do it.

2) A desirable action
that is not carried out

In affirmative sentences
Should + Perfect Infinitive

He looks very ill. He should

have stayed at home.

3) An undesirable
action that was
carried out

In negative sentences
Should + Perfect Infinitive

You shouldnt have concealed

it from us.

1) obligation with
shades of advisability/
desirability

You should be doing it.

4) supposition
implying strong
probability

Is not very common (must is more

common in this meaning)
Can refer an action to the future

The film should be very good

as its staring first-class actors.
The weather should be fine
tomorrow.