OP10

ISBN 978-4-902325-61-4
Occasional Paper 10
Linguistics, Archaeology
and
the Human Past
Edited by
Toshiki OSADA and Akinori UESUGI
Indus Project
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
Kyoto, Japan
2011
Occasional Paper 10
Linguistics, Archaeology
and
the Human Past
Edited by
Toshiki OSADA and Akinori UESUGI
Indus Project
Research Institute For Humanity And Nature
Kyoto, Japan
2011
Occasional Paper 10: Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past

Editor: Toshiki OSADA and Akinori UESUGI
Copyright Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature 2011
ISBN 978-4-902325-61-4

Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN)
457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047 Japan
Tel: +81-75-707-2371
Fax: +81-75-707-2508
E-mail: osada@chikyu.ac.jp
Printed by Nakanishi Printing Co. Ltd., Kyoto, Japan
CONTENTS
Preface
Pastoralism in Late Harappan Gujarat, western India: an ethnoarchaeological approach
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Archaeological explorations in the Saurashtra coast of Junagadh District, Gujarat

27
P. Ajithprasad, SV Rajesh and Bhanu Sharma
Annual report of excavation at Kanmer 2007-08 and 2008-09
71
J. S. Kharakwal, Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat,

during the third field season (2007-08)
105
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Preliminary anthracological analysis from Harappan Kanmer:

Human-environment interactions as seen through fuel resources exploitation and use
129
Carla Lancelotti and Marco Madella
Ethnoarchaeological study at the Harappan site of Kanmer, Kachchh, Gujarat

(Field seasons 2006-2009)
143
Shahida Ansari
Memorial stones at Kanmer, Gujarat, India

175
Tilok Thakuria, J.S. Kharakwal, Toshiki Osada and Y.S. Rawat
Preface
I am very glad to announce the publication of the tenth volume of Occasional Paper (henceforth,
OP). I sincerely thank for all the contributors of this volume.
Our excavations at Kanmer (Kachchh, Gujarat) and Farmana (Haryana), both in India, were
completed by March, 2009. The first report of the Kanmer excavation was published in the second
volume of OP, and was reprinted in the second volume of Indus Civilization: text and context
(Manohar). The second report was published in the fifth volume of OP and was reprinted in the
third volume of RIHN-Manohar Indus project series titled Current Studies on the Indus Civilization
(Manohar). This OP includes the third and fourth report of the Kanmer excavations during 20072009.
This OP consists of seven papers: the first two papers are written by Professors Kuldeep Bhan and P.
Ajithprasad, both from Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, the Maharaja Sayajirao
University of Baroda, India. Professor Bhan was a visiting professor at the International Research
Institute for Japanese Studies (IRIJS) in Kyoto from July 2008 to March 2009. During this period
he collaborated with Professor Uno who is one of our active core members based at IRIJS. Professor
Bhan contributes a paper on ethnoarchaeological approach toward pastoralism in the Late Harappan
Gujarat. Subsistence systems of the Indus Civilization are one of the key topics we have been
pursuing. To fully understand them, it is very important to know about pastoralism in addition to
different agricultural systems.
Professor P. Ajithprasad was a visiting fellow at our Institute for three months in 2008. He writes
a paper titled Archaeological explorations in the Saurashtra coast of Junagadh District, Gujarat.
This paper is based on his own research with his students before our Indus project started. Since
then, Professor Ajithprasad and our project members have conducted field research exploring
archaeological sites, including Harappan sites in India, in order to collect more extensive data. We
plan to publish a handbook on the excavated Harappan sites, based on our collaborative research,
next year.
The remaining five papers deal with the outcome of excavations at Kanmer. Dr. J.S. Kharakwal of
Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Dr. Y.S. Rawat of Archaeological Department of Gujarat State Government
and myself act as director and co-directors of Kanmer Archaeological Research Project. We
collectively overview the main results of excavations during the two seasons (2007-2008 and
2008-2009). The other four papers deal with specific topics. Dr. P.P. Joglekar and Mr. P. Goyal
of Deccan College give us a report on the faunal remains. Dr. C. Lancelotti and Dr. M. Madella
of Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, Instituci Mil i Fontanals, Spain, contribute
a paper on preliminary anthracological analysis. The paper by Dr. Shahida Ansari focuses on
ethnoarchaeological study at Kanmer. Mr. T. Thakuria and others write on memorial stones which
they recorded at the village of Kanmer.
In this OP we happen to have three papers on ethnoarchaeological study one by Professor Bhan
and the second by Dr. Ansari and the third by Mr. Thakuria. India has a very long tradition in this
approach, and I am very impressed that Indian scholars still maintain this important tradition.
Anthracological analysis by Drs. Lancelotti and Madella, on the other hand, presents quite a new
approach to the investigation of the palaeo-environment of the Indus Civilization. According to
them, (t)he anthracological evidence also suggests --- that the water regime of the Rann might
have been different from today, with higher water levels or longer periods of inundation. Their new
approach thus helps us better understand the palaeo-environment of Kanmer, and of Kachchh in
general, which is a very important topic for our project.
Lastly, besides the contributors of this volume, I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Uesugi
who did fine editorial work on the whole volume.
Toshiki OSADA
Project leader and Professor
Kyoto, Japan
osada@chikyu.ac.jp
Pastoralism in Late Harappan Gujarat, western India:

an ethnoarchaeological approach
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
Abstract
The modern state of Gujarat has emerged as a very important area for understanding the Harappan Tradition and especially the later
phase of Harappan Period. The paper reviews the archaeological data of Late Harappan Gujarat in the light of ethnographic data of
pastoral communities of Gujarat. It has been argued in this paper, that shift in land use that is reflected in the proliferation of sites
of this phase in arid locale of north Gujarat that provided nutritious grasslands rich in minerals and salts, adequate water supply and
ideal landscape led to the development of seasonal short - lived camp settlements. During Late Harappan Phase there seems to be
more emphasis and on pastoral economy than agriculture.
INTRODUCTION
which will serve as a background in understanding

and appreciating archaeological and ethnographic
This paper is concerned with the relationship
data.
1)
between pastoralism and settlements and the

manner in which this relationship is expressed in
PREHISTORIC CLIMATE
the archaeological record. An ethnoarchaeological

investigation of pastoralism carried in Gujarat will
be applied to body of archaeological data of western
The climate and environment of Harappan period
India from a time period of second millennium B.C.,
has long been debated in South Asian archaeology.
identified with Late Harappan Phase of the Harappan
The disagreement comes concerning the amounts of
cultural tradition. This will allow more reliable
rainfall and interpretations have ranged from greater
reconstruction of pastoral economy as well as better
rainfall, to lesser or the same rainfall as today. The
understanding of the settlement pattern associated
earliest scholars including Marshall (1931), Dikshit
with this economy.
(1938), Mackay (1943) and Piggott (1962) argued that
Understanding the ecology is necessary first step
prehistoric climate and environment were distinct
in the analysis of pastoralism. The interaction among
from today. Most of them argued for a wetter climate
the animals, land and people produces a complex web
on the basis of variety of archaeological evidence. This
of ecological relationships. Besides, in any attempt
included the presence of laboriously constructed dams
to understand the settlement pattern, subsistence
in south Baluchistan called Gabar-bands, use of burnt
strategies and cultural change the climate and
bricks at Mohenjo-daro and the depiction of animal
environment are prerequisite in any such study. In the
which are commonly found in damp jungle country.
following pages we will first discuss prehistoric and
present-day geographical and environmental setting
lakes Sambhar, Didwana and Pushkar in Rajasthan

-1-
Later Singhs (1977, 1971) pollen sequence from salt
Kuldeep K. Bhan
also suggested greater rainfall during Harappan
suggestion of marshy habitat is not a precondition
Period, which was later supported by Bryson and
to either rhinos existence, nor should it be treated as
Swain (1981: 135-45) on the basis of climate data from
indicator of any particular climate. Rhinos in Africa
other areas. The palaeoenvironmental reconstructions
live in areas, which are semi arid with xerophytic
indicated there was increased rainfall (as compared
vegetations. Besides, the repeated presence of draught
today) in northwest South Asia during Mature
resistant crops millet in the Harappan phase of
Harappan phase. Singh and others used this sequence
Gujarat suggests that the climate might not have been
as an explanation for the decline of the Indus Valley
very different from than today. This argument finds
tradition (Agrawal and Sood 1982; Allchin and
additional support from the pollen analysis from the
Allchin 1997: 208). Vishnu-Mittre (1974a) expressed
Nal sarovar in north Gujarat. On the basis of this
doubts about the pollen indicators used by Singh
pollen analysis Vishnu-Mittre and Sharma (1979: 99)
for suggesting wet climate. Misra (1984: 461-89)
has indicated Savannah grassland types in the region
also argued the testing of this climatic theory and
of north Gujarat during second millennium B.C.
the Harappan collapse. Shaffer and Lichtenstein on
For Gujarat, the available localized data is generally
the basis of recalibrated radiocarbon determinations
interpreted as indicating no major difference between
refuted Singhs climatic data. They suggested that sub-
third/second millennium B.C and today. (Meadow
phase IVa (between 3000-1800 B.C.) should fall in
1989; Rissman and Chitalwala 1990). Therefore it
sub-phase IVb period of increased aridity (Shaffer
appears that there is some sort of consensus among
and Lichtenstein 1989: 120-21).
scholars that there were no major climatic fluctuations
This hypothesis of the increased aridity finds
in Gujarat during Harappan period and the climate
additional support in the recent study carried by
was not very much different from today. To appreciate
Enzel and his colleagues on the lacustrine record
palaeoenvironment and the influence that climate
of Lunkaransar Lake in the Thar Desert. Their
had on human affairs it is very useful to briefly outline
record suggests that the Lunkaransar Lake rose
below the present environment and some current
abruptly around 5000 B.C. and persisted with minor
adaptations to it.
fluctuations for the following 1000 years and then fell

abruptly to range of 10 to 40 cm of water by 4200
PRESENT DAY GEOGRAPHICAL

AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
B.C. and the final drying occurred between 2894 to

2643 B.C. (Enzel et al. 1999: 127). However, there are
a host of other scholars who argued that climate was
similar to present times (Fairservis 1956; Hegde 1977;
The region of Gujarat is made up of two major
Raikes and Dyson 1961; Meadow 1989; Rissman and
geological zones. The first is the Deccan trap, which
Chitalwala 1990; Posshel and Rawal 1989). Kenoyer
was formed as a result of huge flows of lava during
(1991) notes that even if there were changes in rainfall,
Mesozoic. The trap formation dominated the
the area is so vast that it would not have affected all
lithology of peninsular Gujarat, known as Saurashtra,
regions uniformly.
the main parts of the southern mainland and Kutch.
In Gujarat, large numbers of Harappan and other
The second feature is the recent alluvium brought
contemporary settlements has revealed bones of
from the adjacent highlands by the rivers of Gujarat
rhinoceros, which is now confined to Assam in the
plain. The Mahi River congenitally divides this into
east and some parts of Himalayan Terai in India.
northern and southern segments, although it is an
Chitalwala (1990: 79-82) informs that Zeuners (1963)
arbitrary boundary.
-2-
Figure 1 Map showing the various regions of Gujarat, shading indicate concentration of pastoral communities
S o uth Gu j a r at c a n b e d i v i d e d i nt o f o ur
some parts of the bhal tract wheat can be grown,
geographical regions for analytical purposes (Figures
when water withdraws around October. The residual
1 and 2). First and second are the northern and
humidity is sufficient to permit the maturation of
southern halves of the Gujarat a well-defined
wheat without any further moisture input. In the
corridor of alluvium bordered by salt waste and sea
central zone soils are high quality but are saline to
on the west and hills that extend up to the Ghats. The
the west and thin on the western slopes. Sorghum is
third region is the Kutch, a rocky and arid collection
the most popular grain during rabi season as well. It
of outcrops which surrounded on three sides by
is also the most common fodder crop for the cattle
seasonally flooded salt flats called Rann. The last,
(Patel 1977: 44).
to the south of Kutch is the peninsula Saurashtra or
Kathiawad, which is surrounded by the sea on all but
150 cm (Figure 2) and increases sharply on the inner
its northern border.
eastern hills, which have tropical dry deciduous forest
South of Gujarat extends towards Bombay
vegetation. Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomeentora,
(Mumbai) and is bounded in the east by the granite
Terminalia tomeentora and Tactone granlis (teak) are
hills of Sahyadri and Satpura ranges reaching up to
the dominant trees (Gaussen et al. 1968: 38). Grasses
1000 m ASML (Patel 1977: 17). From these hills
may occur but the canopy is more open. Andropogan
the Mahi, Dhadrar, Narmada, Kim and Tapti flow
pumilus, Ischoemum angustifolium (Champion 1935:
to the Gulf of Khambhat. On the west, the Gulf of
85), Iseilma laxum, Apluda artistata, Heteropgon
Khambhat and Arabian Sea bound it. The boundaries
contortus and Cymbopogon martini (Whyte 1964: 99)
of Gulf of Khambhat are locally known as bhal and
are characteristic grasses of this area.
bhalbaru area. Here soils are sandy and salty and
the ground water brackish. The modern cultivators
It is again bounded in the east by Satpura hills and
avoid this area due to heavy flooding. However, in
on the northwest by the Aravallis, which rise up to
-3-
The rainfall in South Gujarat ranges from 60 to
North Gujarat is a sandier and more arid plain.
Kuldeep K. Bhan
900 m. To the northwest the discontinuous hills
is locally known as Nani-Banni and has some of the
reach up to 100 m AMSL (Patel 1977: 17-18). North
best grassland types in India, having very high protein
Gujarat is bordered on the west by a salt desert and
content (refer Mann 1916 and Burns et al. 1916 for the
low-lying neck of the Saurashtra peninsula. The rivers
analyses of grasses). This area is the breeding center
flowing through this region includes the Rupen,
of the worlds best tropical breed known as Kankrej
Banas, Sabrmati and Mahi. They are fed by monsoon
or Wadhial (George 1985) and Murrah or Mehsana
rains and are ill suited for irrigation (Leshnik 1968:
buffaloes (Whyte 1964: 98). Besides, it also supports
298). The northern plain is drier, receiving 80 cm
large population of sheep and goat and Asiatic wild
rain annually in the east grading down to 40 cm in
ass.
the west. Soils are alluvium and have been derived
from wind and water erosion of the Aravalli ranges.
trap is patchy, while older facies date to Jurassic tomes
The percentage of silt and sand are higher, reaching
and comprise uplifted marine sediments, sandstone,
up to 90% in the west. Much of the area is saline and
limestone and shales (Wadia 1957: 264; Spate and
alkaline treeless steppe that merges with the desert
Learmonth 1967: 98). The soils of Kutch are mixed
thus is not encouraging for agricultural activities.
as a result of its parent rock. The outcrops of Kutch
Besides, the landscape of north Gujarat is relieved
face the sea on the southwest, while on all other
by frequent occurrences of relict sand dunes, giving
sides desolate salt flats, the Ranns, bond them. The
rise to numerous small lakes, near the inter dune
Ranns of Kutch are alluvial deposit of clay and sand
depressions. These lakes retain monsoon run off for
brought down by minor rivers of Rajasthan as well as
two to six months after the monsoon. The soils of
the eastern Nara of Sindh. The Ranns of Kutch were
north Gujarat are rich in chlorides, sulphates and
originally shallow bays connecting with sea (Bombay
carbonates of sodium. This is especially true with the
Presidency 1884: 3; Patel 1977: 20; Gupta 1977: 205).
areas, which are frequently flooded and have poor
During monsoon season the Ranns get flooded with
drainage systems.
salt water to a depth of 1 m, but when water recedes
The extensive alkaline areas in this zone are known
with the seasonal change a thick deposit of salt
as usar lands and have characteristic grass vegetation.
remains. This Rann supports a large population of
This area is dominated by Acacia, Capparis, Euphorbia,
flamingoes and wild ass.
Zizphus (Gaussen et al. 1968: 33) and Prosopis spieigera
(Whyte 1964: 98). The grasslands occur as both
ranges from 30 to 40 cm per year. The forest regime
undergrowth and open patches. The dominant grasses
is of Acacia, Capparis, Zizphus, Salvadora oleoides
are Erichloa ramosa, Chloris virgata, Eragrostis ciliaris,
and Prosopis specigera. Like the western section of the
Dactyoctenium aegyptium, Sporobolus cormandelianus,
north Gujarat the southern section of Greater Rann
Echinochloa colonum, Eleusine compsessa, Eleusine
of Kutch is vast grassland locally known as Moti Banni
brevifolia, Cynodon dactylon, and Aristida sp. Legumes
and is much favored by the breeders (Bose 1975: 6).
found growing in this area are Heylandia latibrosa and
The dominant grasses are various Andropogan species,
Indiggogera sp. In the same area but adjacent small
Anthistiria imberdis, Aristida adesencionis, Aristida
salt-water streams, river banks and the marshy area,
adesenscionis, Aristida hystricula, Sporobolus indicus,
dominant vegetation are Dichanthium annulatum,
Cynodon dactylon, Chloris barbata, Eleusine flagellifera,
Sporobolus marginatus and Eriochloa ramosa.
Eleusine aristata, Phrcigmites karke, Eragrostis ciliaris,
Sporobolus marginatus and Cressa cretica, etc. are
Eragrostis cynosuroides, Eragrostis amabilis, Aeuropus
observed growing even on the pure salt crust. The tract
vilosus, Halopyrum musronatum, Dendroclamas

-4-
In the third region of Kutch, the flow of Deccan
The climate of Kutch is most arid and rainfall
Figure 2 Map showing the elevation and rainfall of Gujarat region.
strictus and Adiantum lunulatum.
vegetation of Dichanthium and Cenchrus grasslands
The fourth region is the peninsula of Saurashtra.
growing in weathered patches. The rocky hills of the
The central part of Saurashtra is made of an
interior, the Gir and Barda hills and the northern
irregular plateau, bisected by peaks near Chotila in
coast of Saurashtra are studded with areas of pastures
Surendernagar District, Girnar in Junagadh district
and are scenes of much pastoral activity (Government
and Alech and Barda in Jamnagar district. Soils
of Gujarat 1969: 20). The pastoral animal stock of this
of Saurashtra are clayey black cotton soil derived
area are a breed of medium sized, heavy cattle, useful
form from weathering of bedrock. The rainfall
for agriculture work and the cows give good milk.
over Saurashtra ranges from 40 - 80 cm. Thus the
This breed of cattle is locally known as Gir, Surati or
vegetation of the peninsula is the same that of Acacia-
Sorahti. Besides, they also breed sheep, goat, buffalo
Capparis series as found in north Gujarat plain. Along
and camel.
the northwestern coast fronting the Gulf of Kutch is
stretch of Mangrove swamp (Government of Gujarat
mainland of Gujarat at several times in the past. The
1970: 32). Meanwhile the Barda hills to the west, Mt.
land bridge connecting it to Gujarat plain appears
Girnar and Gir hills to the south, and the Plitana hills
to have been flooded up to six months of the year
to southwest support some anogeissus terminalia
until 1813, while the travelers report of 16th century
tectona and acacia angogeissus woodland (Gauseen
state that a branch of Indus ran by the Khambhat
et al. 1968: 20). Many bedrock hillocks are also found
town (Government of Gujarat 1969: 170). Silting
there, some of them cover only a hectare, while
by the rivers of the mainland and the peninsula has
some of them are considerably larger. The tips of
connected the two wide swat of alluvial deposit
these hillocks are always barren with tufts of grassy
known as the Nal depression (Rissman 1985: 57). The

-5-
Saurashtra may have been cut off from the
Kuldeep K. Bhan
rivers originate in the central highland region and
frequency of crop failure in the state. Among the local
flow in all directions in radial pattern. The large rivers
administrative units called talukas, of Gujarat, 22%
Bhadar, flowing westwards and the Shetrunji flowing
experience total crop failure at least once every six
eastwards are seasonally dry and turn into sporadic
years on average (Rissman 1985: 351). Another aspect
pools during hot summer months. The soils of the
of the precipitation regime is the localized nature of
area clayey black cotton soil, derived from the residue
cloud burst. While one area may experience plentiful
of weathered basalt. Sandy alluvium and marine mud
rainfall an adjoining area may be passing through
characterize the southwestern coastal strips.
draught.
A distinctive feature of Gujarat today and perhaps
Another important part of the subsistence
in Harappan times as well, is the inherent seasonality
is animal husbandr y, by pastoral transhumant
in the ecological aspects of the region. It lies in the
communities like Rabaris and Bharvads, who do
zone of the monsoon marked by an annual variation
not traditionally own any agricultural land and
in rainfall of greater than 30% of the mean (Rissman
derive income and subsistence from breeding or /
1985: 351). A great deal of fluctuation from year
and herding cattle, sheep, goat, camel and buffaloes.
to year is evident; often an extremely dry one will
The profound nature of the seasonality with dry
follow a very rainy year. These shifts do not occur in
and wet periods in Gujarat results in movement of
a predicable sequence and thus make rainfall a risky
large population of these pastorals and their animals.
resource.
Though these groups are distributed throughout
Generally speaking, the agriculture of Gujarat
Gujarat, large numbers are present in the bordering
is characterized by dry farming. Eighty five percent
villages of Nani and Moti Banni, Barda, Gir hill and in
of agriculture is rain fed. The greater majority of
northern and southern fringes of the coastal Gujarat
crop production occurs in monsoon season and is
(Figure 1). It is in this environmental backdrop
harvested in autumn (kharif). The black cotton soil
that we will be examining the archaeological and
is labor reducing and during monsoon swells with
ethnoarchaeological data.
water and later develops cracks as the dry farming

season wears on (Rissman 1985: 164). In much of
ARCHEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Gujarat, hoeing with blade harrow is practiced as

a substitute to ploughing. Annual ploughing to
destroy weeds is not necessary because only one crop
During Late Harappan phase, the previously
is grown a year (Patel 1977: 39). Millets dominate
integrated region of the Indus Civilization broke
subsistence crops of Gujarat bajra (Pennisetum
into three localized cultures defined by Shaffer
typhoides) and jowar (Sorghum bicolor). The village-
(1991) and Kenoyer (1991) as Localization Era. These
based agriculturists maintain up to five animals as
cultures named as Jhukar Phase, Cemetery H (Punjab
an incidental adjustment or an internal part of the
Phase) and Rangpur Phase, and were named after
farming enterprise, with the production of food and
the important sites where specific pottery styles were
cash crops as their preliminary activity.
first discovered or the geographical regions in such
settlements were found (Kenoyer 2005 and Bhan
Rainfall is the major source of moisture in Gujarat
and subsistence depends upon it. The productivity
2001).
of the subsistence depends upon the year of good
monsoon. The dependence of subsistence production
Gujarat. Here also, a high degree of continuity from
upon rainfall is reflected in statistics on the relative
Mature to Late Harappan Phase has been indicated,

-6-
Rangpur phase refers to the entire region of
Figure 3 Map of Gujarat showing major archaeological sites mentioned in the text.
though it is most evident in ceramics. Both regional
the introduction of Lustrous Red Ware. This Phase
pottery that are specific to Gujarat and classical Indus
was defined as the Initial Phase of Late Harappan.
forms undergo a period of change as the Mature
The increase in frequency of Lustrous Red Ware,
Harappan ends. Alternation of certain ceramic forms
painted Black and Red Ware and Coarse Red Wares
and the introduction of the Lustrous Red Ware
signaled the beginning of Rangpur III, the final
a novel method of surface treatment of burnishing
period at Rangpur and represents the final phase of
the vessels to high luster (Rao 1963: 23) are thought
Late Harappan in Gujarat (Bhan 1989). However,
to represent the Late Harappan Phase in Gujarat.
recent radiocarbon determinations from Rojdi have
Nevertheless, a clarification about Rangpur sequence
completely altered the earlier periodization and
that was used for more than three decades to define
interpretation of Late Harappans in Gujarat.
the periodization of Harappan Gujarat is needed,
since the interplay between settlement patterns is a
Possehl and Rawal have suggested that all the
crucial variable in the interpretation of past economy
settlements with pottery comparable to Rojdi should
and culture change.
be dated to urban Mature phase and not to the
In terms of Rangpur sequence, Period IIA was
Late Harappan Phase (1989). Now the emerging
thought to be contemporary with Mature Harappan,
immerging picture from their research is that there
Period IIB signaled the onset of Harappan period.
are two categories of settlements during Mature
While certain ceramic forms like Indus goblet and
Harappan phase in Gujarat. The first category of
beakers disappear, other forms seem to have simply
settlements, which Possehl and Rawal designated
altered shape and decoration (Rao 1963: 22, 59-65).
as Sindhi Harappan, share material inventory
The alteration of form continued in IIC along with
of Mature Harappan sites of Indus (1989) and

-7-
On the basis of radiocarbon determinations,
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Figure 4 Jaidak - 1 (Pithad): Plan of entrance gate in the southern fortification wall.
the regional style ceramics (Bhan 1994). Large
island and the Ranns of Kutch banks (with the
concentration of such settlements has been reported
Lothal in Bhal region) belonged to the urbanized
from Kutch and is represented by excavated sites
Harappan core area of the Indus/Ghaggar-Hakra-
of Desalpur, Surkotada and perhaps Dholavira in
Nara Valley. While the Sorath Harappan, Prabhas
Kutch, Gola Dhoro (Bagasra), Lothal and Nageshwar
Patan and Padri tradition in Saurashtra and the
in Saurashtra, and Nagwada and Jekhada in north
Anarta tradition in north Gujarat plains formed
Gujarat represent this group (Figure 3). Besides
the agro-pastoralists periphery, while the Ranns of
sharing the classical Harappan material inventory
Kutch banks and the coastal borders of Saurashtra
most of the settlements are found associated with
as narrow zones of interaction (1997:84). However,
some craft activity like shell bangle and ladle, stone
on the basis of ceramics and stratigraphic analysis of
bead, or faience production. The other category
a Mature Harappan site at Gola Dhoro (Bagasara)
designated as Sorath Harappan are represented by
in Saurashtra, Ajithprasad and his colleagues have
small rural agriculture or pastoral camp settlements
indicated that though Rangpur sequence is not
and has more or less completely lack of evidence for
completely vertical, but the pottery sequence and the
substantial complex craft activity. These settlements
stratigraphy at Gola Dhoro is fully in agreement with
were earlier thought to represent IIB-C of Rangpur
the Rangpur ceramic sequence. Like Rangpur, at Gola
sequence or Initial phase of Late Harappan or Post
Dhoro also the Mature Harappan material inventory
Urban Phase in Gujarat. Herman (1997a : 187-
is followed by Rangpur II A, II B-C pottery forms
198) questioned the Rangpur sequence on the basis
(Ajithprasad et al. 1999). It is interesting to note here,
of stratigraphy and radiocarbon determinations
that the excavations at Mature Harappan (Sindhi)
from Rojdi, relying heavily on the remarks made by
sites in Gujarat have always revealed IIB-C ceramic
Misra (1965) on the Rangpur sequence. Herman
types above the Mature Harappan deposits. However,
puts forward core/periphery model to explain the
it is not clear as yet if it is because that the Harappan
phenomenon.
people of IIB-C phase (Sorath) occupied these
Herman suggests that during the Harappan period
settlements after the Mature Harappan or it really has
(second half of the third millennium B.C), the Kutch
some chronological significance. The argument seems

-8-
Figure 5 Circular hut structures at Jekhada (after Momin 1983)
to have come about a full circle and what we need at
been recovered so far. Rice grains (Oryza sativa) have
present are set of consistent radiocarbon dates form
been identified form the impressions in potsherds at
Gola Dhoro (Bagasra) itself and many more sites so as
Lothal and Rangpur IIA (Ghosh and Lal 1963: 161-
to fix its proper chronological position in Harappan
175; Rao and Lal 1985: 667-684). Rice grows wild
Tradition of Gujarat.
today in the marshes of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh
Nearly 94% of these settlements of this phase are
(Vishnu-Mittre 1961: 18) and Gujarat (Vishnu-Mittre
located in Saurashtra, while 6% of the settlements
and Savithri 1982: 207), it cannot be concluded
are located on the eastern border of Little Rann
that it was cultivated for subsistence. Besides, the
of Kutch in north Gujarat. The average size of the
study of charcoal from Lothal (Rao and Lal 1985:
settlements in Saurashtra is 5.3 hectares (Possehl
667-684) and Rangpur (Ghosh and Lal 1963: 161-
1980:65). However, settlements at Lolai, Jaidak, and
175) have indicated the presence of trees like Acacia,
Rojdi approximately range between 4 to 7 hectares
Albizbia, Andina cordifolia and Tectone gradis (teak).
having structures with stone foundations and stone
The presence of teak at Lothal is intriguing. Today
walls circling them (Figure 4). Another category of
it grows in eastern Gujarat in the areas with rainfall
settlements of this phase has the remains of round hut
ranging from 75 to 175 cm and falls under the tropical
2)
floors as revealed at Jekhada (Figure 5)(Momin 1983)
deciduous type (Rao and Lal 1985: 680). However,
and Kanewal (Figure 6)(Mehta et al. 1980), in north
it is of interest to note here, that the strategy and
Gujarat, Vagad (Sonawane and Mehta 1985: 38-44)
methods used at both the sites were not intensive
and Nesadi in Saurashtra (Mehta 1984: 227-230). The
enough to take them as representative of Harappan
recently located settlements of this phase in north
sites of Gujarat.
Gujarat are extremely small in size and have very thin
and patchy habitational deposit. They fall into similar
faunal data and the apparent millet cultivation
settlement patterns as well as functional categories of
prompted Meadow (1989) to propose a second
pastoral camp settlements as well as other prehistoric
revolution during the second millennium B.C.
settlements of north Gujarat.
However, Weber has refuted this on the basis of
In the greater Indus subsistence pattern based
evidence of millet and early radiocarbon dates
on domestic cattle and the winter crops of wheat
from Rojdi in Saurashtra, which as mentioned
and barley is established by sixth millennium B.C.
above are proposed to be contemporary to the
(Meadow 1989), though subsequent diversity in
Mature Harappan phase in Gujarat. The subsistence
the Harappan subsistence is a much debated topic.
information of this phase (Sorath Harappan) comes
Little information is available on the subsistence
mostly from the American and the Gujarat State
pattern of Mature Harappan phase settlements in
Archaeology Department excavation program carried
Gujarat, interestingly neither wheat nor barley have
out at Rojdi. The subsistence information available

-9-
The first appearance of horse and donkey in the
Kuldeep K. Bhan
from Rojdi A and B include millets Eleusine
settlements such as Lothal B, Rojdi C, Prabhas Patan
coracana (ragi), Panicum milliare (little millet) and
II, Jaidak, Rangpur IIC and perhaps Babarkot in
Setaria tomesntosa, S. glauca (yellow fox millet), S.
Saurashtra appear to have witnessed a continuation
italica (fox millet). Weber argues that S. italica did not
of a short period of urban organization of the Mature
become a prominent cultigen until 2000 B.C. (1989).
Harappan Phase into the Late Harappan Phase 3).
This has been disputed by Reddy (1994: 28), she is of
At Lothal and Surkotada also there is evidence
the opinion that Webers argument is based on a single
of over-crowding and encroachment rather than
site and this could be result of changing demands by
abandonment and decline. Most of the Sindhi
the community and the subsistence system. There are
settlements except Rangpur were abandoned after
various theories regarding the center of origin of the
this stage. As a matter of fact some settlements Rojdi
different millets and these are not considered native
C show expansion, though Lustrous Red Ware was
of Gujarat and seem to have been brought to here
not reported from any of the above mentioned sites
from elsewhere, however, timing and dynamics of this
except at Rangpur IIC (Rao 1963). Herman (1997a:
process is much debated (Weber 1989). Although, the
196; 1997b: 100) is of the opinion that the presence
lowest level at Rojdi has revealed a few barley grains,
of Lustrous Red Ware in this phase at Rangpur is
Weber (1989) argues that barley could have been
debatable, because massive pits disturbed the layers.
traded instead of being grown locally.
Now the question arises whether Lustrous Red Ware
In Gujarat, both the categ ories of Mature
does really belong to IIC or III of Rangpur sequence.
Ha r a p p a n P h a s e s e t t l e m e n t s i n d i c a t e t h e
This perhaps represents a transitional traditional
predominance of cattle husbandry over the raising
phase from Mature Harappan to Late Harappan.
of sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. However, excavations
Traditionally, the appearance of Lustrous Red Ware
at Nag wada in north Gujarat (Patel 1985) and
and changes in certain ceramic forms have has been
Nageshwar in Saurashtra (Shah and Bhan 1990)
used to distinguish between Mature Harappan and
have yielded large amounts bones of wild animal
the Late Harappan Phases.
like sambar, blackbuck, chital, gazelle and nilgai and
other rare forms like hare, camel and wild ass (Patel
slightly later than the above mentioned sites, are
1985: 47). Most of these animals inhabit grasslands
represented by round hut floors with post holes
interspersed with scrub jungle.
along the periphery such as at Ratanpura (Figure 7)
Another categ or y of settlements, perhaps
(Bhan 1989), Kanewal (Figure 6)(Mehta et al. 1980)

in north Gujarat, Vagad (Sonawane and Mehta
LATE HARAPPAN PHASE
1985) and Nesadi (Mehta 1984: 27-30) in Saurashtra.

Except Kanewal none of the excavation reports are
As already mentioned above certain changes were
fully published as yet. However, reexamination of the
taking place around the turn of second millennium.
pottery from Nesadi and Jekhada has indicated that
Researchers have seen these changes as a result of
some of the hut floors might belong to this phase.
failing or at least changes in international exchange
A preliminary analysis of the published pottery
networks ( Jarrige 1995: 5-30) and / or a change in river
from Kanewal trench V laid at Kesarisinghs Khetra
system (Misra 1984). In Gujarat also such changes
represents two phases of circular hut floors positively
have been observed and three-tired settlement pattern
belonging to this phase. A successive occupation
seems to have been established.
from Sorath Harappan Phase to Late Harappan
Phase is represented at this site. At Oriyo Timbo in
At Desalpur IB and Surkotada IC in Kutch and

- 10 -
Figure 6 Circular huts at Kanewal (after Mehta et.al. 1980)
Figure 7 Ratanpura: irregular patchy rammed floor (courtesy Dept. of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda)
- 11 -
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Figure 8 Map showing distribution of prehistoric settlements in the western section of north Gujarat
- 12 -
Table 1 Radiocarbon Dates for Late Harappan Phase in Gujarat.

Site
Lab #
Date (5730 life, B. C.)
Mid range for Corrected

Dates (after Ralph 1973)
Surkotada, IC
TF-1294
1780 100
2170, 2110, 2050
TF- 1297
1795 100
RRL- 91
2020 170
PRL - 19
1245 165
PRL - 20
1485 110
Rojdi C
BETA-61767
BETA- 61768
PRL-1084
PRL-1081
1730 60
1675 60
1860150
108115
Vagad
Ratanpura
Malvan
BM 2612
BM 2615
TF-1081
181050
180050
80095
Oriyo Timbo
PRL-1427
PRL-1424
TF-31
1385115
1910135
1275110
TF-32
1550100
P-204
P-472
P-473
P-474
TF-42
1600130
130070
1330 70
1240190
1175120
TF-43
1040105
Prabhas Patan,
Period III
Ahar
Navdatoli
Chandoli
Reference
Agrawal and Kusumgar

1973
2170, 2110-2130, 2050
Agrawal and Kusumgar
1973
2620, 2340-2460, 2190-2290 Kusumgar, Lal and Sarna
1963
16001640, 1460, 1220-1260 Kusumgar, Lal and Sarna
1963
1780 -1910, 1690, 1660, 1650 Kusumgar, Lal and Sarna
1963
21102130, 2080, 2040
Herman 1997b
2080,2040,1920-1950
Herman 1997b
2340-2410, 2160, 2070
Herman 1997b
800,400-570,210-360
Herman 1997b
Possehl 1992
2160, 2140
M. S. Uni.
2160, 2120-2140, 2110
M. S. Uni.
940,900,800-900, 800
Herman 1996
Possehl 1992
1690-1730,1570-1600
2420-2480, 2180, 2110
1570-1600,1490, 1310-1380
Possehl 1992
Possehl 1992
Kusumgar, Lal and Sarna
1963
2020-2040, 1770-1870,1660 Kusumagar, Lal and Sarna
1963
2080,1800,1690
Stuckenrath 1963
1570-1600,1510-1400-1450
Stuckenrath 1963
1600-1640, 1510, 1400-1450 Stuckenrath 1963
1650,1460,1170 -1210
Stuckenrath 1963
1600-1630,1320-1370,1220- Kusumgar, Lal and Sarna
1240
1963
1300,1170,1020
Kusumgar, Lal and Sarna
1963
Saurashtra, Ratanpura (Figure 7) and Datrana in
into consideration. The radiocarbon dates from Oriyo
Gujarat settlements of this phase are without any
Timbo (PRL-1427) and Prabhas Patan (PRL-91)
features. At times they only have irregular patches of
calibrated to the beginning of third millennium B.C
rammed floor.
are too early. Although greater precision is desired,
we will have to wait further excavations and more
In Gujarat radiocarbon dates are inconsistent.
Ho w e v e r, o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r a d i o c a r b o n
carbon-14 determinations.
determinations ( Table 1) available from form
Surkotada IC, Vagad IC, Rojdi C, Prabhas Patan III
settlement count and average site size. Majority of the
and Ratanpura in Gujarat and Ahar in Rajasthan,
settlements are situated near river banks on alluvial,
Chandali in Maharashtra and Navdatoli in Madhya
residual black cotton or black cotton soil famous for
Pradesh outside Gujarat provides a time bracket of
its moisture retaining capacity, the prime agricultural
C. 2000-1500 B.C., which can be proposed for this
soil of Saurashtra. Until now, approximately, 136
phase in Gujarat, if the late date of Malvan Phase I
settlements of this phase have been reported from
(TF-1084) and Rojdi C (PRL-1081) are not taken
Gujarat, out of which nearly 31% (51) are located in

- 13 -
Saurashtra witnessed dramatic decrease in the
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Table 2 Archeobotanical remains from Late Harappan Sites of Gujarat

Surkotada, Period IC

Millet:
Eleusine coracanna, Setaria italica, Setaria virids L. (70% of the total assemblage)
Others:
Grasses:
Andropogon sp., Arundinella metzii, Brachiaria repatans, Dichanthium sp., Echinochloa stangina
Sedges:
Cyperus micheleanus, Eriophorum sp., Fimbristylis ovata, Amaranthus sp., (Vishnu-Mittre and Savithri
1982:214)
Rojdi C

Millet:
Eleusine Coracona, Seteria italica, Panicum miliare, Sorghum bicolor (high percentage of Steria sp.)
Pulses:
Phaseolus, Pisum, Lens
Others:
Abelmoschus, Amarthanthus, Chenopodium album, Dactylotenium, Digitatia, Euphorbia postrata (Weber 1991;
Weber 1989: 179)
Lothal

Millet:
Present
Others:
Acacia sps. (Rao and Lal 1985: 679)
Rangpur

Millet:
Pennistrtum typhoides
Others:
Acacia sp., Albizzia sp., (Ghosh and Lal 1963: 163, 169, 171)
Oriyo Timbo and Babar kot

Millets:
Eleusine Coracana, Setaria sp. and Panicum sp.
Others:
Aizoon sp., Carex sp., Chenopodium/Amranthus sp., Cyperus sp., Digitatia sp., Zizyphus sp. (Reddy 1994, 1991:
80-81; Rissman 1985)
Saurashtra, conversely a large number of settlements
other Chalcolithic settlements reported from form
63% (87) have been located in north Gujarat (Figure
this region show close similarities in their location
8).
as well as in the nature of the settlement (Bhan
In north Gujarat, settlements of this phase are
1994: 2001). Most of the settlements are less than
situated bordering the Little Rann of Kutch and
0.5 hectares. Some of the settlements like Chagda,
in the wastelands close to Rupen River and its
Gudel, Khaksar and Popatpura in Bhalbaru region
tributaries. Most of the sites are associated with relict
of north Gujarat and Dhama, Mujpur, Nayka, Vanod
sand dunes associated with inter dune depression,
and Valewada in north Gujarat are so small that
which retain water for three to four months after
only a few potsherds and bones are recovered from
monsoon. Settlements are small, having thin and
these sites. Locating such sites is extremely difficult
patchy habitational deposits, with high density of
in any type of exploration and we suspect that some
animal bones and at times out numbering the other
number of settlements would have been missed in our
material relics of the site. As a matter of fact, all
explorations. This perhaps explains why Misra and

- 14 -
Leshnik (Leshnik 1968) could not locate Sujinipur
intensity thus larger settlements with greater potential
only a decade after Raos survey (Rao 1963: 177).
and complex infrastructure (Desai 1985: 103). This
Information on agriculture of this phase comes
intensive explorations carried out in eastern section
mostly from Saurashtra and to some extent from
of north Gujarat by Foote (1912), Sankalia and Karvel
Kutch, is indicative of summer crop cultivation,
(1949) and Misra and Leshnik (Leshnik 1968: 259-
mainly millets (Table 2). The archaeobotanical
309) has revealed large number of microlithic using
remains from Rangpur (Ghosh and Lal 1963), and
comminutes communities and absence of Bronze
Surkotada (Vishnu-Mittre and Savitri 1982) are only
Age settlements, except one isolated settlement
from one or two samples and therefore results are
at Sujinipur. Although some interaction with the
limited. However, rigorous methods of recovery
chalcolithic communities of Gujarat is reflected in
were employed at Rojdi (Weber 1989), Oriyo Timbo
the presence of some fragmentary pottery and copper
(Wagner 1982; Reddy 1994) and Babarkot (Reddy
tools recovered at the site of Langhnaj (Sankalia
1994). The millet crops recovered from this phase
1974). The absence of Bronze Age settlements in the
include Panicum miliare, Eleucine coracana, Seteria
western section of the north Gujarat and nature of
italica, Sorgum and Echinochloa sps. Besides, the
the settlements indicate that the settlements were not
examination of charcoal samples from Rangpur have
located for harnessing the agricultural potential of
indicated tree types like Acacia, Albizzia sps., Soymida
the region as thought earlier (Hegde and Sonawane
febrifuga, Pterocarpus santalinus (Ghosh and Lal 1963:
1986), but for some other reasons. The presence of
161-175).
excellent nutritious grassland in the western section,
The analysis of archaeozoological remains from
that are supposed to be best grasslands types of India,
the majority of the excavated sites of this phase show
and availability of water in the inter dune depressions,
that the predominance of cattle over sheep, goat and
that retain water on average for five to six months
buffalo continues. The faunal analysis carried out
after the monsoon season, perhaps were the primary
at Ratanpura revealed 67.68% of cattle, 13% sheep/
determinants for the development of settlements
goat and 3.06% buffalo, while the wild animals are as
in this region. Thus on the basis of location, and
high as 16.04% that and include chital 7.58%, sambar
their ephemeral nature, we can suggest that the
2.97%, nilgai 1.44%, pig , blackbuck and gazelle
settlements were temporary camps of the people
together is represented by 1.35%. Besides, other rare
involved in pastoral activities. The overall increase in
forms include hare, dog, fowl and wild ass (Bhan and
the number of the settlements during this phase in
Shah 1990). The faunal analysis from north Gujarat is
north Gujarat perhaps suggests that the pastoralism
indicative of higher exploitation of wild animal forms
increased significantly during this phase, although the
as compared to the settlements from Saurashtra.
area seems to have also attracted the Early, Mature
The western section of north Gujarat, in which
and Sorath Harappan for similar reasons (Bhan
settlements are clustered together, has low rainfall
1994: 2001). A similar situation has been noticed by
(44-55 cm), alluvial soil with high salinity and very
Mughal in Cholistan desert where a 26% increase in
high percentage of silt and sand reaching up to 90%
pastoral camp settlements have been recorded in Late
and the rate of crop failure is also comparatively very
Harappan Phase (1997: 56)
high. Therefore, this area has a low cropping intensity,
smaller population potential and low-level of
on the Late Harappan settlements at Oriyo Timbo
infrastructure. Conversely, the eastern section of the
and Babarkot in Saurashtra by Reddy (1994) have
region with higher soil fertility had higher cropping
further substantiatesed and strengths strengthened

- 15 -
Recent palaeoethnobotanical studies carried out
Kuldeep K. Bhan
this view. Reddys investigations have suggested that
north Gujarat. This argument, though forwarded as
Babarkot cultivation of millet crops by the occupants
early as 1986 (Bhan 1989), has been unable to gain
was primarily as food grains. The practice of sedentary
confirmation either for against (Possehl 1997: 456;
agriculture was supplemented by sedentary animal
Mughal 1992: 217; refer Sonawane and Ajithprasad
husbandry. The greater emphasis on the cultivation
1994: 136 for a divergent view). This has highlighted
of Eleucine coracona (which has a limited use as a
the problem of accurately differentiating pastoral
human food) compared to other millets Seteria
sites from hunter-gatherer and/or agriculturists.
italica and Panicum miliare at Babarkot was perhaps
Therefore an ethnoarchaeological study of pastoralism
because it was cultivated as green fodder for animals,
in Gujarat was undertaken and the preliminary
She further suggests that the cultivation of millets was
results of this study are briefly presented below.
for use both as animal fodder as well as for human
Ethnographic observations of the contemporary
consumption at Babarkot. It is suggestive of an
pastoral comminutes of Gujarat provides insight into
economy more akin to sedentary agriculturists, with a
pastoral economy and helps to further strengthen the
minor pastoral component, that of sedentary animals
proposed argument.
(1994: 381-382).

Reddys palaeobotancial analysis at Oriyo
ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL
STUDIES
Timbo has indicated that millet was not cultivated

at the site but instead was brought into the site as
highly processed grain. She further suggests that
these grains were either brought to this settlement
Livestock raising in Gujarat is almost exclusively
through trade or exchange with farming groups in
carried out by professional breeders. A distinctive
the area, or cultivated elsewhere (outside the range
feature of the pastoral communities like Rabari,
of settlement) by the occupants and brought along
Bharvad, Jat and to some extent Charan is that they
with them on their seasonal migration to the site
make living primarily by breeding and/or herding
(1994: 382). Reedys observation finds additional
animals. They are collectively called Maldharis. At
support from Rissmans (1985) seasonality data from
present there is no restriction of principle which
the annuli growth ring of cattle teeth that places the
governs the type of livestock they raise. Their livestock
occupation of Oriyo Timbo from March through
are the type best suited to local ecological situations.
July. Reddy (1994: 383) also stresses that the economy
However, the meaning of Maldhari perhaps denotes
of Oriyo Timbo was not exclusively based on animal
those who emphasizes cattle-breeding rather than
husbandry, since wild plants and animal exploitation
cattle-tending (Hellbusch 1975:123). The environment
was significant component of their subsistence
imposes conditions upon animal breeders that
strategies.
dictate the type of animals which can be produced
The natural incentives of the environs of north
successfully, tradition not with standing. An area,
Gujarat seems to have attracted various pastoral/
once suitable only for cattle may be transformed by
hunter-gatherers and hunter-gatherers to north
extended over-uses to one suitable for smaller animals
Gujarat as early as third millennium B.C (Bhan 2001).
like sheep and goat. Environmental factors influence
The pastoral activities also seem to have increased
the choice of animal but cultural traditions connect
substantially during Late Harappan phase (Bhan
these communities with specific animals. In general
1986: 1994), which is reflected in an increase in the
Rabaris are camel-breeders, the Charan and Jats
number of settlements of this phase in arid locale of
breed cattle along with buffalo, and the Bharvads are

- 16 -
sheep and goat breeders. It seems the tradition was
more strictly observed in the past than at the present
considerable skill and knowledge. They are most
(Hellbusch 1975: 124).
careful about mating practices, early castration and
These breeders pursue their business with
Jats are the only Muslim breeders of Gujarat and
herd their animals separately, take them to best grazing
inhabit the Moti-Banni area of Kutch. The Hindu
grounds at the best season and produce excellent
breeder groups are distributed all over Gujarat, but
animals with the expenditure that could hardily
large number inhabit the bordering villages of Banni
lowered (Keatinge 1917: 17 and 31). The breeding
tract in Kutch, eastern border of Little Rann of
communities of north Gujarat are responsible for the
Kutch in north Gujarat (Nani Banni), Barda and Gir
development of world famous tropical breed of cattle
hills, and the northern fringes of Coastal Gujarat.
like Kankrej or Wadhial which are similar to the Zebu
Certain cultural traits of Jats in Kutch are shared
cattles characteristic hump and dewlap, which is very
with other animal breeding communities of Gujarat.
proudly displayed as a symbol on Harappan seals.
Among these, of ethnographic interest are caste
In the very recent past they were exported to north
panchayat, caste assemblies, and veneration of goddess
and South America for grading up indigenous cattle
(Hellbusch 1975: 122). Unfortunately, statistical data
(Imperial Gazetteer 1909: 11). Besides, breeders of this
regarding these communities does not exist.
region are also responsible for the development of
Figure 9 Plan of the monsoon camp at Masali, north Gujarat
- 17 -
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Figure 10 Monson camp site at Masali, north Gujarat (observe marshy wasteland in the background).
Murrah and Mehsana buffaloes and are equally apt at
along with other produces (Huntingford 1980: 81).
raising a local breed of sheep, which yields fine quality
Abul Fzual describes Kutch in the Ain-i-Akbari (1583-
wool, most of which is exported. It must have taken
1590) as a territory with an excellent breed of horses,
thousands of years for these breeders to evolve the
good camels and goats. The reference to Rabaris
best breed of animal suited to tropics, which would
appears in Rasmala and other chronicles of Gujarat,
stand fly and mosquito nuisance and tropical diseases
which mentions of Lakho Fulani, who was a son of a
and could live grazing monsoonic grass and roughage.
Rabari girl and ruled Kutch during 10th century AD.
Such breeds can only be produced by a long
(Williams 1958: 76) Later during the early twentieth
and uninterrupted period of breeding on sound
century we find frequent flattering mention of these
principles, which are thoroughly understood by
breeders in British policy discussions.
these professional breeders. Animals are not allowed
to cover their own progeny. They select their stud
out in Gujarat over a period of six years (1989-1995).
animal with great care. The best bull-calves of a
A number of variables regarded as possible factors in
particular year are chosen. The second or third calves
the choice of site of location were recording during
of exceptionally well shaped, big, young bull of good
survey. These include site maps, location, distance
pedigree are chosen.
and gradient and known sources of water. A variety
There is scanty, though useful, mention of
of cultural remains left on these camps were also
these breeders in ancient literature. The Periplus of
recorded and mapped. Besides, a special attempt was
Erythraean Sea mentions the great herds of cattle
made to record the type of vessels these pastoralists
in Saurashtra and export of clarified butter (ghee)
carry with them.

- 18 -
Ethnoarchaeological studies have been carried
Figure 11 Mosoon camp at Daro-no-Nes (complex 2 and 3), Barda hills
The study has revealed that these breeders
source is at least 100 m or more from the camping
aggregate during monsoon season all along the river
area perhaps to avoid being the victim of mosquitoes.
banks of north Gujarat specially Rupen, bordering
areas of the Ranns, and also around the salt marshy
archaeologists who think of pastoral camps as
wastelands known as padthar or kahrphat. In
ephemeral sites without substantial traces that
Saurashtra they occupy the foothills of forested areas.
would enter the archaeological record, the monsoon
In north Gujarat and Kutch the presence of nutritious
campsites we studied in the Barda hills boast of
grasses, water in inter dune depressions and the
a wealth of architectural features. As mentioned
availability of various salts and minerals in this area
above the slopes of foothills are usually preferred for
attracts even those pastoralist groups who may not
locating the camp settlements. The complexes are
undertake long summer migrations to south or east
provided with one or two circular huts along with
Gujarat later. Pastoralists here construct huts of thorn
animal enclosures. Usually stone are used to construct
bushes over hastily made circular plaster floors and are
the animal pens as well as the living area, which are
often linked together to animal enclosures (Figures
provided with hearths and wattle and daub super
9 and 10). Usually, the camps are set on a dune top
structures. At regular intervals the walls of the animal
or its slope to avoid rainfall accumulation. One of
enclosure have been provided with outlets to drain
the obvious restrictions is on the location of camps
out rainwater. Some of the complexes have raised
near or on the black soil and other soils because the
stone platforms to hold water vessels (Figure 11).
animals get infected by muddy hooves and are also
ideal for transmitting a variety of diseases. The water
Diwali festival, which falls in later part of October or

- 19 -
In c ontra st to th e e xp e c tati ons o f many
The year of these breeders usually commences with
Kuldeep K. Bhan
Figure 12 Maldaris on their annual migration from north Gujarat
early November (Figure 12). At this time each breeder
make them enduring from an archaeological point of
and their family leave for their monsoon camp and
view.
at the onset of summer they disperse into south and
eastern Gujarat. Of specific interest to archaeologists
pastoral camps have indicated that the vessels with
are archaeological material consequences and the
constricted necks and narrow orifice have a greater
location of such camps. During summer season
frequency than the vessels with short necks and wide
they move with their herds, halting 1-2 days on the
orifice given their importance in transporting water
harvested fields or urban vacant lands, leaving behind
and dairy products during migration in pastoral
ephemeral hearth scars and little debris. At times they
economies. This has been further substantiated by
may also spend 4-20 days in summer camp usually
ethnographic studies carried out in two pottery
after negotiating with landowner. Occupational debris
manufacturing centers in Kutch (Choksi 1995: 87-
is ploughed back into the field leaving little evidence
104). This is one of the important indicators that
of the summer encampment, while the rainy season
could be used to delineate pastoral assemblages. It
camps usually have substantial stone or thorn animal
is interesting to note here that the ceramics analysis
enclosures and plastered platforms or living space.
of one of the Late Harappan settlements in north
These features are of special interest because some
Gujarat has revealed interesting results. The analysis
camp sites are repeatedly used. While evidence for
carried out by one of our graduate students from the
the individual monsoon season occupation in certain
kiln area at Datrana has indicated that more than
cases perhaps may not preserve very well, the fact
sixty percent of vessels recovered from the area have
that these features are at times refurbished and reused
comparatively long necks and narrow orifices (Devi

- 20 -
Morphological studies of the vessels from five
2000: 51-56). Similar studies from other sites of north
was perhaps the result of increased environmental
Gujarat perhaps will also be rewarding.
degradation combined with a break down of the

Harappan integration sphere around 2000 B.C.
It can be further proposed that the settlements
CONCLUSIONS
close to R anns or Khar phats having g reater

archaeological debris as monsoon season camps,
The Harappans of Gujarat were perhaps sure of two
while settlements like Dhama, Mujpur, Nayaka,
things: First, that in the not too distant future the
Vagel, Vanod, Valewada, Papotpura, etc. (Figure 8)
monsoon would be bad enough to ruin his subsistence
have comparatively very little habitational deposit as
production; second that things would be better
summer encampments. Dispersion and aggregation
somewhere else. This type of monsoon places a heavy
of prehistoric population in north Gujarat is seen
premium on subsistence production. Pastoralism and
as result of seasonal availability of animal food
agriculture play complementary roles, keeping large
resources. However, an interdisciplinary approach is
numbers of animals acts as a food reserve for those
warranted to study the seasonality of these sites. Of
times when crops fail as a result of unpredictable,
particular importance in such studies would be the
but regular, disasters such as draught, and perdition
use of ethnoarchaeobotanical, (like the one developed
by insects and birds. Therefore in such a situation a
by Reddy (1994), for Saurashtra), zooarchaeological
mixed pastoral-agriculture background strategy may
data, ethnographic models and improved excavation
be the most secure way to ensure long survival. It is
methods like open area excavation and single layer
in this environmental background the proliferation
plan as discussed by Harris (1979). Whether this
of pastoral encampment in the arid locale of north
hypothesis presented here is proven correct or not,
Gujarat should be viewed. In summary, it can be
further investigation in north Gujarat based on
proposed that the proliferation of settlements in the
the model presented here will contribute to better
arid locale of north Gujarat, that provided nutritious
understanding of the Harappan tradition in South
grasslands rich in minerals and salts, water in the
Asia.
inter dune depressions and the presence of sand

dunes provided an excellent breeding ground for the
Acknowledgments
animals. The decentralization of Harappan state in the
T h i s p ap er c o m e s f r o m th e a r c ha e o l o g i c a l
early second millennium B.C. as suggested by Reddy
research work of last more than two decades and
also (1994) and perhaps accompanied by degradation
ethnoarchaeological research undertaken carried out
in environment allowed for wider range of choices
during 1989-1995 in Gujarat. The paper was written
of economic adaptation and particularly facilitated
in calm and beautiful surrounding of International
the integration of two distinct but contemporary
Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto (Nichibunken)
economies agriculture and pastoralism in the semi-
and I would like to acknowledge the support I
arid environment of Gujarat.
received from the entire faculty and particularly
Taking the environmental and locational criteria
my counter part, Prof. Takao Uno. I would like to
of the present day pastoral camps into consideration
thank Dr. Seetha Narhari Reddy for accompanying
it seems that the area has played a very crucial role in
me in the initial stages of the fieldwork. I was highly
the development of settlements in north Gujarat from
benefited by her critical comments and later her work
very early times. Increase in the number of pastoral
on palaeoethnobotanical study in Saurashtra. I would
camp settlements during Late Harappan phase
also like to acknowledge Dr. Paul Rissmans work on

- 21 -
Kuldeep K. Bhan
the excavation at Oriyo Timbo that influenced my
New Data from Bagasra, Gujarat. Paper presented at the
thought process. Professor and J. M. Kenoyer and Dr.
annual meeting of ISPQS, Pune.

Allchin, B and F.R. Allchin (1997) Origin of Civilization.
Massimo Vidale also share my acknowledgements for
Viking-Penguin India, New Delhi.
their encouragement and many discussions I had with
Bhan, K.K. (1989) Late Harappan Settlements of Western
them. I am indebted to Mr. Gregg Jamison for going
India, with Specific Reference to Gujarat, in J.M. Kenoyer
through the first draft of this paper and suggesting
(ed.) Old Problems and New Perspective in the Archaeology
many changes. Although, the above mentioned
of South Asia. Wisconsin Archaeological Report,
individuals, and many others have contributed
Madison. pp.61-74.
directly or indirectly to contents of this paper,
Bhan, K.K. (1994) Cultural Development of the Prehistoric
the author accepts the sole responsibility for the
Period in North Gujarat with reference to Western India.
interpretations presented here. At the end, I would
South Asian Archaeology 10: 71-90.
like to acknowledge the Ford Foundation Research
Bhan, K.K. (2001) In the Sand Dunes of North Gujarat,
Grant for carrying out the ethnographic work in
in Dilip K. Chakrabarti (ed.) Indus Civilzation Sites In

India: New Discoveries. Marg, Mumbai. pp.96-105.
Gujarat.
Bhan, K.K. and D.R. Shah (1990) Pastoral Adaptation in

the Late Harappan Tradition of Gujarat. Paper presented
in the seminar on Rising Tends in Palaeoanthropology:
Notes
Environmental Changes and Human Responses (Last
1) To answer the basic question, what is pastoralism, is not as
Two Million Years), Pune.
simple as it might see. In general, societies specializing
Bombay Presidency (1880) Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency,
in animal husbandry are called pastoralist and those
vol. 5: Cutch, Palanpur, and Mahi Kanta. Bombay.
required periodic movement to maintain their animals
Bombay Presidency (1884) Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency,
are called pastoral nomads. The term nomads are pastoral
vol. 7: Kathiawar. Bombay
nomads. The term nomads and pastoralists are generally
Bose, A.S. (1975) Pastoralism nomadism in India, in L.S.
used interchangeably, at basic level they are analytical
Leshnik and G.D. Sonhteimer (eds.) Pastoralists and
distinct, the former referring to movement and the later to
Nomads of South Asia. O. Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden. pp.1-
a subsistence.
15.
2) Jekhada is also spelt as Zekhada. We prefer to maintain
Bryson R.A. and A.M. Swain (1981) Holocene Variation of
Jekhada in our text the name referred in the Survey of
Monsoon and rainfall in Rajasthan. Quaternary Research
India map.
16: 135-45.
3) A strong argument for a late date of Surkotada IC has
Champion, H.G. (1935) A Preliminary Survey of the Forest
been put forward recently on the basis of recalibrated
types of India. Indian Forest Records 1: 1-204.
radiocarbon dates and the ceramic of this phase. Refer
Chitalwala, Y.M. (1990) The Disappearance of Rhino from
Herman 1997: 99.
Saurashtra: A study of Paleoecology. Bulletin of Deccan

College, Postgraduate and Research Institute 49: 79-82.
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Late Harappan and other Chalcolithic Cultures of India:
- 25 -
Kuldeep K. Bhan
- 26 -
Archaeological explorations in the Saurashtra coast of

Junagadh District, Gujarat
P. Ajithprasad, SV Rajesh and Bhanu Sharma
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History,
The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara India
Abstract
A recent exploratory survey carried out in the Saurashtra coast in Junagadh district of Gujarat in western India revealed several
Harappan/Chalcolithic and Historic period sites. The newly discovered Chalcolithic sites included Prabhas ware sites and a few
sites showing Early Harappan Sindh related ceramic assemblages. This brief report discusses the importance of these new discoveries
in understanding the Chalcolithic cultural development and patterns of settlements that evolved in the region through the Historic
period.
Introduction
habitation in Saurashtra has changed drastically.

Discovery of several new sites and identification
The discovery of Harappan relics from Rangpur
of a few region specific Chalcolithic cultural
on the Bhadar river in Saurashtra in the early 1930s
traditions at Somnath/Prabhas Patan and Padri
invoked considerable interest in the geographical
along the Saurashtra coast (Figure 1) in Junagadh
spread of the civilization beyond the Indus basin.
and Bhavnagar districts respectively played a major
Two decades later, in the 1950s, similar discoveries
role in bringing about this change (Subbarao 1958,
from Lothal and several other sites in the region
Shinde 1992, Shinde and Kar 1992, Sonawane and
have firmly established the southward extension of
Ajithprasad 1994, Ajithprasad 2004). Of the two, the
the Harappa culture into Saurashtra (Figure 1). In
Prabhas remains was the first regional Chalocolithic
fact, the Harappan influence was felt much further
tradition affiliated to the Harappa culture to be
south in the estuaries of the Narmada and the Tapi in
identified after the joint excavation in 1955-56 by the
south Gujarat (Rao 1958). Over the years, more than
M. S. University of Baroda and the then Bombay
700 Harappan and Harappan affiliated Chalcolithic
State Archaeology Department at Prabhas Patan/
sites have been reported from Gujarat (Possehl 1997,
Somnath in the Saurashtra coast of Junagadh district
Rajesh and Patel 2007). A quick glance through the
(Subbarao 1958, IAR 1955 to 57, Nanavati et al. 1971).
distribution of sites will suggest that majority of the
Further excavations at the site in 1972 by the Deccan
above sites are located in Saurashtra. The Saurashtra
College, Pune and the Gujarat State Archaeology
region or Kathiawad as it is traditionally known
Department resulted in the discovery of an even
therefore figures prominently in the Harappan studies
earlier Chalcolithic cultural assemblage (the Pre-
in Gujarat.
Prabhas) stratified below the Prabhas remains (IAR
In t h e l a s t t w o o r t h r e e d e c a d e s , o u r
1971-72, Dhavalikar 1984). The identification of
understanding about the Harappan/Chalcolithic
Pre-Prabhas assemblage from Prabhas Patan as a

- 27 -
P. Ajithprasad et al.
Figure 1 Location of Prabhas Patan/Somnath and other major Harappan Chalcolithic sites mentioned in the paper
regional Chalcolithic culture that existed prior to the
traditions therefore must have played a major role
beginning of the Harappan tradition in Saurashtra
in the Harappan and the Sorath Harappan cultural
presented a picture of Chalcolithic habitation in the
developments in Saurashtra. However, very little is
Saurashtra coast at least 500 years earlier than hitherto
known about these two early Chalcolithic cultural
believed (Dhavalikar and Possehl 1992, Sonawane and
traditions; especially their geographical spread and
Ajithprasad 1994, Sonawane 2000, Ajithprasad 2002).
other settlement features. A systematic exploratory
Meanwhile, excavation at Padri in the Bhavnagar
survey was therefore carried out in and around
coast of Saurashtra in the early 1990s brought to light
Prabhas Patan in the Saurashtra coast with a view
the Padri Chalcolithic assemblage that was very
of assessing the importance of Prabahas and other
different not only from the Pre-Prabhas and Prabhas
chalcolithic assemblages in the region.
but also from the Harappan. Dated to the middle of

fourth millennium BCE by radiocarbon, the regional
Chalcolithic remains reported from Padri are even
earlier than the Pre-Prabhas (Shinde 1992, Shinde
and Kar 1992). These two early regional Chalcolithic
- 28 -
Exploration Planning
and Strategy
Environmental Settings
The Saurashtra Peninsula in western India is a
The Prabhas and the Pre-Prabhas assemblages at the
reasonably large landmass jetting in to the Arabian
type-site Somnath/Prabhas Patan are culturally
Sea (Figure 1). It is separated in the east from the
and stratigraphically well documented. Among
mainland by the Gulf of Cambay/Khambhat and in
the two, the Pre-Prabhas is a very rare assemblage
the north by the Gulf of Kachchh. The central part
reported until very recently only from the early levels
of Saurashtra is an elevated and rugged hilly land
at Prabhas Patan. Little is known about its spread
formed of the Deccan lava flow. The rather flat and
into geographically nearby areas. The Prabhas pottery
narrow coastal plain is formed of tidal mudflats,
on the other hand is slightly better known, on being
sandy beaches and even coral reefs along the Jamnagar
reported in small numbers in the excavations from
coast of the Gulf of Kachchh. The narrow coastal
Lothal and Rojdi in association with the Harappan
land in between, drained by several small rivers and
remains. Besides, nine more sites in central Saurashtra
streams, had supported human occupation from the
showing Prabhas type pottery had been reported by
Palaeolithic times onwards. The Chalcolithic site at
P.P Pandya, S.R. Rao and others in the late 1950s
Prabhas Patan in Junagadh district is located on the
(IAR 1958). Barring these reports, the immediate
fringes of this fertile strip in the southern coast of
geographical spread of these two assemblages is rather
Saurashtra.
poorly known (Rao 1963). This has greatly impeded
in assessing the regional character and impact of
deposits are found along the seacoast and in the
this tradition in the overall cultural development
interior Saurashtra. The most predominant basal
of the region. The current exploration therefore
rock in the region is the Deccan Trap, which in the
was undertaken to locate Chalcolithic sites along
central part of Saurashtra is exposed extensively as the
the Saurashtra coast especially in the vicinity of
rugged tableland at a general height varying from 300
Somnath/Prabhas Patan. It is assumed that if there
to 600 m. There however are several relict tableland
are Chalcolithic cultural relics dating back to 3000
features that form high hills. Most prominent among
BCE showing region-specific traits at Somnath there
these is the Girnar hill in Junagadh district which at
is a strong possibility of coming across a few more
1117m is the highest in Saurashtra followed by the
sites contemporary to the Prabhas assemblage in the
Barda hills which is 637m (Merh 1995). In addition
vicinity of Prabhas Patan. As a working strategy we
to this, sedimentary formations of the Tertiary
selected an area falling within 40 to 50 km radius
sandstones and Quaternary miliolites are found as
from Somnath along the coast in the first leg for an
basal rocks especially in the coastal areas. These two
intensive foot-survey for locating sites after assessing
formations today are quarried out in an alarmingly
the geographical and environmental setting of the
large scale as they are used as raw materials in the
region. We used topographic sheets of 1:250,000
flourishing cement and detergent industries. The
and 1:50,000 scale as well as satellite images for this
coastal region also has several littoral dune formations
purpose.
and beach sand deposits. The area along the coast is
Several types of rock formations and Quaternary
mostly covered by a sandy loam and the black cotton

soil whose thickness varied considerably. The mantle
of soil cover has maximum thickness near the coast
and it becomes thin towards north in the interior.
- 29 -
Figure 2 Location of Chalcolithic and Historic period sites in

the Saurashtra coast of Junagadh and Porbandar districts of Gujarat
Chalcolithic sites: 1. Somnath/Prabhas Patan, 2. Warodra-I, 3. Haveda Bapa (Warodra-II), 4. Bhana bhai no Khetar, 5. Khandini
Timbo, 6. Khandero, 7. Bhavani Timbo, 8. Shapur, 9. Lohij-I (Sanavav Pa-1), 10. Lohij-II, 11. Lohij-III, 12. Kokru, 13. Khaganath
no Timbo, 14. Madhavrai no Timbo.
Historic Period sites: 15. Kalej-I, 16. Kalej-II, 17. Thumliu no Timbo-I, 18. Thumliu no Timbo-II, 19. Humbliu Timbo, 20.
Gelki, 21. Vakodar, 22. Vanankio Timbo, 23. Gayatrimata ni Thumdo-I, 24. Ganeswari ni Timbo, 25. Dhoro Timbo, 26. Madsimar,
27. Panchnath Mahadev, 28. Sonesa ni Timbo.
This tract is extremely fertile and a major part of the
of Junagadh district that receive more than 800 mm
modern agriculture is confined to this narrow strip
annually. The highest rainfall that had been recorded
of land that affords cultivation of food grains/millets
in this region in recent years was 1105 mm in 1998.
such as bajra, jowar; pulses as well as groundnuts,
The area therefore is quite green and supports good
cotton and other cash crops.
cultivation and natural growth of vegetation. The
Saurashtra falls within the semi-arid climatic
annual average winter temperature is 11 Celsius and
zone wherein the rainfall ranges from 400 mm
the maximum temperature in the summer ranges
in the northern region to 800 mm in the south-
from 38 to 41 Celsius. The hilly forested terrain here
eastern Saurashtra coast. Rainfall in the coastal area
is predominated by mixed deciduous type vegetation.
is relatively less as it ranges from 400 to 600 mm. It
The littoral landscape along the coastal line is marked
is a bit better, about 700 mm, further inland. There
by typical coastal topography with lush green tropical
are some pockets of heavy rainfall in the hilly areas
vegetation mixed with scrub-jungles where the soil

- 30 -
Table 1-1 Newly discovered/revisited Chalcolithic and the Historic Period sites along the Junagadh coast of Saurashtra.
Chalcolithic sites
#
1
Site
Somnath/Prabhas Patan (Nagara Timbo)
Village,
Approx. size
Cultural affiliation and remarks
Somnath
600 x 150 m
Pre-Prabhas, Prabhas and Early Historic
20 54N, 70 25.3E
2
Warodra-I
(9 htr.)
Warodra
10 x 10 m
(20 48.75N; 70 31.41E)

3
Haveda Bapa (Warodra -II)
(0.01 htr.)
Warodra
200 x 135 m
20 49.07N; 70 31.07E
4
Bhana bhai no Khetar
Early Harappan Sindh related pottery.

Sorath Harappan + Early Historic
(2.7 htr.)
Pasnawara
95 x 50 m
(Gayatrimata ni Thumdo-II)
Sorath Harappan + Early Historic
(0.48 htr.)
20 49.36N; 70 33.33 E
5
Khandini Timbo
Lodhwa
20 49.35N; 70 35.52E
6
Khandero (Bhimbhai no Khetar)
Lodhwa
2049.45N, 70 35.46E
7
Bhavani Timbo
Dhamlej
20 47N, 70 35.9 E
8
Shapur (Puncha Hira ni Khetar)
Shapur
21 5.65N; 70 7.56E
9
Lohij-I (Sanavav Pa-1)
Lohij
21 9.53N, 70 3.45E
10
Lohij-II (Sanavav Pa-II)
Lohij
21 9.49N, 70 3.50E
11
Lohij-III (Devariya Nagari)

Kokru
Khaganath no Timbo
Madhavrai no Timbo
Historic
25 x 20 m
Sorath Harappan (Heavily abraded) +
(0.5 htr.)
Late Medieval
100 x 70 m
Sorath Harappan + Early
(0.7 htr.)
Historic
220 x 140 m
Prabhas + Early Harappan. Shell bangles
(3.08 htr.)
+ Late Medieval
175 x 40 m
Prabhas, Shell objects;
(0.7 htr.)
Stone structures
10 x 10 m
Prabhas/Sorath Harappan.
(0.01 htr.)
Very few descriptive potshreds.
---------Sil
200 x 75 m
Historic and Medieval

Prabhas
(1.75 htr.)
Atroli
2113.14N, 70 0.33E
14
(0.12 htr.)
Early Harappan Sindh pottery + Early
21 10.81N, 70 2.70E
13
Prabhas + Sorath Harappan + Early
Lohij
21 9.66N; 70 3.1E
12
40 x 30 m
Mul-Madhavpur
2115.32N; 69 58.79E
135 x 120 m
Prabhas + Sorath Harappan + Late
(1.6 htr.)
Medieval
65 x 30 m
Sorath Harappan
(0.19 htr.)
cover is thin.
channel and flows into the Arabian Sea near Somnath.
Drainage in Saurashtra follows a radial pattern
The Chalcolithic Prabhas site at Somnath is located
as most of the rivers and streams originate from the
very close to the seashore on the left bank of the river.
elevated plateau in the centre. The present study area
The Saraswati is about 52 km long and joins the Hiren
in the Junagadh coast is drained by four major rivers,
near Kalij village about 2 km east of Somnath. The
the Hiren, the Saraswati, the Megel and the Noli and
third river Megal joins the Arabian Sea about 33 km
their tributaries (Figure 2). As they originate from the
northwest of Somnath between Simar and Chorwad
south of the elevated central Saurashtra plateau, the
villages. It has about 46 km long channel. The Noli is
rivers do not have great channel length. The longest
a small stream with just 36 km long, narrow channel
among these is the Hiren, which has a 64 km long
that joins the Sea near Sariyaj village. Yet another

- 31 -
Table 1-2 Newly discovered/revisited Chalcolithic and the Historic Period sites along the Junagadh coast of Saurashtra.
HIstoric Period sites
#
15.
Site
Kalej-I ( Jiva Bhai no Khetar)
Village
Approx. size
Cultural affiliation and remarks
Kalej
45 x 30 m
Early Historic (RPW)
20 53.58N; 70 29.95E
16
Kalej-II (Pinch Per)
(0.13 htr.)
Kalej
20 53.45N; 70 30.1E
17
Thumliu no Timbo
Humbliu Timbo
Gelki
Umbri
Vakodar
Sutrapada
Vanankio Timbo
200 x 100 m
200 x 200 m
Medieval + Early Historic (RPW)
(4 htr.)
Ghorakhmadi
20 55.36N: 70 32.4E
21
(2 htr.)
20 53.61N; 70 31.05E
20
160 x 120 m
(1.92 htr.)
20 54.07N; 70 31.71E
19
(0.49 htr.)
Ghorakhmadi
20 54.4N; 70 31.6E
18
70 x 70 m
300 x 150 m
Medieval + Early Historic (RPW)
(4.5 htr.)
Warodra
(Warodra-III)
200 x 200 m
Early Historic
(4 htr.)
20 48.84N; 70 32.04E
22
Gayatrimata ni Thumdo-I
Pasnawara
20 49.3N; 70 33.2E
23
Ganeswari ni Timbo
Dhoro Timbo
Adri
Madsimar
Shidogar
Panchnath Mahadev
Sonesa ni Timbo
200 x 150 m
Early Historic + Late Medieval?
15 x 10 m
Late Medieval
(0.15 htr.)
Chorwad
(21 01.77N 70 12.88E

27
Early Historic + Late Medieval
(3 htr.)
Simar
21 1.04N; 70 16.73E
26
200 x 200 m
(4 htr.)
20 56.72N 70 8.6E
25
(0.83 htr.)
2057.7N; 7017.13E
24
110 x 75 m
12 x 11 m
Early Historic
(0.13 htr.)
Gotana
21 5.40N, 70 12.84E
145 x 105 m
(1.5 htr.)
small stream having just about 18 km long channel
the team moved away to adjoining areas after taking
that meets the Sea further northwest near Sil village
into account of the natural depressions and other
is the Nali. It drains the village Lohij and surrounding
geographical features such as the presence of fertile
area which has reported three Chalcolithic sites in the
tracts, marshy areas and rocky/stony waste etc., which
exploration.
are readable in the Survey of India topographic maps
and satellite images of the region.
Assuming that prehistoric or Chalcolithic
settlements would be linked with perennial water
bodies as they were dependent on water availability,
both known and newly located sites and their
we thought it would be a good strategy to use the
geographical setting in detail. Geo-coordinates and
course of these river channels as the main guideline
approximate height from the sea level are recorded
to carry out our foot survey. Ideally speaking after a
using hand held GPS, Garmin eTrex Vista. A total
thorough survey of the areas close to the riverbanks
27 sites were either newly located or revisited during

- 32 -
As a part of the recording strategy we recorded
The Chalcolithic Sites
the exploration (Table 1). The sites belonged to

different cultural periods starting from the Harappan
Chalcolithic to the Late Medieval period through the
The total number of Chalcolithic sites found in this
Early Historic. Further divisions within these major
region is 14. Three among these are found along the
cultural periods of occupation have been made on
course of a small stream channel that drains through
the basis of the predominance of regional cultural
Lodhwa and Dhamlej villages about 28 km east of
traits within the artefact assemblages and taking into
Somnath. Rest of the sites are all located just on
account their chronological context. The Harappan
the seacoast; some of them, in fact, on the seashore
Chalcolithic sites have therefore been divided into:
washed by the high tide today. A short description of
(a) The Early Harappan Sindh related assemblage, (b)
each site is given below.
the Pre-Prabhas, (c) the Prabhas and (d) the Sorath

Harappan. A cursory look at the distribution of sites
1. Prabhas Patan/Somnath
in the explored area will reveal that there is a good
(20 54N, 70 25.3E)
concentration of sites in the coastal region during the
Locally known by Nagara Timbo, this ancient site is
Early Historic and Medieval periods (Figure 2). Sites
located on the right bank of the Hiren river. This is
belonging to the Chalcolithic period are also equally
a large and impressive site spread about 600 x 150 m
abundant along the coast.
along the right bank of the river and has an over all
The list includes 14 sites belonging to the
7.0 m thick cultural deposit (Figure 3). This is the
Harappan Chalcolithic and 13sites belonging to the
type-site for the Prabhas and the Pre-Prabhas culture
Historic period (Table 1). A large number of sites, 9 of
remains, as the excavations in the 1950s (Subbarao
them, showed both Chalcolithic and Historic period
1958, Nanavati et al. 1971) and in the 1970s (IAR
occupation. Seven among the fourteen Chalcolithic
1955 to 1977, Dhavalikar 1984) had provided enough
period sites are predominated by the Prabhas pottery
evidence of these two Chalcolithic cultural traditions
and three sites show evidence of Early Harappan
in the earliest levels at the site.
Sindh related assemblage. Other Chalcolithic sites
show primarily the Sorath Harappan affiliation. The
was occupied during the Early Historic period, which
historic period occupation along the coast starts from
is represented by the Red Polished Ware (RPW),
the Early Historic period as indicated by the presence
red ware, grey ware and black-and-red ware. The
of Red Polished Ware (RPW) and sherds of torpedo
south-western side of the mound has now partially
jars or the so called Roman Amphorae. Among the
been encroached by agricultural activities causing
18 sites belonging to this period, 6 are reasonably large
enormous destruction. There is little evidence of
and rich, measuring between 2 and 4 hectare. Some of
Harappan or Chalcolithic occupation in the artefact
the sites show continued occupation in the Medieval
assemblages found on the surface as they are buried
period too. Most of the medieval sites in the area are
deep at the bottom of the mound/site. However, rain
of Late Medieval period. A brief description of the
gullies and the sections exposed by the construction of
sites given below provides geomorphic context and
a recent road cutting across the site revealed isolated
general archaeological content of the sites.
potsherds and remains of stone-built structures of the
Most of the upper part of the mound actually
Chalcolithic period.
- 33 -
Figure 3 The Chalcolithic mound at Prabhas Patan
2. Warodra-I
cluster of pottery found at Warodra-I and is also just
(20 48.75N; 70 31.41E)
on the seashore. The site probably on a stabilized
This site is a small cluster of potsherds that are found
coastal sand dune is now being systematically
exposed on the sea shore in between two small
destroyed by the sand mining activity going on in the
elevations known as Vanankio Timbo and Haveda
area. More than half of the site is completely razed
Timbo in the south of Warodra village (Figure 4).
down by this activity. Besides, the site is bisected by a
The fact that the cluster is exposed due to erosion and
road track. Sections exposed by these activities clearly
high tide activity on the shore is a clear indication
show cultural deposits belonging to two periods: the
of the extent of damage these natural agents may
Harappan and the Historic
have caused to the site. What is more interesting
is that the pottery collected from this site showed
a few isolated potsherds and shell bangle fragments
close resemblance with the pottery reported from
which probably have come from the early levels
Early Harappan Sindh related pottery from north
(Figure 7). The pottery shows Sorath Harappan
Gujarat (Figures 5 and 6). The assemblage included
features. Since the basal part of the sections cut in the
some coarse pottery, which appeared hand-made.
deposit was all found covered by a pile of thalus, it was
Unfortunately, in both the categories, there are no real
not easy to ascertain the actual context of this pottery.
rim-sherds in the collection, except one, that would
The bulk of the subsequent deposit measuring 1.50
have helped the identification more precise in terms
m belongs the Historic period. Apart from pottery,
of its cultural affiliation. In addition to pottery there
remains of several stone structures are also reported
are a few T. pyrum shell columella with saw-cut marks
from this deposit.
that are found at the site.
The Harappan relics at the site are restricted to
The Historic period occupation belonged to the
medieval period after which the site was abandoned.

3. Haveda Bapa (Warodra-II)
What is important as far as the abandonment of
(20 49.07N; 70 31.07E)
the Medieval occupation is concerned is the 70 to
This site is located about 200 m northwest of the
80 cm thick sand deposit that buries the site almost

- 34 -
Figure 4 Warodra-I, The Early Harappan Sindh pottery site at Warodra-I washed away by high tides
Figure 5 Close view of the in situ Early Harappan Sindh type pottery at Warodra-I
- 35 -
Figure 6 Early Harappan Sindh related pottery from Warodra-I
Figure 7 Harappan pottery from Haveda Bapa, Warodra-II
- 36 -
completely. As this deposit appears to be a local
incised decoration (Figures 12 and 13). Some of the
phenomenon, it is possible that the deposit was
pot-sherds show bichrome paintings. This site has a
formed by a localized high-energy event that hit the
few shell columella and small pieces of shell bangles as
coast in the Medieval times. Further investigation is
well as a few mammal bones.
needed to ascertain the veracity of this event.
The Early Historic occupation at the top of
the mound in the northwest of Prabhas occupation

4. Bhanabhai no Khetar (Gayatrimata ni
measures 100 x 90 m and has a thickness about 1.5 m.
Thumdo-II)
Pottery recovered from this site is predominated by
(2049.36N; 7033.33E)
RPW and associated wares.
The site is about 500 m east of the Gayatri Mandir on

the way to the temple from Pasnawara village. Some
6. Khandero (Bhimbhai no Khetar)
part of the mound is destroyed by recent draught
(2049.45N, 7035.46E)
relief digging. The soil on this mound is a bit stony as
This site is located in the field about 100 m north of
at many places the basal rock is found exposed on the
the site Khandini Timbo across the Vekri stream. It
surface. The Harappan site is identified on the basis
seems the large slightly elevated field in fact is cut
of a few potsherds primarily that of basins and pots
into two by the stream. The entire field is now under
(Figure 8), spread to an area at present covering 95 x
heavy cultivation enhanced by the new irrigation
50 m. In addition to the Harappan pottery there are
techniques. This site also has a prominent cultural
also Early Historic pottery represented by the RPW
deposit of the Early Historic period whose remains
and other types as well as Medieval period sherds
almost obliterate the Harappan artefact. It is only
all on the surface with no stratigraphic distinction.
after the recent intense agricultural activity the
There are a few cut-columella of shell and shell
underlying Harappan artefacts have started getting
working wastes collected from the site (Figure 9). It
exposed on the surface. The Harappan occupation
is not very easy to suggest to which cultural context
at the site is represented by a cluster of badly abraded
they may belong to, as they are all collected from the
pottery spread to an area roughly covering 10 x 10 m.
surface.
This could be either part of the Khandini Timbo site

or a seasonal occupation near to the stream by the
5. Khandini Timbo
Harappans.
(2049.35N; 7035.52E)
The site is located about 3 km southeast of Lodhwa
7. Bhavani Timbo
village on the bank of a Vokri/small stream. The
( 2047N, 7035.9E)
Harappan assemblage is found clustered on the south-
The site is located about 2 km south west of the
eastern edge of the large mound, which also has an
Dhamlej village. It is a reasonably large mound
Early Historic period deposit on the top.
measuring 100 x 70 m in size and has a height close
The Harappan site measures 40 x 30 m and is
to 1.0 m from the surroundings. Bulk of the artefacts
exposed due to intense agricultural activity. The total
found at the site is of Early Historic period including
deposit may not be more than 60 to 70 cm thick
a terracotta animal figurine (Figure 43). However
at this site. The Prabhas and the Sorath Harappan
there are a few Harappan potsherds, mostly non-
potteries (Figures 10 and 11) collected from the site are
descriptive ones (Figure 14), found within the
predominated by convex sided bowls of the Prabhas
Historic assemblage on the surface. It is therefore
type, pots with incipient rim and coarse wares with
quite possible that the Harappan occupation of the

- 37 -
Figure 8 Harappan potsherds from Bhanabhai no Kheter, Pasnawara
Figure 9 Shell bangles and craft waste from Bhanabhai no Khetar (a few of the shell bangles are of the Early Historic period)
- 38 -
Figure 10 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan pottery from Khandini Timbo, Lodhwa
Figure 11 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan pottery from Khandini Timbo, Lodhwa
- 39 -
Figure 12 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan Pottery from Khandini Timbo, Lodhwa:
1, 2, 4, 6 Prabhas bowls and dish; 5, 7-9 Sorath Harappan Red ware; 10 Coarse balck and red ware with incised decoration
(1, 6 reddish brown slip and dark pinkish brown painting, 2 Buff slip, 6 white and dark pinkish brown painted lines)
- 40 -
Figure 13 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan Potteries from Khandini Timbo, Lodhwa:
1-12 Red ware (1, 10 Light reddish brown slip) Large open mouthed vessels, 5-8 small/medium size pots/jars
- 41 -
Figure 14 Harappan pottery from Bhavani Timbo, Dhamlej
site is partly concealed by the later, Early Historic
IIB and IIC type. A few Early Harappan Sindh type
deposits.
potteries, especially medium size pots/jars with out

turned rim and shallow dishes are also found in the
8. Shapur-I (Puncha Hira Chavda no Khetar)
collection (Figures 22 and 23). A few pottery discs
(2105.65N; 7007.56E)
and a small shell bangle piece are the other antiquities
The site is located about 2 km southwest of Shapur
found at the site (Figure 24). The collection includes
village on the Mangrol - Bara road and is about 500
a few mammalian bones and teeth too (Figure 25). A
m away from the seashore. The site is a large oblong
few isolated sherds of the Late Medieval pottery are
mound measuring 200 x 150 m (Figure 15). A recently
also reported from the site. Overall thickness of the
constructed partition wall divides the mound into
deposit is about 1.50 m.
eastern and western half and the eastern half is badly

destroyed by relief digging work. This has exposed
9. Lohij-I (Sanavav Pa-I)
a number of rubble stones on the surface at the site
(2109.53N; 70 8.45E)
suggesting the presence of buried stone structures.
The site is located about 2 km south of the village
The western half is less disturbed as it is only used for
and is at present an agriculture field. It measures
cultivation.
approximately 0.70 hectare (175 x 40 m) and more
The artefacts recovered from the site includes the
than half of the site is under intense cultivation and
Harappan/Chalcolithic pottery especially Prabhas
therefore quite badly disturbed (Figure 26). The
type bowls, pots, dishes and dish-on-stand (Figures
relatively undisturbed part shows remains of rubble
16 - 21). The dish-on-stand resembles Rangpur Period
stone structures on the surface. At some places,

- 42 -
Figure 15 Shapur-I, General view of the Prabhas site at Shapur
patches of stone robbing are also visible on the surface.
of Sanavav Pa site within the forestland that has been
The site appears to have a total deposit of 1 to 1.5 m.
recently developed by acacia plantation. Since there is
The artefacts collected from the site incorporated
a good growth of vegetation all around, it is difficult
Prabhas type pottery and pottery resembling the
to locate actual features of the site. However it is
Rangpur IIB and IIC type. There are Prabhas bowls,
possible to trace remains of extensive rubble stone
Prabhas pots, Harappan dish-on-stand, basins, dishes
structures exposed on the surface within this area.
and stud handled bowls (Figures 27 - 30). This site
Remains of about 65 to 70 cm thick rubble stonewalls
appears to be a better preserved Prabhas site than the
of a large structure measuring 60 x 20 m are found
other small sites reported in the current exploration.
exposed in one of the areas where the vegetation cover

is relatively less. The other end of this structure has
10. Lohij-II (Sanavav Pa-II)
been partially dug up exposing an ashy underlying
(2109.49N, 703.50E)
deposit. A few Medieval potteries have been found
A small 10 x 10 m area with isolated sherds of the
from this cutting indicating perhaps the structures
same type of pottery is found about 60 m east of the
also may belong to that period.
above site. This could be an extension of Lohij-I or a
pastoral site formed slightly later in time.
potteries were reported from the site by Ms. Kalini
However, a few Early Harappan Sindh related
Khandwal in 2001 (Personal communication)

11. Lohij-III (Devariya Nagari)
while she was exploring the site at a time the Forest
(2109.66N; 70 03.1E)
Department was carrying out some digging at the
The site is located about half a kilometre further west
site. From one of the cuttings she collected the

- 43 -
Figure 16 Prabhas bowls and dishes from Shapur-I
Figure 17 Prabhas pottery from Shapur-I
- 44 -
Figure 18 Prabhas pottery from Shapur-I:

1-6, 8 Prabhas bowls with pinkish brown paintings; 7, 11 Sorath Harappan (2 black core, buff slip); 9, 10 Prabhas basin and dish
Early Harappan pottery (Figure 31). Now, with the
Sindh related pottery at Datrana in north Gujarat
discovery of a few more shreds of similar pottery
(Ajithprasad 2002).
from the coastal site at Warodra-I, there appears
to have some evidence to suggest the contact of
coast, the entire landscape is predominated by high
the Early Harappans in the Saurashtra coast dating
coastal sand dunes that bury even a medieval burial
back to the first half of the third millennium BCE.
ground in the village. The sand deposit here is at
This argument is supported by the presence of both
present 4m high. Such a thick deposition of sand
the Pre-Prabhas pottery and the Early Harappan
indirectly suggests involvement of a major Tsunami

- 45 -
About half a kilometre further west along the
Figure 19 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan dishes and dish-on-stand from Shapur-I:
1, 2, 5, 6 Prabhas ware; 3,4 Sorath Harappan
(5, 6 light greyish brown slip and dark brown painting; 5 painting on a white background).
type single high-energy event affecting the coastal
and it appears the site has about 1 to 1.25 m thick
area.
cultural deposit. The artefacts collected from this site

included Prabhas type convex sided bowls, Harappan
12. Kokru
pots, basins, dish on stand and dishes, etc (Figure 33).
(2110.81N, 7002.7E)
A small broken copper knife also is found from the
The site is located very close to the Khari stream
site (Figure 34).
(Figure 32) at about 1 km south of the village Sil and

about 1.50 km northeast from the seashore. It is badly
13. Khaganath ni timbo
disturbed by recent intense agriculture activities
(2113.14N, 7000.33E)
that have brought out on the surface a few rubble
It is about 1 km southeast of the Atroli village in
stone slabs from some of the buried structures. The
between the Khaganath temple and the Hanuman
artefacts at the site are found spread in a rectangular
temple. On the west, the site is protected by rocky
field over an area measuring 200 x 75 m (1.5 hectare)
ridges of very low height, that act as an effective

- 46 -
Figure 20 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan pottery from Shapur-I:

1-9 Red ware (1,7,8 dark brown slip)
windshield. Besides, it is located close to a shallow
farming activity. The rubbles that are exposed due to
natural depression, which at present retains water till
ploughing are collected by the farmers for building
the beginning of summer. The artefacts on the surface
compound walls of low height around their fields.
at the site are found spread over an area of 135 x 120 m
(Figure 35). In fact, the site is now cut up into small,
are of the Prabhas along with a few Sorath Harappan
cultivated fields and is also dissected by a narrow
pottery, which are badly abraded and often the slip
pathway. The site has good collection of Prabhas
completely pealed off the surface. The vessels include
pottery along with the Sorath Harappan. It also has
dishes, dish on stand, large storage jars, pots, Prabhas
a patch of Medieval artefacts on the top, especially at
bowls and Prabhas type pots (Figures 36 and 37). In
the highest part of the site. Wherever the medieval
addition to these there are a few stud-handled bowls
deposit is disturbed and partially removed it is easy to
as well as convex sided hemispherical bowls in the
locate the Prabhas pottery mixed with the Medieval
collection.
The artefacts collected from the site primarily
remains. The overall thickness of the Prabhas deposit

at the site may be around 1.5 to 2.0 m.
14. Madhavrai no Timbo
(2115.32N; 6958.79E)
The site appears to have several stone structures
belonging to the Prabhas occupation. These
The site is a cultivated field just behind the Madhavrai
structures are disturbed partially at present due to
temple in the heart of the Mul-Madhavpur village

- 47 -
Figure 21 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan large size vessels from Shapur-I:
1, 5 Prabhas; 2-4 Sorath Harappan
Historic Period Sites
and is very close to the coastal State Highway. A

few Chalcolithic / Harappan potsherds are found
in a cultivated field at the edge of the present village
15. Kalej-1 ( Jiva Bhai no Khetar)
settlement, which in fact, is recently cut to expand the
(2053.58N; 7029.95E)
field. It is in this recently cut part of the settlement
The site is located on the left bank of the Saraswati
the Harappan pottery are found. As the entire village
river and hardly 1 km south of the Vikrameshwar
sits over the ancient mound, it is difficult to assess the
Temple on the river bank. The large mound is under
actual size of the original Chalcolithic occupation.
heavy cultivation and difficult to explore. A few Early
It appears the major part of the site is lying below
Historic pottery including sherds of the RPW, fine
the present day settlement at the site. The potteries
red ware and grey ware are collected from the edge of
collected are mostly non-descriptive sherds and are
this site. The site measures approximately 120 x 95 m
abraded due to continuous cultivations in the field.
and has a cultural deposit of about 1.0 to 1.50 m.
- 48 -
Figure 22 Early Harappan Sindh type pottery from Shapur-I
Figure 23 The Early Harappan Sindh type pottery from Shapur-I:

1-6 fine red ware (2 light greyish brown slip, 5 and 6 dark reddish brown slip)
- 49 -
Figure 24 Shell bangle piece and pottery discs from Shapur-I

Graffiti on the right bottom sherd
Figure 25 Animal bones from Shapur-I
- 50 -
Figure 26 Lohij-I, General view of the Prabhas site in Lohij village
Figure 27 Prabhas pottery from Lohij-I
- 51 -
Figure 28 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan pottery from Lohij-I
16. Kalej-II (Panch Pir)
in addition to a possible perimeter wall that protected
(2053.45N; 7030.1E)
it from the encroachment of the two rivers. Remains
This site is located about 300 m further south of
of a temple including the image of a Nandi and a few
Kalej-I. The artefacts mostly belonging to the Early
sculptures are also found at the site.
Historic period is spread to an overall 120 x 70 m
area. The maximum cultural deposit is approximately
predominated by the RPW. This includes several
1 to 1.25 m from the sections exposed in the field due
distinct shapes of the RPW pots, bowls, basins and
to agriculture activity. Red Polished Ware (RPW)
sprinklers (Figures 38). There is also a torpedo jar
and associated pottery are the main artefacts collected
sherd with black resin stained interior (Figure 41) and
from the site.
other associated red ware and grey ware of the Early
The pottery found on the surface at the site is
Historic period in the collection. A few decorated

17. Thumliu no Timbo
shell bangles and typical areca-nut shaped terracotta
(2054.4N; 7031.6E)
beads are also found at the site (Figure 42).
This is located in Ghorakhmadi village, just on the

road from Ajota to Ghorakhmadi at the meeting
18. Humbliu Timbo
point of the Saraswati and the Bhundio streams. The
(2054.07N; 7031.71E)
site measuring approximately 2 hectare (180 x 120 m)
This Early Historic site is located on the opposite
is partly disturbed due to cultivation. It has an overall
of Thumlio ni Timbo across the river Saraswati on
deposit above 1.5 m. The site appears to have several
it left bank in the Umbri village. The site in fact is
rubble stone structures buried underneath the deposit
a large settlement which is spread along the bank of

- 52 -
Figure 29 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan potteries from Lohij-I:

1-5 Prabhas bowls, 6-9 Sorath Harappan bowls
(9 Buff slip and reddish brown paintings, 10-14 Sorath Harappan dishes and dish-on-stand
the Saraswati up to almost 700 m, though the main
artefacts found on the surface are predominated by
concentration is found within an area covered by 300
the Early Historic RPW and associated coarse red
x 90 m. The site has a culture deposit close to 2.0 m
ware and grey ware (Figure 39). A stone rotary quern
thick and has buried rubble stone structures. The
is also found at the site.

- 53 -
Figure 30 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan Potteries from Lohij-I:

1 Red ware with bichrome dark reddish brown and red slip with a faint cream patch in between,
2-3 Grey ware with dark reddish brown slip at the rim; 4-9, 11-12 Prabhas ware
(4-7, 9 a light buff/cream wash of slip, dark brown painted bands at the rim); 10 Soarth Harappan red ware
- 54 -
Figure 31 Early Harappan Sindh type pottery from Lohij (reported in 2001 by Kalini Kandwala)
19. Gelki
2.00 m. As the top part of the mound is levelled for
(2053.61N; 7031.05E )
cultivation the entire mound is quite ashy and loose.
The Gelki mound is located about 2 km southwest
Artefacts collected from the site mainly belong to
of Umbri village and is close to Sutrapada in the
Late Medieval period. However, a few sherds of the
southeast. This is a large ashy mound belonging to
RPW (Figure 40) are also found at the site indicating
the Late Medieval period. However, a few sherds
possible Early Historic occupation at the site.
of the RPW are also found at the site suggesting

there is some evidence of early occupation prior to
21. Vanankio Timbo (Warodra- III)
the Medieval period. This is now almost completely
(2048.84N; 70 32.04E)
concealed underneath the Medieval deposit. The site
This Early Historic period site is located 1.5 km
measures 200 x 200 m and has an habitation deposit
southeast of the village Warodra on the seashore. It is
close to 2.0 m.
a large site measuring approximately 4 hectare (200 x

200 m) and has 1.5 to 2.0 m thick maximum deposits.
20. Vakodar
The site is disturbed badly by cultivation. A good
(2055.36N; 7032.4E)
collection of RPW, red ware and grey ware are the
This Medieval site in Ghorakhmadi village is located
main pottery reported from the site. Shell bangles,
about 2 km north of the village on the right bank
terracotta discs/objects and animal bones are the
of the Bhundio stream that joins the Saraswati near
other artefacts and animal remains collected from the
Umbri. The site is reasonably large measuring 300
site.
x 150 m having an overall cultural deposit of about

- 55 -
Figure 32 The Kokru mound across the Khari stream where it joins the sea
Figure 33 Prabhas pottery from Kokru
- 56 -
Figure 34 A broken copper/bronze knife blade from Kokru
Figure 35 General view of Khaganath Timbo, the Prabhas site in Atroli
- 57 -
Figure 36 Prabhas and Sorath Harappan pottery from Khaganath Timbo
Figure 37 Prabhas pottery from Khaganath Timbo
- 58 -
Figure 38 RPW from Thumliu Timbo, Ghorakhmadi
Figure 39 Early Historic RPW and associated pottery from Humbliu Timbo, Ghorakhmadi
- 59 -
Figure 40 Early Historic pottery, Red Polished ware from Vakodar and Ganeswari ni Timbo
Figure 41 Torpedo jar sherd from Thumliu no timbo, Ghorakhmadi
- 60 -
Figure 42 Shell bangles, TC beads and perforated disc, Early Historic from Thumliu no Timbo, Ghorakhmadi
Figure 43 Historic period, Terracotta animal figurine from Bhavani Timbo, Dhamlej
- 61 -
Figure 44 RPW sprinkler with incised decoration from Ganeswari ni Timbo
22. Gayatrimata ni Thumdo-I
Artefacts at the site are found spread over an area
(2049.3N; 7033.2E)
roughly measuring 200 x 200 m. The site appears
This site is located on the way to Gayatri Temple
to have a cultural deposit of 1.0 to 1.5 m lying over
in the village Pansawara. The site in fact is a large
the basalt bedrock, which is found exposed on the
mound of low elevation which today is under
surface in the vicinity of the site. The artefacts are
cultivation. As the entire site has good growth of
predominantly of the Early Historic period, including
standing cotton crops the actual extend of the site
the RPW and associated wares (Figures 40 and 44)
could not be ascertained from the surface spread. It
and a large rotary quern and a few shell bangles. A
appears that the artefacts are spread to an overall area
few remains of the Late Medieval period pottery are
of about 100 x 75 m. The pottery collected from this
also found on the surface indicating a two period
site is predominantly of Medieval period. However, a
occupation at the site.
few sherds of RPW and associated red and grey ware

are also found at the site. These may suggest an Early
24. Dhoro Timbo
Historic habitation at the site.
(2056.72N; 7008.6E)
The site is located half a kilometre southeast of
23. Ganeswari ni Timbo
Shidogar village. It measures 200 x 150 m in overall
(2057.7N; 7017.13E )
size and has a habitation deposit close to 1.0 m. The
This is a reasonably large mound located about half
artefacts collected from the site primarily include
a kilometre north of the Adri village on the left bank
RPW and other associated Early Historic pottery and
of a small stream, the Sankotri, that drains the region.
a few sherds of the Late Medieval period.

- 62 -
25. Madsimar
sites reported in the exploration are located close to
(2101.4N; 7016.73E)
present seashore, within a distance of 10 km. Besides,
The site is located 200 m north of the Simar village
many of them are very close to drainage channels
on the left bank of the Magel river. This is a small
be it tributary streams as in the case of sites on the
site measuring approximately 65 x 30 m with a low
Saraswati, Noli, Megal etc., or else close to a natural
elevation. The site belongs to the Late Medieval
depression as in the case of the site at Khaganath
period as the pottery from the site indicates. Some
temple. At least three small sites are found just a few
religious structures of recent period are found at the
hundred metres away from the edge of the seashore.
site.
As one moved interior about 20 to 25 km away from

the coastal line, the landscape changed into rocky
26. Panchnath Mahadev
and forested. There are no Chalcolithic/Harappan
(2101.77N; 7012.88E)
sites in this rocky terrain. It seems the Harappan/
Located about 3 km southwest of Chorwad village,
Chalcolithic communities have avoided settling down
this site has a very small and isolated spread of pottery
in this rocky terrain primarily due to the absence of
that includes a few RPW sherds. There is also a small
arable land for their agricultural activities. The fertile
rock cut well in the middle of the ruins at the site.
alluvial soil close to the coast offered a more conducive
The thickness of habitation is less than 40 cm. This
environment for the Chalcolithic pastoralists and
appears to be a sort of pastoral campsite of the Early
they selected pockets along the coastal belt based on
Historic period.
the availability of water for their settlements. It will

not be difficult to visualize this scenario in operation
27. Sonesa ni Timbo
as early as the Pre-Prabhas occupation at Somnath
(2105.40N, 7012.84E)
dating back to 3000 BCE. Our exploration so far
The site is located about 2 km east of Gothana village
has not revealed sites having Pre-Prabhas pottery.
and is close to the Nali stream. The village road in
This does not necessarily suggest complete absence
fact cuts through the site. This is an ashy mound
of the Pre-Prabhas related assemblage in the region.
incorporating predominantly Medieval pottery and
It is possible that this early Chalcolithic deposit is
a few Early Historic vessels especially the RPW. The
not exposed on the surface due to the accumulation
site is approximately 150 x 100 m in size and has about
of later period deposits. This is the situation even at
1.5 m thick cultural deposits
Somnath where the surface artefacts do not reflect

the Pre-Prabhas assemblage at all. It is only in the
excavation the Pre-Prabhas pottery was identified in
Site Distribution and

Settlement Features
the earliest habitation layers. Therefore, it will not be

all together right to rule out the possibility of a PrePrabhas substratum in some of the newly discovered
Geographical features of Saurashtra, especially
sites in the region.
availability of water and soils suitable for cultivation

and vast pastoral lands conducive for stock-raising,
Early Harappan Sindh Related
played a decisive role in the selection of sites for
Assemblages
occupation both in the Chalcolithic and the Historic
This specifically refers to a cultural assemblage
periods. A cursory look at the overall pattern of
primarily reported from Moti Pipli and several
distribution of sites suggests that almost all the
other sites such as Nag wada, Santhli, Panchasar

- 63 -
Table 2 Distribution of sites based on their approximate size in different cultural periods
Cultural Periods
>0 1
htr.
>12
htr.
>2 3
htr.
>3 4
htr.
>4 5
htr.
>5 6
htr.
>6 7
htr.
>8 9
htr.
Total # of Sites
Chalcolithic
Early Harappan (Sindh type)
c. 3000-2500 BCE
Pre-Prabhas
1?
18
c. 3000-2500 BCE
Prabhas
c. 2400-1900 BCE
Sorath Harappan
c. 2400-1700 BCE
Historic Period
Early Historic
c. 1st century ACE
Medieval
11
c. 1300 ACE
etc. in north Gujarat (Sonawane and Ajithprasad
Researcher, the M. S. University of Baroda, while
1994, Majumdar and Sonawane 1996-97, Majumdar
exploring the Saurashtra coast of Junagadh had
2001, Ajithprasad 2002). In fact, there are nine sites
reported Early Harappan Sindh related pottery
in north Gujarat, apart from Moti Pipli, which
(Figure 31) from Lohij-III, a site near Mangrol
incorporate this early assemblage. At Nagwada and
(Majumdar 2001). The site falls within a patch of
Santhli, the two excavated sites of this category, the
recently reclaimed forestland and is covered with
Early Harappan pottery showing close similarity with
good vegetation. As a result, the visibility of cultural
Sindh and Baluchistan region are found associated
relics at present on the surface at this site is limited.
with burials. The pottery is found as burial goods in
While Ms. Kandwala was exploring the region in
both inhumation burials and in symbolic pot-burials
2001, there was some digging activity going on at
at these sites. Interestingly, the early Harappan pottery
the site and she could collect a few Early Harappan
at Nagwada is confined to the burials alone and is not
pottery from the pits dug out for plantation purpose.
reported from the regular habitation deposit. Santhli
We however, could not find any Sindh related
on the other hand has a very thin habitation layer that
pottery at this site in our survey. Most of the isolated
incorporated the Early Harappan pottery. Our studies
potsherds we collected from the surface belonged to
have suggested that the Early Harappan pottery of the
the Medieval period. Despite the thick growth of
early third millennium BCE is generally spread along
vegetation it is possible to figure out the plan of a very
the eastern margins of the Little Rann of Kachchh
large multi-roomed stone structure with thick outer
in north Gujarat and adjoining regions of southern
walls. The antiquity of this structure could not be
eastern Kachchh.
ascertained from the surface finds.
A few years back, in 2001, Ms. Kalini Kandwala,

- 64 -
Yet another site that has the Early Harappan
Sindh related pottery is Warodra-I, which is located
Prabhas Sites
a few metres away from the seashore. In fact, the site
Reported first in the mid 1950s from Prabhas
is represented by just a few potsherds exposed on the
Patan/Somnath in the Saurashtra coast, the Prabhas
sandy shore (Figures 4 and 5). The potsherds are
assemblage included a group of pottery very different
too fragmentary, because of the constant inundation
from the so called Late Harappan pottery with
during the high tides and we could collect only one
which it was found associated with (IAR 1957,
diagnostic sherd. This and most of the small un-
Subbarao 1958, Dhavalikar 1984). It is generally
diagnostic potsherds that we have collected from the
represented by hemispherical bowls with a thin
site looked very similar to the Early Harappan Sindh
tapering rim and medium size pots and jars with
related pottery reported from north Gujarat sites
a short rim and an incipient neck. The painted
(Figure 6). A third site that has incorporated a few
decorations on the vessels are also distinct from the
sherds of the Early Harappan Sindh related pottery
contemporary Harappan style. The Prabhas bowls are
(Figures 22 and 23) is Punja Hira no Khetar in Shapur
generally decorated with geometric patterns within a
village, situated close to the seacoast in between Lohij
panel at the rim. The colour used in the paintings is
and Warodra. The potsherds a few rims and body
either purple or violet. Painted decorations similar
and base parts of pots and dish-on-stand resemble
to the above are found at the shoulder of Prabhas
those reported from Moti-Pipli in north Gujarat
pots too. These features make it different from
(Sonawane and Ajithprasad 1994, Ajithprasad 2002,
the Harappan pottery. The Prabhas assemblage at
Majumdar and Sonawane 1996-97). At the Shapur
Somnath is associated with rubble stone structures
site, the Sindh related pottery is found along with
and showed the use of stone blades of locally available
the Prabhas pottery. A few potsherds, especially the
chert, chalcedony and jasper in addition to copper
nos.2 to 3 illustrated in Figure 30 from Lohij-I, are
implements and lapidary beads of semiprecious
different from the usual Prabhas pottery and are
stones, steatite and faience.
closer to the Early Harappan Sindh type pottery
(Figure 30). These discoveries from the sites along
other Harappan sites such as Lothal (Rao 1985:432)
the Saurashtra coast are particularly significant as
and Rojdi (IAR 1957-58) in the excavation. It has
the Pre-Prabhas pottery is reported from Datrana in
also been reported in the surface survey from seven
north Gujarat in association with the Sindh related
more sites in central Saurashtra. These discoveries
Early Harappan pottery (Ajithprasad 2002). This,
certainly suggests the interactive sphere of the
therefore, suggests that the cultural contact and the
Prabhhas cultural domain extending into the interior
movement of people between Saurashtra coast and
Saurashtra even up to north Gujarat. Most of the
north Gujarat and probably Sindh may have begun
newly located sites in the current survey, in fact, have
around 3000BCE itself in the Early Harappan times.
a mixture of the Prabhas pottery and the Sorath
The discovery therefore has far reaching consequence
Harappan pottery which certainly is an indication
in understanding the beginning and development of
that Prabhas assemblage had a reasonably large spread
Chalcolithic way of life in Gujarat. The earlier idea of
around Somnath, along the coast. Seven sites among
Urban phase Harappans introducing the farming and
the 13 newly discovered Chalcolithic/Harappan sites
pastoral way of life in Gujarat seems to be at peril in
in the region show the predominance of the Prabhas
the light of the new discoveries.
pottery. Both typical hemispherical bowls and
The Prabhas pottery has been reported from
medium size pots with incipient neck are found in all

these sites. Besides, many of them have characteristic
- 65 -
panels of geometric patterns painted in light pinkish
or red colour on them. These are small sites, often
deposit and the quality of structural constructions
less than one hectare in size and approximately just
are often a measure of the importance of the site in a
a metre or a little more than a metre thick cultural
systemic perspective wherein all the sites in a region
deposit (Table 2). There however are three large sites
are functionally inter-related. Each site plays a specific
- Shapur-I, Khaganath Timbo in Sil and Sanavav Pa
role in the development and proper operation of
in Lohij measuring between 1.5 and 3.00 hectare
cultural systems. Variation in the economic activities
affording more elaborate rubble stone structures. If
of the society therefore is an expression of the varying
all these sites are contemporary, hat would suggest
environmental setting of the sites and different
a functionally integrated network of settlements
strategies adopted by the society for the exploitation
belonging to the Prabhas culture, which has hitherto
of resources available in the environment. Hence,
not been reported. Besides, the graded size of
the effect of geographical features and environmental
settlements within the network is an indication of the
factors are immense in the development of different
degree of evolution of this regional cultural tradition
type sites in a region. It is obvious that these factors
in the Saurashtra coast.
are crucial in the selection and in the development
The over all size and thickness of occupation
of sites in the Saurashtra coast too from the fourth

The Sorath Harappan Sites
millennium BCE onwards.
As has been mentioned earlier the Prabhas pottery at
most of the above sites is found in association with
both the Chalcolithic and the later, Historic period
the Sorath Harappan pottery that can be compared
may reveal that there is no site in the region that
well with the assemblage from Rangpur IIA and IIB
could be regarded as an important nodal site or sites
and Rojdi B. The Sorath Harappan pottery found at
wherein most of the cultural and economic activities
these sites mainly includes convex and straight sided
were centred around (see Table 1.1 and 1.2). This is
bowls, dish-on-stands and pots and jars. Apart from
true for both the Chalcolithic and the Historic period
these sites there are six more Chalcolithic sites where
sites in the region. Yet, as mentioned earlier, there
the Sorath Harappan pottery is not associated with
appears to have some amount of gradation among
the Prabhas pottery. Material relics from these sites
the sites at least in their size and structural remains
incorporate slightly later period artefacts, especially
(Table 2). For instance, the site at Prabhas Patan
those belonging to Rojdi- C and Rangpur- IIC, in
on the bank of Hiren river is the largest among the
addition to Rangpur- IIB. These sites also are small in
Chalcolithic and in the Historic period sites. The
size, in fact, even smaller than the sites having Prabhas
site in the Historic period is 9.00 hectares. Its overall
pottery. The sites do not actually suggest the presence
height is about 8 m from the ground level. It is not
of longstanding permanent structure in the form of
sure the Chalcolithic habitation at the site was as
remains of rubble stone or brick walls. They probably
widely spread as the Historic period was. It probably
had flimsy structures made of wattle and daub. The
may not be. Yet, the Chalcolithic occupation is
over all deposit at these sites is very thin and they
reasonably large and incorporates rubble stone
generally have few artefacts apart from pottery and
structures suggesting the importance of the site. The
skeletal remains of exploited fauna. These probably
site at Shapur probably was equally large during this
would be short-term pastoral campsites suggesting
period. The other site that shows similarity in size
that the sites were occupied periodically even during
and structural features is Lohij, further north-west
the Post-Urban phase.
of Shapur. The sites showing exclusively Late Sorath

- 66 -
A close look at the overall features of the sites of
Harappan features are much smaller in size ranging
(Majmudar 1960). That the Asokan rock inscription,
just 0.19 to 0.70 hectare.
followed by the inscriptions of the Kshatrapa and
The pattern is continued even in the Historic
the Gupta dynasties at Girnar hill, mention about
periods. The Nagro Timbo at Prabhas Patan once
the construction and periodic upkeep of a large
again is the largest site in the coast belonging to
reservoir by damming across the Suvarnarekha river
the Early Historic period marked by the prominent
to augment water supply, bespeak the importance
presence of the Red Polished Ware (RPW). The
that were attached to the settlements in this region.
uncanny resemblance of the RPW, both in technical
It is apparent that the coastal region of Saurashtra
perfection and vessel features, with Roman pottery,
must have played an important role in the Greco-
particularly the Samian pottery is unmistakable
Roman sea trade resulting into the establishment of
(Subbarao 1953). Dated from the first century ACE
economically sound settlements along the coast.
onwards, it shows wide distribution all along the
western coast in Gujarat. A recent survey lists 268 sites
the current survey belonged to the Early Historic
in Gujarat alone that has yielded the RPW (Patel and
period. Many of them are found to be very rich in
Rajesh 2007). In the current exploratory survey we
RPW and have substantial deposit. Three sites found
located/revisited seventeen Early Historic period sites
on either banks of the Saraswati river merit special
apart from Prabhas Patan. Six of these are found to
mention here.
Most of the Historic period sites discovered in
be reoccupied even during the Late Medieval period.

Many of the Early Historic sites are larger in size than
Cultural Chronology
and Summary
the Chalcolithic sites and have solid rubble stone and

mud-brick structures. The remains of some sort of
a perimeter wall is suspected at Humblio timbo and
Thumlio ni timbo in Umbrio village. There are four
The beginning of Chalcolithic food producing way
sites having an overall size falling between 3 and 4
of life in Saurashtra has been dated to the middle of
hectare belonging to this period. They are very rich
fourth millennium BCE from Padri, about 100 km
in artefacts, especially the RPW. Besides, the site at
east of Prabhas Patan, in Bhavnagar district. This most
Thumlio ni timbo has a few sherds of the so called
probably was an early regional Chalcolithic tradition
Roman amphora that have recently been identified as
whose remains were reported from a few more sites
the torpedo jars of Mesopotamia (Tomber 2007).
in the region suggesting its geographical influence
In contrast, the number of Chalcolithic period sites
(Paul et al. 1997). However, the early Chalcolithic
falling in this size category is just one. This probably
Padri remains are not reported from Prabhas Patan
is a reflection of the increased intensity in the
in spite of its geographical proximity with Padri.
economic activities during the Early Historic period.
The ceramic assemblage and the lithic artefacts
The Saurashtra coast, especially along Junagadh and
reported from the earliest levels at Padri are distinctly
Bhavnagar districts, was a major centre for both
different from their counterpart at Prabhas Patan.
political and social activities right from the time of
Besides, the beginning of Pre-Prabhas, the earliest
Asoka Maurya in the third century BCE onwards.
Chalcolithic remains at Prabhas Patan, has been dated
The region also was a major Buddhist centre during
to 3000/2900 BCE; about half a millennium later
this period as was evident from a number of both
than the Padri. The Prabhas assemblage that follows
structural and rock-cut architectural remains of
Pre-Prabhas at Prabhas Patan has been dated by C14
the Early Historic period found along the coast
estimation to 2200 BCE (Calibrated, Possehl 1993).

- 67 -
The Pre-Prabhas assemblage therefore can be dated
of Saurashtra. The sites are essentially found within
between 3000 and 2600 BCE.
the narrow strip of fertile littoral corridor running
Very little is known about the geographical
between the seashore and the rocky ridges of the
spread of the Pre-Prabhas assemblage in Saurashtra.
inland Saurashtra. The fertile soil in this narrow
However, a site showing the Pre-Prabhas pottery
corridor supported development of village farming
has been reported from Datrana in north Gujarat,
communities very early in the Chalcolithic period.
about 400 km north of Prabhas Patan (Ajithprasad
The economic development during this period appears
2004). The Pre-Prabhas pottery at the site is found
to be limited primarily due to the geographical
associated with the Early Harappan Sindh related
constraints of the region. The Early Historic period
ceramics of north Gujarat. This is significant, as it not
let loose a set of economic forces based on new
only establishes the interaction between Saurashtra
economic production incorporating enough inputs
and north Gujarat but also help dating the Early
from trade. The Saurashtra coast during this period
Harappan Sindh related assemblages reported from a
was one of the major centres of political development
number of sites in north Gujarat in the same bracket
in Gujarat. No wonder the sites of this period are
as that of Pre-Prabhas.
larger and richer than the preceding Chalcolithic
period. To some extent this was to continue even in
The Early Harappan Sindh related pottery in the
current exploration has been reported from three sites
the Medieval period.
Warodra-I, Lohij-III and Shapur in the Saurashtra
coast of Junagadh district. Among these three sites,
Mesolithic sites was found in the region that we
the Early Harappan pottery is found independently
have explored so far. Could we have missed them
not in association with other regional cultural
while looking for Chalcolithic and Historic period
remains at Warodra-I and Lohij-III. It is found
sites? There is always an outside chance of such an
along with Prabhas pottery in the third site at Shapur.
eventuality. However, the rigorous and systematic
However, the site at Shapur is badly disturbed by the
nature of our survey strategy makes that possibility
recent construction of a boundary wall cutting across
quite remote. If at all there were a few sites they
the site through the middle. The construction works
are either completely buried under later habitation
may have brought up some of the Early Harappan
or obliterated by later habitation activities. This
remains from the lower levels to the surface and
is very intriguing as we do come across Mesolithic
thereby mixing it with the later Prabhas assemblage.
sites in several parts of Saurashtra in var ying
These discoveries firmly establish the presence of
ecological contexts. It is possible that the Mesolithic
Early Harappan sites along the Saurashtra coast prior
communities preferred forested rocky terrain of the
to the beginning of Prabhas tradition. The Prabhas
interior Saurashtra that better suited to their hunting
therefore appears to be a cultural tradition developed
and gathering strategies than the coastal plains.
parallel to the Sorath Harappan along the Saurashtra
That does not rule out different levels of interaction
coast drawing inspiration from the Early Harappan
between the Chalcolithic and Mesolithic sites in the
and the Pre-Prabhas. The Sorath Harappan on the
region. It has been shown to a reasonable degree of
other hand is rooted more in the interior Saurashtra.
confidence that such interactions were extremely
To summarize, the current survey has brought
important in the development of cultural patterns,
to light the importance of systematic and focussed
both in the Mesolithic and Harappan Chalcolithic
survey in locating both the Harappan Chalcolithic
settlements in Gujarat (Possehl 1980, Ajithprasad
and the Historic period sites in the Junagadh coast
2004). The presence of copper and a few crude

- 68 -
It is surprising that no microlith yielding
potsherds in the Mesolithic context at Langhnaj in
of the Indus Civilization. Books and Books, New Delhi.
north Gujarat (Sankalia 1965) and the presence of
pp.243-251.
Dhavalikar, M.K. and G.L. Possehl (1992) The Pre-Harappan
domesticated cattle and sheep/goat skeletal remains
Period at Prabhas Patan and the Pre-Harappan Phase in
from a few other Mesolithic sites (Bhan 1994) are
Gujarat. Man and Environment 17(1): 71-78.
a sure indication of the above interaction. Apart
Dhavalikar, M.K., M.R. Raval, and Y.M. Chitalwala (1996)
from these, interaction between the Chalcolithic
Kuntasi: A Harappan Emporium on West Coast. Deccan
settlements of the coastal region and the Sorath
College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune.
Harappan and Harappan settlements of interior
Hegde, K.T.M. and V.H. Sonawane (1986) Landscape and
Saurashtra were certainly responsible for the over all
settlement Pattern of the Harappan Culture Villages in
development of Chalcolithic way of life in Saurashtra.
the Rupen Estuary. Man and Environment 10: 23-31.
Two important results of the current survey are
IA R 1955 to 1977: Indian Archaeolog y - A Review.
the identification of six new sites showing the Prabhas
Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. IAR 1955-56:
pottery and three sites having the Early Harappan
7-8; IAR 1956-57: 16-17; IAR 1957-58: 18-23; IAR 1958-
Sindh related pottery along the coast. The former
59:19-21; IAR 1971-72: 12-13; IAR 1975-76: 13; IAR 197677: 17-18.
discovery provides much needed data for tracing the
Majmudar, M.R. (1960) Historical and Cultural Chronology
geographical spread/extension of Prabhas sites in the
of Gujarat. The M.S. University Oriental Institute
Saurashtra coast. This would help define the regional
Publication, Baroda.
character of this Chalcolithic tradition and its role
Majumdar, A. (2001) Emergence of Early Harappans in North
in the development of Chalcolithic settlements in
Saurashtra. The discovery of Early Harappan sites
Majumdar, A and V.H. Sonawane (1996-97) Pre-Harappan
in the Saurashtra coast is even more significant as it
Burial Pottery from Moti-Pipli: A New Dimension in
shows the Early Harappan influence from the Indus
the Cultural Assemblage of North Gujarat. Prgdhar 7
valley extending up to the Saurashtra coast much
(1996-97): 11-17.
Merh, S.S. (1995) Geology of Gujarat. Geological Society of
earlier than the beginning of the Mature Harappan.
India, Bangalore. p.4.

Nanavati, J.M., R.N. Mehta and S.N. Chaudhary (1971)
Somnath - 1956. Department of Archaeology, Gujarat
References
State and M.S. University of Baroda, M.S. University
Ajithprasad. P. (2002) The Pre-Harappan Cultures of
Press, Baroda. pp.18-41.
Gujarat, in S. Settar and Ravi Korisettar (eds.) Indian
Pandya, P.P. (1958) In Indian Archaeology 1957-58 A Review
Archaeology in Retrospect vol.II Protohistory: Archaeology
(IAR 1957-58) Department of Archaeology, Government
of the Harappan Civilization. ICHR and Manohar, New
of India, New Delhi: 18-23.

Patel, A. and S.V. Rajesh (2007) Red Polished Ware (RPW) in
Delhi. pp. 129-158
Gujarat, Western India An Archaeological Perspective.
Ajithprasad. P. (2004) Holocene Adaptation of the
Prgdhar 17 (2006-07): 89-111.
Mesolithic and Chalcolithic Settlements in North

Gujarat, in Y. Yasuda and Vasant Shinde (Eds.) Monsoon
Paul, A .B., B. Tripathy and V. Shinde (1997) New
and Civilizations. Roli Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Archaeological Discoveries in the Lower Shetrunji River
pp.115-132.
Basin, Bhavnagar District, Gujarat, in B.M. Khanduri
Bhan, K.K. (1994) Cultural Development of the Prehistoric
and Vinod Nauriyal (eds.) Him-Kanti: Archaeology, Art
Period in North Gujarat with Reference to Western
and History. Book India Publishing co., Delhi. pp.53-63.

Possehl, G.L. (1980) Indus Civilization in Saurashtra. B.R.
India. South Asian Studies 10: 71-90.
Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.
Dhavalikar, M.K. (1984) Sub-Indus Cultures of Central and
Possehl, G.L. (1993) Radiometric Dates from South East Asia
Western India, in B.B. Lal and S.P. Gupta (eds.) Frontiers
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(Unpublished list, Compiled by G. L.Possehl).
Shinde, V. and S.B. Kar (1992) Padri Ware: a New Painted
Possehl, G.L. (1997) The Transformation of the Indus
Ceramic Found in the Harappan Levels at Padri in
Civilization. Journal of World Prehistory 11(4): 425-71.
Rajesh, S.V. and A. Patel (2007) A Gazetteer of Pre- and
Sonawane, V.H. (2000) Early Farming Communities of
Protohistoric Sites in Gujarat. Man and Environment
Gujarat, India, in P. Bellwood, D. Bowdery, D. Bulbeck,
32(2):61-136.
D. Bear, V. Shinde, R. Shutter, G. Summerhayes (eds.)
Rao, S.R. (1958) In Indian Archaeology 1957-58 A Review
Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistoric Association 19: IndoPacific Prehistory: Melaka Papers 3: 137-146.
(IAR 1957-58) Department of Archaeology, Government

of India, New Delhi: 13-17
Sonawane, V. H. and P. Ajithprasad (1994) Harappa Culture

and Gujarat. Man and Environment 20(1-2): 37-49.
Rao, S.R . (1963) Excavations at Rang pur and Other

Explorations in Gujarat. Ancient India 18-19: 5-207.
Subbarao, B. (1953) Baroda Through the Ages. The M.S.
Rao, S.R. (1985) Lothal: A Port Town (1955 - 62), vol.II.
University Archaeolog y Series 1. Maharaja Sayajirao
Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India no. 78.
University of Baroda, Baroda. pp.58-64.

Subbarao, B. (1958) The Personality of India. The M. S.

Sankalia, H.D. (1965) Excavations at Langhnaj: 1944-63. Part
University Archaeology Series 3. The Maharaja Sayajirao
I: Archaeology. Poona. (Building Centenary and Silver
University of Baroda, Baroda. p.132.
Jubilee Series 51). pp.41-64.
Tomber, R. (2007) Rome and Mesopotamia Importers into

India in the First Millennium AD. Antiquity 81: 972-988.
Shinde, V. (1992) Excavations at Padri - 1990-91: A

Preliminary Report. Man and Environment 17(1): 79-86.
- 70 -
Annual report of excavation at Kanmer

2007-08 and 2008-09
J.S. Kharakwal
Department of Archaeology, Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur
Y.S. Rawat
State Department of Archaeology, Gujarat, Gandhinagar
Toshiki Osada
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto
Abstract
Kanmer, a multicultural site, is located in Kachchh district of Gujarat state of India. Our controlled excavations have yielded four
fold cultural sequence at the site. During the Bronze Age it was a small Harappan settlement, which was protected by a very strong
fort wall. Among the interesting discoveries are Harappan objects like a few seal impressions, drill bits and unoxidised faience
beads, and historic materials such as Roman amphorae and Torpedo ware type pottery. Kanmer played a very important role in
trade or commercial activities right from the Harappan period.
INTRODUCTION
site is composed of Jurassic piedmont having current

bedded ferruginous sandstone and variety of shale. An
The Harappan site of Kanmer (2323N; 7052E) is
iselberg next to the site which is identical to an upside
situated close to the Little Rann of Kachchh in Rapar
down V-shaped hillock marks the site from a distance.
taluka in the Kachchh district of Gujarat (Figure 1).

Locally known as Bakarkot the site is situated on the
OBJECTIVES
right bank of a seasonal rivulet Aludawaro Vokro

which passes to the north of the present village of
Kanmer. The ancient mound was discovered by R.S.
The ancient mound at Kanmer is squarish measuring
Bisht and his colleagues of Archaeological Survey of
115 m from east to west by 105 m from north to south
India way back in the eighties of the last century (IAR
on plan (Figure 2) with a height of about 8 m from
1985-86: 15-19).
the ground level (i.e. 20 m above the mean sea level).
The peninsula of Kachchh is largely composed
It was chosen for excavation to understand the role
of marine and estuarine sediments and has a variety
of small fortified settlements, distinct features of
of rocks ranging from middle Jurassic to recent
architecture, regional variation in ceramic assemblage,
times. The area is marked by low lying bare rocky
de-urbanization process and to comprehend the
hills, sandy plains and vast tracts of naked tidal mud
Kachchh Harappan, besides to understand the role
flats, in the north-western and eastern parts, these
of contemporary rural cultures in the urbanization
mud flats are known as Great Rann and Little Rann
process. Till recently the Harappan archaeology has
respectively. The entire region is drained by seasonal
been dominated by the excavation of large sites, and
rivulets. Of course it is one of the poorest areas as far
as a result the role of smaller settlements like Kanmer
as rain fall is concerned. The landscape around the
has not been fully understood.

- 71 -
J.S. Kharakwal et al.
Figure 1 Location map of Kanmer
With the above cited objectives, controlled small
Period III: KMR III (Late Harappan)
scale excavations at Kanmer were conducted for two
Period IV: KMR IV (Early Historic)
field seasons 2005-06 and 2006-07, which allowed us
Period V: KMR V (Medieval)
In our earlier publications we have termed the
to identify the following fivefold cultural sequence

(Kharakwal et al. 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009):
cultural sequence as Pd I Early Harappan, Pd II

Period I:
KMR I (Early Harappan)
Mature Harappan and Pd III as Late Harappan. These
Period II:
KMR II (Mature Harappan)
cultural periods correspond to KMR I, KMR II and

- 72 -
Figure 2 Contour plan of Kanmer
KMR III respectively. KMR stands for Kanmer.
4) To train young students of archaeology in field
This new terminology is preferred because the total
techniques.
Harappan deposit represents different stages of

culture. Of course we have local material including
bichrome potter y in KMR I, which gradually
India, Japan and other countries participated in the
disappear in the upper levels. KMR IV represents the
excavation.
The following scholars and students from
Early Historic deposit whereas KMR V is a medieval

one.

Prof. S.N. Rajaguru, Drs. P.P. Joglekar, Shusma Deo,

Besides, the remains of a massive fort, a few
Shahida Ansari, Mr. Pankaj Goyal, Miss C.V.Sharda,
Harappan and Historic structures, medieval silos
Miss Yun Chong Suk, Mr. Tilok Thakuria, Mr.
were also partially exposed. However to understand
Santanu Vaidya, Mr. Shingo Kameyama (all from
the results of these two initial seasons the excavation
Deccan College, Pune), Dr. Anil Pokharia, Birbal
work continued in the third and fourth seasons with
Sahni Palaeobotany Institute, Lucknow,
the following objectives:
Profs. Takao Uno, Dr. Hirofumi Teramura, Dr.

Kondo, Prof. Hideo Sakai, Prof. Toru Kishida, Miss
1) To understand the nature and history of the
Asuka Kanto and Dr. H. Chiba, Dr. Endo Hitoshi,
fortification wall.
Mr. Takashi Ito, Yukiko Takeuchi, Dr. Ainori Useugi
2) To understand the possible function of the site.
(all from RIHN Japan), Miss Carla Lancelotti,
3) To enquire if there is a lower town or any settlement
Cambridge, Miss Sarah Luddy, London.
out side the main mound

- 73 -
Mr. Lal Chand Patel, Mr. Hansmukh Seth, Mr.
understand nature of structural complexes that were
Rajesh Meena, Mr. Suresh Meena, Mr. Asif Hussain,
exposed partially during last season belonging to
Mr. Krishna Pal Singh, Mr. Bhim Raj Varhat,
periods KMR II and KMR III. In the north eastern
Mr.Sachin Dikshit, Mr. Digvijay Chauhan, Miss Rita
area trenches Z15, Z16, Z17 and AA16, AA17 and
Chauhan, Miss Rashmi Salvi, Mr. Rohit Menaria, Mr.
BB16, BB17 were selected for excavation mainly to
Hitesh Bunkar, Kalu and Ganesh (all from Institute
under stand the details of the inner face and corner of
of Rajasthan Studies, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth,
the fortification.
Udaipur).
Mr. Na r a y a n Pa l i w a l a n d S a n j e e v K a t a r i a ,
STRATIGRAPHY
Banaskantha, Gujarat, (Draughtsmen)

Teachers and students from HNB Garhwal University,
Uttarakhand, M.S. University, Vadodara, Institute of
In the south central part layers one and two with
Heritage and Management, Delhi and Lok Vigyan
a combined thickness of about 70 cm were found
Kendra, Almora.
devoid of any cultural material, except for a few

rolled pot sherds. These layers were light greyish in
appearance and were found separated from each other
EXCAVATION
by a thin streak consisting of a few rolled pot sherds.

Layer three loose in nature was marked by a thin
In continuation of the previous seasons work it was
layer of ashy deposit ranging from 5 cm to 30 cm
decided to lay down more trenches in the south
in thickness. This deposit yielded medieval pottery
central, south eastern and north eastern parts of the
associated with a few flimsy structures which were
mound. In addition to these areas, to understand
partially exposed in the south eastern and southern
the constructional phases of the fort wall and the
area. One of partially exposed such structures oriented
deposit accumulated along its exterior a small area
roughly north-south (trenches AA34 and AA35), was
of the eastern face of the fort wall was exposed. To
found right raised on the southern arm of Harappan
have a better understanding of stratigraphy and
fortification. The western and eastern walls of this
layout of the settlement trenches X28, X29, X30,
house were measured 3.50 m each, indicating squarish
Y28, Y29, Z28, Z31, AA28, AA29, AA30, AA31, AA32
on plan. In the northern room of this house was found
and AA33 were laid in the south central area of the
a rotary quern. A circular stone structure (diameter
mound. All these trenches were in fact extension of
2.50 m) was found superimposed on this medieval
last seasons excavation in adjoining trenches Z29
structure. Besides, in the central area (in trenches
and Z30 and Y30. The horizontal excavation in these
Z29 and Z30) two large circular black burnt features
trenches allowed us to identify a pre- fortification
(diameter about 1 m) were noticed, which may have
deposit followed by construction of a fort and several
been used as fire places. In the south eastern area over
successive structural phases of the Harappan culture,
a dozen silos belonging to this phase were found,
besides a few potters kilns (belonging to the Early
which were dug into the Historic and the Harappan
Historic phase). In the south eastern area trenches
deposit.
such as FF29, FF30, EE29, EE30 and GG29 were laid
down to the west of earlier exposed area (represented
thick (average) deposit of dark greyish fine silt sticky
by trenches HH29, HH30 and II29, II30 partially
in appearance. It was identified as layer 4, which did
exposed). These trenches were excavated mainly to
not yield any cultural material. It was found deposited

- 74 -
These medieval remains were raised on a 50 cm
in the central depression overlying the Historic
storage cannot be ruled out. These pits dug into the
remains. Therefore it was identified as a cultural break
Harappan deposit and structures underneath. It seems
between the Medieval and Historic periods.
that these pits were of no use during the later phase
The Early Historic remains were found in layer
of Historical settlements at the site as people started
5, which is about 1.50 m thick in the central part
throwing garbage in them. The regular dumping of
and gradually thinned down towards the peripheral
such garbage has been identified in the form of lenses
regions where it measured hardly a few centimetres in
in one such pit exposed in trench Z30 in the third
thickness. The Historical remains were identified on
season. Thus the total deposit of layer 5 was recorded
the basis of presence of terracotta seal impression with
about 1.55 m.
late Brahmi letters, Red Polished Ware, Red Ware
(Rang Mahal type) and a few potsherds of Roman and
many fragments of Roman amphorae and West
West Asian origin. This deposit was further divided
Asian Tarpedo Jar type pottery (Tomber 2007). The
into two sub layers levelled as 5a and 5b in the central
presence of these pottery types is good indicator of
part. Layer 5a was measured 55 cm in thickness and
long distance trade that was being operational from
yielded residential structures, which were partially
Kanmer. What commodities were traded from here is
exposed. It was composed of dark greyish soil generally
yet to be understood.
compact in nature. In northern part of trench Z29 and
AA29 a large number of yellow patches were noticed
central part of the fortified area, when the Historic
in layer 5a. According to the villagers, the yellowish
people arrived at the site. This depression may have
clay may have been brought from a distant source
been formed due to continuous structural or other
for pottery making. Interestingly, a huge dumping
activity of the Harappans in the peripheral area
of partially broken bowls with featureless rim and
towards the end of their occupation. This depression
tapering body was found in the north western corner
was covered by a very thick layer of dark grey soil
of trench Z29 right on a floor. It is not clear if it was
which was coarse in nature. The thickness of this
a potters house or storage of such pots. Layer 5b
dark grey layer gradually decreases as we approach
(thickness about 1 m) was largely ashy and appeared to
from central to the peripheral region. Considering its
be a formed due to regular dumping activity.
contour, it appears that it may have been actually more
In the central area of this ashy deposit more than
than 1.50 m thick in the central part whereas it was
half a dozen roughly circular burnt features (diameter
found only a few centimetre thick in the peripheral
about 3 m) were exposed. Excavation of two such
zones. Thus these historic remains were underlined by
features revealed that they were actually conical
a uniform deposit of dark grey soil, which was black
shaped pits with highly burnt base or beds. In these
in appearance and coarse in nature. Levelled as layer
pits was found large quantity of historical pottery.
(6) this deposit was found overlying almost all the
The purpose of such pits is not clear to us, though
Harappan structures. It was devoid of any direct or
they were identical to the modern potter's kiln. In
indirect human activity therefore has been identified
absence of vetrified, ill baked potsherds or potsherds
as desertion between the Early Historic and Harappan
with highly burnt surface or with black patches, we
deposits. The composition of this deposit indicates
are not sure about their identification as kilns. Of
that most of its contents were result of re-deposition
cource one can not miss a large quantity of ash spread
of the eroded material. From the south central part
in and around these pits. Possibilities of some of these
layer 6 was largely thrown away by the Historical
pits were used for grain storage or any other kind of
people to make their kilns (?). Therefore it survived

- 75 -
Besides historical pottery, layer 5b also yielded
There was a very large depression in the south
only in patches measuring in thickness about 35 cm.
thickness of this ashy deposit gradually increases
Some places such as in trenches AA34, EE29 and
towards the peripheral regions from central area. It
FF29 it was found about 80 cm thick.
indicates that perhaps the peripheral regions along the
fort wall remained occupied for longer period than
Layer 7 varies from light greyish to ashy in
appearance. Its thickness varies from 10 to 40 cm
the central part.
and was traceable only in trenches X28, X29 and
AA28, AA29 and AA30. It has been noticed that this
Harappan material identical to urban phase along
deposit also got disturbed due to large pits dug by
with Sorath Harappan and Anart elements. It yielded
the people of historic period for carrying out their
a large variety of Harappan objects and pottery,
various activities. As the result at places the historic
structures and floor levels including seals and seal
period material was found resting directly upon
impressions. In the lower part of this layer (in trenches
the Harappan deposit. However the undisturbed
AA28 and Z28) was found a lense of white clay (about
deposit of layer 7 yielded Harappan pottery, often
10 cm thick) which looked like redeposited washed off
ochreous in appearance, along with black and red
white plaster. While in the exposed section (section
(Ahar type?) and very Coarse (looks Gritty) Red
facing south) of trench Y29 a series of lenses of fine
Ware (Misra et al. 1997). The ceramic assemblage
clay, course sand and floors were noticed. Besides
is dominated by high neck jar and the Coarse Red
these, several lenses of burnt soil were also noticed.
Ware pots which is often brittle. The fine variety of
This deposit has been identified as KMR IIB.
Red Ware was of course treated with red slip which
has either peeled off or washed away and the pottery
material, though a few pieces of bichrome and other
gives ochreous colour while handling it. This kind of
local types appeared in the layers 10 and 11. The
pottery has concentration in south eastern part of the
combined thickness of these three layers was measured
mound. This pottery assemblage has been identified
about 2.50 m. These three layers have been identified
as belonging to KMR III. Neither goblet nor script
as part of cultural phase KMR II A.
material was discovered from this level.
Layer 8 is also ashy and loose in composition. Its
in nature. This deposit is more than 1.0 m in thick
thickness varies from 0.50 m to 2.60 m in the central
in the central part and appears to decrease gradually
part whereas in the peripheral area, particularly
towards western part. It is largely composed of
near the inner face of western fort wall, it measured
yellowish fine sandy clay, to which the local term
more than 3.0 m. This layer is largely formed due to
used by the villagers is pila lilva. It appears that the
dumping of large quantity of ash in the northern
Harappans used this clay as binding and plastering
and western area. Successive episodes of dumping
material in their stone houses. This layer has yielded,
have been identified in this deposit. In these dumps
in addition to the cultural material identical to the
evidences of local/ in situ burning have also been
urban Harappan phase, course pottery types similar to
noticed. On the basis of the cultural material
Anarta assemblage.
recovered from the central, NE, SE and western parts
as well as the nature of deposit, it seems that layer 8
loose and less sandy in comparison to layer 9. It has
of the central part corresponds to layers 5, 6, 7 and
small lenses of pinkish and whitish clay. These lenses
8 of western part (trench Q28), layers 4, 5 and 6 (so
have caused possibly due to mixing of powdered shale
far excavated in Z 16, 17, AA 17) of the northern part
with clay for some purpose (floor making ?). Besides
and layer 4 of south eastern area of the mound. The
urban phase cultural material, this layer also yielded

- 76 -
Layer 8 also yielded various residential structures,
Layers 9, 10 and 11 yielded identical cultural
Layer 9 is yellowish in appearance and compact
Layer 10 is also yellowish in appearance but it is
a few pot sherds of bichrome and unslipped red ware
site like Kanmer is one of the most impressive and
with a band of corrugated lines on the shoulder and
significant discoveries at the site. The outer face of
body part of jar/ pots and bowls with perforated
the fortification was partially visible on the northern
knob.
as well as on the southern slopes of the mound. This
Layer 11 is largely composed of coarse sand,
fortification stratigraphically belongs to KMR IIA.
which appears to have been formed due to some water
Interestingly, the fortification of Kanmer was not
action. In the eastern and southern sections of AA28 it
oriented along the cardinal directions as has been
had greenish appearance perhaps indicating stagnancy
noticed at most of the Harappan sites. It is rather
of water. It is hardly 25 cm thick. The cultural material
oriented in NNW-SSE direction. Hence there is a
of this layer was also identical to layer 10, of course the
deviation of about 26 (off the north-south line).
quantity and bichrome, Cream slipped, Coarse Red
Therefore to understand its precise plan and growth
ware, unslipped red ware increased.
a few trenches were laid down at the south eastern,
Layer 12 is about 35 cm thick (average) and is
north eastern and north western corners of the
composed of light greyish soil. Its general appearance
mound. Excavation of the wall face, in both of these
is whitish. It has several lenses of fine clayey material
areas, revealed that the main wall was provided with
with yellowish, whitish and pinkish in appearance.
a revetting wall all along its outer face. Two corners,
These lenses indicate that perhaps the inhabitants
the north-eastern and the south eastern, were exposed
mixed locally available powdered shale with the
internally whereas the north eastern and north
different coloured soil for various day to day purposes.
western corner was exposed externally. In a cutting
This layer is resting right up on the ferruginous bed
(trenches Y15, Y16 and Y17) near the north-eastern
rock. It has yielded ceramic assemblage which appears
corner it was realized that the core of the wall was
to be dominated by localise pottery types such as
actually made of mud bricks (mostly brown sandy
bichrome, Cream slipped, Red and chocolate slipped,
clay) and it was veneered on either side by large semi-
un-slipped types and Coarse Red ware. Harappan
dressed blocks of lime stone and sand stone procured
material in small quantity is also available. This kind
from the nearby hillocks. Some of the blocks placed
of material was also recovered from the deposit
in the lower part of the wall measured about 2 m in
comprising layers 14 and 15 of trench Q28 in a trench
length and 50 cm in breadth and 40 cm in thickness
laid along the inner face of the western fort wall and
(Figure 3). The outer faces of the northern and eastern
belong to the pre- fortification phase at the site. On
side along with the later additions were exposed up
the basis of its stratigraphical position and the type of
to a length of about 35 m and 36 m respectively. As
material it yielded this deposit has also been identified
many as 10 courses of eastern wall and 6 courses of
as cultural period KMR I.
the addition were exposed in order to understand if
Layer 10, 11 and 12 were exposed in a small area in
the construction pattern matches with others, besides
trenches AA28 and Z28 in the central part and Q28
deposit outside. The eastern wall was exposed up to
in the western part there fore the material recovered
a depth of 3.20 m and its construction pattern was
from these layers is also small in quantity.
found identical to rest of the walls.

A few small cuttings put on the northern and
southern slopes proved that the addition to the wall
FORT WALL
was actually a supportive wall (revetting) provided

to the main fortification. This support was found
Presence of a strong fortification around a small
running all along the exterior of the fortification. The

- 77 -
Figure 3 Stones places in the northwestern corner of the fort wall
Figure 4 Inner face of the fort wall, western arm
- 78 -
construction was such that no visible gap between the
to the exterior of wall on all three sides appear to be a
revetting and the wall on the eastern and southern side
protective measure taken up after the calamity.
was noticed but in the northern side a narrow gap was
noticed which widened gradually from east to west.
just below about 2.20 m from the highest point has
At places (near the north western corner) the gap
been measured about 18 m. As the wall had an upward
was found more than 1m wide which was found filled
tapering, it is likely that the width at the base would
with earth and rubble. Interestingly the main wall and
measure more than 20 m. Compared to its northern
the revetting both have been found standing on the
and eastern counterparts the western wall is thinner as
same bed rock. This kind of situation leads to think a
its width measured only 15 m at a depth of 3.70 m from
slight change in orientation or planning at a later date
the highest point. On plan, two arms of the fort at
too! The exterior of the western wall does not reveal
the south eastern corner form an obtuse angle (about
any revetting like the other three walls. The height of
100) while another two arms at north eastern corner
western wall is not preserved much. Comparatively
form an acute angle. Thus these corner angles suggest
its extant height is about 3 m lower than its eastern
that on plan the fortification could have formed a
counterpart. It seems it has been robbed by the local
parallelogram. During the precise documentation
villagers for building graves as a grave yard is located
of the fortification the external length of eastern,
on the western and southwestern slope of the
western, northern and southern arm was measured 116
mound.
m, 109.50 m, 107 m and 113.50 m respectively. Hence,
To understand the history of the defense wall, the
the average east west length was about 110 m whereas
inner face of western wall was exposed (trenches P27,
north south was about 115 m. Similarly, the inner
P28, Q27, Q28) near a modern shrine of Hanuman
length of these four walls was also found different
which is located on the extant top of the wall. In Q28
from each other. The inner length of northern,
the inner face of the fort wall was found overlying the
southern, eastern and western arm was measured
earliest cultural deposit, which has been identified
72.50 m, 79.50 m, 78.50 m and 74.50 m respectively.
as KMR I or pre-fortification deposit. In this area
Therefore the average east-west inner length measured
the inner face of the wall has survived up to a height
76.50 m and north-south inner length measured 76 m.
of 5.70 m with 29 stone courses. In the construction
of the stone veneer the Harappans had used the
dimensions and the total area covered by the
yellowish clayey sand (locally known as pila lilva) or
habitation including the fort wall was about 12,430
the powdered white shale (locally known as dhodi
sq m. Out of this total area about 6,616 sq m (more
mati) as binding material. The veneer on the either
than 50%) area was covered by the fortification itself.
side shows a battering as a result of which the breadth
Thus only about 5,814 sq m space was available inside
of the wall gradually decreases with increase of the
the fortification for residential or other activities. It is,
height. This inner face of the western wall shows
therefore, obviously a difficult question to address why
a considerable tilt towards west in its upper levels.
such a miniscule settlement was protected so well by
In fact, barring the 8 courses at the base, the entire
a strong fortification. Further excavation may provide
wall seems to be repaired in this part (trench Q28;
some clue to it.
The average width of northern and eastern walls
Thus, all the four arms were found with different
see Figure 3). It appears that some serious damage
TEST TRENCH N3
was caused to the fort wall perhaps soon after its

construction. Was it an earthquake (?), which brought
A few trenches were laid on the northern and
about this damage ? Perhaps the aforesaid additions

- 79 -
Figure 5 Outer face of the eastern fortification wall
TRENCH Q28
southern slopes to know the precise orientation of the

main wall and the extension of revetting (addition)
provided to it. These cuttings helped us to understand
A laser survey carried out by us indicated a gap in the
the nature of main wall and the revetment. In trench
western fort wall near the modern shrine of Hanuman
N3, located on the north western slope right on the
which is situated on the top of the wall. To examine
outer face of the fortification, the extant height of
the possibilities of an entrance at this point and also
the north side wall was measured 4m with as many
to reach the natural soil in this area a few trenches
as 15 semi-dressed stone courses which looks very
were laid here. These trenches numbered as P27, P28,
impressive. In this cutting revetment was found
Q27 and Q28 were laid across the wall, the extant top
sealed by layer 5.
of which was visible right on the surface.
Layer 6 represented the filling of about 1 m gap
In these trenches layer 1 compact in nature was
between the outer arm and the addition. This gap was
found composed of dark greyish soil. It was about 10
measured about 1.10 m at the base whereas about 90
cm thick and yielded mixed pottery comprising of
cm at the top surviving course of addition, indicating
both Historic and Medieval vintage. Layer 2, light
that it was gradually decreasing towards top. It was
greyish to pale yellowish in colour, was slightly loose
found resting on a 30 cm thick soil, dark greyish in
compared to layer 1. Its thickness was measured about
colour. It is locally known as kaanp. It was levelled
35 cm. Two residential structures were exposed in this
as layer 7 resting on the bed rock (locally known as
layer one in Q 27 and another in Q 28. Of these the
bhokar.
one discovered in Q 27 was found just below 15 cm of

the surface (at a depth of 3.60 m from the reference
- 80 -
Figure 6 Seal with geometric design
point). It is a rectangular room measuring 3.70 m by
3.20 m and built with rubble stone walls of which two
western arm near the temple as was indicated by
courses are extant. A considerably large patch of ash
the laser survey. Of course, its upper courses were
(1.30 m from east to west) and 70 cm (from north to
perhaps removed by the Historical people to prepare
south) was found close to the northern wall of this
a staircase. Therefore it appears that this point could
house, besides a small heap of broken pot sherds of
have been used as an entrance during the historical
red ware of Historical period. The purpose of such
period.
heap could not be ascertained. Another wall, oriented
east-west, was found joining this structure at its north
pottery belonging to KMR III. A stone structure was
western end. It is available up to a length of 3.20 m
partially exposed in the eastern section of this layer. It
only and could have joined the inner face of the fort
was found resting on layer 5. Layer 4 in the southern
in trench P27. The second room was discovered about
half of trench P 27 yielded a rectangular steatite seal
2.50 m to the south of the first one in trench Q28.
with perforated knob on the reverse. It has been found
The eastern and western walls of this room are of
engraved with a cross like sign. This seal appears to be
inferior quality whereas the northern one was built
quite interesting as it has coating of faience (Figure 6).
by erecting massive stone blocks perhaps robbed from
the fort wall. The southern wall was found 40 cm
deposited in various successive episodes. As many as
in width. This Historical deposit was underlined by
three major episodes represented by layers 5a, 5b and
a 25 cm thick dark greyish layer representing break
5c were identified on the basis of nature of dumping,
between the Historic and Harappan deposit. It was
its colour and signs of in situ burning. All these
numbered as layer 3. The Historic people prepared a
layers deposited against the inner face of the fort
chute by cutting down layer 3 between the aforesaid
were forming a steep slope. This direction of slope
rooms roughly in east-west orientation. The edges of
suggested that this ashy material was being thrown
this chute were lined with flat stone slabs. Perhaps it
from the top of the fort wall. Episode 5a was more
was a covered drain as some cap stones were found in
whitish compared to 5b, in which thin lenses of burnt
the exposed eastern end. The western end of the drain
earth and bits of charcoal were found. The thickness
passed through the then extant top of the western arm
of this episode gradually decreases as one goes away
of the fort. This channel perhaps served the purpose
from the face of the wall, besides the surface tends to
of an out let.
become gentler. At the base of this layer was found

- 81 -
Excavation did not revealed any gap in the
Layer 4 was loose ashy deposit which yielded
Layer 5 was represented by a huge ashy dump
Shifting of northern
inner arm
a thin lense of burnt earth, which looks almost

horizontal but actually has a gentler slope close to
the face of the wall. Episode 5c deposited against 15th
and 16th course of the wall is more or less horizontal
Towards the end of the KMR II B the width of
and is composed of thin lenses of burnt earth and ash.
northern wall was narrowed down by shifting its inner
The combined thickness of these three episodes was
face about 10 m further north. It is identified as the
measured about 3m. Layer 6 was light grey and pale
third major structural phase of the fort wall (Figure
yellowish soil mixed with ash, the surface of which
7). It appears that the outer face was maintained as
was burnt black. It was loose in composition much
per original either right on the revetting wall or the
harder than any episode of layer 5. Layer 7 composed
original wall face. This new inner face was exposed
of compact white clayey material was only about 10
in trenches Y15 and Z15 up to a length of 8.50 m. Its
cm thick. Layer 8 loose in composition consists of
extant height measured 1.15 m with 5 stone courses.
dark greyish soil mixed with brown sandy clay. Layers
It was made up of large stone blocks some of which
9, 10, 11 and 12 were primarily composed of brown fine
measured about 80 cm in length and 35 cm in height.
sandy clay. These were separated mainly on the basis
In trench Z15 it was found joined by a north-south
of their compactness and colour variation. Layers
oriented retaining wall (5.40 m long ) at the right
12 and 13 were found deposited against the earliest
angle. Only seven courses of retaining wall are extant
courses of the wall. These were composed of floor
with a height of 1m. At its southern end it takes
levels and patches of powdered shale. The cultural
a turns towards east and joins another wall (2.50
material, particularly pottery, of layers 5, 6, 7 and 8
m long ) roughly oriented in NNW-SSE. Initially
is comparable to layer 8 of central area or KMR II B
it was suspected that it may be corner of an inner
whereas layers 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 yielded material that
bastion. Therefore, in the third and four field seasons
is grouped under KMR II A.
more area was exposed to understand the structure
Underlying the fort wall 14, 15 and 16 belong to
fully. During the excavation the above mentioned
the pre-fortification phase at the site. This deposit
another wall oriented roughly in NNE-SSW was
measuring about 70 cm in thickness yielded fragments
exposed up to a length of 6.80 m. It was found built
of bichrome ware and coarse red ware pottery, besides
of huge stone blocks. Its northern half shows an
a few sherds of unslipped red ware. This deposit is
eastward curve while the southern half is straight and
comparable to KMR I material of central part. Layer
oriented roughly north-south and appears to joining
16 was a thin layer of soil resting on top of ferruginous
the eastern inner arm of the fort. As many as seven
sand stone bed rock (locally known as bhokar). A few
courses of the face were exposed, but we could not
flakes of agate were discovered from this layer.
reach the base as it was right in the core of the fort
wall of earlier phase.
It is interesting to note that successive floor levels
were noticed along the inner face of the fort wall
In the northeastern corner were found several
suggesting that residential structures were built very
parallel revetments, oriented in NNE-SSW. Two
close to the wall and as such there seems no scope for
of them were found curved towards west on their
any street along the same.
south western end. One of them located close to the

inner corner of the fort was exposed up to a depth of
2.40 m (14 courses), but we could not reach its base,
because it was erected right in the core of the fort
wall. These may represent local repairing of fort wall.
- 82 -
Figure 7 Third structural phase of the fort wall, northern arm
Somewhat similar parallel stone alignments were also
which is still unknown to us. Presence of the ash
noticed in the north western corner of the fort wall.
dumps on either side of the fortification seems to be
Perhaps these indicate sub-structural phases of the
result of such burning activities.
fort construction and may belong to KMR IIB.
After exposing these parallel walls, it seems that
width (on top) of the northern arm may have been
there was no inner bastion at the north eastern corner,
reduced to about 6 m. It is yet to be ascertained
at least after the end of urban phase KMR IIB. Could
whether the width of other three arms of the fort were
there be a watch tower kind of structure, squarish
reduced like the northern wall in order to create more
on plan, the corners of which were rounded? Either
space inside the fortification or for other unknown
these parallel walls were result of successive veneer
reasons. It can be confirmed only after further
added to the northern arm of fort at its eastern end
excavations, though the construction pattern, size of
or were simple constructions is yet to be ascertained.
stones, binding material found in the northern and
Some such indications were also exposed in the north
southern exposed corners of eastern inner are quite
western corner too.
different in appearance.
It appears that the 10 m wide space created
Therefore, towards end of the urban phase the
Thus the shifting of northern inner face further
towards the end of the urban phase KMR IIB, i.e.
north was identified as the third major construction
after shifting the inner face of northern wall further
phase of the fortification. By going through the
north may have been used for some activity. It has
construction method of Harappans it is likely that
been observed that large scale burning activities were
the fort wall at Kanmer may not have been 20 m
carried out regularly in large pits for some purpose
wide or 9 m high right from the beginning rather its

- 83 -
width increase gradually with addition provided from
result it appears in two sets. It is not clear if it was
external as well as internal side. Similarly its height
caused due to an earthquake? However, this event
may have been raised with each successive addition.
could not be corroborated by any other such evidence
These types of gradual additions have been reported
in the habitation deposit.
from Dholavira also. Of course, to understand the
precise history of growth of the fort wall, one has
shale was gradually washed off and in due course
to cut through the wall to identify its construction
of time largely got deposited on the tapering outer
phases.
surface of the fort wall. While exposing the outer
The outer face of the southern arm, barring the
face of the fort wall such material sticking on the wall
lower courses, was largely missing. However, the core
betrays coating. It may have eventually strengthened
of the wall was exposed at several locations. It was
the veneer as it was too difficult to expose such area of
noticed that the lower part of its core was built mainly
the wall.
of mud bricks. The bricks were prepared of brown
sandy clay (locally known as lilva). In the upper part
appears to have survived with maximum height of
of the construction of core, however, bricks made of
about 9.70 m with 30 courses. It was sealed with white
yellowish sandy clay (pila lilva) were also added to
plaster prepared from white shale.
It seems that in monsoon seasons the powdered
The eastern end of the northern arm of the fort
the brown sandy ones. The same clays were also found
used as cement in the stone veneer. Besides white,
POSSIBLE LOCATION OF THE GATE
pinkish powdered shale was also used as binding

material towards the end in the fort wall.
The evidence found near the south eastern corner
Excavation of the eastern half of the northern arm
indicates that the top of the fort wall was sealed
and northern half of eastern arm of the fort wall
perhaps with a thick layer of clay. Here, on the top of
ruled out the possibility of entrance to the settlement
the wall a 65 cm thick deposit consisting of successive
from these sides. Similarly, close examinations of
layers of a variety of clays (variety of sandy clays such
surface features of the mound indicate that there
as brown, greyish, yellowish and white and pinkish
may not be any entrance on the eastern and western
powdered shale) was exposed (in trenches II29, HH29
arm either. However, the contour map of the site
and HH30). The average thickness of each layer
shows that there is a general slope towards south.
was found about 4 cm. It is interesting to note that
Horizontal excavation in the south central part also
repetition of such layers more than once and sealed
reveals a gentle slope towards same direction. Thus it
every time by white or pink powdered shale suggests
seems that the entrance to the Harappan settlement
phases of regular repairing or maintenance of the fort
was provided from south through the southern arm.
wall. Of course, they may have to mine large quantity
Unfortunately, outer arm at the possible location
of shale available locally. This feature is evidenced
of entrance is largely missing or destroyed by the
only at the top of south eastern and north eastern
villagers. Perhaps further excavation across the wall at
corners. Thus the 9 m high strong fort with white
this point of arm may provide some evidence of the
plastered top must be a very impressive construction
entrance.
of its builders. It is a bit difficult to asses how much

time, labour and energy went into its erection. It is
interesting to note here that the horizontal layers of
thick clay deposit show a slight vertical sinking as a
- 84 -
Figure 8 Residential structures in the central part
RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURES
IN THE CENTRAL AREA
The earliest residential structure at Kanmer was
partially exposed in the north eastern half of trench

Z30 at depth of 3.80 m below the surface. It was
Excavation at the site revealed five major phases of
exposed up to a length of 2.20 m. Oriented in NNW-
Harappan structural activities. Of them the first
SSE its width was measured around 45 cm. Beneath
three have been identified in the central area (Figure
this structure were of course found four floor levels
8) while the two later ones, belonging to the Late
(at a depth of 4.50 m from surface). Interestingly, the
Harappans were exposed in the south eastern area
successive floors show a gradual shift towards north to
of the site. Each of these major structural phases has
a street or open space.
sub phases suggesting constant addition or alteration
by various generations. The few partially exposed
the same trench (Z30) overlying the first one. It was
structures of these phases revealed that most of them
represented by a partially exposed room (4.80 m
were largely disturbed or destroyed by the activities of
by 3.0 m) with a platform (1.53 m by 1.23 m) on the
the subsequent occupants of the site.
street or open space to its north. The walls of this
In the first cultural period, i.e. KMR I no
structure join each other at right angle and are made
structure could be discovered so far as the excavation
of stone. Yellowish sand was used as binding material.
was restricted to very small area. However, as many as
The extant height of its northern wall has measured
four successive floor levels were identified in trenches
88 cm (6 courses) whereas the height of western
AA28, Z28, and Z30 in the central part. The earliest
wall measured 45 cm with 4 courses. A platform
among them was prepared right on the bed rock.
seems to be provided at the entrance of the house. A

- 85 -
The second structural phase was identified in
medium sized jar found placed near its outer north-
measured 1.20 m. This wall measured 3.85 m in length.
eastern corner appears to be a sullage jar. About 7m
It seems all these structures belong to sub phases of
north of the platform was found a room of another
second structural phase.
house (northern house) measuring about 2.25 m by
1.50 m in dimension. Exposed partially it was also
stones. The locally available yellowish fine sandy clay
found roughly oriented in NNW-SSE direction thus
(pila lilva) was used as binding material. The breadth
conforming to the general orientation of the site.
of walls was found ranging from 45 cm to 50 cm. The
A stone alignment (3.56 m) was discovered in the
lay out plans of these structures indicate that they
western half of Z28, which seems to be contemporary
restrictedly followed the orientation of the main fort,
to the aforesaid house. Thus the supposed street or
thus indicating a planned settlement inside.
open space was exposed up to 5m from east to west in
length and up to 7m from north to south in width. It
It seems that by now the open space (exposed in Z29)
was found continuing towards further west.
had encroached upon by structures. Several structures
A sub-phase of this complex was identified
of this phase were exposed in a large area (trenches
with rectangular rooms situated to the south of
X28, X29, X30, Y28, Y29 and AA29) located on
open space or street. As many as three rooms were
the previous open space or street. In this phase the
partially exposed in trenches AA30, Z31 and Y30. The
average breadth of walls was found about 50 cm.
aforesaid open space appears to be a by-lane towards
Use of yellowish sandy clay was stopped foe binding
south, perhaps connected to the main entrance of
material in constructions. In X30 a button shape
the settlement as the gentle slope in the stratigraphy
steatite seal with perforated knob was discovered in
would indicate. This structural complex was possibly
layer 8. More than half a dozen rectangular rooms of
located to the east of this lane.
this phase were identified in the central part. In one
of the rooms a gap found in the western wall indicates
About 1 m to the east of the northern house
All these structures were made of semi-dressed
The third structural phase belongs to KMR IIB.
was found an alignment (3.20 m) of stones, oriented
that entrance was provided from the west side.
NNW-SSE, the southern end of which was missing.
To the west of its existing southern end a small
were finely plastered possibly with the powdered shale
squarish platform was found whereas to the east of
mixed with cow dung. Even today the local villagers
this structure was found a floor and a large circular
prepare their house floors in such way. Therefore the
patch of ash (1.50 m by 1.25 m). Further to the east
local folks were easily able to identify the ancient
of this structure was found another stone alignment
floors during excavation.
The floors prepared by levelling and filling of soil
at about 3 m distance. What is interesting to note

here that these structures appear to have been made
SOUTHEASTERN AREA
by encroachment on the open space or the lane.

Therefore, these partially exposed structures show
some kind of change in planning. A terracotta sealing
In continuation of the second seasons excavation a
was found from the SW corner of Z28 on the floor
few more trenches such as GG29, GG30, FF29, FF30,
levels of layer 9.
EE29 and EE30 were laid in south eastern area of the
A few more walls, belong ing to different
mound order to understand the partially exposed
rectangular rooms, were discovered to the east and
large structural complex near the south eastern corner
northeast of the house exposed with a platform. The
of the fort. During the excavation a large number (a
extant height of one of the walls of these rooms has
dozen) of circular pits were exposed just below the

- 86 -
surface. All these pits were made of fine clay, perhaps
brought from near by lake or pond and were coated
were three successive structural phases of stone walls.
with white fibrous material. Many of them yielded
It has been noticed that each time the complex may
layers of sand and ash and medieval pottery and
have 4 or 5 rooms. In case of the latest complex
charred grains. Therefore these pits were identified
numbered as LH 1, the width of wall increased up to
as silos and were assigned to cultural period V of
60 cm whereas in older structures it was hardly 50 cm.
Based on the stratigraphy, it appears that there
Kanmer. Underlying these pits were discovered a

few minor structures with one or two courses. These
NORTHEASTERN AREA
structures perhaps belonged to Historical phase as

some of them were cut by the pits. These structures
were found in FF30, EE30 and EE29 whereas the pits
Barring a few lower courses, the outer face of north
were somewhat evenly distributed throughout the
eastern corner of the fort was missing. As the extant
exposed area.
top of the revetment was visible close to the corner
Like other parts of the mound the dark grayish
we decided to expose outer arm of the fort as well as
layer, represented by layer 2 in this area, was found
the revetting wall to understand the constructional
overlying the Harappan remains. In the northern half
phases (Kharakwal et al. 2008). In continuation of
of GG29 was exposed a circular platform made of
the last seasons work the outer addition or revetting
stones in layer 3, the diameter of which was found 1.50
was exposed up to a length of 28 m. The entire face
m. On the southern side of this circle were discovered
was found with a considerable southward tilting.
two medium sized pots of Coarse Red or Gritty Red
The addition or revetting was largely made of semi
Ware. It appears that perhaps this could be a floor
dressed stones of the average size of about 30 x 25 x
level inside a house. However the exact use of the
8 cm. However, some of the stone blocks were quite
circular structure is not known. In the north western
large as their length measured 60 cm and thickness 10
corner of the same trench was discovered a highly
cm. Such large stones were mostly used in the lower
burnt red feature in a small area (60 cm by 40 cm) on
part of the wall. It has been observed that the original
the floor of a house. The eastern and southern walls
exterior of the fort was made of well dressed large
of this house were also partially exposed in the same
stone blocks than to the latter addition or revetting.
trench.
Therefore the original wall looks very impressive. Near
In the southern half of FF29 half a dozen stone
the north eastern corner the fort height seems to have
structures, possibly belonging to equal number of
survived intact as the plaster of white shale, perhaps
houses in layer 3 have been recorded. Some of them
applied on its top is still visible. The total height of
have been found destroyed by later pits. Among these
the outer face was found 9.50 m.
at least four walls appear to be superimposed on the
older ones suggesting stratigraphically a succession
BB16 and BB17, located in the north eastern corner
of structures in south eastern area. These walls have
of the mound, were basically selected in order to
survived with courses ranging from 3 to 5 with length
expose the inner corner of the fort to understand its
from 1.50 m to 3 m. In the south western corner of
inner growth. Soon after the removal of surface soil in
FF30 also stone walls of three different phases were
trenches Z16, AA16 and BB16 it was realised that this
noticed. In the northern half of FF29, close to the
whole area was perhaps used as dumping space by the
northern section facing south, also two structures
Historic people as it yielded large amorphous shaped
were discovered jetting out of the section.
burnt patches. In fact it seems that the Historic

- 87 -
Trenches Z16, Z17, Z18, AA16, AA17, AA18 and
people dug the core of the Harappan fort wall made
like powdered shale mixed with yellowish sandy clay.
few pits also. Therefore the historical material was
It was found against the eighth course of the fort wall.
found resting directly on the Harappan fort wall.
Perhaps it was the binding material of the wall which
However, layer 1 in trenches Z17 and Z18, AA17 and
appears to have washed off and deposited against the
BB17 yielded mixed pottery belonging to Historic
wall. Layer 7a was formed of brownish sandy material
and medieval period. Layer 2 was represented by
and compact in nature whereas 7b was loose. As
thick deposit of dark greyish soil, which was coarse
many as 13 courses of the inner face of the fort wall
in nature. The nature of this layer was very well
were exposed in this trench with a total height of
comparable to layer 6 of central part, layer 3 of
about 2 m. In this area it seems that the inner face was
western area and layer 2 of south eastern area. It has
repaired as the size of semi dressed stones used was
been identified as a break between the Early Historic
much smaller (20 x 10 x 8 cm average) compared to
and the Harappan deposit. In layer 3 a retaining wall,
other exposed areas. No binding material was found
oriented roughly east-west, was partially exposed,
between the stones. Excavation could not continue
against which was found a floor level. Its extant height
further down in this area due to discovery of a furnace
measured about 1m. To the east of this floor level
with a central column. All these layers were found
was found a residential structure (LH 3), oriented
sloping towards south. Perhaps this entire deposit
roughly north-south, which was partially exposed (up
seems to be thrown down from the top of the fort
to a length of 3.50 m) in trenches AA16 and AA17. It
wall. Layer 7b in which the furnace was discovered
has survived up to a height of about 1 m with seven
close to the face of the wall was the last activity carried
courses. The southern wall of this house oriented
out inside.
roughly east-west has survived up to a length of 3.40
m. The average width of these walls measured about
trench AA17. The eastern inner arm was exposed up
60 cm. The eastern and northern walls of the room
to a length of 5.50 m, whereas the northern inner arm
are missing. From the floor levels fragments of dish
was exposed up to a length of 8 m. The northern inner
on stands, jar and Gritty Red Ware, besides featureless
arm appears to have been repaired close to the corner
bowls were recovered. Most of this material was
as it is made of much smaller stones compared to the
ochreous. Thus on the basis of stratigraphy and
eastern one and neither has the binding material like
ceramic assemblage the aforesaid structures and floor
the surviving eastern one. The eastern wall was located
levels and pottery was assigned to cultural period
about 1.80 m below the surface. It was made of large
KMR III.
semi dressed stone, some of which were measured
In order to expose the inner face of the fort wall
about 60 to 80 cm in length, 25 to 45 cm in breadth
excavation continued in AA16 also. In this trench
and 25 cm in thickness. The Harappans often used
layers 4, 5, 6 and 7 were found deposited against the
white and pinkish powdered shale and yellow sandy
inner face of the fort wall. The total height of this
clay locally known as pila lilva as binding material.
The inner corner of the fort was exposed in
exposed section was measured about 3 m. Among

these excavated layers, layer 4 was composed of ash
FURNACE
whereas layer 5 was light greyish in appearance and

was composed of brownish sand mixed with sand and
also bits of charcoal. Layer 6 was composed of various
A bulb-shaped plan of a furnace with a central
lenses of burnt earth, charcoal etc. One of the lenses
cylindrical hollow column (diameter 31 cm, depth
of layer 6 was composed of white clay which looked
35 cm) (Figure 9) was exposed in trench Z17 about

- 88 -
Figure 9 Furnace with a central column
10 m west of north eastern corner of the fort. It
was found inside the column. Several tubular faience
was built close to the inner face of the wall and was
beads were recovered from the furnace area and near
oriented in NNW-SSE direction. It measured 1.40
the square platform. Therefore, it is likely that this
m from north to south and 96 cm from east to west.
was a faience bead making furnace. This furnace was
The clay walls of the furnace were barely 4 cm thick
found sealed by layer numbered 4. This layer consists
and the area between the column and outer clay wall
of several episodes of ash which was possibly thrown
was found completely filled with ash. The column
from the top of the fortification wall by the people
with an opening only from top was found filled with
also belonging to KMR IIB phase. The furnace seems
whitish ashy material. The burnt red colour of the
to have been built during the initial stage of this
cylindrical column, the outer clay wall and the earth
phase.
around the furnace indicate that the temperature

raised in the furnace may have been more than 700
MINOR OBJECTS
C. Indications are that the heat generated in the

furnace also damaged the face of the fort wall. A small
square (90 x 90 cm) platform made of flat stones just
A large variety of minor objects such as beads of
to the east of the furnace also seems to be associated
terracotta, paste, semiprecious stones, gold, shell,
with it. This platform was prepared on a floor level.
seals, seal impressions, terracotta cakes, dices,
A thick cubical sandstone block was found lying on
gamesman, amulets, bead polishers, drill bits, rough-
the eastern margin of the floor to which was found
outs and weights have been discovered. Terracotta
sticking some whitish substance identical to what
cakes were found distributed throughout the deposit

- 89 -
5cm
Figure 10 Terracotta objects with a seal impression from Kanmer
in the urban phase (KMR II). They are smaller in
impressions, found in a room in layer 9, is circular in
size in the beginning and gradually were made bigger
shape, flat on the obverse and convex on the reverse.
during the later part of the urban phase (KMR IIB).
The impression was made by a square seal, which
A few of them were also discovered in the upper
may have been about 26.7 x 25 mm. The diameter of
levels with KMR III deposit. Beads outnumber all
this seal impression was measured 34.52 mm. It has
other finds as they have been discovered over 20,000
a perforation (diameter 4.15 mm) which is slightly
in number. The most striking discovery of the site
off the center. On the obverse is depicted a unicorn,
appears to be three identical terracotta objects with
besides a few Harappan letters. The reverse shows
a seal impression, which appear to be sort of identity
a signature. The reverse signature in each case is
cards or passport, perhaps used by Harappans during
different than the others.
their long distance trade (Figure 10). One of the seal
Among others objects a button shaped steatite
seal depicting a donkey (?) appears to be quite

Table 1 Beads discovered at Kanmer
significant. The discovery of over 158 drill bits of
Material
Number
Ernestite (Figure 11) and about half a dozen of
1. Steatite
17580
Rohri chert is perhaps the other significant finding
2. Faience
328
considering the size of site and duration of work
3. Paste
14
carried out at the site. The Rohri material appeared
4. Agate
31
at the site from KMR II. The find of large quantity of
5. Carnelian
59
raw material, particularly agate, variety of drill bits,
6. Lapis
11
7. Amazonite
rough outs of carnelian, debitage, chips, unfinished
8. Serpentine
9. Sandstone
10. Limestone ?
11. Terracotta
30
12. Shell
141
13. Bone
others as more than 18,000 have been discovered so
14. Gold
far. They have been recorded as micro-beads, mini
products, beads polishers all strongly indicate that

perhaps bead making was one of the most popular or
prized occupation of Harappans at Kanmer.

The majority of Harappan beads type are disc,
bicone and tubular. Beads of steatite outnumber all
- 90 -
2cm
Figure 11 Drill bits from Kanmer
2cm
Figure 12 Carnelian beads from Kanmer
- 91 -
disc type, disc type, cylindrical or tubular, segmented,
inferior. A few examples of shell, bone and metal ones
wafer type and triangular ones. Except for one hoard
have been found from the Mature and Late Harappan
from a house of KMR III level most of them have
levels. The following Table 1 shows quantity of beads
been found from streets. Some of the tubular beads
of different material at Kanmer discovered in the
have been decorated with circular marks. In KMR
Harappan deposit.
III, the quantity of tubular beads decreases and

sometimes they have been found coated with green
LITHICS
or blue colour, perhaps to look like faience. Faience

beads are disc type, short tubular or tubular and
blackish, greyish and greenish in appearance. The
Hundreds of lithic objects such as flakes, cores,
blackish or greyish examples appear to be the result of
lunates, notches, long parallel sided blades were
ill or over firing. Most of the tubular ones are 2 cm to
discovered from Kanmer. They are being studied by
3 cm in length and have been discovered from north
H. Endo of Research Institute for Humanity and
eastern area (trenches Z16, Z17, Z18, and AA17). It is
Nature, Kyoto. The raw material of lunates, flakes
likely that they were manufactured in the northern
and cores was mostly agate and local chert, perhaps
area of the mound, which strongly appears to be used
from Mardhak Bet. However notches, Ribbon blades
for craft activities. The paste beads, though very few in
(Figure 13) were made of Rohri chert. Interestingly no
quantity when compared to steatite, were found quite
raw material or any core of Rohri chert was found at
attractive. Most of them are either black or red or
the site. Perhaps the Harappans of Kanmer received
white and globular, disk type or cylindrical in shape.
finished blades of Rohri. What is interesting is that
The beads of semiprecious stone have been
we have been able to locate as many as 9 drill bits of
identified as carnelian (Figure 12), agate, lapis lazuli,
Rohri from the site. It seems that besides Ernestite
chalcedony, serpentine and bloodstone. The site
only Rohri chert was used for preparing drill bits at
yielded raw material of agate besides, chipped, rough
Kanmer.
outs, grinded, unpolished bead blanks. A large variety

of shapes such as cylindrical, disc type, biconical,
POTTERY
truncated bicone, circular, barrel, globular, circular,

flat bicone, diamond were found. All these findings
indicate that a variety of beads were manufactured
The ceramic assemblage was mainly represented
at the site. Perhaps the raw material was brought
by Red Ware right from the beginning, which was
from nearby Mardhak Bet, about 20 km northeast
treated with a variety of slip e.g., Red, chocolate,
of the site in the Little Rann. Except for lapis lazuli/
buff, cream, black and reserve. Except for black
sodalite, source of raw material for all these beads
slip and finer variety of reserve slip (grey variety),
types could have been the Little Rann and its adjacent
all other types were introduced at the site right
areas. Lapis may have been brought either from Ajmer
from the beginning. Both fine and coarse varieties
in Rajasthan or from Afghanistan. The beads of
remained in use throughout the habitation, of course
carnelian are disc type, globular, bicone and tubular
the coarse variety accounts for a small percentage
and etched ones. These beads were drilled after
of the assemblage in the early levels and it gradually
polishing as the find of many broken but polished
increased in the subsequent phases with a mat surface.
examples would indicate. In the Late Harappan phase
Besides Red Ware, Reserve Slipped with grey core,
the quality of surface treatment of such beads was
Black-and-Red, Buff ware were some of the other

- 92 -
Figure 13 Lithics from Kanmer
10cm
Figure 14 Painted pottery from KMR I
- 93 -
types used. The fine variety of Red Ware (in case of
types gradually increased in the later levels. A variety
bowls, dishes and medium sized jar/pots) was very
of bowls with flared body and inverted rim or with
often treated either with red slip or with chocolate
slightly pronounced body and featureless rim or with
slip or sometimes with both. In the lower levels
carinated body and everted rim or with stand were
(KMR I and KMR IIA) the slip was uniformly
part of this assemblage. Two different types of stands
applied on external surface whereas later on very often
such as cylindrical shape and with flared body were
the outer surface appears to have been moistened
discovered. Perhaps the former one was part of dishes.
with slip. Sometimes slip was not applied to the entire
Both types were often decorated with bichorme
outer surface rather wide panels were prepared all
paintings. Bowls with carinated body and featureless
round the body leaving major area unslipped. Though
rim types continued in the subsequent cultural
pottery was fired at high temperature, it seems that
periods too but with little change both in material
the uniform firing was not maintained in all the types.
and shape. Basins with carinated body appear to have
Towards the end most of the pottery types appear
been popular in the lower levels. Often the fine variety
ochreous. It is not ascertained if this kind of character
was wheel thrown, though slow wheel and handmade
is result of poor firing technique.
types pre-dominate the assemblage. The bichorme,
KMR I was represented by both slipped and
cream slipped and coarse type pottery is also common
unslipped red ware, bichorme and polychrome, cream
in Anarta complex of North Gujarat (Ajithprasad
slipped, chocolate and buff slipped pottery (Figure
2002).
14). The jar/pots were dominated by globular body
shapes often with concave neck and everted rim.
triangles, chess board patterns , vertical registers of
The bichrome types were treated with black or dark
wavy lines or squares, diamond shape designs, fish
greyish or light brown or red slip. Very often a white
scales discovered in bichrome type jar pots in from
panel was prepared on the neck or shoulder portion
Kanmer (KMR I) appear to be identical to those
on which variety of geometric patterns were executed
ones found from Amri Period I by Casal (1964).
with black, brown or red colour. In case of some
For example a panel of triangles (Period IA Fig. 44
polychrome decorations sometimes orange colour
type 49, Period I D Fig 66 type 232), chess board
was also used either to fill gaps or to make boarder.
patterns (Fig 44 type 52, Period IC Fig 56 type 159),
It looks as if it was used to highlight certain design.
vertical register of way lines or squares from Period
Compared to bichrome the polychrome sherds are
IB, diamond shape designs (Period IC Fig 57 type
only a few.
162), fish scale (Period I D Fig. 64 type 214) of Amri
have exact parallels at Kanmer in the first or earliest
Sometimes unslipped Red Ware or buff slipped
A variety of design patterns such as panel of
medium sized jar/pots were decorated with a band
cultural phase (KMR I).
of thin grooved lines all around the shoulder perhaps
by a comb like instrument. These sherds remind the
carinated body, with flared sides and featureless rim,
Kot Diji type pottery. Jar/pots with coarse fabric
bowls with stand, with vertical sides and featureless
were generally left unslipped and the lower part of
rim, jar/pots with concave neck and everted rim,
their body was rough. From this assemblage, except
basins and dish on stand (?) with nail headed rim also
for bichrome and polychrome types, jar/ pots with
have parallels at Amri in Period I and II (see e.g., Fig.
grooved decoration tend to disappear in KMR II as
51 type 112; Fig 64 type 216, Fig 65 type 228; IC Fig.
the discovery of only a few stray fragments indicates.
54 type139; Fig. 62 types 200, 202, 203; Fig 65 type
On the other hand the chocolate and red slipped
226; Fig. 70 type 282 Fig 69 type 273; Fig 74 tye 317;
- 94 -
Besides, a few bowls with everted rim and
Fig 79 type 347).
motifs become visible only after making them wet.
In KMR IIA most of the shapes of KMR I
Did the Harappan use such pots for storing water?
continue with little change, but now the assemblage
It seems that the painting may have been visible only
is dominated by fossil types identical to urban phase
when there was water in them.
e.g., S shaped jars, perforated jars, dish on stands,
large jars with clubbed rims, terracotta cakes, besides
of jar/ pots, bowls were treated with red or orange
a few fragments of goblets with flattened base.
slip and their core was whitish. Their appearance
In case of bowls a few fragments of handles with
is different than buff pottery. It seems that the
perforation were found, besides Black-and-Red Ware
Harappans mixed powder of white or pink shale with
with featureless rims and with pronounced body. In
clay to make such pottery.
case of medium and large jar/pots generally one or
sometimes two parallel lines were depicted running
and jar with elongated neck appear to be common.
all around the shoulder or body part. Of course some
The entire assemblage appears ochreous. The gritty
of the medium sized jar/pots were decorated with
sometimes appears brittle.
In this assemblage, a few rim and body sherds
In KMR III most of the KMR IIB types continue
natural motifs such as papal leaf or some other leafs or

branch like motif.

FAUNAL REMAINS
In KMR IIB the pottery of earlier phase continue,
but some new types were introduced at the site

such white painted Black and Red Ware and Sorath
The faunal analysis is being carried out by P.P. Joglekar
Harappan material. Bowls with featureless rim and
and Pankaj Goyal from Deccan College, Pune.
vertical sides, sometimes with stud handles and star
Though faunal remains were recovered from almost
motif were common. Besides, a very coarse Red Ware,
all the trenches, they were not evenly distributed. In
which may also be called as gritty Red Ware appears
most of the trenches bones were encrusted with soil,
in this phase. It has often been treated with thick red
but they were able to identify cut marks on bones
slip on the shoulder and rim part whereas the lower
and charred bones in some cases. They have identified
part of the body is very rough or seldom appears
several animal taxa, which include mammals, birds,
rusticated. A variety of deep incised geometric design
fish, reptiles and molluscan species. Among the
patterns have been engraved on the shoulder portion
domestic animals, cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat and
of such pots with some sharp object. In fact together
pig were identified. More than a dozen wild animals
with white painted Black and Red ware this pottery
were identified in the collection, including the nilgai,
type reminds the Ahar pottery of Southern Rajasthan
antelopes, deer, carnivores and rodents.
(Misra et al. 1997). It is possible that the idea of such
pottery types travelled to this region from Ahar
predominate like in the other cultural phases at the
complex. Large and medium sized jars of this gritty
site. Among the domestic animals the cattle and
type are often found burnt black on the inner side,
buffalo constitute a majority and many of them bear
discovered particularly from south eastern part of the
cut marks or are charred suggesting that they were
mound. It is possible that they were used for heating
consumed. The wild animals represented in the Late
bead blanks or raw material at the site. We carried out
Harappan phase include a large bovid, wild pig ,
some such experiment at the site which yielded similar
antelopes, deer, carnivores and small mammals like
result. Most of the pottery types become finer during
hare and rodents (9.60%). In the Mature Harappan
this period. In some medium sized pots painted
phase 96% faunal remains belong to cattle and buffalo

- 95 -
In the Late Harappan phase domestic animals
PALAEOETHNOBOTANICAL
INVESTIGATIONS
(81.09%), followed by sheep and goat (13.93%).

Besides these, wild animals like nilgai (blue bull),
four-horned antelope, a suidae species and the
porcupine were identified.
In order to understand subsistence of the Harappans,
Thus as many as twenty-four species were
Anil K . Pokharia (Birba l Sa hni Institute of
identified, out of which the domestic mammals
Palaeobotany, Lucknow, India) continued the study of
were represented by seven species (cattle, buffalo,
palaeobotanical remains, particularly of charred grains
sheep, goat, pig, dog and cat) wild mammals were
in the third and fourth seasons. He has been able
represented by 14 species (Nilgai, wild pig, antelopes
to conduct preliminary examination of some of the
(Blackbuck, Chinkara and Four-horned antelope),
samples collected by him from the site. He primarily
deer (Sambar, Chital, and Mouse deer), a felid species,
employed water flotation technique to retrieve the
porcupine, hare and rodents (house rat and desert
charred grains at the site. He was assisted by several
rat). Besides these, a few birds, reptiles, fish and shells
research students of Rajasthan Vidyapeeth and water
were also identified.
was brought from a distance by bullock cart to wash
Evidence of charring, butchering and cut marks
the samples. Initially we attempted quantitative
has been found on a large number of bones which
control on our sampling, but gradually we realized we
perhaps indicate that these animals may have been
require some strategy for varied context. For example
part of their diet. The relative proportion of charred
from our floors or general habitation levels ten
bones was larger in the Mature Harappan phase
ghamelas soil was sampled for floatation. Ghamela is
compared to the Late Harappan and Historic. Some
a deep basin kind of metal utensil. From hearth/ fire
of the bones of cattle/buffalo and sheep/goat were fire
places generally two ghamelas and from burnt patches
hardened and it is likely that they may have been used
five ghamelas of soil sample was employed for washing
as tools.
to retrieve the grains. One ghamela contains about 5
Goyal and Joglekar (in press) conclude that
kg of soil. Soil samples for wet flotation were selected
domestic animals were the most important resource
from north eastern, central, south eastern and western
to the animal-based subsistence throughout the
areas. Each sample was poured into the body of water
occupational history. The higher percentage of
in a tub that was agitated so that light material is
domestic animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat
buoyed to the surface and skimmed off through a 25
may suggest that stock raising and pastoralism was
mesh sieve. Floatation allowed recovery of all size
an important component in the subsistence activity
and classes of botanical material preserved in the
of the community in all the periods. They further
sediment, making qualitative and quantitative analysis
point out that the proportion of wild mammals used
possible. A large amount of carbonized material was
in the Late Harappan phase was more than any other
gleaned from well stratified trenches.
cultural phase, clearly indicating an increase on the
dependence on the wild mammals. Of course one
found in utterly fragile, highly burnt and mutilated
has to keep in mind that in all our trenches we have
state of preservation. The inferences of the study,
exposed Late Harappan deposit more than any other
therefore, are based on a small fraction of the
cultural phase. Eventually the faunal assemblage of
material. The remains were sorted out under the
the Late Harappan outnumbered all other phases.
stereo-binocular microscope and thereafter cleaned in
Therefore, this conclusion, as the authors have
acid-alcohol (glacial acetic acid 10% + ethyl alcohol
pointed out, is tentative.
50% in equal volume). The identification, Pokharia,

- 96 -
A sizeable amount of botanical material was
Table 2
Botanical remains recovered from Harappan Kanmer identified by Anil Pokharia of Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeobotany, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

S. no Area of mound Trench and Qdt
Cult. Pd
Layer
Depth in meter Botanical Remains
Central
Z30 SW
KMR I
12
10.02
Vigna, Macrotyloma
Central
Z30 SW
KMR I
12
9.62
Central
Z30 SW
KMR I
12
9.42-9.67
Ho rd e u m , Vi g n a , M a c r o t y l o m a ,
Trianthema
Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum,
Trianthema triquetra, Polygonum sp.,
Ziziphus nummularia, Vicia sp.
Central
Z30 SW
KMR I
12
9.33
Central
Z30 SW
KMR II A 11
9.23
Central
Z30 SW
KMR II A 11
9.06
Central
Z30 SW
KMR II A 11
9.00-9.06
H o r d e u m v u l g a r e , Po l y g o n u m s p . ,
Tr i a n t h e m a t r i q u e t r a , Z i z i p h u s
nummularia
Z iziphus nummul aria, Trianthe ma
triquetra
Z iziphus nummul aria, Trianthe ma
triquetra
Vigna sp., Pisum sp., Trianthema sp.,
Central
Z30 SE
KMR II A 10
9.9
Hordeum, Vigna sp., Trianthema, Ziziphus
Central
Z30 SE
KMR II A 10
9.4
Hordeum, Setaria, Trianthema, Ziziphus
10
Central
Z30 NE
KMR II A 10
9.2
Hordeum, Vigna sp., Trianthema
11
Central
Z30 NE
KMR II A 10
9.09
Hordeum, Oryza, Trianthema
12
Central
Z30 SE
KMR II A 10
9.09
Trianthema
13
Central
Z30 NE
KMR II A 10
9.04
Hordeum, Setaria sp.
14
Central
Z30 NW
KMR II A 10
9.04
Hordeum, Triticum, Ziziphus, Trianthema
15
Central
Z30 NE
KMR II A 10
8.9
Setaria sp.
16
Central
Z30 NW
KMR II A 9
9.93-9.98
Ziziphus sp., Setaria sp.
17
Central
Z28 SE
KMR II A 9
7.83
Ziziphus
18
Central
Z28 SE
KMR II A 9
7.53
Ziziphus
19
Central
Z28 NW
KMR II A 9
7.51
Hordeum, Trianthema, Polygonum
20
Central
Z28 SW
KMR II A 9
7.4
Hordeum, Ziziphus, Trianthema
21
Central
Z28 NE
KMR II A 9
7.33
Hordeum, Ziziphus, Trianthema
22
Central
AA28 NW
KMR II A 9
7.33
Hordeum, Trianthema
23
Central
AA28 SW
KMR II A 9
7.59
Vigna radiata, Trianthema
24
Central
AA28 SW
KMR II A 9
7.38
Vigna radiata
25
Central
AA28 NW
KMR II B 8
7.11
Linum
26
Central
AA28 SW
KMR II B 8
7.11
Gossypium
27
Central
Y28 SE
KMR III
5.73
Hordeum, Gossypium, Trianthema
28
Northeastern
Z17 SW
KMR II B 6
5.39

Chenopodium sp., Setaria sp., Trianthema
triquetra, Ziziphus nummularia
29
Northeastern
AA17 NW
KMR II B 6
5.4
Sorghum bicolor, Sesamum indicum
30
North eastern Z18 NW
KMR II B 4
3.95
31
KMR II B 4
3.9
32
KMR II B 4
3.82
Vigna radiata, Ziziphus nummularia,

Polygonum sp., Trianthema triquetra,
Setaria sp., Scleria sp., Acacia sp.,
Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa, Vigna
radiata, Linum usitatissimum, Sesamum
indicum, Setaria sp.,
Oryza sativa, Pennisetum typhoides, Vigna
radiata, Lathyrus sativus, Macrotyloma
uniflorum, Sesamum indicum, Gossypium
arboreum/herbaceum
- 97 -
S. no Area of mound Trench and Qdt
Cult. Pd
Layer
Depth in meter Botanical Remains

Linum usitatissimum, Ziziphus
nummularia, Setaria sp., Polygonum
sp., Solanum sp., Trianthema triquetra,
Asphodelus sp., Vicia sp.
Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa, Vigna
radiata, Pisum arvense, Macrotyloma
uniflorum, Sesamum indicum, Linum
usitatissimum, Gossypium arboreum/
herbaceum, Eleusine ?, Cucumis sp., Setaria
sp., Asphodelus sp., Solanum sp., Polygonum
sp., Trianthe ma triquetra, Z ziphus
nummularia, Vicia sativa
Vigna sp., Ziziphus nummularia, Setaria
sp., Trianthema triquetra
Hordeum vulgare, Setaria sp., Cyperus sp.,
Trianthema triquetra
33
KMR III
3.84
34
KMR III
3.72
35
3.6
36
North eastern Z17 SW-NE
cultural
break
37
North eastern Z17 NE
cultural
break
38
North eastern AA11 SW
KMR II B 4
5.22
39
South eastern FF29 NW
KMR III
Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum, Vigna

radiata, Lathyrus sativus, Pisum arvense,
Linum usitatissimum, Sesamum indicum
Hordeum vulgare, Triticum sp., Polygonum
sp., Ziziphus nummularia, Trianthema
triquetra
Pennisetum typhoides, Sorghum bicolor
40
South eastern FF29 SW
KMR III
3.79
Vigna radiata
41
South eastern FF29 SE
KMR III
3.77
42
South eastern FF30 NE
KMR III
3.12
43
South eastern FF30 NW
KMR III
3.23
Pennisetum typhoides, Ziziphus sp., Setaria

sp.
Sorghum bicolor, Pennisetum typhoides,
Ziziphus sp.
Vigna radiata, Ziziphus nummularia
44
South eastern GG29 NW
KMR III
3.16
Hordeum vulgare, Oryza sativa, Ziziphus

nummularia, Trianthem triquetra
45
South eastern GG29 NW
KMR III
3.14
46
South eastern GG29 NE
KMR III
2.9
47
South eastern EE29 NE
KMR III
4.1
Vigna radiata, Setaria sp., Trianthema

triquetra
Vigna radiata, Chenopodium sp., Indigofera
sp., Setaria sp.
Setaria, Polygonum
48
South eastern EE 29 NW
KMR IV
3.25
49
North eastern AA 17 SW
KMR IV
1 (dump) 4.08
50
North eastern AA16 NW
KMR IV
1 (dump) 2.86
Vicia sp., Andropogon sp., Trianthema

triquetra, Solanum sp., Indigofera sp.,
51
Central
cultural
break
6.47
Coix sp.
52
North eastern Z 16 SE
KMR IV
2.99
Hordeum vulgare, Pennisetum typhoides,

Macrotyloma uniflorum, Linum
usitatissimum, Scleria sp.
Z 29 SE
- 98 -
Pennisetum typhoides, Sorghum bicolor,

Macrotyloma uniflorum, Vigna radiata,
Linum usitatissimum, Ziziphus sp.,
Ipomoea sp., Polygonum sp., Dactyloctenium
aegyptium, Chenopodium sp., Acacia sp.,
Barley, Chenopodium sp., Trianthema
triquetra
is based on the morphological details preserved in
the dominant dry thorny vegetation.
the carbonized grains and seeds by comparing them
with the corresponding parts of extant plants of the
marina, Mysistica malabarica and Wrightia tinctoria,
same species. These remains represent the accidentally
which may have been used for some activities other
scorched portion of a larger amount.
than fuelling their hearths. For example, Lancelotti
In the first field season several cereals and
and Madella suggest that the presence of Wrightia at
pulses such as barley (Hordeum vulgare), bread-
the site can be associated with dyeing activities as its
wheat (Triticum aestivum), dwarf-wheat (Triticum
leaves produce a blue dye similar to Indigo. With their
sphaerococcum), rice (Oryza sativa), field-pea (Pisum
preliminary observations they have postulated that
arvense), grass-pea (Lathyrus sativus), and green-
intensive exploitation of dry scrubland and riverine
gram (Vigna radiata) were identified, besides cotton
species, combined with increasing aridity may have
(Gossypium arboreum/herbaceum), some weeds and
led to the environmental deterioration.
wild taxa (see Kharakwal et al. 2007). In the second
field season, largely focused to understand the history
Kanmer given in Tables 3 and 4.
of fortification wall, we could retrieve number of
charred grains of jowar-millet (Sorghum bicolor),
different cultural period and chronology at Kanmer.
Pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides), sesame (Sesamum
To our surprise there are three dates at our disposal
indicum), and horse-gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum).
from the upper levels of Kanmer, which fall around
Besides, remains of weeds and other wild taxa were
4th millennium BCE. However, these early dates
also encountered reflecting the ecological conditions
may be errors of some kind or due to contamination
and ground vegetation. Table 2 presents summary
as there is no indicator in the archaeological remains
results of samples so far analysed by Pokharia,
which points to such early dates.
They have also identified species such as Avicennia
We have so far received 27 radiocarbon dates for

These dates appear to support our identification of
belonging to third and fourth field season.

Besides charred grains, Carla Lancelotti studied
CONCLUSION
a few samples of charcoal from Kanmer in order to

understand the fuel system of the Harppans with an
idea if the shortage in fuel accelerated the decline of
In fact out of 555 known Harappan and Chalcolithic
the mighty Harappans (Lancelotti and Madella in
settlements in Gujarat as many as 63 are located in
this volume). They have identified a large number
Kachchh (Possehl 1999; Seth et al. 2007; Rajesh and
of woody and grass plant remains belonging to dry
Patel 2007). Among them, only a few sites, such
scrubland and riverine species. They have pointed out
as Dholavira (IAR 1967-68: 14-16; Bisht 1989a, b,
that a variety of wood species flourished at Kanmer
1991, 1997), Surkotada ( Joshi 1990) and Juni Kuran
during KMR II or urban phase. The most abundant
(Pramanik 2003-2004), have been subjected to
species identified by them are Ziziphus, Salvadora
horizontal excavation whereas Desalpar, Pabhumath,
and Capparis, of course belonging to dry scrub
Sikarpur were subjected to small scale excavation.
land. On the basis of their charcoal evaluation and
Of course Shikarpur is now being re-excavated by
phytoliths studies, they suggest that there may have
M.S. University of Baroda. Sikarpur is also a small
been watercourse near the site which supported good
settlement like Kanmer and has a similar fortified
vegetation cover and coast line was much closer to the
enclosure, of course made of mud bricks. Besides,
site. According to them, the Harappans were able to
Khirsara, located in western Kachchh is under
exploit riverine specie and mangrove forest, besides
excavation by the Archaeological Survey of India.

- 99 -
Table 3
14
C dates of Kanmer by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany
no Trench
Depth
(cm)
Layer Lab Ref. No.

BSIP
14
C date
(yrs BP)
Calibrated date Calibrated date Sample from cultural

(BP)
(BC/AD)
deposit
1
2
3
4
5
930
466
280
224
350-380
19
7
3
2
6
419080
3870100
361090
81090
125080
4838-4573
4344-4262
4080-3735
726-722
1277-1062
Y-30
R-21
HH-30
GG-31
S-21
BS-2619
BS-2627
BS-2628
BS-2692
BS-2618
2888-2623 BC
2470-2149 BC
2130-1785 BC
1224-1239 AD
673-888 AD
KMR I
KMR II B
KMR II A
KMR V
KMR IV
Table 4 AMS radiocarbon dates of samples from Kanmer by Paleo-Labo, Japan
no
Layer/
Depth
Trench (cm)/
Cultural
period
PLD No.
13C
central
trench/-
3-5/
-/
KMR V
PLD-13115
-25.240.18
170816
central
trench/-
3-5/
-/
KMR V
PLD-13116
-22.430.22
cenral
trench/-
7/
-/
PLD-13117
KMR III
central
trench/-
8/
-/
PLD-13119
KMR IIB
Conventional Conventional
radiocarbon age radiocarbon age
(not rounded)
(rounded)
Caribrated age
1 range
2 range
171015
263AD(14.4%)277AD
330AD(53.8%)383AD
257AD(28.7%)301AD
317AD(66.7%)395AD
170817
171015
263AD(14.6%)278AD
330AD(53.6%)383AD
257AD(29.0%)301AD
317AD(66.4%)395AD
-23.240.18
173917
174015
255AD(10.0%)265AD
273AD(58.2%)335AD
242AD(93.0%)351AD
369AD( 2.4%)379AD
-24.100.12
393118
393020
2474BC(33.0%)2454BC
2419BC(13.2%)2406BC
2377BC(22.0%)2351BC
2479BC(95.4%)2345BC
central
trench/-
8/
-/
PLD-13120 -24.820.14
KMR IIB
370118
370020
2135BC(14.9%)2119BC
2096BC(53.3%)2040BC
2188BC( 1.0%)2184BC
2142BC(94.4%)2031BC
central
trench/-
8/
-/
PLD-13121
KMR IIB
-24.310.13
366119
366020
2121BC(26.0%)2095BC
2041BC(27.1%)2016BC
1996BC(15.1%)1980BC
2133BC(35.2%)2083BC
2057BC(60.2%)1960BC
central
trench/-
11/
-/
PLD-13122
KMR IIA
-24.150.12
389518
389520
2459BC(42.3%)2401BC
2382BC(25.9%)2348BC
2466BC(88.3%)2335BC
2324BC( 7.1%)2301BC
NE
6/
trench/
363/
PLD-14748 -25.080.25
AA17 KMR III
378025
2278BC(22.7%)2251BC
2229BC( 6.0%)2221BC
2211BC(13.6%)2195BC
2176BC(25.9%)2145BC
2292BC(95.4%)2137BC
SE
3/
trench/
385/
PLD-14749 -25.500.28
FF29 KMR III
375025
2204BC(62.6%)2134BC
2077BC( 5.6%)2064BC
2279BC( 7.2%)2250BC
2230BC( 1.5%)2220BC
2211BC(68.2%)2121BC
2095BC(18.5%)2041BC
378226
375127
- 100 -
no
Layer/
Depth
Trench (cm)/
Cultural
period
10
SE
3/
trench/
385/
PLD-14750 -25.540.21
FF29 KMR III
11
central
trench/
Z30
PLD No.
13C
Conventional Conventional
radiocarbon age radiocarbon age
(not rounded)
(rounded)
Caribrated age
1 range
2 range
376924
377025
2271BC( 8.0%)2259BC
2206BC(60.2%)2141BC
2287BC(92.7%)2133BC
2079BC( 2.7%)2061BC
-22.760.13
398424
398525
2564BC(37.9%)2534BC
2494BC(30.3%)2472BC
2571BC(56.2%)2513BC
2504BC(39.2%)2466BC
12
central
10/
trench/ 904/
PLD-14752 -24.260.13
Z30 KMR IIA
393524
393525
2476BC(35.6%)2437BC
2421BC(12.4%)2404BC
2379BC(20.2%)2349BC
2560BC( 3.2%)2536BC
2491BC(92.2%)2341BC
13
SE
4/
trench/
458/
PLD-14753 -24.530.24
EE30 KMR IIB
368224
368025
2132BC(44.8%)2084BC
2058BC(23.4%)2030BC
2141BC(89.2%)2011BC
2001BC( 6.2%)1977BC
west
11/
14 trench/ 800/
PLD-14754 -25.920.29
Q28 KMR IIA
389625
389525
2462BC(42.4%)2398BC
2384BC(25.8%)2346BC
2467BC(95.4%)2299BC
15
west
12/
trench/
820/
PLD-14755 -26.070.14
Q28 KMR IIA
386625
386525
2455BC(16.2%)2420BC
2406BC(15.5%)2377BC
2350BC(36.5%)2291BC
2464BC(90.4%)2281BC
2250BC( 3.9%)2231BC
2219BC( 1.1%)2212BC
16
central
trench/
Z28
PLD-14756 -25.450.20
387324
387525
2455BC(19.0%)2419BC
2406BC(17.3%)2377BC
2350BC(31.9%)2296BC
2465BC(94.9%)2286BC
2247BC( 0.5%)2243BC
17
cenral
9/
trench/
788/
PLD-14757 -11.410.22
AA28 KMR IIA
380923
381025
2286BC(68.2%)2205BC
2337BC( 2.2%)2323BC
2308BC(86.7%)2196BC
2172BC( 6.5%)2146BC
18
west
13/
trench/
845/
PLD-14758
Q28 KMR IIA
-21.250.18
389224
389025
2459BC(42.1%)2391BC
2385BC(26.1%)2346BC
2466BC(95.4%)2298BC
19
west
11/
trench/
809/
PLD-14759 -25.290.14
Q28 KMR IIA
389822
390020
2462BC(42.8%)2402BC
2382BC(25.4%)2348BC
2468BC(87.9%)2335BC
2324BC( 7.5%)2301BC
central
20 trench/
AA28
12/
972/
KMR I
12/
891/
KMR I
PLD-14751
8/
711/
IIB
PLD-14760 -22.330.15
387523
387525
2455BC(20.0%)2419BC
2406BC(17.7%)2377BC
2351BC(30.5%)2298BC
2464BC(95.4%)2288BC
west
trench/
Q28
10/803
PLD-14761 -25.680.17
388627
388525
2457BC(68.2%)2342BC
2466BC(95.4%)2292BC
central
22 trench/
AA28
12/924
PLD-14762 -24.220.20
381424
381525
2288BC(18.5%)2267BC
2260BC(49.7%)2206BC
2344BC(90.6%)2196BC
2172BC( 4.8%)2146BC
21
- 101 -
Most of these settlements belong to urban and post
during our archaeological diggings and the results
urban phase of the Harappan Civilization. The
of digital recording indicates that the shape of the
concentration of sites appears to be in the eastern part
fortified settlement was like a parallelogram. The total
of the peninsula, which is believed to be an arm of sea
thickness of the wall was measured about 18m in the
in the past (Gupta and Pandya 1980). It is held that
middle level of its height.
the accessibility of marine resources, semiprecious
stones and arable land were major factors for the
KMR III were found overlying the remains of KMR
expansion of enterprising Harappans in Gujarat.
II. The pottery assemblage of KMR III generally
Though researches on the Harappans in Gujarat have
appears ochreous. It is likely that the Late Harappans
unfolded various new facets, e.g., elaborate water
also used the existing rampart initially but did not
structures, dock yard (!), diverse craft industries,
maintained it as it was not required then and finally
regional variation in architecture, ceramic and so
they raised their houses right on top of the rampart.
on, there are still various challenging issues yet to be
Thus there was no cultural discontinuity throughout
addressed, such as function of strongly fortified small
the deposit of Harappan vintage.
sites, decline/ de-urbanisation of the Harappans, role
of non Harappans cultures in civilisation process.
remained unoccupied for about 1600 years. This long
The earliest settlement (KMR I) was raised on a
period of time was represented by a thick layer of dark
thin soil cover overlying the bed rock, which may also
grey sandy soil, often loose in composition and devoid
be stated as pre-fortification deposit. It was identified
of any structural remains. It was identified as layer
on the basis of presence of Anarta types coarse Red
6 in the central part whereas layer 2 in the northern
Ware, bichrome and polychrome types, cream slip
area and layer 3 in the western part. The Historic
pottery, Red ware (sometimes decorated with a panel
structures, belonging to KMR IV, were raised on
of grooved decoration on the shoulder or body part)
this break. The discovery of large number of sherds
together with some Harappan type fossils. Except for
of West Asian Tarpedo Jar and Roman Amphorae
Coarse Red, all other types gradually disappear in the
indicate that Kanmer, directly or indirectly, was also
subsequent cultural deposit. The urban phase deposit
included in the Indo-Roman trade network. The site
has been levelled as Period KMR II, which is further
seems to be again deserted for a few hundred years
sub-divided in two parts Period KMR IIA and
after the Historic period. During this long spell of
Period KMR IIB on the basis of appearance of new
abandonment the site again got deposition of fine
ceramic types, nature of deposit, change in planning
silt mixed with clay indicating that Aeolian soil was
of settlement at the site. It seems during this period
getting deposited in the large depression surrounded
a planned settlement was built at Kanmer, which
by the ruins of the fort and subsequently getting
was secured with a massive and strong fortification.
reworked by the rain..
An addition was made all along the outer arm of
the fort wall during period KMR I perhaps to check
like a lower town could be located. Of course there
some serious damage to the wall. It was identified as
is a very thin deposit of Late Harappan period to
the second major structural phase of the fort wall.
the east of the main mound and the laser survey
Towards the end of period KMR II the height of
has indicated an outer defence wall like feature to
fort was further raised but its width was reduced.
the east of the main mound. From the deposit of
It was identified as the third or last constructional
the Mature and Late Harappan phase considerable
phase of the fort wall. The lay out plan documented
quantity of nodules of agate have been recovered.

- 102 -
The remains of post urban phase identified as
After the decline of the Harappans the site
Outside the rampart area no other settlement
These were perhaps brought from Mardhak Bet, an
Project sincerely thanks Archaeological Survey of
island, located in the Little Rann about 20 km to the
India for granting permission to continue further
northeast of Kanmer. It is likely that this raw material
studies at the site. We thank various authorities
was used for making variety of beads, blades and
of JRN R ajasthan V idyapeeth, Udaipur, and
weights. The faunal and floral remains clearly indicate
Government of Gujarat for encouraging us and
that agriculture and cattle breeding were among the
providing administrative support for field research in
important occupation at the site right from the third
Kachchh. The authors would like to express sincere
millennium.
gratitude to Profs. D.P. Agrawal, R.S. Bisht, R.S.
From the early levels at Kanmer, i.e. pre-
Fonia, Ajithprasad and Randle Law for enlightening
fortification deposit nodules of agate, flakes, blades,
on various issues related to Kanmer. We would also
and rough-outs were discovered. In the second
like to record special thanks to Prof. B.S. Garg, Prof.
cultural period, i.e. KMR II (contemporary to urban
Divya Prabha Nagar of Rajasthan Vidyapeeth for
phase) a large number of drill bits, rough outs, variety
constantly supporting for analysis of the excavated
of beads of semi-precious stone were discovered. One
material in the institute at Udaipur. The authors also
may argue that the local rural non Harappan folks or
thank Mr. Hansmukh Seth, Rajesh Meena, Suresh
the early Harappans knew the source of raw material.
Meena, Asif Hussain, K.P. Singh, Narayan Paliwal,
The aforesaid nature of discovery indicates that they
Rohit Menaria, Soyeb Qureshi and Miss Deepshikha
might be aware of the technology of bead making
for lending us helping hand in the institute while
too. The Harappans, being enterprising people, may
working on the excavated material.
have realized the importance of source of raw material

and bead making process. It is therefore likely that
they may have begun the marketing or raw material
as well as finished products. Besides this, a large
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- 104 -
Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat, during the third field season (2007-08)
Report on the faunal remains recovered from

Kanmer, Gujarat, during the third field season (2007-08)
Pankaj Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Department of Archaeology
Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune, India
ABSTRACT
The three seasons of excavation at Kanmer revealed a large number of animal skeletal remains. This paper presents the results of the
analysis carried on the excavated faunal material during the third season (2007-08) from Kanmer. More than 25,000 bone fragments
were collected during this season at Kanmer; however, this report is based on a part of this collection mainly the material coming
from two trenches Z29 and Z30 located in the central part of the mound. A total of 2984 fragments were analyzed from these two
trenches belonging to different cultural periods. The bone identification revealed the presence of both domestic and wild mammals.
The domestic species include cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse (found only in the Medieval Phase-KMRV), ass and cat. The wild mammals include wild buffalo, nilgai, deer (Sambar, spotted deer, barking deer and hog deer), antelopes (blackbuck, gazelle and fourhorned antelope), pig, porcupine, hare, elephant and carnivores (wolf and jungle cat) and house rat. The non-mammalian species
identified are domestic fowl, peafowl, pond heron, monitor lizard, Chitra turtle and Indian sawback turtle. Any signature of bone
modifications observed is also recorded. So far, information regarding the change in the animal based subsistence pattern from the
Mature Harappan to the Late Harappan phase is virtually unknown. It is on this background the faunal remains unearthed from
Kanmer are important.
Introduction
whereas the northeastern and southwestern corners

form acute angles. The site is very close to the well-
Kanmer, locally known as Bakar Kot is an impor-
known Harappan sites like Surkotada and Dholavira
tant addition to the list of Mature Harappan sites in
and might have played an important role as well. Ex-
Gujarat (Figures 1 and 2). The ancient site was first
cavations have been going on at Kanmer for last three
discovered by R.S. Bisht, Y.S. Rawat and other Ar-
years under the supervision of J.S. Kharakwal, Y.S.
chaeological Survey of India (ASI) team members in
Rawat and Toshiki Oshada. (Kharakwal et al. 2005;
1985. The site has an impressive mound that measures
2007; 2008a and b; 2009)
about 110 m E-W and 120 m N-S. The total thickness
of the deposit is 11 m. The stratigraphy of the periph-
vated from the site of Kanmer allowed the excavators
eral area of the site is different from that of the central
to identify the following fivefold cultural sequence at
part of the mound. The site revealed a very large forti-
the site:
Study and analysis of the cultural material exca-
fication wall. The excavation and GPS and GIS survey

conducted at the site showed that this fortification
Period I:
KMR I
is a parallelogram. The northwestern and southeast-
Period II:
KMR II
ern corners of this fortification make obtuse angles
Period III: KMR III
- 105 -
P. Goyal and P.P. Joglekar
Figure 1 Map showing Kanmer with other Harappan sites in Gujarat
Figure 2 A general view of the mound at Kanmer
- 106 -
Period IV:
KMR IV
different phases of Harappan occupation at the site.
Period V:
KMR V
This report deals with the faunal remains un-
earthed at Kanmer in the third season of excavation

KMR stands for Kanmer and KMR I, II and III
(2007-08). The previous two reports dealing with the
represents the different phases of Harappan occupa-
faunal material recovered at Kanmer in 2005-06 and
tion at the site. This terminology is preferred by the
2006-07 have already been published ( Joglekar 2007;
excavators as the total Harappan deposit represents
Goyal and Joglekar 2008). The authors have also pre-
different stages of culture. KMR IV represents the
sented research papers connected with the results of
Early Historic deposit, whereas KMR V the Medieval
the faunal analysis done so far in different conferences
one. In addition, two cultural breaks have also been
( Joglekar 2006; Joglekar and Goyal 2008; Goyal and
noticed. The first break was noticed between KMR
Joglekar 2008; 2010a; 2010b).
III and IV represented by layer 6 of trenches Z29 and

Z30. This layer, dark grayish in colour, revealed no
Methodology
structural activity and yielded mixed types of pottery

(Historic and Late Harappan). Therefore, it has been
designated as a break between the Historic and the
The process of retrieval of the faunal material at the
Late Harappan phase (Kharakwal et al. 2008). The
site was supervised by the first author. It is widely rec-
other break was found between KMR IV and KMR
ognized that the bones of small animals are frequently
V represented by layer 4 of the same trenches. How-
missed during excavation (Payne 1975). Therefore,
ever, no such break has been recognized between the
utmost care was taken to recover all the micro-faunal
Figure 3 Cleaning of the faunal material
- 107 -
Figure 4 A top view of trenches Z29 and Z30
Figure 5 Faunal material in situ

- 108 -
remains. The recovered faunal material was washed
den Driesch (1976).
and dried in the shade at the site itself (Figure 3).
After cleaning and drying, the bones were packed
were identified to the exact anatomical area and an
first in the paper bags and then in cloth bags with
attempt has been made to properly record all types
proper context written on each bag. The micro-faunal
of cut marks. Identifiable specimens were compared
remains have been packed separately in small plastic
with the modern specimens of known species housed
boxes with proper labelling to avoid their breakage
at the Deccan College Archaeozoology Laboratory at
during the transportation.
Pune and Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. In
Trenches Z29 and 30 were taken up for this study
addition, help from the published literature was taken
since these trenches represent all the cultural phases in
like Joglekar et al. (1994), Miguad (1992), Gupta et. al.
a well-stratified context (Figures 4 and 5). A prelimi-
(1987, 1990), Higham (1975) and Schmidt (1972), etc.
nary study of the material was conducted at the site
Epiphyseal fusion and tooth wear stages have been
itself and only the remaining skeletal fragments have
recorded to find out kill off pattern in the case of do-
been taken to the Deccan College Archaeozoology
mestic animals such as cattle, sheep, goat and pig.
Laboratory for further processing. At first, an initial
sorting was done and fragments were categorized into
and very difficult to differentiate if suitable morpho-
identifiable and non-identifiable parts. The identifi-
logical markers are not present. Therefore, fragments
able parts were then identified up to a specific skeletal
of ribs, vertebrae and other very fragmented bones
element and whenever possible to the species level.
not containing any morphological markers were
The bone fragments that could not be identified were
recorded in the category of Bos/Bubalus. The same is
termed as the unidentified material (UF) and were
done for sheep and goat and a category called Capra
further categorized into three different types, i.e. large
hircus/Ovis aries was created. To attain a fine level
unidentified fragments (UL), medium unidentified
identification of sheep and goat published literature
fragments (UM) and small unidentified fragments
like Prummel and Frisch (1986) and Pawankar and
(US) based on the relative sizes of the skeletal frag-
Thomas (2001) was consulted. In addition, categories
ments. Broken skeletal fragments of a same element
like small mammal, medium mammal, general deer,
were refitted and considered as a single unit following
general reptile, small sized birds and medium sized
Clasons (1972) method of counting the specimens.
birds were also created.
The skeletal fragments containing cut marks
The bones of cattle and buffalo are very similar
No attempt of refitting was done if the fragments belonged to different stratigraphic units. Criteria given
The Faunal Material
by Sadek-Kooros (1975) to describe intentional fracturing were used. Whenever possible, measurements
The present report is based on the faunal material
of the recovered material were taken following Von
Table 1 Details of faunal material examined

Phase
Contexts
NISP
UF
TF
NISP %
KMR V-The Medieval Phase
Z29 (3), Z30 (3)
25
29
54
46.29
KMR IV-The Historical Phase
Z29 (5), Z30 (5)
315
206
521
60.46
KMR III-The Late Harappan Phase
Z29 (7), Z30 (7)
159
124
283
56.18
KMR II-The Mature Harappan Phase
Z29 (8,9,10, 11)
1317
809
2126
61.91
1816
1168
2984
60.85
Total
- 109 -
recovered from two trenches Z29 and Z30 (Figure
(n=1168) (Figure 6). Bones belonging to both axial
4) located in the central part of the mound. A total
and appendicular skeleton were present in the faunal
of 3020 fragments were analyzed belonging to four
assemblage; however, in case of all the animals, the
cultural periods - Mature Harappan Phase (KMR
axial skeletal parts were scantly represented in all the
II), Late Harappan phase (KMR III), the Historic
cultural phases. Maximum representation was of ribs
Period (KMR IV) and the Medieval Period (KMR V)
and vertebrae. Phalanges, astragalus, calcanium, carpal
(Table 1). The material (n=36) belonging to the first
and tarsal bones were well-preserved and mostly com-
two layers of trenches Z29 and Z30 were not included
plete.
in the analysis as this layer represented the modern

soil cover. The layer 1 did not contain any faunal ma-
The Species
terial except a second molar of Bos indicus (K1319)

and few unidentified skeletal fragments. A handful
of fragments recovered from the break between the
The faunal material analysed this year revealed pres-
Medieval (KMR V) and the Historic Phase (KMR
ence of a large number of species (Tables 2 - 3, Figures
IV) were not analyzed. Similarly, the cultural break
7 - 10) that include mammals, birds and reptiles. The
recognized between the Historic (KMR IV) and the
material also revealed a large number of fish fragments
late phase of Harappan culture at the site (KMR III)
and a small number of molluscan species; however,
revealed a few fragments of bones and was not in-
these were not included in the present report. These
cluded in this analysis.
fragments have been kept separately and would be
The other layers revealed 2984 skeletal elements,
analysed independently. Nine species of domestic
out of which 1816 (60. 85%) could be identified (Table
mammals have been identified this year the cattle,
1). The bone fragments that could not be identi-
buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, horse, ass, dog and cat.
fied were termed as the unidentified material (UF)
The wild mammals include 16 species the wild
Figure 6 Chart showing faunal material from Kanmer
- 110 -
Figure 7 Bones from the Mature Harappan context: a. First phalanges of cattle, b. Buffalo bones,
c. Antilope cervicapra bones, d. First phalanges of Gazella bennetti
Figure 8 Bones from the Mature Harappan context:

a. A complete humerus of Axis axis, b. Sus scrofa bones, c. Bird bones, d. Reptile bones
- 111 -
Figure 9 Bones from the Historic context: a. Bos indicus bones (from Medieval context), b. Second phalanges of buffalo,
c. A. cervicapra bones (first two); Gazella bennetti bones (last two), d. Humerus of dog
Figure 10 Bones from the Late Harappan context: a. Capra hircus bones (A-C); Scapula of Ovis aries (D), b. Astragalli of Axis axis (AB); Tibia of Antilope cervicapra (C) and Tibia of Gazella bennetti (D), c. Lepus nigricollis bones (A-D), d. Lepus nigricollis bones (A-C)
- 112 -
buffalo, nilgai, elephant, antelopes (blackbuck, gazelle
information about the way in which these fragments
and four horned antelope), deer (spotted deer, hog
were discarded/deposited. Most of the bone frag-
deer, sambar and barking deer), wild pig, wolf, jungle
ments were well-preserved; however, bones belonging
cat, porcupine, hare and house rat. There was also a
to the layers located deep in the trenches (layers 9-11)
species of equid that could not be identified with cer-
were impregnated and encrusted with minerals. The
tainty. Similarly, a species of deer could not have been
effects of this varied noticeably from fragment to frag-
identified up to species level. The faunal material also
ment, but almost all fragments were affected to some
revealed the presence of birds and reptiles. However,
degree. Layer 5 revealed a large number of skeletal
it was not possible to identify many such fragments.
fragments in which flaking of the outer crust could
The identified birds include domestic fowl, peacock
be seen. This can be attributed to their exposure to
and pond heron, while the reptiles include monitor
Sun for a long period of time. In case of a few bone
lizard and two species of turtle. These fragments have
fragments from the same layer, root impression was
been kept separately for further examination in the
noticed on them.
laboratory.
A number of bones revealed the marks of modern
breaking. For example, the distal end of first phalanx

of Axis axis recovered from the Mature Harappan
Bone Modifications
phase (layer 10) showed the evidence of modern

breaking. Similarly, a skeletal fragment belonging to
A careful recording of bone modifications (Table 4) is
the radius of Antilope cerviapra (layer 9) were broken
very important as these can provide us with some vital
into two fragments. Some of these fragments were
Figure 11 A. Bone modifications; B. Bone modifications; C. Bone tools; D. Bone object
- 113 -
Figure 12 Chart showing bone modifications observed at Kanmer
broken during excavation, while some other broke
charring noticed. A number of such fragments were
during their transportation to the laboratory at
found from all the cultural phases revealed; however,
Deccan College. The bones like carpals, tarsals and
the Mature Harappan phase revealed the maximum
phalanges were better preserved, and very few cases
number of charred fragments. Some peculiar bone
of bone modifications were noticed on these bones,
fragments charred at the anterior end only were no-
which can be attributed to their non meat-bearing
ticed in the Mature Harappan phase last year (Goyal
character.
and Joglekar 2008); however, no such fragment was
No cases of embryonic bones getting associated
noticed this time. Butchering and cutting marks have
with the faunal assemblage have been noticed this
also been noticed from all the periods. Cutting and
year. Sixteen cases of porous bones were noticed
butchering marks are produced during various stages
this season, 2 belonging to the Medieval phase, 2 to
of carcass utilization and a proper recording of these
the Historical phase and 12 to the Mature Harap-
marks can throw light on various aspects of food
pan phase. Few cases of bone gnawed by rodents
preparation and food processing activities.
and carnivores were also noticed. A large number
of bones having charring marks were noticed from
served from Kanmer which seemed to be used as tools
all the cultural phases. These charred fragments have
or made for some other purpose. The Mature Harap-
been recorded as three different types, i.e. charred,
pan yielded a total of five such fragments. All these
completely charred and charred and turned white
were made on bones of cattle/buffalo and sheep/
(calcified) based upon the relative proportion of
goat, mainly the metapodia. For example, an object

- 114 -
A small number of modified bones have been ob-
Table 2 Animal species identified at Kanmer in the third seasons material

Domestic mammals
Wild mammals
Non-mammals
Bos indicus (Cattle)
Bubalus arnee (Wild buffalo)
Gallus domesticus (Domestic fowl)
Bubalus bubalis (Buffalo)
Boselaphus tragocamelus (Nilgai)
Ardeola grayii (Pond heron)
Capra hircus (Goat)
Tetracerus quadricornis (Chowsingha)
Pavo cristatus (Peafowl)
Ovis aries (Sheep)
Antilope cervicapra (Blackbuck)
Sus domesticus (Pig)
Gazella bennetti (Gazelle)
Canis familiaris (Dog)
Axis axis (Spotted deer)
Equus caballus (Horse)
Axis porcinus (Hog deer)
Equus asinus (Ass)
Cervus unicolor (Sambar)
Felis catus (Cat)
Muntiacus muntjak (Barking deer)
Varanus bengalensis (Monitor lizard)

Kachuga tecta (Indian sawback turtle)
Chitra indica (Chitra turtle)
Sus scrofa (Wild pig)

Canis lupus (Wolf )
Felis chaus ( Jungle cat)
Hystrix indica (Porcupine)
Elaphus maximus (Elephant)
Rattus rattus (House rat)
Lepus nigricollis (Hare)
made on the metapodium (K770), recovered from
buffalo bones in all the layers belonging to the Mature
layer 9 has a polish on its outer surface. Similarly, a
Harappan phase. Similarly, the bones of goats were
metacarpal (K773) of cattle revealed sharp cuts at the
more in number than sheep.
proximal end and was polished on both sides. One
such fragment was noticed in the Medieval phase. The
finding. This layer brought to light a number of iden-
exact function of these modified bones is yet to be
tified skeletal fragments belonging to very young cat-
determined.
tle (Table 5). There were many more fragments which
Layer 9 of trench Z30 revealed a very interesting
seem to be of the same cattle. As these fragments were

not having any identifiable morphological features,
KMR II:
The Mature Harappan Phase
these were grouped in the category of unidentified

fragments (UF). Measurements of only few of these
could be taken due to their badly preserved condition.
The bulk of the faunal material examined from two
These skeletal elements were recovered just outside a
trenches belonged to the Mature Harappan phase,
large Mature Harappan structure. It is also important
and the number of species identified is also large. A
to mention that the density of bones outside struc-
total of 1317 fragments were identified out of 2126
ture was much higher than inside the structure. It
fragments recovered from the Mature Harappan
does not seem that this animal was used for food as
phase (Table 1). The contribution of domestic animals
not a single bone show any mark of human activity
is very large in the total assemblage. The domestic ani-
(cut marks and charring marks). On the other hand,
mal contributed 87.15% of which a major part comes
it seems that there were two skeletons of very young
from the cattle and buffalo (62.65%), followed by goat
cattle, which were disturbed due to post-depositional
and sheep (24%). The cattle bones were more than the
factors.
- 115 -
Table 3 Summary of identified species at Kanmer

Species
Medieval Phase
Domestic Mammals
NISP
Historic Phase
NISP
Late
Harappan Phase
NISP
Mature
Harappan Phase
NISP
Bos indicus
12
28
8.89
3.77
98
7.44
Bubalus bubalis
10
3.17
0.63
11
0.84
Bos/Bubalus
13
52
189
60
72
45.3
714
54.2
Capra hircus
0.32
3.14
24
1.82
Ovis aries
0.32
0.63
10
0.76
Capra hircus/Ovis aries
20
54
17.1
34
21.4
282
21.4
Equus caballus
12
Equus asinus
0.08
Sus domesticus
0.15
Canis familiaris
0.32
0.08
Felis catus
0.3
Wild Mammals
Bubalus arnee
0.32
Boselaphus tragocamelus
0.32
0.3
Cervus unicolor
Equus sp.
0.15
Elaphus maximus
0.15
Axis axis
0.32
0.63
10
0.76
Axis porcinus
0.08
Deer general
0.08
Sus scrofa
0.23
Muntiacus muntjak
0.15
Tatracerus quadricornis
0.3
Antilope cervicapra
12
3.81
2.52
14
1.06
Gazella bennetti
1.59
1.89
18
1.37
Canis lupus
0.63
Felis chaus
0.23
Hystrix indica
0.63
Lepus nigricollis
0.95
21
13.2
17
1.29
Rattus rattus
0.32
0.63
15
1.14
Medium Mammal
0.63
0.08
Small Mammal
1.27
2.52
39
2.96
Reptiles
Chitra indica
0.08
Kachuga tecta
0.08
Varanus bengalensis
0.63
General Reptile
0.08
Birds
Gallus domesticus
0.32
0.63
0.61
Pavo cristatus
0.23
Ardeola grayii
0.63
0.46
Medium sized birds
0.63
11
0.84
Small sized birds
0.23
25
100
315
100
159
100
1317
100
Total
- 116 -
Table 4 Bone modifications observed in different phases

Phase
Comments
Charred Bones
Completely Charred Bones
Charred and Turned White
Butchering Marks
Cut Marks
Gnawing Marks
Carnivore Marks
Rodent Marks
Porous Bones
Bone Tool
NISP
The Medieval Phase

Total
7
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
1
11
The Historic Phase
% of NISP
63.64
0.00
0.00
0.00
9.09
0.00
0.00
0.00
18.18
9.09
100
Total
37
50
21
5
13
0
3
8
2
0
139
% of NISP
26.62
35.97
15.11
3.60
9.35
0.00
2.16
5.76
1.44
0.00
100
The Late Harappan

Total
The Mature
Phase
Harappan Phase
% of NISP Total % of NISP
27
57.45
73
28.74
2
4.26
41
16.14
2
4.26
4
1.57
4
8.51
12
4.72
8
17.02
87
34.25
2
4.26
0
0.00
2
4.26
9
3.54
0
0.00
11
4.33
0
0.00
12
4.72
0
0.00
5
1.97
47
100
254
100
The contribution of domestic pig was almost neg-
people as indicated by the human activity noticed on
ligible as only two bone fragments (second phalanx
the skeletal fragments. A complete humerus of Axis
and ilium part of pelvis) of this animal were found
axis (K825) was recovered from the Mature Harap-
from layer 8 and 9, respectively. No butchering and
pan phase. The jungle cat was represented in the form
charring marks had been observed on the pig remains
of three fragments only and no human activity was
excavated from the Mature Harappan phase. The
noticed on these fragments. Elephant was represented
previous reports have also revealed the same picture
in the collection by the presence of two fragments of
( Joglekar 2007; Goyal and Joglekar 2008). However,
ivory. The Mature Harappan people also exploited
looking at previous such cases at other Harappan
the small game like Indian hare (1.29%).
sites, it is certain domestic pigs were used for dietary
purpose. The other domestic animals include ass, dog
bones, two representing Chitra indica and Kachuga
and cat. The occurrence of domestic ass from the Ma-
tecta, while one could not be identified up to genus
ture Harappan suggests its use as a beast of burden.
level and termed as general reptile. Although, a large
Domestic dog was identified in the form of only one
number of bird remains could not be identified up to
fragment of mandible unearthed in layer 9. The do-
species level, it seems that they played an important
mestic cat was represented in the form of four skeletal
part in the subsistence activity of the Mature Harap-
fragments, i.e. distal portion of a humerus (K790), a
pan people. Birds contributed 2.4% of the total as-
complete calcaneum (K791), distal portion of radius
semblage. The identified birds include domestic fowl
(K1030) and distal portion of the metapodium. There
(Gallus domesticus), peafowl (Pavo cristatus) and pond
is no evidence to show that ass, dog and cat were used
heron (Ardeola grayii). A large number of these bird
for food purpose as no human activity is noticed on
fragments were having charring marks giving a clear
these fragments.
indication of their use as an item of food. A clear
The wild animals represented in this phase in-
picture of the contribution of birds will become clear
clude nilgai, deer, antelopes, wild pig, elephant, jungle
after the analysis of other trenches. No evidence of
cat and other small mammals (10.25%). Of these the
crab has been noticed so far at Kanmer, though these
most numerous were fragments of gazelle (Gazella
have been reported from a number of other Harappan
bennetti), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) and spotted
sites in Gujarat.
deer (Axis axis) forming 3.20% of the NISP (Table

3). These animals were included in the diet of the
- 117 -
Reptiles were identified in the form of only three
Table 5 A detailed description of the identified skeletal elements belonging to two young cattle
Reg. No.
Skeletal Element
Portion
Side
Fusion
K902
Astragalus
Complete
Left
K903
Astragalus
Complete
Left
K911
Ulna
Proximal
Right
Unfused
K914
Matacarpal
Distal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K915
Metatarsal
Proximal
Left
Unfused
K916
Mandible
Condyle portion
Indeterminate
K918
Calcanium
Complete
Left
Unfused
K919
Pelvis
Ilium
Indeterminate
Unfused
K920
Humerus
Proximal
Left
Unfused
K921
Metapodial
Distal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K922
Astragalus
Complete
Right
K923
Femur
Proximal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K924
Femur
Distal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K925
Tibia
Proximal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K926
Humerus
Distal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K927
Calcanium
Proximal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K928
Femur
Proximal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K929
Pelvis
Ilium
Indeterminate
Unfused
K930
First Phalanx
Complete
Right
Unfused
K931
Humerus
Distal
Indeterminate
Unfused
K938
Pelvis
Ischium
Indeterminate
Unfused
KMR III:
The Late Harappan Phase
The other domestic animals reported earlier ( Joglekar

2007; Goyal and Joglekar 2008) like cats and pigs
were not noticed in this seasons faunal sample.
Faunal material from this phase contained 283
The wild mammals formed the next major com-
skeletal fragments of which 159 (56.18%) could be
ponent in the subsistence activity of Late Harappan
identified (Table 1). The analysed material revealed the
people since these animals together formed 23.25% of
presence of both domestic and wild mammals, reptiles
the total bones, which is quite a significant propor-
and birds like the previous cultural phase (Table 3).
tion. The wild mammals include spotted deer, black-
The domestic mammals include cattle, buffalo, sheep
buck, gazelle, wolf, porcupine, hare and house rat.
and goat. As noticed in the other cultural phases,
Hare (13.2%) dominated the group of wild mammals
cattle/buffalo (49.7%) dominated the assemblage fol-
and was represented by both axial and appendicular
lowed by goat/sheep (25.2%). Cattle were more than
fragments. Most of these fragments were having char-
buffalo as the later one is represented by three bones
ring marks and few of them were with butchering
only. Likewise, goats were more than sheep. However,
marks indicating the use of this small game as food.
the lowest proportion of cattle/buffalo was noticed in
In addition, most of the skeletal elements found were
this phase in comparison to other cultural phases. All
fragments with high meat value. It seems that hare
of these animals were included in the diet of people.
was an important food item during the Late Harap- 118 -
Table 6 Measurements of scapulae from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Species
K669
Z30
70.51
48.95
57.22
Bos indicus
K1041
Z30
11
25.54
16.36
19.43
Ovis aries
K1177
Z30
32.33
18.37
23.81
Ovis aries
K990
Z30
11
20.75
22.56
17.89
Antilope cervicapra
K1297
Z30
10.56
8.88
6.52
Lepus nigricollis
K1313
Z30
10.87
8.12
8.42
Lepus nigricollis
3: Maximum length of the articular process; 4: Width of the articular process; 5: Length of the glenoid cavity
Table 7 Measurements of humerus bones from Kanmer
Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
GL
Bp
Bd
Td
GLC
Species
K825
Z30
180.00
35.79
28.00
24.12
29.35
Axis axis
K985
Z30
33.92
--
--
Axis axis
K1151
Z29
--
69.13
--
--
Bos indicus
K1310
Z30
--
26.44
24.18
--
Capra hircus
K1216
Z30
32.81
--
--
29.00
Gazella bennetti
Bp: Maximum proximal width; Bd: Maximum distal width; WTH: Width of the distal trochlea
Table 8 Measurements of radius bones from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Bp
Tp
Bd
Wd
Species
K753
Z29
25.86
15.86
--
--
Antilope cervicapra
K1152
Z29
78.00
38.11
--
--
Bos indicus
K772
Z30
69.26
38.85
--
--
Bos indicus
K759
Z29
--
--
63.30
48.64
Bos indicus
K807
Z30
26.29
13.79
--
--
Gazella bennetti
Bp: Maximum proximal width; Tp: Proximal width; Bd: Maximum distal width; Wd: Width of the distal articular surface
pan phase.
porcupine in the assemblage. As noticed in the case
Spotted deer (Axis axis) made its presence in
of wolf, this also seems to be an accidental inclusion
the assemblage in the form a complete astragalus
in the habitation deposit. Blackbuck (Antilope cer-
(K828) only recovered from layer 7 of trench Z30.
vicapra) was present in the collection in the form of
Similarly, wolf (Canis lupus) was present in the form
four bones. These include a fragment of tibia (K795),
of one bone fragment only, i.e. distal portion of radius
a fragment of femur and two astragali, one complete
(K1194). The presence of wolf seems to be a chance
(K829) and other broken at the distal end. Three frag-
inclusion in the habitation deposit as this fragment
ments of gazelle (Gazella bennetti) were identified,
does not bear any mark indicating that it was used for
i.e. two first phalanges (K796 and K1195) and distal
food. A very badly preserved and weathered molar of
portion of a tibia (K994). Both blackbuck and gazelle
porcupine (Hystrix indica) was recovered from layer
were used for food purpose as suggested by the marks
7 of trench Z30. This was the lone representation of
noticed on these fragments.
- 119 -
Table 9 Measurements of femora from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Bp
Bd
Td
GLC
TC
Species
K766
Z30
10
--
24.20
41.98
--
--
A. cervicapra
K668
Z30
--
74.43
--
--
--
Bos indicus
K1299
Z30
19.14
--
--
7.80
7.25
Lepus nigricollis
Bp: Maximum proximal width; GLC: Length of the capitulum; TC: Width of the capitulum; Bd: Maximum distal width
Table 10 Measurements of tibia from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Bp
Tp
Bd
Dd
Species
K1073
Z30
--
--
25.48
20.93
Antilope cervicapra
K1075
Z30
--
--
25.26
19.60
Antilope cervicapra
K776
Z30
10
--
--
21.44
18.36
Antilope cervicapra
K795
Z29
--
--
27.02
22.10
Antilope cervicapra
K1081
Z30
--
--
55.07
--
Bos indicus
K1034
Z30
11
39.13
38.60
--
--
Capra hircus
K994
Z30
--
--
20.69
17.49
Gazella bennetti
K1250
Z30
--
--
11.53
6.37
Lepus nigricollis
Bp: Maximum proximal width; Tp: Proximal width; Bd: Maximum distal width; Dd: Maximum distal thickness
Table 11 Measurements of Bos indicus astragalus bones from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Gll
GLm
Bd
Dl
Dm
Species
K901
Z30
66.71
60.83
39.20
36.03
35.30
Bos indicus
K902
Z30
51.7
47.85
30.05
26.16
26.32
Bos indicus
K903
Z30
51.35
47.58
29.44
26.87
--
Bos indicus
K1097
Z30
62.64
57.42
41.76
33.58
32.51
Bos indicus
K1121
Z30
69.90
63.63
42.47
33.60
35.70
Bos indicus
K1159
Z30
70.51
62.50
43.48
35.63
36.70
Bubalus bubalis
K868
Z30
28.04
26.90
19.28
15.62
16.98
Axis axis
K829
Z30
27.24
26.23
17.15
15.04
--
Antilope cervicapra
K1134
Z30
24.67
23.59
15.08
13.40
13.14
Tatracerus quadricornis
K803
Z30
24.60
23.80
14.82
13.43
16.00
Gazella bennetti
K804
Z30
25.80
25.18
15.80
12.27
--
Gazella bennetti
GLl: Lateral Length; GLm:Medial length; Bd: Maximum distal width; Dl: Maximum lateral thickness; Dm: Maximum medial
thickness
Reptiles and birds do not seem to have made a
the Late Harappan phase in the form of cervical verte-
significant contribution to the food economy of the
bra belonging to monitor lizard (Varanus bengalensis).
Late Harappan people as evidenced by the recovered
The birds made their presence felt in the assemblage
fragments. Only one reptile could be identified from
in the form of one bone fragment each of domestic

- 120 -
Table 12 Measurements of Bos indicus calcaneum bones from Kanmer

Reg. No. Trench Layer
Maximum Length
Maximum Width
Maximum Height
Species
K800
Z30
--
14.61
19.52
Capra hircus
K801
Z30
57.37
16.36
19.52
Capra hircus
K982
Z30
66.07
19.45
25.43
Axis axis
K1143
Z29
51.18
15.04
21.94
Gazella bennetti
K786
Z30
--
14.28
21.56
Antilope cervicapra
K780
Z30
10
54.42
15.80
21.77
Antilope cervicapra
K802
Z30
51.58
15.67
22.58
Antilope cervicapra
fowl (Gallus domesticus) and pond heron (Ardeola
nilgai, spotted deer and house rat were represented
grayii). Though the skeletal fragments belonging to
in the form of one fragment each. Wild buffalo was
birds do not bear any marks, perhaps the identified
present in the form of a complete second phalanx
birds were used as food.
(K1146) recovered from layer 5 of trench Z29, while

Axis axis was in the form of distal portion of a right
sided first phalanx (K1076). Blackbuck dominated
KMR IV:
The Historic Phase
the wild mammals and was represented in the form of

12 skeletal fragments. It contributed 3.81% to the total
faunal assemblage recovered from this phase. After
A total of 521 fragments belonging to this phase were
blackbuck, gazelle seems to be an important animal
analysed of which 315 (60.46%) could be identified
and 5 bone fragments of blackbuck were identified.
(Table 1). Five domestic animals have been identified
The nature of skeletal fragments belonging to black-
from the Historic phase - cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat
buck and gazelle suggest that these were hunted for
and dog. Cattle/buffalo (72.06%) dominated the as-
dietary purpose. Hare (n=3) also seems to have been a
semblage followed by sheep/goat (17.75%). Human
food item in the food economy of the Historic phase
activities on the skeletal fragments of these domestic
people of Kanmer. All the house rat skeletal elements
mammals suggest that all these (cattle, sheep and goat)
identified from this phase were later intrusions.
were used for food purpose. Dog was represented in
the form of distal portion of humerus unearthed from
phase people at Kanmer include only birds. The
layer 5 of trench Z30 only. This fragment was devoid
reptiles were completely absent from the assemblage.
of any marks and therefore, it can be said that this
Only three fragments of birds have been identified of
fragment did not belong to the food refuse at Kan-
which only one could be identified up to species level,
mer. Pig, cat and horse were identified from this phase
i.e. Gallus domesticus, while the other two fragments
earlier ( Joglekar 2007; Goyal and Joglekar 2008),
were identified as of medium-sized birds.
The non-mammals exploited by the Historic
however, these were not represented in the collection

this year.

KMR V:
The Medieval Phase
Wild mammals identified from this phase include
Bubalus arnee (wild buffalo), Boselaphus tragocamelus

(nilgai), Axis axis (spotted deer), Antilope carvicapra
(blackbuck), Gazella benetti (gazelle), Lepus nigricol-
A very small number (n=54) was recovered from this
lis (hare) and Rattus rattus (house rat). Wild buffalo,
phase, out of which only 25 could be identified (Table

- 121 -
Table 13 Measurements of first phalanges from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
GL
Bp
Tp
Bd
Species
K671
Z30
--
26.20
32.90
--
Bos indicus
K752
Z29
57.31
26.23
26.55
25.16
Bos indicus
K762
Z30
10
54.03
26.53
33.06
24.92
Bos indicus
K778
Z30
10
--
--
--
18.61
Bos indicus
K905
Z30
56.02
26.2
31.96
25.85
Bos indicus
K906
Z30
56.69
25.9
32.16
27.28
Bos indicus
K907
Z30
56.28
28.29
30.55
27.32
Bos indicus
K908
Z30
55.52
26.65
31.46
26.46
Bos indicus
K930
Z30
--
--
--
14.80
Bos indicus
K977
Z30
56.63
25.54
31.74
25.90
Bos indicus
K1048
Z30
--
36.26
42.14
--
Bos indicus
K904
Z30
61.58
32.15
35.18
32.29
Bubalus bubalis
K978
Z30
55.36
27.47
29.55
25.15
Bubalus bubalis
K1049
Z30
--
36.22
42.50
--
Bubalus bubalis
K1090
Z30
64.30
35.66
35.35
33.56
Bubalus bubalis
K1110
Z30
57.70
36.17
34.54
34.67
Bubalus bubalis
K782
Z30
36.52
11.85
12.86
11.72
Capra hircus
K823
Z30
39.86
14.46
15.28
13.04
Capra hircus
K952
Z30
37.85
13.36
14.91
12.5
Capra hircus
K979
Z30
40.17
12.62
13.96
11.75
Capra hircus
K1238
Z30
40.10
14.23
16.06
12.62
Capra hircus
K1259
Z30
--
--
--
11.02
Capra hircus
K760
Z29
--
12.90
15.11
--
Capra/Ovis
K1076
Z30
--
--
--
14.06
Axis axis
K779
Z30
10
31.9
9.25
13.02
7.49
Gazella bennetti
K781
Z30
33.5
10.35
14.08
7.93
Gazella bennetti
K796
Z29
36.52
10.89
14.06
--
Gazella bennetti
K917
Z30
33.66
9.85
14.13
8.14
Gazella bennetti
K980
Z30
35.48
9.71
13.37
8.46
Gazella bennetti
K988
Z30
11
32.93
10.03
12.29
9.46
Gazella bennetti
K1187
Z30
33.43
10.10
14.27
8.52
Gazella bennetti
K1195
Z30
28.39
9.37
11.41
10.00
Gazella bennetti
K1331
Z30
10
--
--
--
8.15
Gazella bennetti
K666
Z30
35.8
10.28
14.79
8.84
A. cervicapra
K667
Z30
35.98
10.38
14.53
8.96
A. cervicapra
GL: Maximum length; Bp: Maximum proximal width; Tp: Proximal thickness; Bd: Maximum distal width
- 122 -
Table 14 Measurements of second phalanges from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
GL
Bp
Tp
Bd
Species
K1080
Z29
39.78
27.11
27.87
23.94
Bos indicus
K1309
Z30
--
23.47
24.86
--
Bos indicus
K1386
Z30
11
--
--
--
12.68
Bos indicus
K1407
Z30
28.99
23.18
27.41
20.81
Bubalus bubalis
K981
Z30
33.56
26.78
27.22
23.66
Bubalus bubalis
K1144
Z30
39.78
37.87
37.56
35.84
Bubalus bubalis
K1146
Z30
48.19
35.53
40.16
30.37
Bubalus bubalis
K1138
Z30
30.12
20.77
22.01
17.02
B. tragocamelus
K799
Z30
10
36.07
22.4
28.89
25.11
B. tragocamelus
K1181
Z30
20.07
9.41
10.52
7.55
Axis porcinus
K763
Z30
10
18.69
8.94
10.53
7.27
Gazella bennetti
K1406
Z30
19.71
8.72
11.31
7.67
Gazella bennetti
K764
Z30
10
18.95
7.44
9.89
6.64
Gazella bennetti
K1182
Z30
16.99
8.99
9.57
6.95
Muntiacus muntjak
K783
Z30
17.94
11.63
11.65
8.50
Sus domesticus
K754
Z29
22.45
8.80
11.78
7.58
A. cervicapra
GL: Maximum length; Bp: Maximum proximal width; Tp: Proximal thickness; Bd: Maximum distal width
Table 15 Measurements of incisors from Kanmer
Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Length
Width
Species
K1337
Z30
11
12.59
6.74
Bos indicus
K1388
Z30
11
8.93
4.20
Bos indicus
K1402
Z30
11
13.24
7.62
Bos indicus
K1403
Z30
11
12.98
6.45
Bos indicus
K1404
Z30
11
13.27
6.90
Bos indicus
K890
Z30
10
7.23
2.43
Capra/Ovis
1). The identified material belonged to the domestic
and two metapodia. The nature of the material shows
mammals only. The cattle dominated the whole as-
that cattle, sheep and goat were used for food, whereas
semblage and contributed 68% of the total assemblage
the horse was not consumed.
recovered from this phase (Table 3). The rest of the

assemblage was represented by goat/sheep (20%)
and horse (12%). In the absence of any distinguishing
Bone Measurements
marker, it was difficult to separate faunal fragments
(Tables 6-18)
belonging to goat from those belonging to sheep.

Therefore, all of these have been kept together in the
Recording bone measurements is an essential part of
category of Capra/Ovis. Horse was represented by
standard archaeozoological methodology. The bone
three skeletal fragments, i.e. proximal end of a femur
measurements provide a tool to look at the sizes of

- 123 -
past animals, particularly the domestic ones. With the
ferent animal groups (Table 20) revealed that the
estimates of the size and height of the animals at the
type of animals in different cultural periods were
withers, it is possible to compare the domestic stocks
different. It is clear from Table 20 that wild animals
at various archaeological sites and in different cultural
played a significant role in the animal based subsis-
periods ( Joglekar 2000-2001). All the measurements
tence economy in the Late Harappan phase. The wild
were recorded in mm using a digital caliper with a
animals form a significant proportion (23.25%) in the
least count of 0.01 mm. It has been possible to esti-
whole assemblage belonging to this phase. The previ-
mate the height of the cattle at the withers using the
ous report (Goyal and Joglekar 2008) also indicated
medial length of the astragalus (Zalkin 1970). A few
a slight increase of wild animals in this phase. A look
point estimates of the height of cattle found at Kan-
at the composition of wild animals in this particular
mer are given in Table 19. Earlier Joglekar (2007) has
phase revealed that Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis)
reported the height of cattle at withers found from
contributed appreciably forming a share of 13.2% in
the Late Harappan phase at Kanmer to vary from110
the whole assemblage (Table 3). The other trenches
to 117 cm.
currently under investigation are showing a similar
The distal width of the trochlea of the humerus
trend and revealing good number of skeletal frag-
can be converted to estimate the fat-free carcass
ments of Indian hare from the Late Harappan phase.
weight (kg) using the factor given by Noddle (1973).
This animal is widely distributed in India and usually
A single estimate obtained from cattle humerus
lives in the neighbourhood of villages and areas under
(K1151) showed that cattle at Kanmer from the cul-
cultivation. It is also known for entering the agricul-
tural break between the Medieval and the Historic
tural fields and inflicts severe damage to crop yields.
Phase had fat-free carcass weight equal to 146.43 kg.
Slightly more than 60% material presented in this
report comes from the Mature Harappan phase contexts. The analyzed material revealed the dominance
Discussion and Conclusion
of cattle in all the cultural phases at Kanmer. The skeletal elements of cattle were present in all the layers an-
Animal remains throughout the occupation at Kan-
alyzed. The maximum representation of this animal is
mer indicate that the food economy was mainly based
noticed in layer 9 (Mature Harappan Phase) of trench
on the consumption of domestic animals. In general,
Z30. The high proportion of cattle bones indicates
the economy was mainly dependent on domestic
the value of this animal not only for food purposes
animals, but it was observed that exploitation of wild
but also for other secondary products. The cow dung
fauna was at its peak in the Late Harappan phase. A
was extensively used for plastering the floors and walls
similar pattern of animal exploitation was also seen at
of the houses as revealed by the excavation in almost
other Harappan sites in Gujarat like Rangpur (Nath
all the cultural phases. The presence of bifid spines of
1962-63), Surkotada (Sharma 1990), Nageswar (Shah
the thoracic vertebra suggests the presence of humped
and Bhan 1992), Kuntasi (Thomas et al. 1996) and
variety of cattle at Kanmer.
Shikarpur (Thomas et al. 1995) etc., where the exploi-
tation of wild fauna was at its maximum towards the
part of the faunal material unearthed in the third sea-
close of the Harappan period. The contribution of
son (2007-08) at the site of Kanmer. Therefore, these
reptiles and birds was very less in comparison to the
results are preliminary in nature like the previous
mammals (Figure 13)
reports ( Joglekar 2007; Goyal and Joglekar 2008).
A comprehensive report at the end of excavations at
A closer look at the relative proportion of dif- 124 -
As mentioned above, this report is based on a
Table 16 Measurements of premolars and molars from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Tooth
Length
Width
Species
K892
Z30
10
Maxillary
First molar
22.29
17.22
Bos indicus
K1391
Z30
Maxillary
Second molar
18.34
15.08
Bos indicus
K1401
Z30
11
Maxillary
Third molar
15.05
9.23
Ovis aries
K1400
Z30
11
Maxillary
Second molar
18.31
10.11
Bos indicus
K1005
Z30
Mandibular
First molar
29.80
12.28
Bos indicus
K983
Z30
Mandibular
Third molar
37.23
12.61
Bos indicus
K984
Z30
Mandibular
Third molar
12.36
6.93
Bos indicus
K1091
Z30
Mandibular
Third molar
40.30
14.84
Bos indicus
K997
Z30
Mandibular
Second premolar 18.36
13.18
Bos/Bubalus
K1328
Z30
Mandibular
5.14
Bos indicus
K945
Z30
Mandibular
Fourth premolar 19.02
11.46
Bos indicus
K996
Z30
Mandibular
First molar
13.53
7.70
Capra/Ovis
K1353
Z30
10
Mandibular
First molar
14.97
8.52
Capra/Ovis
K1245
Z30
Mandibular
First molar
14.49
10.19
Capra hircus
K1314
Z30
Mandibular
First molar
13.28
8.04
Capra hircus
K1333
Z30
10
Mandibular
Second molar
14.18
6.95
Capra hircus
K1387
Z30
11
Mandibular
Second molar
15.76
7.32
Capra hircus
K1026
Z30
11
Mandibular
10.71
Capra hircus
K1397
Z30
10
Mandibular
Second molar
14.08
Axis axis
22.08
Table 17 Measurements of metapodia from Kanmer

Reg. No.
Trench
Layer
Bone
Bp
Tp
Bd
Td
Species
K1122
Z29
Metacarpal
--
--
55.90
28.88
Bos indicus
K1123
Z29
Metacarpal
--
--
61.45
32.56
Bos indicus
K1071
Z30
Metacarpal
--
--
53.93
30.49
Bubalus bubalis
K761
Z30
Metacarpal
20.50
9.87
Ovis aries
K989
Z30
11
Metacarpal
20.42
15.9
--
--
Ovis aries
K1284
Z30
Metacarpal
19.94
14.87
--
--
Gazella bennetti
K915
Z30
Metatarsal
32.15
28.97
--
--
Bos indicus
K1154
Z29
Metatarsal
44.87
39.09
--
--
Equus caballus
K1155
Z29
Metatarsal
--
--
45.30
36.54
Equus caballus
K1124
Z29
Metatarsal
23.79
21.38
--
--
A. cervicapra
K1355
Z30
10
Metatarsal
14.69
14.63
--
--
A. cervicapra
Kanmer would project a full picture of animal-based
kwal, Y. S. Rawat and Prof. Toshiki Osada for entrust-
subsistence economy at Kanmer.
ing the faunal material from Kanmer for analysis to

us. The authors also thank the other team members of
Acknowledgements
the Kanmer Archaeological Research Project (KARP)
The authors are extremely grateful to Drs. J. S. Khara-
for their support during this research, without which

- 125 -
Table 18 Measurements of mandibles from Kanmer

Reg. No.
K916
Trench
Z30
Layer Condyle width

9
37.98
dP2
--
dP3
--
dP4
--
Species
Bos indicus
K1040
Z29
35.54
--
--
--
Bos indicus
K1398
Z30
11
--
length: 4.81
length: 8.29
length: 14.59
Capra hircus
K1405
Z30
20.37
width: 3.06
--
width: 5.21
--
width: 6.27
--
Ovis aries
Table 19 Cattle height at the withers estimates (cm)

Phase
Height
The Medieval Phase
105.08
The Historical Phase
116.44
The Mature Harappan Phase
87.07, 87.56, 111.32

Table 20 Relative proportion (%) of different animal groups
Groups
Medieval
Break*
Historic Phase
Break**
Late Harappan Mature Harappan
Cattle/Buffalo
68
100
72.06
71.07
49.7
62.65
Sheep/Goat
20
17.75
21.38
25.2
24
Others Domestic
12
0.34
0.5
mammals
Wild Mammals
8.9
6.3
23.25
10.25
Reptiles
0.6
0.2
Birds
0.95
1.25
1.25
2.4
* between the Medieval and the Historic Phase, ** between the Historic and the Late Harappan Phase
Figure 13 Relative proportion (%) of different animal groups
- 126 -
this work was not possible. The authors also acknowl-
Paper presented during the 3rd International Congress
edge the help given by the Department of Archaeol-
of the Society of South Asian Archaeology (SOSAA)
ogy, Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda during
held at University of Kelaniya, Colombo, Sri Lanka,

20th-21st August 2010.
their stay there. The first author thanks Dr. Arati
Gupta, S.K., D.N. Sharma and R .L. Bhardwaj (1987)
Deshpande-Mukherjee for her help time to time. The
Comparative Anatomy of the Hard Palate of
authors also thank C.V. Sharda for her help in taking
Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and Ox (Bos indicus).
the photographs of the bones. The villagers of Kan-
Haryana Veterinarian 26: 22-26.
mer also lend a hand in different ways and the authors
Gupta, S.K., D.N. Sharma and R .L. Bhardwaj (1990)
are thankful to them.
Comparative Anatomy of the Bony Palate of Ox,

Buffalo and Yak. Indian Journal of Animal Science
60(4): 436-438.
Higham, C.F.W. (1975) The Faunal Remains from the 1996
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Preliminary anthracological analysis from Harappan Kanmer
Preliminary anthracological analysis from Harappan Kanmer:
Human-environment interactions as seen through fuel resources exploitation and use
Carla Lancelotti
Department of Archaeology and Anthropology Instituci Mil i Fontanals
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Spain/
Department of Archaeology University of Cambridge UK
Marco Madella
ICREA & Department of Archaeology and Anthropology Instituci Mil i Fontanals
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Barcelona Spain
Abstract
This paper presents the preliminary results of charcoal analysis conducted on samples collected at the site of Kanmer during the
2008 fieldwork season. The main aim of the sampling was to analyse and understand the exploitation and use of fuel resources
during the Mature Harappan Phase of occupation at the site. Sediments form fireplaces, pits, floors and ash accumulations were
floated in order to retrieve charred wood remains. The analysis has revealed the use of a surprisingly high variety of arboreal species,
including some that are not currently found nearby the site. This new data allows the formulation of hypothesis on the presence of
different environmental conditions at Kanmer during the Mature Harappan Period.
Introduction
and the Rann of Kachchh, which is about 5 km away

to the south. The archaeological mound measures
During the months of January and February 2008,
105 m x 115 m and rises 8 m above the surrounding
archaeobotanical sampling was carried out at the
plain (Kharakwal et al. 2007, 2008). It is encircled
site of Kanmer (Kachchh, Gujarat) with the aim
by a massive stonewall and its top is shallow with
of understanding the exploitation and use of fuel
peripheral regions slightly higher than the central
resources during the Mature Harappan Period.
part.
Investigation at the site of Kanmer has been
conducted since 2005-2006 by a joint team of
Aludawaro Vokro that originates in an inselberg-
researchers from the Institute of Rajasthan Studies,
type hill 2 km west of the mound, drains the area
JNR Rajasthan Vidyapeeth (Udaipur), the Gujarat
around the site. Rajaguru and Shuhsama (2008)
State Department of Archaeology and the Research
suggested that the nullah was permanently active
Institute for Humanity and Nature (Kyoto, Japan).
during Harappan times. Presently, the only source
The modern village of Kanmer is located in Rapar
of water, except deep ground water, is a large natural
Taluka, Kachchh District. The archaeological mound,
tank located to the southeast of the hill. It is not as
known locally as Bakar kot, stands to the north of
yet clear whether this water basin was in use during
the village (2323N; 7052E). A small natural hill
the Harappan period although findings of Harappan
oriented northeast southwest, lays between the village
pottery on its margins may suggest this. However,

- 129 -
An ephemeral stream (nullah), known as
C. Lancelotti and M. Madella
the basin could have also been dug into Harappan
many other dry/saline areas of India and Pakistan.
deposits in a later period, which could also explain the

presence of Harappan pottery along the shore.

Materials and methods
The geology of the area is dominated by sandstone
intercalated with white shale. These sediments are

often traversed by faults and linear features running
A total of 37 contexts were floated and 41 soil samples
west-northwest and east-southeast (Rajaguru and
were collected during the 2007-2008 field season. Of
Shushama 2008). The vegetation around the site is
these only 10 flotation samples were deemed suitable
today scarce, composed predominantly by Prosopis
for analysis within the scope of this research. This
juliflora, Azadirachta indica, Salvadora persica and S.
was due to the fact that most of the other samples
oleoides, Capparis decidua and Calotropis sp. (personal
collected belonged to historical or medieval periods
observations). These are the dominant species of the
and were thus outside the time frame of this work.
dry-thorn scrubland formation that characterises
this region. Trees are scarce and Prosopis juliflora
were processed by bucket flotation with water
(Sw.) DC dominates the assemblage. This species was
delivered on site by bullock cart from the nearby
introduced from South America in the last decades
tank (Figure 1). A mesh of 0.5 mm was used in order
of the 19th century as a powerful tool to re-vegetate
to collect small seeds as well as charcoal. Whenever
the area and now has become so invasive that it is the
possible, a standard quantity of soil (20 litres) was
most common shrub/tree in the territory as well as in
floated so as to have control on the quantitative
As there was not running water on site, samples
Figure 1 Bucket flotation at Kanmer where water was collected from the nearby tank and carried to the site by bullock cart.
Table 1 Kanmer: Samples divided by the trenches where they were collected from.
Trench
Charcoal samples (n.)
Sediment samples (n.)
AA17
FF29
Z17
11
Z18
Z30
- 130 -
Figure 2 Kanmer: Kiln structure dated to the Mature Harappan Phase

unearthed in trench Z17 at a depth of 5.39 meters below the datum point.
Table 2 Kanmer: Distribution of samples per context type.
Context type
No. of charcoal samples
Fireplace
Floors
Ash accumulations
Occupation levels
analysis. The flots were dried in the shade and then
Schweingruber 1990).
transported to the G. Pitt-Rivers Laboratory for
Bioarchaeology, University of Cambridge, UK. Here
recovered from five trenches that cover the three
they were sorted under a low power microscope to
excavated areas. Table 1 shows the distribution of
separate charcoal from eventual seeds. The charcoal
samples per trench. Samples were recovered from
was then analysed at high magnification with a Leica
fireplaces, floors, ash accumulations, and occupation
microscope and identified using reference material
levels (Table 2).
appositely created for this work as well as published
material (Asouti and Fuller 2007; Fahn et al. 1986;
Z17 (Figure 2) was sub-sampled: one bulk soil sample
Hather 2000; Inside Wood Database 2004-onwards;
from the level just above the kiln; three sediment

- 131 -
The samples analysed during this work were
Due to its nature, the big kiln found in Trench
samples from the kiln central cylindrical structure;
of indeterminate and determinate fragments in a
one bulk sample from just outside the fuel chamber;
sample. It is a parameter to evaluate taphonomy in
one bulk sample from the inside of the fuel chamber.
the samples and its value stands in the comparison
The flot from the latter sample contained no charcoal.
between the samples rather than in its absolute

value for each individual sample (Asouti 2003). The
Simpsons Diversity Index measures the presence
Anthracological analysis
and distribution of a specific taxon in the sample.

This formula can be used to distinguish between
A total of 1222 fragments recovered from 10 contexts
generalised (such as pits or accumulation of charcoal
were examined from the site of Kanmer. The contexts
refuse) and specialised (such as fireplaces) assemblages
chosen were the only ones that dated to the Mature
(Asouti 2003). Density, expressed as the total weight
Harappan phase of occupation. Although the
of charcoal material per litre of floated sediment,
context number is lower than the one recommended
provide informative comparisons on different samples
for anthracological analysis, the total number of
and can be a tool for a first assessment of taphonomic
fragments is adequate for quantification and statistical
processes over the samples when combined with other
analyses (Chabal 1997; Chabal et al. 1999; Scheel-
indices (Asouti 2003).
Ybert 2002).
The quantity of charcoal retrieved from each
sample is low ; the Density Index is below the

Taphonomy and preservation
average in 78% of the samples (Figure 3). However,
The percentage of undetermined fragments, the
the percentage of undetermined fragments is also
Simpsons Diversity Index and the Density Index
generally low and it is below the average in 70% of the
were used as a measure of the preservation conditions
samples (Figure 4).
of the charcoal fragments. The Percentage of
Unidentified Fragments shows the proportions
carefully due to the very high standard deviation
Although these figures need to be considered
Table 3 Kanmer: Mean, Standard Deviation and Median values for the Density, percentage
of undetermined fragments and Diversity Indices.
Density Index
Undetermined %
Diversity Index
MEAN
22.63
0.023
0.81
STDEV
11.56
0.024
0.09
MEDIAN
19.27
0.017
0.82
Table 4 Kanmer: Spearman's coefficient of correlation for values of Density Index and percentage of
undetermined fragments. There is no significant correlation at the 0.05 interval level (2-tailed).
Spearman's rho
Density
Undetermined %
Correlation Coefficient
Density
Undetermined%
1.000
-0.350
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.356
-0.350
1.000
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.356
- 132 -
Table 5 Kanmer: Spearman's correlation test between Simpsons Diversity Index and percentage of
undetermined fragments. There is no significant correlation between the values at the 0.05 interval level (2-tailed).
Spearman's rho
Diversity
Undetermined %
Diversity
Undetermined %
1.000
-0.458
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.215
-0.458
1.000
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.215
Figure 3
Kanmer: Results of the Density Index (average 22.63). The contexts have been grouped according to their type: A) ash
accumulation; FL) floor deposit; FP) fireplace; HL) general occupation level. KMR FL002 does not have a result for this Index, as
the charcoal retrieved from the single floor sample analysed was hand picked.
of the data, they show that post-depositional
can be the result of burning conditions, of recovery
taphonomic processes should not be a major concern
methods or of a scarce use of wood fuel a priori. The
in the preser vation of Kanmer charcoals. The
last possibility seemed to be confirmed by the strong
Spearmans Coefficient of correlation between the
positive correlation between Density and Simpsons
Density and percentage of undetermined fragments
Diversity Indices (Table 6). This means that when
indices confirms this result (Table 4). This is further
the density increases, the possibility of finding a
supported by the total absence of correlation between
higher number of species augments, which means that
the percentage of undetermined fragments and the
arboreal species were probably abundant around the
Simpsons Diversity Index (Table 5), which proves
sites. As the density is very low it can be postulated
that all samples, independently of their preservation
that wood was not exploited as the preferential source
state, display the same range of variety.
of fuel.
The preservation of charred material during and
after the burning activity is more problematic. The

small volumes of charcoal preserved in the sediments
- 133 -
Figure 4
Kanmer: Percentage of undetermined fragments over the total number of charcoal fragments identified in each context
(average 0.023). The contexts have been grouped according to their type: A) ash accumulation; FL) floor deposit; FP) fireplace;
HL) general occupation level.
Table 6 Kanmer: Spearmans correlation between Density and Simpson's Diversity Indices.
There is a strong positive correlation at the 0.01 interval level (2-tailed).
Spearman's rho
Density
Diversity
Density
1.000
.
9
0.831
0.006
9
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Diversity
0.831
0.006
9
1.000
.
9
Plants as fuel: descriptive and
relative abundance of species relating to riverine
quantitative results
environments and to coastal habitats (mangrove
A total of 23 taxa were identified in the samples
forest) is remarkable (Figure 6). As explained in the
analysed, plus two that could not be identified, as they
introduction, at present the only water bodies near
were not found in the reference collections that were
the site are an ephemeral nullah that receives water
used for this work. The assemblage is dominated, both
during the monsoon season but is otherwise dry,
in terms of fragments count and ubiquity occurrence,
and the tank to the southeast of the modern village.
by the arid dry thorn scrubland species Ziziphus sp.,
The percentage and ubiquity occurrence of Acacia
Azadirachta indica and Capparis decidua and by the
nilotica suggests that this taxon was not imported
riverine species Acacia nilotica (Table 7 and Figure
but must have been growing in the vicinity of the site
5). In addition, there are some species, such as the
and therefore there must have been a watercourse
mangrove coastal forest Avicennia marina, that even
nearby (see Table 7 and Figure 5). Furthermore the
if not abundant in the record are very important as
identification of Dalbergia sissoo, Shisham or Indian
palaeoenvironmental indicators.
rosewood, confirms the presence of a watercourse
near the site (Orwa et al. 2009).
If the dominance of species relating to arid
environments is not surprising, the presence and

- 134 -
Even more significant is the presence of a
Table 7
Kanmer: Ubiquity scores (number of samples in which the species has been identified over the total number of samples
analysed) of the major taxa in the samples analysed and their ecological significance (where known). ADT= Arid Dry Thorn
scrubland; R= Riverine; M= Mangrove forest. In brackets the total number of samples analysed.
Site
(10)
8
8
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Species
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (ADT)
Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. (ADT)
Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd ex Delile (R)
Ziziphus nummularia (Bum. f.) Wight & Aru. (ADT)
Salvadora persica Wall. (ADT)
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce (ADT)
Acacia senegal Willd. (ADT)
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton (ADT)
Acacia sp. (ADT)
Ziziphus sp. (ADT)
Salvadora sp. (ADT)
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. (M)
Type A
Senna siamea Lamk. (ADT)
Clerodendrum sp. (ADT)
Monocotyledon
Cordia sp. (ADT)
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (ADT)
Salvadora oleoides Decne. (ADT)
Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. (R)
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (R)
cf. Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br.
Ficus sp. (ADT)
Myristica sp.
cf. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. (ADT)
Type C
Leaf fragments
Bark fragments
Ash
(2)
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
0
2
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Floor
(1)
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Fireplace
(3)
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
2
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Occupation
(4)
3
4
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
mangrove species, Avicenna marina, grey or white
whereas fireplaces contain the most homogeneous
mangrove, which occurs in intertidal areas. Naidoo
deposits (Figure 8). This is in accordance with the
(1987) showed that the optimum growth rate is
theory that sees fireplaces as short-term deposits and,
achieved at a level of salinity of about 20%, which
therefore, they contain a less varied range of species
marks out this species as one of the most salt tolerant
(Chabal 1997).
among mangroves (Tengberg 2002). Its wood presents
a very distinct transverse section with vessels in rows
sp. from the nutmeg family, have been found in a
of 4 or more and scanty paratracheal parenchyma. The
single context. The preservation of the fragments
rays are composed of mixed cells and are 1 to 3 cells in
and the lack of reference material did not allow
width. Vessels present simple perforation plates and
for identification to species level. Four species of
alternate pits (Figure 7).
Myristica are native to western India, all from the
These data show that people in Kanmer used a
Western Ghats, concentrated more or less between
great variety of wood resources. In fact, all the contexts
Mumbai and Goa (Gamble 1902). Among these, only
analysed show a very high Diversity Index value (see
one has been historically used for timber: Myristica
average in Table 3). Among the context types, ash
malabarica (Bombay mace or false nutmeg ), and
accumulations show the highest Diversity Index,
none are reported as good fuel sources. The wood of

- 135 -
A few fragments of an exotic taxon, Myristica
Figure 5 Kanmer: Pie chart showing the most abundant species in the samples analysed.
Only species with overall scores >10% in the ubiquity test were considered
and the species belonging to the same genus were grouped together.
Figure 6 Kanmer: Pie chart showing the distribution of vegetation types.
this genus is characterised by solitary vessels or vessels
context KMR FP005 Z17. The wood of this tree is
in short radial rows of two, axial parenchyma in
used today for turning, carving and making toys
marginal bands, vessels with scalariform perforation
and its leaves are used for dying (Gamble 1902; Patel
plates (Figure 9) and alternate to opposite pits, rays
1971). Microscopically it is characterised by vessels in
of 1-2 cells wide composed by a body of procumbent
short radial rows of 2-4, axial parenchyma diffuse in
cells with 1 or 2 marginal rows of square/upright cells.
aggregates, vessels with simple perforation plates and
Another species identified at Kanmer, which
alternate pits, rays 1-2 seriate composed of a body of
prime use was probably not for fuel is Wrightia
procumbent cells with 4 or more marginal rows of
tinctoria. This small tree, which does grows in
upright/square cells (Figure 10).
Gujarat, albeit rarely (Patel 1971), was identified from

- 136 -
Figure 7 Kanmer: Avicennia marina, TS, and RLS of a fragment from context A007 AA17 (magnification 200X).
Figure 8 Kanmer: Simpson's Diversity Index scores for the different context types.
Environment and vegetation at Kanmer
of humidity, as this species thrives well in brackish
The anthracolog ical data from Kanmer show
waters. It is possible that at least the mangrove was
that a great variety of wood species was exploited
imported to the site. Indeed, Avicennia wood is
during the Harappan period and that environments
considered a good fuel that might have been desirable
different from the current ones were present. The
for specific purposes and the leaves are used as fodder
most significant point raised by the anthracological
for camels and cattle (Selvam 2007).
analysis at Kanmer is the presence of more water
than is currently the case. The relative abundance of
the vicinity of the site, as well as higher water levels
species related to riverine environments indicates that
in the Rann, finds further confirmation in the recent
a river course was probably flowing nearby the site
geomorphological survey conducted by Rajaguru and
(Figure 6 and Table 7). The presence of mangrove,
Shushama (2008) on the fluvial sediments around
although only in one context, suggests that the waters
the site. Although in a preliminary form, the authors
of the Rann might have been more permanent than
conclude that the water levels in the Rann were
today or that the sediments maintained a higher level
higher during the Mid-Holocene and that the nullah

- 137 -
The suggestion of a permanent watercourse in
Figure 9
Kanmer: Microphotograph of one of the fragments identified as Myristica sp. that shows part of a scalariform
perforation plate (magnification 200X). The identification was achieved through comparison with published material (Inside
Wood Database, 2004-onwards).
Figure 10 Kanmer: Microphotographs of the TS of Wrightia tinctoria charcoal from context FP005 Z17 (magnification 200X).
bordering the site presented, during the Harappan
species for their fuel collection (Figure 11).
Phase low energy fluvial activity consistent with a
perennial course of water. The anthracological data
a single field season, and the number of samples is
shows that, during the Mature Harappan Phase,
rather limited, it has not been possible to trace fuel
people seem to have constantly relied on riverine
exploitation during the entire occupation of the site.

- 138 -
Unfortunately as the samples collected represent
Figure 11 Kanmer: Presence and trends of ecological zones exploitation in the different context types.
Correspondence analysis of charcoal
Avicennia marina separating them on the second
assemblages
dimension by clustering with the fireplace/occupation
Correspondence analysis ran on the charcoal
level group.
assemblage shows that the samples separate into

three distinct clusters (Figure 12). Floor deposits
Discussion and conclusions
are separated from the other context type on the

first dimension, which is mainly characterised by
Calotropis procera, Prosopis cineraria, Senna siamea
Anthracolog ical analysis at Kanmer sug g ests
and Ficus sp. These four species have a contribution
that preservation of charred remains might be a
to the inertia greater than 0.1. Fireplace deposits and
problem. The extremely low concentrations of
occupation levels separate from ash accumulations
charcoal retrieved from excavation contrasts with
on the second dimension. Acacia senegal, Ziziphus
the variability of the species identified. The poor
nummularia, Cordia sp. and Salvadora sp. all
preservation of charcoal might be linked to the high
contribute to the inertia of the second dimension by
salinity of the soils, as salt crystallization increase
more than 0.1.
the fractures of charred plant remains and, when
Species indicators of specific ecologies tend to be
dissolved during flotation, disaggregate the charcoal
equally distributed in the three groups. For example,
pieces. Dry sieving might therefore be a more suitable
the two riverine forest indicators identified in the
method for recovering charred plant remains at this
samples (Acacia nilotica, Dalbergia sissoo) cluster one
site. The low density of samples at Kanmer does
with floor deposits and one with ash accumulations.
not, however, impair the validity of the analysis. In
However, among those 2 species, Acacia nilotica sums
fact, it has been shown that sample diversity is not
up to over 7% of the entire assemblage against the 0.4
correlated to density (Table 6) and for this reason the
Dalbergia sissoo. Therefore, it can be said that riverine
interpretation of the anthracological analysis has to be
species characterise mainly floor deposits. The other
considered reliable.
two groups are characterised by a mixture of dry thorn
scrubland species with the mangrove forest indicator
the analyses represents a richer variety of wood

- 139 -
The number of woody taxa identified during
Figure 12 Kanmer: Correspondence analysis scatterplot for wood assemblages with samples grouped by context-type.
species than the one observed around the site today.
woodland habitats (although nilgai also live in open
The most abundant species recovered, Ziziphus,
grassland) and the four-horned antelope, in particular,
Salvadora and Capparis belong to the dry-thorn
do not live very far from water courses (Mallon
scrubland environment that characterise the area at
2008). Finally, also geological survey and analyses of
present. The anthracological evidence also suggests
the area support the hypothesis of a higher presence
that near the site once flowed a watercourse able to
of water around the sites. The work of Rajaguru and
sustain good vegetation cover and that the water
Sushama (2008) demonstrated that the nullah that
regime of the Rann might have been different from
flows nearby the sites was probably permanent at the
today, with higher water levels or longer periods
time of the Mature Harappan settlement.
of inundation. People exploited riverine species
and coastal resources in addition to the dry thorn
riverine species, combined with increasing aridity,
scrubland vegetation, which was dominant around
might have led to environmental depletion. The
the site. This reconstruction is also supported by
absence of Avicennia marina from the area today
the archaeozoological analyses that have identified
can be seen as a combination of environmental
Boselaphus tragocamelus Pallas (nilgai) and Tetracerus
and anthropic causes. Indeed, it has been shown
quadricornis Blainville (four-horned antelope)
in the United Arab Emirates that the combination
(Goyal and Joglekar 2008). These two species prefer
of environmental stresses, such as aridity and high

- 140 -
The intensive exploitation of dry scrubland and
London.
salinity, with harvesting of plants for fuel and fodder
Chabal, L. (1997) Fortes et Socits en Languedoc (Nolithique
has a major impact over the reproduction of mangrove
Final, antiquit Tardive). LAnthracologie, Mthode
species (Howari et al. 2009).

et Paocologie (Documents dArcheologie Francaise
The presence at the site of species like Myristica
63). ditions de la Maison des Sciences de
malabarica, and Wrightia tinctoria, which were not
lHomme, Paris.
primarily exploited as fuel (although mangrove are
Chabal, L., L. Fabre, J.-F. Terral and I. Thry-Pariso (1999)
sometimes used as fuel as well), provides information
Lanthracologie, in C. Bourquin-Mignot, J.E.
on various activities. First, the Bombay Mace or false
Brochier, L. Chabal, S. Crozat, L. Fabre, F. Guibal,
nutmeg (Myristica malabarica) indicates contacts
P. Marinval, H. Richard, J.-F. Terral and I. Rhry
between this part of Gujarat and the Maharashtra
(eds.) La Botanique. Editions Errance, Paris.
coast south of Mumbai. As its name suggests, this
Fahn, A., E. Werker and P. Baas (1986) Wood anatomy and
species fruits are used as a surrogate for the more
identification of trees and shrubs from Israel and
expensive nutmeg and its presence at the site can be
adjacent regions. The Israel Academy of Sciences
probably related to the commerce of this spice. It is
and Humanities, Jerusalem.
improbable that this species was imported to be used
Gamble, J.S. (1902) A Manual of Indian Timbers: An Account
as fuel. More likely, the fragments detected in the
of the Growth, Distribution, and Uses of the Trees
sample came from a tool, a small object or an artefact
and Shrubs of India and Ceylon with Descriptions of
that was imported and subsequently burned. The
Their Wood-structure. S. Low, Marston & co. ltd.

Goyal, P. and P.P. Joglekar (2008) Report on the faunal
same can probably be said of Wrightia tinctoria whose
remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat, during
wood is currently used for carvings and furniture
the second field season (2006-07), in T. Osada and
making. Its presence on site can be linked with dyeing
A. Uesugi (eds.) Occasional Paper 5: Linguistics,
activities as its leaves produce a blue dye similar to
Archaeology and the Human Past. Research Institute
indigo (Orwa et al. 2009). The fact that these species
for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto. pp.25-43.
are found in fireplaces even though their primary use
Hather, J. G. (2000) The Identification of the Northern
was not as fuel might indicate the recycling of worn
European Woods. A guide for archaeologists and
out tools or other objects. Unfortunately, the absence
conservators. Archetype Publications, London.
of samples from later phases as well as the unclear
Howari, M.F., B.R. Jordan, M. Bouhoche and S. Wyllie-
stratigraphy at the site make it impossible to delineate
Echeverria (2009) Field and remote-sensing
a chronological sequence of wood exploitation at
assessment of mangrove forestsand seagrass beds
Kanmer at present, or to infer changes through time
in the Northwestern part of the United Arab
that can confirm the hypothesis of environmental
Emirates. Journal of Coastal Research 25: 48-56.

Inside Wood Database (2004-onwards) Inside Wood Database,
degradation.
http://insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu/search.
Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S. Rawat and T. Osada (2007) Kanmer:
References
a Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India, in
Asouti, E. (2003) Woodland vegetation and fuel exploitation
T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2: Linguistics,
at the prehistoric campsite of Pinarbas I, south-
central Anatolia, Turkey : the evidence from

Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S. Rawat and T. Osada (2008) Preliminary
the wood charcoal macro-remains. Journal of
obser vations on the excavation at Kanmer,
Archaeological Science 30: 1185-1201.

Asouti, E. and Fuller, D.Q (2007) Trees and Woodlands of
Kachchh, India 2006-2007, in T. Osada and
South India: Archaeological Perspectives. UCL,
A. Uesugi (eds.) Occasional Paper 5: Linguistics,
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Scheel-Ybert, R. (2002) Evaluation of sample reliability in
extant and fossil assemblages, in S. Thibault (ed.)
Mallon, D.P. (Access 2008) Tetracerus quadricornis, IUCN
Charcoal Analysis. Methodological Approaches,
2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, www.
Palaeoecological Reconstruction and Wood Uses. BAR
iucnredlist.org.
International Series 1063. Archaeopress, Oxford.
Naidoo, G. (1987) Effects of Salinity and Nitrogen on
pp.9-16.
Growth and Water Relations in the Mangrove,
Schweingruber, F.H. (1990) Anatomie Europischer Hlzer/
Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh. New Phytologist
Anatomy of European Woods. Verlag Paul Haupt,
107: 317-325.
Bern und Stuttgatrt.
Orwa, C., A. Mutua, R. Kindt, R. Jamnadass and S. Anthony
Selvam, V. (2007) Trees and Shrubs of the Maldives, Maldives
(2009) Agro Forestry Tree Database. http://www.
& Bangkok. Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and
worldagroforestrycentre.org/
Marine Resources & FAO.
Patel, R .I. (1971) Forest Flora of Gujarat State. Forest
Teng berg , M. (2002) Vegetation histor y and wood
Department of Gujarat State, Baroda.
exploitation in the Oman Peninsula from the
Rajaguru, S.N. and G.D. Shushama (2008) Preliminary
Bronze Age to the Classical period, in S. Thiebault
observations on Holocene fluvial sediments around
(ed.) Charcoal Analysis: Methodological Approaches,
Kanmer, Gujarat, India, in T. Osada and A. Uesugi
Palaeoecological Results and Wood Uses. BAR
(eds.) Occasional Paper 5: Linguistics, Archaeology
International Series 1063. Archaeopress, Oxford.
and the Human Past. Research Institute for
pp.151-157.
- 142 -

(Field seasons 2006-2009)
Shahida Ansari
Lecturer cum Keeper in Museology
Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute
Pune, India
Abstract
This paper is based on the ethnoarchaeological observations carried out at Kanmer and nearby villages during the field-seasons
2006-09. It attempts to brief the adaptation pattern through settlement and subsistence studies of the settled and ago-pastoral
communities (Rabari and Bharwad) of Kanmer. The various traditional knowledge systems, utility for storage facilities, hearth types,
pottery tradition, belief system, ornamentation, textile and tattoo are also discussed in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
Kachchh is land of few trees like nim (Melia

Azadrachta Linn.), pipal (Ficus religiosa), babul/bavar
Gujarat is a land of great contrasts; it stretches from
(Acacia sp.), tamarind, banyan (Ficus Bengalensis), and
the wet, fertile, rice-growing plains of the west coast,
mango (Mangifera indica); on the coast the coconut
north of Bombay city to the almost rainless salt
is difficult to rear as reported in Imperial Gazetteer
deserts of Kachchh in the Northwest. Kachchh (or the
of India 1908 (1908: 77). J.M. Campbell (1880: 30)
sea-cost land) comprising a single district is bounded
reports of large wild animals like lions and tigers in
on the south by the Gulf of Kachchh and on the north
Kachchh. The Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908 (1908:
and east is separated from Pakistan and the mainland
77) gives an account of large game, like leopards,
of India by the Rann of Kachchh, best described as
wild hog and smaller game like hare which occurred
a vast salt marsh covering about 18,000 sq. km. The
in large numbers; and the wild ass (Equus hemionus
Rann floods during the rainy season, slight though
Pallas) frequented the wastes of the Rann. G.D. Patel
the rains, and Kachchh is converted into an island; in
(1971: 36-44) in Gujarat State Gazetteers: Kutch
the dry season it is a sandy, salty plain plagued by dust
District, reports of panther (dipdo/Panthera Pardus
storms. To the south of Kachchh is the large peninsula
Linn.), Indian wolf (varu/Canis lupus Linn.), hayaena
of Kathiawar (Saurashtra), lying between the Gulf of
(taras/Hyaena hyaena Linn.), jackal (shial/ Canis
Kachchh and the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay). The
aureus Linn.), fox (lonkadi/Vulpes bengalensis Shaw),
Little Rann of Kachchh extends northeast from the
wild boar (dukkar/Sus scorfa Linn.), blackbuck
Gulf of Kachchh and occupies about 5,100 sq. km in
(kaliar/Antelope cervicapra Linn.), wild ass (khar
Gujarat. Originally an extension of the Arabian Sea,
gaddha), Indian hare (saslo/Lepus nigricollis Guvier),
the Rann of Kachchh has been closed off by centuries
snakes and fishes. About 223 species of birds listed by
of silting. During the time of Alexander the Great
Captain C.D. Lester in the year 1898 and Salim Alis
it was a navigable lake, but it is now an extensive
list of 324 species of birds (both resident and migrant)
mudflat, inundated during monsoon seasons.
in the year 1945 in Kachchh are documented in this
gazetteer.
Settlement is limited to low isolated hills.

- 143 -
Figure 1 Map depicting villages where ethnographic survey was carried out
Shahida Ansari
- 144 -
Gujarat is one of the most intensively explored
(Mature Harappan) intensive burning activity is
areas (approximately 500 sites reported) in India,
reported inside the fortification wall, the garbage
of which more than sixty Harappan sites are from
thrown outside the fortification wall. The Late
Kachchh alone. The important excavated Harappan
Harappans (Period III) initially used the fortification
sites in Kachchh, Gujarat are ; Prabhas Patan
wall as defence wall, but subsequently its function
(excavated in 1955-57, 1971-72, 75-77), Desalpur (23
ceased to its purpose. They erected structures right
25 N.; 60 10 E.; excavated in 1964), Surkotada (23
on top of the fortification wall to make houses. The
27 N.; 70 50 E.; excavated in 1971-72), Pabhumath
Harappans moved out of Kanmer and after 1600
(23 40 N.; 70 44 E.; excavated for three seasons
years of gap, the Iron Age people occupied this
1977-80), Dholavira (23 52 N.; 70 13 E.; excavated
site. This historical deposit is marked by residential
for fourteen years beginning in the year 1989-90),
stone structures. A few medieval stone alignments
Shikarpur (23 16 N.; 70 41 E.; excavated in 1987-
belonging to medieval period are reported from the
90, 2006-09), and Junikuran (cited in Kharakwal et
site (Kharakwal et al. 2008).
al. 2008: 6).
R.S. Bisht and his colleagues of Archaeological
is supply of water and various other resources for
Survey of India were the first to locate the site of
sustenance. Interestingly, there are no permanent
Kanmer in the 1980s (IAR 1985-86: 15-19). The
rivers in Kachchh, but during the rainy season ( July-
excavations at Kanmer (23 23 N; 70 52 E), a
October) many streams of considerable size flow from
Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat, India, began
the central ranges of hills northwards to the Rann
in field season 2005-06 under the directions of
and southwards to the Gulf of Kachchh (Imperial
J.S. Kharakwal (Institute of Rajasthan Studies,
Gazetteer of India 1908: 74-75). For the rest of the year
JNR Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur), Y.S. Rawat
the courses of these streams are marked by successions
(The Gujarat State Department of Archaeolog y,
of detached pools. Owing to the porous nature of
Gandhinagar) and Toshiki Osada (Research Institute
the upper soil, storage of water ponds and reservoirs
for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan). The site is
is difficult; but brackish water is readily found in
locally referred, as Bakarkot, and is situated about
rocks at no great depth from the surface and wells
200 m north of the present village and five and half
of this kind are fairly numerous. The site of Kanmer
kilometres from the Little Rann of Kachchh (Figure
is drained by a seasonal nallah known as Aludawaro
1). The mound covers an area of 115 x 105 m with a
Vokro and the village is surrounded by numerous
considerable height of eight metres from ground, and
wells, which serve as an important water source till
has impressive stonewall fortification, visible while
today.
The prerequisite of any successful settlement
nearing to the site (Figure 12b).

The site has yielded five-fold cultural sequence:
LAYOUT OF KANMER VILLAGE
Period I : Early Harappan, Period II : Mature

Harappan (Subdivided into II A and II B), Period III:
Late Harappan, Period IV: Historic and Period V:
The settlement pattern adopted at Kanmer village
Medieval. The site has impressive stone fortification
is according to the caste hierarchy. The central
wall (trapeze in shape, total thickness is measured
portion is occupied by those higher in the social
about 18 m) constructed during the Mature Harappan
scale, such as the landlords, money lenders, village
and later renovated/ strengthened during the Late
officials and higher caste families followed by those
Harappan period after a short gap. In Period II B
of the agriculturists, agro-pastorals, artisans and

- 145 -
Shahida Ansari
Figure 2 (a) Source of lelwa matti (b) Stone quarrying near Kanmer (c) Stone structure (d) Use of lelwa matti while construction
(e) Stone foundation for house (f ) Application of plaster to beautifying stone structures (g) Use of wattle and daub above
stonewalls (h) Use of sengtara above stonewalls (i) Use of dhauli matti and mirror for beautification of house walls
- 146 -
outskirts occupied by the lower caste group. Thus,
clay), dhauli matti (white shale procured from the
the occupancy within the settlement maintained
nearby hill section), lal leluwa (Reddish brown sandy
through generations are; Gadvi, Darbar (Rajput),
clay brought from nearby pond), pila leluwa (yellow
Rujput (Agriculturist), Bhar wad (Herdsmen),
sandy clay brought from the nearby pond), kali matti
Rabari (Herdsmen), Bavaji (Priest), Vania (Traders/
(black soil), mathadhowa ni matti (Fullers Earth), and
Jain), Musalman, Mali (Husbandmen), Koli 1) ,
rakhodi (ashy coloured clay/ located 3 km north along
Darva Maharaj, Luhar (Craftsmen- Ironworker or
the local river). These soils are used for construction,
Blacksmith), Nai (Barbers), and Harijan (Vankar/
flooring, beautification of wall, storage bins, pottery
Weavers). The Gadvi and Darbar are the most
making and also for medicinal purposes.
powerful group who occupies the central and the
best agricultural land in Kanmer. The communities in
stonewalls plastered with clay and cow-dung emulsion
Kanmer are mainly agriculturist, including Rabari and
(Figure 2f ). Stones are locally abundant around
Bharwad who are agro-pastorals.
Kanmer (Figure 2b). Those who are materially
The Gadulia Luhar's of Radhanpur are mobile
prosperous like the landowners and moneylenders
ironworkers who visit Kanmer once a year, i.e. on 15th
use burnt bricks for constructing houses. The binding
March, when they arrive at the village and stay for few
agent of stonewall is plastering clay called leluwa,
days. They are mainly invited by the villagers to repair
which they collect from the nearby area or by walking
agricultural tools or to make new iron objects. There
half a kilometre to get it (Figure 2a). Generally, in
are other groups of Gadulia Luhar, coming from
front of their houses small mounds of leluwa is kept
Rajasthan, who settle down at Adhoi and Anjar once
for repairing purposes.
in a year (Figure 8c). They make temporary shelters in
agricultural field in the month of January before they
sometimes by straw grass. Inclined roofs are mostly
move out at different places in Kachchh.
made. The slope in front is generally longer than the
At Kanmer, small, narrow roads or streets
one at the back, as the former encloses the verandah
branching off into lanes and bye-lanes usually separate
adjoining the main living room. In some of the
the rows of the houses. The linear arrangement
courtyard walls were also covered by thatched straw or
of houses is the most common pattern though
grass collected from nearby area popularly known as
isolated clusters are not uncommon. The houses are
sengtara (Figures 2g and 2h).
rectangular or square with single and double rooms
with common sidewalls and a common verandah in
2008) the Mature and Late Harappans floors at the
front surrounded by central courtyard. All houses
site were first levelled by packing base with yellow
have a verandah where members of family sit and
sandy clay (pila leluwa) mixed with fine clay (khotedo).
carry out household chores, serving as living cum
Above it was less than 5-cm thick bed of reddish sandy
meeting room. A separate kitchen is seen among the
clay (lal leluwa) sometimes even rammed. Finally a
Darbar, Rujputs, Bharwad, Rabaris and Harijans. A
thick plaster of white shale (dhauli matti) mixed with
courtyard encloses the open spaces in front of the
cow dung was applied (plaster sometimes were 15 cm
house of agriculturist where they keep cattle and the
thick). The Mature Harappan floors were thinner
artisans pile up their household industry.
compared to the Late Harappan floor.
Almost all villagers have wide knowledge of
Most of the houses have either mud walls or
Roof is generally covered with country-tiles or
According to the excavators (Kharakwal et al.
Presently, the villagers of Kanmer, Ghanithal,
soil of the region. At least seven type of soil is easily
Gagodar and Palanswa (surrounding villages) follow
recognised and known locally as: khotedo (pond
almost similar kind of flooring technique as employed

- 147 -
Shahida Ansari
Figure 3 (a,b,f ) Movable clay hearths (c,d,e,g,i) Immovable hearths (h) hearth made by potter
- 148 -
Figure 4 Dumping of ash, cow dung, other waste, outside the courtyard or lanes,
which is later collected to be spread over the agriculture field as manure
by the Harappans at Kanmer (Figure 1). Except the
storage bins (kothlas), walls and door frames of their
foundation or the base of the house is made of
houses, are decorated with embossed designs studded
m thick quarried stone (brought from the nearby
with abhlas (tiny pieces of mirrors), show the innate
hillocks), top of layered stone is three inch of fine
artistic taste of this agro-pastoral community. In some
clay (khotedo), above which 5 inch thick deposit of
of the houses the doorways have torans embroidered
yellow sandy clay (pila leluwa/sturdy as cement) is
or made of beads, while chaklas or square pieces of
put, before finally ramming it to get even floor base
cloth similarly worked in beautiful traditional designs
(Figures 2d and 2e). The floor above this is made of
are the most popular mode of wall decoration (Figure
1 inch mixture (thep) of black soil (kali matti) + cow
2i).
dung + water which is sealed with thick plaster (gar)
prepared of white shale (dhauli matti) + water. The
associated with the Mature Harappan floor, the
women of the house repeat the application of plaster
diameter of which was measured 30 cm (Kharakwal
of white shale + water regularly sometimes within
et al. 2008). It has survived up to a height of 30 cm.
three days or weekly (Figure 2i).
Presently; the cooking hearths in Kanmer are of
The artistic taste of the people is also visible in
two types, i.e. movable and immovable (Figure 3).
the interior decoration of their houses, which they
Movable hearths are made of clay (Figures 3a, 3b
try to beautify in variety of ways. The arrangement of
and 3f ) and other can is acquired/purchased from
wooden chest called pataras, household utensils, and
the potter (Figure 3h), whereas immovable ones are
other belongings in one of the interior room of the
made with stone and clay (Figures 3c, 3d, 3e and 3g).
houses is attractive. The clay work done by Rabaris on
Cooking area is separate from other rooms and is

- 149 -
A cooking hearth (U-shaped ) was found
Shahida Ansari
generally located at one corner of the entrance of the
of ash (sheli/from hearth) and then 6-inch layer
house (Figure 3i). Firewood and cow dung cakes are
of sand (reth/brought from nearby stream) was
used as fuel.
evenly spread over. Above this jowar grains were
The garbage dump comprising of cooking waste,
filled in. Before closing the pit 6 inch layer of sand
cow dung, hearth ash are generally dumped outside
was spread over, above which 1 foot high mound
the courtyard wall, or the lanes, which appears like
(tekada) was made of clay + straw plaster, which
a pile from a distance These piles are later carried to
covered the khann.
agriculture field as manure (Figure 4).

Type 2: At Palanswa, the khann, was located in
front courtyard of the house. It was circular in
PIT SILOS
shape, 1 m deep and 1.50 m wide. At the base of the

pit, 10-cm thick layer of ash (sheli) from hearth was
Staple foods, especially grain, are usually kept
evenly spread. Above the ashy layer, jowar stalks,
sometime in storage before being consumed, so that
(twisted and made into thick rope-puda), were
the preservation is a matter of importance everywhere.
placed, it also covered the pit wall. Above the stalk,
The underground grain storage facilities found in
old blanket (godadi) was placed and then jowar
archaeological sites are popularly referred as pit
grain was filled in the pit. On top of the grain,
silos, storage pits or corn pits. This seems one of the
old blanket was placed. Then 10-cm thick ashy
simplest of all that have ever been tried by agricultural
layer was put before closing it. A small mound, i.e.
people through time. A number of pits and pit silos
tekada made of clay + straw covered the khann.
are reported at the site in structural complex (St. no 1)

belonging to the Historic period in the northwestern
part of the mound (trenches R21, S21, T21 and U21)
in khann. In this storage facility the grains could be
at Kanmer (Figure 12a; Kharakwal et al. 2008: 11).
easily stored for two to three years. They were opened
Ethnographic sur vey in Kanmer and Palanswa
only if there was real need for grains. The grains in the
(nearby village) has envisaged our knowledge of
khann did not have any effect of rain, as it is scanty in
circular underground grain storage pit, i.e. khann.
this region. And if the rains did spoil the stored grain,
This technique was used to store millets, i.e. lal
the grain used to turn black and pungent smell used
jowar (Sorghum sp. Moench.). This technique is now
to emit from the khann. The use of ash and sand is for
abandoned due to frequent earthquake in this region.
dissuading insect or ant attack in the storage.
The traditional knowledge of khann, however still
2)
Only the surplus grains were kept for storage
A recent ethnographic study (2007-8) of
survives among the elderly people of the two villages,
underground grain storage technique, i.e. Khanni in
who inform that this technique used to safeguard
Orissa (eastern India) strengthens our understanding
their grain from thief. Two process of khann narrated
of similar knowledge system of storage of rice/paddy.
by the villagers are as follows:
Two types of underground storage facility, i.e. the

half-yearly underground storage popularly referred
Type 1: At Kanmer, the khann, was located in front
as Vedi Khanni (Figure 5a), rectangular in shape with
of the house. A circular pit, 1.5 m deep and 1.75 m
a raised platform above the ground) and the year-
wide was dug and plastered (gar) with three inch
round storage (circular in shape, slight platform above
thick layer (thar) of leluwa + cow dung was applied
the ground) popularly known as Kuan Khanni are
on the pit base and wall. Above this 10 cm layer
prevalent (Figure 5b). The soil type defines which type

- 150 -
Figure 5 Line drawing representing processes of Underground grain storage technique, i.e. khanni
(a) Veddi khanni (b) Kuan khanni
of khanni is to be employed in the area. Generally in
khanni is practised where the soil is sandy loam.
the coastal area, vedi khanni is practised where the
soil type is clayey loam and in the inland area, kuan
following (Figure 5).

- 151 -
The technique employed for khanni is as
Shahida Ansari
can be closed after reopening. There is no effect of

1) The grain used for storage is rice/paddy. The
rain on the grain. But care has to be taken as no water
grains stored in khanni cannot be used as seed for
logging occurs during rain in khanni area, which can
next cropping as it losses its germination quality.
lead to water seepage. This traditional technique of
2) For location of khanni the areas preferably used
underground storage continues in Ganjam district
is in front/rear of the house or in the farmyard. The
of Orissa, as the locals prefer this khanni rice for
choice of area for storing grains largely depends on
consumption. Besides, that the grain can be stored in
two factors, i.e. the amount of grain to be stored
bulk with 0.01% damage from insects and rodents,
and the elevation.
the khanni rice is easy to dehusk, non-sticky when
3) Firstly, a pit having depth of 3 to 4 feet in desired
cooked, and can be easily digested by the elderly
shape of square/circular is dug. The pit is left for
people.
drying for at least five to ten days. The depth of
khanni mainly varies according to the amount of
village also make bambaiyyu (bohera, in north
grains to be stored.
Gujarat), an underground storage chamber at the
4) A thick layer of rice straw (nada) is placed at the
basement, which has two-top window opening (bari/
base and walls of the pit. Men continuously make
jali) (Figure 6f ). This chamber is accessed through
rope (bara/bada) of rice straw, which is to be added
staircase. Thick layer (thar) of ash (shaeli) is kept at
at a regular interval. They place the straw rope at
the base, before the grains are spread over it evenly.
the centre and rotate it in a clockwise direction
While filling the grains in chamber sometimes these
touching the sidewalls till it reaches the top. Again
windows are also used, from where the grain is poured
a layer of straw is placed in the pit before grains are
from the top and it also works as ventilator. Six-inch
poured in it.
layer of sand/river gravel (reth brought from the
5) When it reaches the ground level a new round
seasonal river/nallah) covers the grains. Finally, the
of straw rope is added above ground for half or one
windows are sealed with a mixture of clay or mud, as
metre more. Straw is then added on the side before
the heat should not touch the grain in the storage.
pulling the soil for support for the raised rope wall.
6) Five pieces of dried cow dung cake is kept on
considered pure, is sieved (by chalni) when the grains
the grains, which serve as insecticide, after which
are removed for use. Year round storage is easily
a layer of straw is put. Above the straw cover,
possible in bambaiyyu. During rainy season no effect
straw rope is again laid down from side to top in
on the grain can be seen, as rains are insufficient to
clockwise fashion. Straw is again laid down on this
flood it. The scanty rainwater is generally absorbed by
and then lump of soil and soil is put on the khanni
the soil within minutes after rain, besides the houses
and left overnight for settling down.
are always located on elevated area. This technique is
7) This is then plastered by thick coat made of
also being abandoned slowly as many of the people
clay + cow dung + water, at repeated interval
have filled these storage chambers with soil and bricks
throughout the year.
after a series of earthquake in last ten years in this
The Rajput and Jain communities of Kanmer
The sand broug ht from seasona l river is
region. The grains preferably stored in bambaiyyu

In vedi khanni, the grains are removed from the
are jowar, mugh, and bajra. Cotton is usually sold
pit after the first rain in June (Figure 5a). But for kuan
immediately after the harvest and wheat cannot
khanni the storage lasts for years together (Figure 5b).
withstand the underground heat.
The grains can be removed at any part of the year and
- 152 -
The advantages of underground storage structures
Figure 6 Storage techniques (a, b, c, e) Kotha-kothi (d) Chaursi or Mujuguda (f ) bambaiyyu
- 153 -
Shahida Ansari
The Chaursi or Mujuguda is square shaped with
is that they are free from the seasonal variations in
temperature and humidity provided that adequate
four-legged base (Figure 6d). It has two opening; one
precautions are taken against the seepage of water in
from the top and the other is a wooden window in the
the structures, especially in areas where the water table
body of the bin. Kotha is rectangular or cylindrical
is high. Underground storage structures are also safer
in shape. Sometimes grains like math and mugh are
from threats from various external sources of damage,
mixed with sand before storage. This technique is
such as theft, rain or wind. However, they are not
employed especially by the Rabaris who believe that
good when the quantity available for storage is small,
grains can be stored for a longer period of time and
and there are a number of grain varieties to store. The
insect attack is less. When the grains are used they are
underground storage structures are easier to fill up
sieved.
owing to the factor of gravity. However, it becomes
cumbersome to take out the grains from these
kotha-kothi was observed at Lakshman Bhai Rujputs
structures. Whereas the advantage of surface storage
house, which was prepared by his great grandfather
structure is that they can be maintained in a hygienic
(Figure 6a). He continues to use it now, for which
condition by cleaning or plastering at regular interval.
they occasionally plaster it with dhauli matti. The
The danger of heating up of grain due to internal heat
interesting feature of this bin is that the two walls of
is lesser. Thus, the agricultural communities employ
the house support the long rectangular bin (earlier
both the techniques.
three walls had bin facility, one of which was removed
The pearl millet (bajra) with stalk is also kept
recently). It has openings from the top, from where
in open storage, i.e. kanduaa, a stack made of
the grains are poured in and also has wooden windows
bajra straw/stalk, at the centre of which they keep
from where the grains can be accessed. This storage
bajra. Storage of bajra can be for months together.
facility is also used for keeping blankets and clothes.
Sometimes a room is also converted for storing bajra.
All kind of grains can be stored in kotha-kothi.
At Palanswa a rectangular wall storage bin, i.e.
The aboveground clay storage facilities popularly
used by Rujputs and Rabari of Kanmer and Palanswa
CROPS GROWN AT KANMER
is known as Kotah-Kothi (Figures 6a, 6b, 6c and 6e),

Chaursi or Mujuguda (Figure 6d). A variety of grain
like bajra, mugh, math can be stored in them. These
In Kachchh, saline and alkaline soils cover the area
storage facilities are also used for keeping blankets,
to the north of Lat. 23 N. A narrow strip below
utensils, milk, cooked food and vegetables.
this consists of red and brown soils. In the rest of the
For ma king these clay bins a m ixture in
district, black soils prevail deep in the western half
proportion of 2 (khotedo/pond clay): 1 (leluwa/sandy
and medium elsewhere except for a narrow strip in
clay): 1 (sheli/hearth ash): 1 (laad/horse dung ): 1
the east with grey soils (NCA 1976: 6). The Kachchh
(gobar/cow dung ), with water and chaff of bajra/
falls in the lowest rainfall zone, which ranges from 26
wheat is prepared. Once the clay bin is prepared to
to 40 cm, in July its about 15 cm, followed by August
a desired shape, proportion made with mixture of 1
with 8 cm rainfall (NCA 1976: 6).
(dhauli matti/white shale): 1 (laad) is applied on the
bin. To keep the bin cool dhauli matti mixed with
fed crops, sown in June-July and harvest in October-
water is applied with the help of soft cloth; this gives
November. This is the main cropping pattern in the
a bright look to the bin. It is also decorated with
area as no important crops are grown in rabi season
appliqu designs and mirror work (Figure 6d).
in the absence of adequate irrigation facilities. The

- 154 -
The villagers of Kanmer grow kharif or the rain-
rabi or irrigated crops sown in September-October
morning.
and harvested in February and March is only a recent
phenomenon. The principal crops of the region are
circular kiln or bhatti to bake his pots (Figures 7a and
bajra, jowar (kharif), fodder, other pulses, cotton and
7b). The placement of the kiln is in his courtyard. In
groundnut occupying more then 90 % of the cropped
the kiln at the base he places dried acacia branches
area (NCA 1976: 9).
(35 cm thick layer) or hay, broken pots and the pots
At Kanmer the main crops are pearl millet (bajra/
to be baked. Above this another layer of dried babul
Pennisetum typhoides), jowar-millet (jaar/Sorghum
branches is placed, a cover of broken pots and tavdi
sp. Moench.), cotton (kapas), and wheat. The pulses
(pan) to be baked are kept. Above this layer of hay
like green gram (mugh/Vigna radiata) and mat bean
(covering half of the kiln), ash (sheli) is spread. A pot
(math/Vigna aconitifolia) are grown. Other food crops
with green leaves is lighted and the kiln is left to burn
are groundnut (Mung-phali/Arachis hypogaea), sesame
during the night. If the twigs have been well laid, the
(til/Sesamum indicum), castor (erunda/Ricinus
fire burns slowly and evenly throughout the entire
communis), cumin (jeeru/Cuminum cyminum),
period of baking. The baked pots are collected in the
red gram/pigeon pea (tuwar/adad/Cajanus cajan),
morning.
horse gram (kalthi/Dolichos biflorus), gram/chick
pea (chola/Cicer arietinum), and Indian butter bean
follows.
Khemji Bhai a potter of Gagodar use semi-
The important observations at potters yard are as
(val/Dolichos lablab), Indian oat (javawata/Avena

byzantia) and barley (Hordeum vulgare). They also
1) Three kind of soil is used for making pots- black
grow vegetables and fruits like onions (dungri),
soil, red soil and yellow soil, which are collected
spinach (taka), brinjal (rengana), tomatoes (tamata),
from three different locations around the village
chilli (mirch), garlic (lahsun), valor, galaka, turiya,
(Figure 7d). For making tavdi they use only black
givada, guvar, bhinda (ladys finger), kakoda, tinda
and yellow soil.
and watermelon (kariga).
2) The pots are made on wheel (chak), wooden

beater (thapa) and stone dabber (pinda) are used
for shaping pots (Figure 7g). The wheel is placed
POTTERY MAKING TRADITION
on a pivot stone, which has perforation at centre

(Figures 7e and 7f ), having smooth but pointed
At Kanmer wheel-turned wares having painting of
wood on which the wheel rotates. Stone is used to
leaves, fish, bands of wavy lines, diamond shapes,
sharpen this wood at regular intervals. The potter
executed with black or dusky red pigment are
use thread to cut the base of the pot on the wheel.
reported from all the cultural period. To understand
3) To decorate they use white, red, dark maroon
the pottery tradition in the region the potters
colours. Soft coloured stones having yellow and
(Kumbhars) of Gagodar and Palanswa villages were
red colour are collected from the seasonal nallahs,
visited, who are the local suppliers of variety pots to
and soaked in water before application. They make
the near by villages including Kanmer. At Palanswa
variety of painting , which includes geometric
they use open-fire in a circular depression in the
symbols, flowers, animal (scorpion, fish and crab)
ground, composed of cow dung cakes, stalk of bajra,
and birds. The girls and womenfolk generally do
babul branches, surrounded by a ring of broken pots
paintings (Figure 7i).
(Figures 7a, 7b, 7c). The kiln is lit in the afternoon,
4) They make variety of pots according to the
allowed to burn all-night and dismantled the next
requirement and season. For example pots (ghado)

- 155 -
Shahida Ansari
Figure 7 (a,b,c) Potters kiln (d) Soil types for making pottery (e) Potters wheel (f ) Bored stone (g) Beater and dabber (h)
Variety of pots (i) Painting the pots (j) Pot headrest made of coloured glass beads
- 156 -
with narrow neck (for keeping water), wide neck
the oppression of the Sumras. The Chavada Rajputs,
(cooking rice, keeping butter milk, setting curd),
who then ruled over Kachchh, granted the Sammas
pan (making chapati), and basin (kneading dough).
a tract of land; but in the time the latter subverted
During marriage season the potters make a variety
the rule of the Chavadas, and reigned in their stead
of pots (Figures 7h and 7i).
(1320). The sections of the Sammas forming the ruling
5) The villagers from as far as 15 to 20 km come to
family in Kachchh were known as Jadejas. Till 1540
collect various kinds of pots from Khemji bhai.
the Jadejas ruled over Kachchh in three branches;
He listed the name of the villages like Kidiyanagar,
until that year Khengar, the son of Jam Hamir, with
Nadiyadimb, Paragparthi, Thoriali, Sankapar,
assistance of the Muhammadan king of Ahmedabad,
Kanmer, Ganithal, Malampar, Vanthia, Chotapar
succeeded in making himself head of the tribe and
and so on.
master of the whole province. For six generations

after Khengar the Raos succeeded according to
primogeniture till 1762 when Ghulam Shah Kalhora,
HISTORY OF THE REGION
ruler of Sind, taking advantage of the disorders of

the State, twice invaded Kachchh with some success
The ethnographic account of the orig in and
in 1762-5. The disorder became intensified by the
movement of the Rabaris and Bharwads is important
insanity of Rao and the struggles of rival factions, one
in the light of understanding the early historic data
of which was headed by minister Fateh Muhammad,
available to us from Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908:
until in 1809 the help of the British Government was
77-79, 85). It gives account of the earliest historic
sought to restore order. In 1815, British force moved
notices of Kachchh, by the Greek writers. The waters
in Kachchh to restore order. The regency ( Jadejas
of the Rann were navigable lake in Alexanders time
nominated a minor to be successor, with the British
(325 B.C.) and a shallow lagoon at the date of Periplus
Resident and few chiefs as regency) was closed in
(third century AD), and there are local traditions of
the year 1834 when Rao Desalji became full king.
seaports on its borders. About 155-130 B.C., Kachchh
Followed by Pragmalji II (1860-75), Khengarji III
was part of the Menanders kingdom, and shortly
(1876-1942), Vijayrajji (1942-1948), and Madansinghji
afterwards passed to Parthians. Between AD 140 and
(1948). After independence Kachchh was placed
390 the Kshatrapas of Saurashtra ruled Kachchh. It
directly under the Central Government, Government
was included for a time in the Gupta Kingdom of
of India. On the bifurcation of the Bombay State on
Magadha and was ruled later by the Vallabhi kings.
1st May 1960, the Kachchh district became a part of
In the seventh century Kachchh formed part of the
the newly formed Gujarat State.
province of Sind. Hiuen Tsiang refers to it as Kiecha. Invasions of Charans, Kathis, and Chavadas
ETHNO-HISTORY OF
RABARIS AND BHARWADS
followed. In the 9th century the Arabs settled on the

coast. In 1023 Bhima Deo I of Anhilvada fled before
Mahmud of Ghazni to Kandhkot; and at the close of
that century the peninsula was overrun by Singhar,
The earliest reference on Rabaris is by Lieutenant-
the fourth Sumra ruler of Sind.
Colonel James Tod (1873: 289-293), who lists the
The modern history of Kachchh dates from its
Rebarris as the tribe inhabiting the desert and valley of
conquest by the Sind tribe of Samma Rajputs in the
Indus. The term Rebarris according to him is known
14th century. The Sammas fled to Kachchh to escape
throughout Hindustan to denote persons employed

- 157 -
Shahida Ansari
in rearing and tending camels, are always Moslems. In
Kachchh), Kathiawar, Palanpur and Ahmedabad.
Rajputana they are a distinct tribe employed entirely
They are identified as an immigrant tribes of
in rearing camels or in stealing them, in which they
herdsmen who were formerly resident in Marwar and
3)
evince a peculiar dexterity , competing with the
Sind, and perhaps at a remote date in Baluchistan.
Bhats in the practice. S.C. Dutt (1884: 53, 55-56)
They worship the g oddess Hinglaj and make
lists Rebarris as one of the principal wild tribe lying
pilgrimages to her shrine in Baluchistan.
between Rajwara and the Indus. He identifies them
as shepherds, goatherds and camel breeders, and has a
Tribes and Castes of Bombay takes account from the
name for stealing camels, in which they are said to be
notes provided by M.K. Mehta, states that the Rabaris
dextrous.
of Kathiawar and Kachchh rear cows, buffaloes,
B. Kirparam (1901: 287-289) in his compilation
goats and sheep, and camels. They were also known
work in Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Gujarat
as Bhopa, Mogha, Raika, Vishotar and Sanai in
Population: Hindus, gives two origins of Rabaris
Cutch. Jyotrindra Jain and Mallika Sarabhai (1985:
firstly, Shiv while performing religious penance or tap
46) mention that the Rabari of Kutch (presently
created a five-footed camel and a man to graze it. This
Kachchh) is divided into three sub-castes, i.e. the
man had four daughters who married Rajputs of the
Kachhela of western Kutch and the Dhebaria and
Chohan, Ghambir, Parmar and Solanki tribes. These
Vagadia of eastern Kutch.
and their offspring were all camel grazers. Other
Rajputs joined them and they formed a separate caste.
Rabari of Gujarat believe that their forefathers were
Secondly, that they were Rajputs, who instead of
the inhabitants of Dwarka and Brindavan, the two
marrying Rajput women, married celestial damsels or
places associated with Lord Krishna, subsequently
apsaras that, is perhaps Charan women, devputris or
they migrated to Jaisalmer in Rajasthan. He provides
daughters of gods as they style themselves. According
us with their distribution in the districts of Mehsana,
to this account because they did not marry Rajput
Surat, Ahmedabad, Baroda and Sabarkantha. Their
wives they were called Rahabaharis, i.e. goers out of
habitat ranges between arid and semi-arid climate
the path. Their original home is North-West Provinces
zone. They are traditionally and primarily cowherds
from which they moved to Mar war and from
and milkmen. A few of them are small and marginal
Marwar to Gujarat Kathiawar and Kachh (presently
farmers and also work as agricultural labourers.
Kachchh). This story is supported by the fact that
the chief seat of Sikotra, the tribal goddess of some
word Rabari comes from the words rah and bari
Rabaris, is at Jodhpur. He identifies them as herdsmen
meaning whose ways are quite distinct from those
who rear cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep and camels in
of other people, i.e. those who take to outlawry and
Kathiawar and Kachh. With their droves of cows and
nomadic life. He traces their history to be at first
buffaloes they move about the country in search of
the inhabitants of Baluchistan, where they occupied
pasture. They make their living chiefly from the sale of
rocky, mountainous, barren and sandy places. They
clarified butter and the wool of sheep. A few among
kept number of camels, which were reared for long
them work as husbandmen and messengers.
journeys in barren tracts. They milked these camels
M.K. Mehta provides the other important
and made coarse cloth out of their hair, prepare
information on Rabaris in 1909 to the Superintendent
ghee from milk of the dromedaries (Arabian camel
of the Ethnoagraphic Survey (1909: 1-6) stating
with one hump) for use and sale. Due to population
that Rabaris are chiefly found in Cutch (presently
increase they migrated to Marwad and settled there.

- 158 -
R.E. Enthoven (1922: 252-258) in his book- The
According to K.S. Singh (1997: 1011-12) the
B.L. Mankad (1939: 31-32) mentions that the
Suitable climate was agreeable and profitable for
account of the term Bharwad as a modified form of
their business. They soon found that their camels
the word badawad, i.e. bada meaning sheep, and
and dromedaries were very useful for transport and
wada meaning a compound in Gujarat. The persons
speed message. They were recognised for skill for
who possessed compounds with sheep were referred
managing and training camels that they supplied
to as the Badawad, which in course of time came to be
to the States, for warfare activities. Marwad too
pronounced as Bharwad. Interestingly, their name is
proved a small country for Rabaris so they migrated
also related to the Bharade, a cattle-herder community
to Cutch. For some time they lived in Cutch before
of Madhya Pradesh. According to Singh (1997: 114)
migrating to Kathiawad. In Kathiawad they were in
their traditional occupation is goat and cattle herding,
different geographical feature having fertile soil and
the Bharwad also work as agricultural and non-
rich pastures led them in breeding buffaloes. In short
agricultural labourers. They sell milk in towns and a
period of time their clarified butter or ghee from
few are engaged in marginal cultivation.
Kathiawad went as far of India and Africa.

B. Kirparam (1901: 267-285) in his compilation
ORNAMENTS OF
RABARIS AND BHARWADS
works in Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Gujarat

Population: Hindus, gives account of Bharvads as
shepherds who are found all over Gujarat. According
to one story, the Bharvads are the same caste as the
The Rabari and Bharwad men and women commonly
Mehers, to whom Krishnas foster-father Nand Meher
wear certain ornaments. These included kanthi
belonged. According to another story, they are the
(Figure 8a) around the neck, a silver kandora around
descendants of a Vaishya father and a Sudra mother.
the waist and a vinti (ring ) on one or more of the
Their original home is said to be Gokal Vrindavan
fingers. The use of ivory is extensively found among
near Mathura from where they are said to have moved
Bharwads and Rabaris in this region. The social and
to Mewar, to spread into Gujarat, Kathiawar and
economic status of the household or the class of
Cutch. They are closely related to the Rabaris with
society to which they belong mostly determines the
whom they eat but do not intermarry. The Bharvads
use of gold and silver ornaments they adorn.
are husbandmen and labourers, but the bulk are
shepherds or cattle-keepers. Their flocks of sheep
women are; heavy ivory (hansu) chuddla (thick
and goats are kept in the outskirts of villages and
hand bracelet, purchased from Ahmedabad and
are driven into the grass and bush lands by day and
Maniara) worn in forearm and is a marker ornament
brought back at night. Between November and June
of their caste (Figures 8e and 8g ). They also have
they move about the country in search of pasture, they
plastic imitation of chuddla, which are made and
sell goat, cow milk, weave, and sell woollen blankets.
sold at Bhachau. Other ornaments for hand include
They are also paid in grain or in cash for penning their
mandriyo (bracelet) and bangdi (bangles).
flocks in empty fields, as the manure is highly valued.
Instead of sheep and goats, many Bharvads keep
Superintendent of the Ethnoagraphic Survey (1909:
cattle, both cows and buffaloes, and make their living
2) provides information that in 1315 AD the Rabaris
chiefly by selling clarified butter as also seen among
took refuge with the Sammas (of Sind) and went
the present day Rabaris.
with them to Cutch, supplying them with milk from
R.E. Enthoven (1920: 118) has referred to the
their herds of camels and cows. But they never forgot
Bharvad as the Gadarias. K.S. Singh (1997: 113) gives
their former patrons, the Sumras, and to this day,

- 159 -
The traditional ornaments worn by Rabari
Interesting ly, M.K . Mehta in 1909 to the
Shahida Ansari
their women do not colour their ivory bangles but
stamped with the petals of a flower.
wear them white as a sign of mourning. Though the
present day Rabaris at Kanmer are unaware of this
girls of Saurashtra/Kathiawar wear a leaf or diamond-
information, they continue to adorn themselves with
shaped flat gold ornament with floral designs in
heavy ivory ornament, i.e. hansu which still remains
relief in their upper ear. Because of its leaf shape it
the most enigmatic ornament of Rabaris.
is called pandadi (leaf ). It is the prominent use of
It is interesting to note here that young Mer4)
The vedhala are typical silver earrings in the form
gold distinguishes Mer ornaments from those of
of a pile of four rhombi, worn in the upper ear, and
Rabaris ( Jain and Sarabhai 1985: 46). At Kanmer
kamp in earlobe (Figure 11e). The vari are rings worn
2008-09 a gold leaf is reported from the excavation.
in the upper ear by unmarried girls only. The kadla
The ornament study between the two communities
(Figure 8b) are worn in anklets, kanthi, twisted silver
has shown that ornaments worn are related to their
wire ornament worn in neck, necklace made of plastic
custom, belief and tradition. From childhood to
buttons, black beads and gold beads, kaieda is heavy
marriage they amass and adorn typical ornaments
silver finger rings and chametiya the toe rings.
for the occasion. Some ornaments represent as caste
The Bharwad women wear chudo/sudo (Figures
marker.
8i and 11b), a large cylindrical ornament covering
forearms, khoto balaiyaan are the false ivory imitation
made from silver. The most important centres of
ornament popularly worn by them in forearm
silver ornament making in the Gujarat are Rajkot and
(Figure 11c), lockit in upper arm. They wear silver
Ahmedabad. Bhuj, Anjar and Mandhavi in Kuchchh
ornament like vedhala in her upper ear, doiyana and
are famous for relief, filigree and enamel work. The
pokhadadi in earlobe, phul as nose pin. The Ramrami
castes that have worked over generations are the
and Sanpagalu (gold/silver/ivory plated with gold/
Soni and Luhar. The selected crafts of Gujarat of
silver strips) are the variety of gold necklace worn by
Census of India 1961 discuss that ivory bangles were
married women only (Figures 8f, 11a and 11b). The
manufactured in all-important towns by artisans of
kadala are worn as anklets, they also have variation in
Brahmakshatriya caste. The important centres were
anklets known as kambiyun, i.e. anklets with dropping
Jamnagar, Jamkhambhalia, Wadhwan-Surendranagar,
at each side, silver kaieda are heavy finger rings and
Dhrangadhra, Palitana, Mandvi, Anjar, Bhuj,
chametiya toe rings.
Ahmedabad, Surat, Kodinar, Palanpur, Patan and
The Bharwad and Rabari men predominantly
Baroda. There is special mention of Mahuva town of
wear silver ornaments. They usually put on a dokiyu
Bhavnagar district, which ranks first on account of
made of beads of coloured glass and gold around their
ivory carving workmanship (Trivedi 1967: 23).
neck (Figures 9a and 9b). In the upper ear they wear
gold or silver button called bhungri, through a hole
Kanmer, made of steatite, agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli,
in the centre of which is passed a gold ring called ver,
terracotta, shell, faience, and gold. The steatite beads
and just under is thoriyan (Figure 9c). Bharwad men
however outnumber the collection (Kharakwal et al.
will always wear handsome bracelet, i.e. kadla, of
2007). The nearest source of agate around Kanmer
heavy filigree work, with a flower and very small box-
is in the little Rann of Kachchh. This is an isolated
like cylinders welded on to it which is also the marker
piece of land, known as the Mardak Beyt/Mardakh
ornament of the caste (Figures 9d and 9e). Some
Bet, covering an area of 2,100 acres, is also an existing
men also wear silver finger rings. Some Bharvad boys
mining source for agate (akik), chalcedony and jasper
wear a silver necklace and a bracelet, whose end are
deposits (Figure 1).

- 160 -
The jewellery of rural Kachchh is predominantly
A number of beads are reported from the site of
Figure 8 Ornaments of womenfolk and tattoo (a) Bharwad and Rabari girls wearing kanthi (b) Kadla are
worn in anklets (c) A Gadulia Luhar women (d) A Bhil women (e, g) Ivory (hansu) made chuddla (f ) A Kumhar women with
gold ornaments (h) Golibar ( i, j, k) Tattoo on body parts
- 161 -
Shahida Ansari
R .K. Trivedi (1964: 10), gives an interesting
After the tattooing operation is over, turmeric powder
information regarding the Bhils (a hunting-gathering
is applied to the area tattooed for its antiseptic value.
community of Gujarat) who used to pick up the
For more than a week the tattooed area is avoided
Kapadvanj agate, chiefly found in the beds of the
with any contact of water (at times if tattoo is spoiled
river Majam and sold them to Mandva Bohras, who
the colour doesnt come on the tattooed area when
disposed them off to Cambay stone merchants. This
washed). This process is generally painful and has
piece of information gives a wonderful example
resulted to periodic death. This traditional technique
of how hunting-gathering community in 1960s
of tattooing is however banned by the Gujarat
interacted with traders (A Bhil women at Adesar
State Government now. At Kanmer the Rabari and
Figure 8d). Such interaction in the region around
Bharwad women though still continue to tattoo
Kanmer will be looked into in future studies. The
through traditional as well as by modern technique
other sources of agates in Gujarat are Rajpipla,
(Figures 8i, 8j and 8k). Traditional technique of
Ranpur, Mahedpur, Tankara and the river Majam,
tattooing is done by oneself and sometimes to each
near Kapadvanj in Kaira district (Trivedi 1964: 9). At
other.
Adesar, gypsum and agate stones are found.
The tattooing symbols have variations and
represents meaning (Figure 13). The older women have

retained the knowledge of these varied symbols and
TATTOOING (TRAZAWA)
can identify its significance by mentioning it as the

highest form of adornment, which can be carried even
The formally frequent practice of tattooing is now
after death. The tattooing also represents a marker
fast dying out. Examples of tattooing were to be
for endurance. Only married women are allowed to
found among women of all age group. The name of
tattoo their legs. Among the elderly Rabari women
god and goddesses, personal names and traditional
a variety of symbols are seen which they recognise
symbols are tattooed on cheeks, chin, forehead,
when asked for, whereas among the younger girls
between eyebrows, neck, chest arms, wrist, legs and
identifying symbol is less and sometimes even nil.
calves. The tattoo marks reveal two-colour preference
green and black. According to information provided
around Kanmer: kheri jar/pilu (Salvodora persica
by M.K. Mehta in 1909 to the Superintendent of the
Linn; English known as Mustard tree/Saltbush/
Ethnographic Survey (1909: 3) states that both men
Tooth-brush tree), mithi jar/mithe pilu (Salvodora
and women were fond of tattooing their bodies, the
oleoides Decne), thor (Euphorbia tirucalli Linn./
men their arms, and the women their cheeks, chin,
Indian Tree Spurge/Milk Bush), avar (Cassia
lower lip, breast and arms.
auriculata Linn.), laso bavar (Leucoena glauca Benth.
Tattooing is achieved by a simple manual
or White Popinac/Lead tree), bavar (Acacia arabica
operation constituting of dipping the sharp end of a
Willd.), khijdo/khejra (Prosopis spicigera Linn.) and
needle or thorn in the chosen pigment and pricking
gando bavar (Prosopis juliflora DC.) which are also
the skin of the area chosen for tattooing with it. The
represented in symbolic tattoo form.
Following trees were observed by the author
materials used for preparing the dye are indigenous,

consisting of lamp-soot5) (made out of kerosene), juice
TEXTILE
collected by soaking of bark of beeoo6) and the bright

green juice of leaves of the creeper-golibad/golibar
7)
(Figure 8h). The mixture of all this is known as pilari.
The Rabari of Kachchh can be easily recognised due

- 162 -
Figure 9 Ornaments and attire of men folk (a, b) Traditional dress and ornaments (dokiyu) of Bharwad (c) Ornament like
Bhungri and thoriyan worn by Bharwad man (d, e) Kadla worn by Bharwad man and a young boy (f ) A villager at Ghanithal
- 163 -
Shahida Ansari
Figure 10 (a) Kiln used for making colour for tie and dye textile at Adesar (b) A Harijan weaver working at handloom at
Ghanithal (c) A Rabari women displaying the items made from sheep and camel wool (d) Bundles of sheep and camel wool (e)
Woollen rope used for making cot and pillow by Rabari at Kanmer (f ) Abandoned rectangular loom pit filled with clay next to
the in use clay lined loom pit (g) Embroidery done on dhabra (h) Fagal pal (i) Raw material for making Bandhani (j, l, m) Textile
made at Ghanithal (k) Bharwad women doing embroidery on Bandhani
- 164 -
Figure 11 Dress worn by women folk (a) Kumbhar women at Palanswa (b) Bharwad women at Kanmer
(c) Bharwad women at Anjar (d) Rabari women at Kanmer (e) Vedhala, a typical silver earrings
in the form of a pile of four rhombi worn by old Rabari women at Kanmer
- 165 -
Shahida Ansari
to black woollen veil clothes, ivory bangle and profuse
at times, plastic mirrors and plastic buttons are used.
silver ornament (Figures 8, 9 and 10). Bharwad and
The colour of the tie-dyed design is orange for an
Rabari women put on petticoats embroidered with
unmarried girl and red for married women. The
glass pieces (abhlas). Instead of sari they put on a red
motifs made by them are flowers, medallions, stylised
or dark coloured cloth called odhani.
horse and rider, dear, peacock and scorpion. Bharwad
Bandhani is very popular in Kachchh where it
women wear a long back less tight fitting bodice either
is customary to present it to the bride at the time
of silk or of cotton (Figures 11b and 11c). The Harijans
of marriage. Sarees, odhani (shawl), ghaghra (skirt)
are master weavers and the main producers of (Figures
and rumal (handkerchief ) or bandhani, popularly
10j, 10l and 10m).
known as tie and dye, is the process of resist printing,

is one of the most important crafts of the Kachchh,
1) Black and red woollen head cloth (charmalia)
especially noticed at Adesar, about 56 km from Rapar.
for women (Figure 11b),
The raw materials required are cloth, colours and
2) Shawl woven in narrow width loom in two
thread procured from the local market. The process of
pieces and put together by the women; joint is
bandhani production is simple yet laborious and time
embroidered with multicoloured threads (Figures
consuming. The cloth which may be silk, georgette,
10g and 10k),
voile or mulmul is spread on a table or wooden plank
3) And white blanket (dhabra) for men has series
and designs are marked on it with the help of wooden
of borders woven at both ends, an architectural
blocks or by hand (Figure 10i). It is then tied in tiny
pattern woven into the body. The typical Bharvad
knots with thread, where after the cloth is dyed in
dress for men is three blankets of undyed wool one
appropriate colours. On completion of this process,
wound in broad bans round the head, a second
when the ties are removed, the finished product
tied round the waist reaching the knee, and a
presents a repeat design in dots covering a variety
third thrown across the shoulder. These are made
of motifs. The colours, which are generally used in
in large variety of decorative pieces for use in the
Kachchh, are red green, blue and black. The only tools
commercial urban markets (Palanswa, Bhimasar
and equipment needed are utensils for dyeing (Figure
and Rapar).
10a) and wooden blocks for printing designs.

The Harijans of Ghanithal village (20 km north
These are made in large variety of decorative
of Kanmer) are the main weavers in this region
pieces for use in the commercial urban market
(Figures 10b). The Rabaris and Bharvads wear clothes
(Palanswa, Bhimasar and Rapar).
those made by these Harijans. The Harijans, Rabaris
and Bharvads produce skilled embroidery, which is
Harijans and in return they used to make blankets/
bold and vigorous in style in this region. The Bharvad
shawls. In earlier days the Rabaris wore only black
decorate their ghaghras and woollen head cloths with
coloured dress. As they were barred to wear any
wide borders. Thick tie-dyed fabric is made heavier
colourful dress, the reason being they are of lower
with large geometric, animal and floral motifs in
caste. Some 25 years back they used to barter wool
brilliant yellow, blue, purple, green, red and orange
in exchange for grain, pottery, and iron objects with
colours (Figures 10g and 10k). Plastic and glass are
other communities. Those residing in the Kanmer
now used for embellishment. The Rabari bride must
village continue to make wool out of sheep/goat and
own three heavily worked blouse and a woollen tie-
camel hair. It is while grazing their animals in the
dyed shawl embroidered with borders and medallions,
field or far off places for pasture, that they carry a bag
- 166 -
Traditionally, the Rabaris used to supply wool to
having hair of the goat and camels. While walking
earlier days he moved to Saurashtra, Ahmedabad,
they make (thin or thick) rope by adding bunch of
Panchmahal and Varodara with his sheep and
hair and simultaneously twisting it, this is then made
camel. To reach Saurashtra they crossed Little
into a woollen ball (Figure 10d). It is of two colours
Rann of Kachchh, which approximately takes one
black and cream/off white colour. The items made
and half day. Movement generally begins in night;
are: woollen rope (used while making wooden cots),
they travel for first 12 hrs and then take 7-hour
pillows (though rough in texture but are still preferred
rest before moving again. While travelling they
for its sturdiness and warmth), bags, straps of different
carry cooked food or items, which can be eaten
shape and size to be put on camel (use of thick large
on way. Across the little Rann is village Teekar,
iron bangles/rings are used, and galon used to through
where they take rest before moving to different
stone on wild animals and birds (Figures 10c and 10e)
areas in Saurashtra like Mahoa, Paragarh, Thowai,

Daboi, and Junagadh. The whole family moves in
this temporary movement except the old parents
MOVEMENT PATTERN OF RABARIS
and pregnant ladies, who stay back at the village.

He also informed that many families also moved
A shepherd, Vajju Bhai (55 yr. old), a Rabari was
towards central India (Malwa region) for grazing
interviewed and he provided following information.
sheep and camel.

6) They also used to carry salt for two specific
1) He was with his grandson, aged 10 yr. Only male
reasons. Firstly, to be given to camels so that they
child at the age of two, start moving along with
drink enough water before start of the journey and
elders, while grazing khinta/ghinta or sheep (200
secondly, to be sold to Maldhari (Herdsmen or
in number) in nearby agriculture field.
grazers) and Khatik (Butcher men) for cash.
2) Every day they graze their sheep from 7 AM
7) When asked about Bhils, he sighted their
to 8 PM. Sometime he also stays out for one to
traditional enmity with them, and doesnt like
three days with sheep, generally in open, when the
any association with them. Bhil according to him
pasture is not enough.
use bow and arrow for hunting and stealing their
3) Has good knowledge of their surrounding
sheep, whereas they use galon for protection.
ecosystem mainly due to their movement per day is

four to six kilometres. The area of movement varies
SALT MAKING TECHNIQUE
during rainy season.

4) While moving he carries a bag having many
items like : food (rotala- jowar roti, cooked
Being on the seacoast, Kachchh abounds in salt,
vegetable, chilli paste), aluminium utensils (plate,
which is recovered at present from sea brine either
bowls), wool, two blanket, kerosene lamp wick
in artificial pans or in open natural pans. There are
bottle, matchbox, torch, utensil for making tea, tea
thirteen salt works in Kachchh, of which twelve are
leaves, sugar, rope, medicines for sheep, syringes,
major, six located at Kandla, two at Chirai, one each
colour, galon, stick and two water bottles. He had
at Jakhau, Mundra, Padana and Shikarpur. At Adesar
collected discarded iron wire (Figure 12f ). They
the salt is manufactured from the wells near the
whistle to call their animals.
border of the Rann (Patel 1971: 234, 581).
5) Since last ten years he has stopped travelling too
far of places due to new government policies. In
manufacturing site just a kilometre away from the

- 167 -
The author got an opportunity to visit the salt
Shahida Ansari
Figure 12 (a) Storage pits of Period IV (Historic) at Kanmer (b) Stone Fortification wall, Kanmer (c) Hero stones (pariya)
at Kanmer (d) Uri mata (e) Koli women at salt manufacturing site, Shikarpur (f ) Items carried by Rabari man (g) Temporary
settlement of Koli at salt manufacturing site, Shikarpur (h,i) Salt manufacturing at Shikarpur
- 168 -
Figure 13 Tattoo symbols made by Rabari and Bharwad women in Kanmer, Kachchh district, Gujarat
- 169 -
Shahida Ansari
Harappan site of Shikarpur (Figures 12h, 12i). The salt
continue to make salt.
workers belong to the Koli communities, who come
with their families from surrounding villages. The
of Kachchh. On the first day of Chaitra (April)
reason for hardship is that with no rain, sustenance
and on the Shravan (August) full moon all traders
through agricultural activities is hindered, which
worship the sea by throwing flowers and a coconut
leads them to undertake this occupation. Salt making
into it. Salt, called mithu, i.e. sweetener, and sabras,
has always played important role in this region. For
i.e. the essence of taste, is the luckiest of all purchase
the convenience the manufacturer/owner provides
on the New Year day in Kartik (November). To be
the Kolis with basic amenities like house, electricity
freed from the throes of death a dying person makes
and water facility. But a few Koli also make temporary
a gift of salt to Brahmans. For this reason most high
shelter, where they keep buffaloes and sell milk and its
caste Hindus are careful not to pass salt from hand to
product to the villagers at Shikarpur. In the temporary
hand in everyday use. And salt is also used in all spirit-
settlement a small hut erected with tree branches,
scaring rites, and on the Great Spirit day-Kalichaudas
which is used for keeping their belongings (bedding
(dark fourteenth in October-November), high caste
and clothes), however utensils, cooking pots are
Hindu women make salt marks of various shapes at
placed outside in open, where they carryout cooking
crossroads (Kirparam 1901: 349).
Salt plays important role in the life of the people
and make buttermilk (Figure 12g). A cattle pen is also

seen in thorny courtyard with stacking of cow dung
RELIGIOUS BELIEF
cakes and fuel sticks/branches. Thorny branches of

bavar enclose the hut and the open area. The Koli
women wear beautiful silver ornaments (Figure 12e).
The villagers of Kanmer worship mother goddess
However, the children and women were seen with
(mata) R ajbai, whose temple is located at the
skin disease as well as deform eye ailment. A small
hillock at Kanmer. As reported by B. Kirparam
shrine of devi ma was seen near this settlement. The
(1901: 288) and also by M.K. Mehta in 1909 to
Koli dont do fishing, it is the Muslim communities of
the Superintendent of the Ethnographic Survey
this area (Surajbari village) who are engaged into sea
(1909: 5), the Rabaris are generally worshippers
fishing. They employ boats (navdi) made by the local
of mothers or matas, though a few among them
carpenters (suttar) for fishing.
belong to the Bijmargi, Ramanandi, and Shaiva sect.
Most of the artificial brines8) are obtained by
In Kachchh many of them serve as priest in mata
pumping seawater to flow through a series of channels
temples, commonest forms under which the mata is
constructed of sand into a series of rectangular
worshipped are a peacocks feather and a conch-shell.
shallow ponds/pan separated by sand mounds (Figure
At Kanmer the Rabaris continue the same tradition
9)
12h and 12i). The salt in each crystallising pan is
till date. They also continue to worship cobra on the
raked into rows, where it is allowed to drain for
Kalichaudas (dark fourteenth in October-November)
several days (at least 20 days). After that it is collected
and offer the cobra milk and cocoa kernel.
into heaps, drained again, lifted from the pans, and
finally dried. Wooden and steel furrows are used
of her is often figured on silver and copper plates, a
during this process. Both men and women work in
few also worship Ramamnandis. The most sacred is
night, as it is comparatively cooler. The salt making
the Navratri or nine nights in September-October,
is done throughout the year except in two months
Kalichaudas and Akatrij in April-May is their sheep-
( July and August) of rain. But if it is a dry spell they
shearing day (Kirparam 1901: 268).

- 170 -
The Bharvads are also followers of matas, image
The aboriginal tribes of Gujarat as reported by
The fortification at Kanmer and the residential
B. Kirparam (1901: 292, 305), worship two classes of
structures are mainly fashioned in stone, reflecting the
beings, local or tribal deities and the spirits of their
skills of its builder and his technology. The technical
ancestors. Of the local or tribal divinities, Khatri
knowledge is also reflected in the range of materials
Dev, a pillar of wood, is worshipped by most of the
that were available and used for construction during
aboriginal tribes except by the Bhils and Gamtas;
the ancient times. It is the skill on stone that permits
Khetrapal, the god of boundaries, a stone carved with
the erection of larger and more elaborate structures
the figure of a horse; Baba Dev, a clay image of a horse
suggesting building is more than an adaptation
and rider, worshipped chiefly by Bhils; Magaria and
to climate. This being an earthquake zone, stone
Vagh Dev, or the alligator and tiger deities chiefly
structure is not advisable for construction. Despite
worshiped by Gamtas. The animal held in most
this knowledge the villagers continue to construct
veneration by the Bhils is the horse. If a prayer has
their house, courtyard, and boundary wall in stone
been granted, they often make small clay horses and
blocks quarried from nearby hill. The Harappan
arrange them around an idol, or in the spirit-yard.
workman who were adept to the local environment
At Ghanithal image of urimata were seen in
and possible tectonic disturbances at the region,
those houses where the children were suffering from
continued to build such impressive structure with
chicken pox (Figure 12d). The mother goddess is
care. A section at Kanmer during Harappan time was
worshiped for curing properties; once the child is
probably involved in masonry, as the fortification
cured the image of mata is immersed in water. At
wall appears to have been plastered with white shale
Kanmer and Thoriali the local and those of distant
(dhauli matti) brought from nearby area, suggesting
relatives worship Hero stones, i.e. pariya and sati
the upkeep of the structure at regular interval.
stones. The hero stones have beautiful representation
of attire, ornaments, weapons, animas, cart, and sun/
complex societies, subsistence factors, in narrow
moon symbol (Figure 12c). The date and details of the
sense, are less important as determinants of the size
issuers/hero is inscribed in devnagari script on the
and location of communities. Trade may provide a
stone pillars.
source of wealth and stimulate the growth of large
According to B.G. Trigger (1968: 63) in more
cities in remote regions, and the wealth amassed

from trade may in turn serve either to finance the
COMMENTS
developments of novel agricultural systems in areas

where they would otherwise be impractical, or to
The ethnographic obser vations in and around
effect the importation of food from distant regions.
Kanmer brought to light many aspects of settlement
Settlements may also spring up in wastelands where
and subsistence pattern. The villages at a radius of 15-
rare and valuable minerals are discovered but lacking
20 km are known for their traditional craft and people
to agricultural potentials. Kanmer is located very near
who supply raw material in the region, i.e. Gagodhar
to Mardak Beyt, a source for agate, raw material used
and Palanswa for potters, Ghanithal for textile, Adesar
for making beads, a popular and in demand during
for textile and jewellery, Kanmer for agro-pastoral
the Harappan times. A number of artefacts (tools)
communities like Rabaris and Bharwads (highest
and agate beads are found at the site, which suggests
in the region). The villagers are interdependent and
that it was a local craft at the site. To acquire this
interwoven for the craft in the modern times as a
raw material a section of the community within or
source of subsistence and survival.
outside were involved in extracting the raw material

- 171 -
Shahida Ansari
and supplying at the site. The site of Kanmer seems
dependence on other food sources available in the
to be one of the centres, which supplied raw agate or
region, suggested in the faunal assemblage and
finished artefacts to other Harappan towns. According
other archaeological evidences like structures on
Trigger (1968: 64) a specialized local centre can
fortification wall.
develop when a number of villages are linked together
in a trade network. They are better able to transcend
of Rabari/Bharwad in Little Rann of Kachchh
local limitations in natural resources; and a trading
will be carried out. The ethnoarchaeological study
network also fosters greater specialization and better
will gather information concerning production
products than does an autonomous village economy.
relationship through study of the layout of workshops
Thus, a careful investigation of trade and of the nature
(for example-bead manufacturing agate/steatite or
of production is prerequisite to estimates of the size
pottery making), will note whether places of work
and the social cultural complexity of communities.
and residence are together or separated, whether
Thus, it is important for us to determine what goods
the workshops of one trade are in the same part
were present and produced at the site of Kanmer.
of the community or at scattered points. Data of
this sort will permit us for reconstruction of social
Within any region, people tend to establish
their settlements in places that are close to drinking
Further, research on the movement pattern
organization at the site of Kanmer.
water, sources of food and places, which is safe.

Agricultural groups generally seek locations where
Acknowledgements
the soil and weather are favourable to their crops
I am grateful to the directors of Kanmer excavation
and their method of cultivation. Presently, at
Dr. Jeewan Sing h Kharakwal, Dr. Y.S. Rawat
Kanmer agricultural activities are possible only due
and Prof. T. Osada for allowing me to carry out
to underground sources like wells, seasonal nallah
ethnoarchaeological studies at the site of Kanmer. I
and recent introduction of Narmada river water
thank Katariyaji and Sameer for accompanying me
supply. The villagers mainly rely on kharif crops. The
during ethnographic survey in Kanmer and nearby
grassland provides pastoral communities like Rabaris
villages; to Gababhai, Udubaa and Shiva, enthusiastic
and Bharwads to have grazing land for domesticated
villagers at Kanmer who readily parted with their
animals like sheep, goat, buffaloes, cow and camel.
immense knowledge about culture and tradition of
From the Archaeological evidences from Kanmer
Kanmer; and to Shri D.D. Phule of Deccan College,
it seems to be a craft specialized centre, but some
Pune for helping me with the line drawings.
section of the society was also carrying out partial

agricultural, hunting and gathering activities for
sustenance.
Notes
The dependence on the wild animal (large
1) The name Koli meaning clansman, clubman, or boatman,
bovid, wild pig, antelopes, deer, carnivores and small
applied to the middle classes of the military or predatory

Hindus of Gujarat, includes tribes that differ widely from each
mammals like hare and rodents) in the Late Harappan
others (B. Kirparam in Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency:
phase was more than any cultural phase (Goyal and
237).
Joglekar 2008: 39). This also suggests that possibly
2) At Kanmer Dudio Kenga Jaga, the oldest Rujput man
the Late Harappans at Kanmer had some pressure
(aged- 110 years) and Vinod Bhai (aged-55 years) a Jain and
from other regional craft specialised villages who were
at Palanswa village Lakshman Bhai (aged-65 year) a Rujput,
also engaged in supplying of raw/finished material.
provided with the information regarding the traditional
The gradual pressure on the economy resulted in
underground storage technique of khann.
- 172 -
3) When Rebarris come upon a herd of camel grazing, the
(eds.) Occasional Paper 5: Linguistics, Archaeology and
boldest and most experienced strikes his lance into the first
the Human Past. Indus Project Research Institute for
animal he reaches, then dips a cloth in the blood, which at the
end of his lance he thrusts close to the nose of the next, and
Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S.Rawat and Toshiki Osada (2008)
wheeling about, sets off at speed, followed by the whole herd,
Preliminary Observations on the Excavation at Kanmer,
lured by the scent of the blood, and is followed by the rest.
Kachchh, India 2006-2007, in T. Osada and A. Uesugi
4) Identified as herdsmen by B. Kirparam in Gazetteer of the
(eds.) Occasional Paper 5: Linguistics, Archaeology and
Bombay Presidency: 285-86, chiefly found in Kathiawar. They
the Human Past. Indus Project Research Institute for
call themselves Rajputs, claiming descent from one Ranhirji,
a Jethva. The census of 1891 includes them under Ahirs or
Jain, J and M. Sarabhai (1985) Ornaments, in J. Dhamija
Jethvas.
(ed.) Living Traditions of India-Crafts of Gujarat. Mapin
5) Duhando or the lamp soot is collected from the i.e. kerosene
International, New York. pp.41-64.

Lieutanant- Colonel James Todd (1873) Annals and
oil kept overnight, partially covered by inverted vessel.

6) After four days the beeoo wood is soaked in water turns
Antiquities of Rajasthan or the Central and Western Rajpoot
Neelu (green colour).
States of India. Higginbotham and Company, Madras.
7) The juice of golibari is sieved in thin cloth. Golibari grows
Mankad, B.L. (1939) Rabaris of Kathiawar (A Social Study).
in rainy season on pilu or Zare tree.
Journal of the University of Bombay 7(4): 31-79.

National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) (1976) Rainfall
8) Brine is water containing a high concentration of salt.

9) Salt is produced by solar evaporation i.e. when an aqueous
and Cropping Patterns, vol.IV. Government of India,
solution of several salts (seawater, for example) is evaporated;
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, New Delhi.
each of the salts precipitates as it reaches its point of saturation
Patel, G.D. (1971) Gujarat State Gazetteers: Kutch District.
in the solution. Thus, the different salts in seawater will
Government Printing , Stationary and Publications,
precipitate at different times, forming layers on the bottom of
Ahmedabad.
Singh, K.S. (1997) The Scheduled Tribes. People of India,
the evaporating pond.
National Series, volume III. Oxford University Press

References
(Oxford India Paperbacks), New Delhi.
Dutt, S.C. (1884) The Wild Tribes of India. Gilbert and
Superintendent of the Ethnographic Survey of Bombay

(1909) The Ethnographic Survey of Bombay Monograph no.
Rivington Limited, London.

Enthoven, R.E. (1920) The Tribes and Castes of Bombay, vol. I:
137- Rabari. The Government Central Press, Bombay.
118-123. Government Central Press, Bombay.
Trigger, B.G. (1968) The Determinants of Settlement
Enthoven, R.E. (1922) The Tribes and Castes of Bombay, vol.
Patterns, in K.C. Chang (ed.) Settlement Archaeology.
III: 252-258. Government Central Press, Bombay.
National Press Books, California. pp.53-78
Kirparam, B. (compiled) (1901) Gazetteer of the Bombay
Trivedi, R.K. (1964) Agate Industry of Cambay, in Census
Presidency, Gujarat Population: Hindus, volume IX, part 1.
of India 1961, volume V, part VII-A (1), Selected Crafts of
The Government Central Press, Bombay.
Gujarat. Manager of Publication, Delhi.
Goyal, P. and P.P. Joglekar (2008) Report on the faunal
Trivedi, R.K. (1967) Census of India 1961- Selected Crafts of
remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat, during the
Gujarat. volume V, part VII-A. Manager of Publication,
second field season (2006-07), in T. Osada and A. Uesugi
Delhi.
- 173 -
Shahida Ansari
- 174 -

Tilok Thakuria
Department of Archaeology, Deccan College, Pune-6
J.S. Kharakwal
Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur, Rajasthan
Toshiki Osada
Y.S. Rawat
State Department of Archaeology, Gujarat
Abstract
Memorial stones, like other parts of India, are commonly found in parts of the state of Gujarat. The present paper is an attempt to
document and understand various aspects like location, iconography, ritualistic and socio-economic factors of the memorial stones
at Kanmer. Kanmer is a small village in Kachchh district of Gujarat.
Kanmer is a small village at Rapar taluka of Kachchh
district, Gujarat. The village is known in archaeologi-
cal data for a society or community to know about the
cal literature for a Harappan settlement reported by
socio-economic, socio-religious and socio-political
Bisht (IAR 1985-86: 15-19, Kharakwal et al. 2007).
events. The inscription engraved on the memorial
The present village of Kanmer is at the foot of a hill-
stone is also used as historical data. The present paper
ock. Pliyas are found in the surrounding areas of
deals with the documentation of Pliyas found in the
the village in a well defined distance from the village
village of Kanmer. This documentation is fashioned
boundary. There are seven clusters of Pliyas and four
to create a dataset on the location, construction, ico-
isolated Pliyas are seen in different locations.
nography and folk stories related with the Pliyas of
The practice of erecting memorials to commemo-
Kanmer. All these aspects have been put together in
rate heroic death is widespread in many parts of India,
this paper to avail them for further comparative re-
and Gujarat is no exception .Memorial stones known
search on Pliyas of Gujarat in general and Saurashtra
by various local names are commonly found in dif-
and Kachchh in particular. They are located either on
ferent parts of Gujarat and it is still a practice seen in
asmall hillock or near water bodies which are a little
many villages of Gujarat (Doshi 1982, Jain 1982, Shah
far from the village (Figure 1). Cluster 1 and Cluster
1982). In Saurashtra and Kachchh memorial stones
4 are situated on a small hillock while Cluster 2 is
are locally known as Pliya. They are immense in
located near a nala. On the other hand, Clusters 5, 6
number in villages of Saurashtra and Kachchh. They
and 7 all are outside the village boundary. Conversely,
are found in great numbers in the villages of Saurash-
Cluster 3 falls inside the village. But it seems that it
tra and Kachch. Fascinated by the Pliyas found in
was originally at the margin of the village. After the
the villages of Saurashtra, James Todd remarked we
recent earthquake the village was reestablished with
find them planted thick as grave stone in an English
new construction. The boundary of the village might
church (Todd 1971: 301).
have been altered by the new constructions and as

- 175 -
Memorial stones are considered as Anthropologi-
T. Thakuria et al.
Table 1 Distribution of Pliyas found in Kanmer

Cluster no.
1
Location
Total number of Pliyas
In the cremation ground belonging to Darbari community,
30
towards the Northwest corner of Harappan settlement
In the Harijans graveyard
13
Near the Kanmer village panchayat office
20
Towards the east of Harappan mound at Kanmer
32
Near the camp of the Kanmer Project, 2007
6
7
8
9
GPS coordinates
Housed in the Jivnisati temple located on the entrance of Village

Kanmer
On the entrance of the village, around 50 m east from Jivni Sati
temple
Located around 1km towards east of Kanmer village. Housed in
temple known as Surdhar Dada
Near the Harappan mound
4
3
1
1
2325'12"
7051'34"
2324'54.9"
7051'33.3"
2324'46"
7051'42"
2324'48.2"
7051'58"
2324'53.1"
7051'42.2"
2324'55.3"
7051'47.3"
2324'52.7"
7051'49.4"
2324'54.2"
7052'31.7"
2315'02"
7051'52.7"
cluster 3 was in the margin of the village boundary
the cluster 1. Similarly, 4 are housed under a Chatri
came under the newly expanded village area. Cluster 7
in cluster 3 and others have a recently made platform.
and 6 are on the village entrance. There are 4 isolated
Pliyas are associated with the ancestor and it is cus-
Pliyas located at the margin and outside the village
tomary to offer worship. Hence, the platforms, stone
boundary. The one known as SurdharDada which is
enclosures or Chatris are made by the family members
housed inside a temple, is around one and half km
to facilitate worship or to show honor to their ances-
from the village towards east located on a small hill-
tor. Such provisions are made to only those Pliyas
ock. Pliyas at Kanmer represent both Hero Pliya
whose family members can afford it or identify their
and Sati Pliya.
ancestors Pliyas after a long period.
All the Pliyas located in the village are of sand-
A Pliya has two basic parts- the carving and the
stone which is available in Kachchh. A Pliya is
inscription below. The arch or angular top portion
actually an upright flat stone. The top portion of it
depicts the sun and moon symbols accompanied with
is either arch shaped or angular. It is raised in a pit
floral motif. The general iconography of the hero
dug into the earth surface. To give support at the base
Pliya shows the hero either riding a horse or camel
stone boulders and soil are put inside the pit. Some-
or standing in warrior dress. Sati Pliya is depicted as
times a stone platform or enclosure is seen surround-
an upright female arm or with a dead body on her lap.
ing a single Pliya or a row of Pliyas at Kanmer. In
However, there are many detailed differences in the
cluster 1 two Pliyas have rectangular stone enclosure.
iconographic appearance in both the Hero and Sati
In cluster 4 a stone platform is made in front of 3
Pliyas at Kanmer.
Pliyas (Figure 2). On the other hand, Chatris are

constructed to house Pliyas. 4 Pliyas are housed
a) Pliya with a horse rider: This iconographic feature
inside two adjoined Chatris with a high raised plat-
is most commonly seen among Pliyas at Kanmer.
form and one single Pliyas with a separate Chatri in
In this the hero is shown in warrior attire riding a

- 176 -
horse. He holds a spear either in his right hand or in
bow and shield in the other hand (Figure 9). The
left hand. The spear is shown to be held either hori-
arrow container is shown hanging from the waist.
zontally over the head or behind the body. The other
Examples of two warrior figures holding sword and
hand holds bow and arrows. In most cases, a shield is
shield are also available.
shown to be held in the hand in a protective manner
f ) Pliya with a bullock cart: A man riding a bullock
(Figure 3). Sometimes, instead of spear and bow the
cart and holding a sword in his right hand is shown.
figure is shown with sword and shield. There are also
Beside him, a milk-churn pitcher is also shown (Figure
examples of two horse rider figures in the same Pliya
10). It is said that such Pliyas are erected in memory
stone (Figure 4).
of the brides who die in plunder during the bridal
b) Pliya with a horse rider holding a gun: There are
procession.
two examples of such type at Kanmer. In one case the
g) Sati Pliya with a dead husband on lap: The sati
figure is shown holding a spear in his left hand over
figure is shown standing with her right arm raised
the head and in the right hand a gun. He is shown rid-
with open fingers and the dead body placed vertically
ing a horse. In the other example the figure is shown
on her lap (Figure 11).
holding the gun in shooting posture (Figure 5). He is
h) Sati Pliya with a raised arm: The complete figure
also shown riding a horse.
of the sati is not shown, but a raised arm with open
c) Pliya with a horse rider and a standing figure: The
fingers is shown (Figure 12).
main figure is shown riding a horse holding spear in
i) Sati Pliya and horse rider: The male figure is
left hand and bow in the right. Sword and dagger are
shown in warrior attire riding a horse and the raised
shown hanging from the waist. Behind the horse-
arm of sati with open fingers is shown either in front
riding figure, a human figure has shown standing. It is
or behind the horse rider. (Figure 13).
difficult to make out the characteristics of the stand-
j) Standing Sati Pliya: The sati figure is shown stand-
ing figure as it has worn out because of weathering. In
ing with her right arm raised with open fingers and
another example, the standing figure is shown in front
holding a rosary in her left hand (Figure 14).
of the main figure. The main figure is shown riding

a horse and holding a spear in his right hand and in
the left hand probably a rosary. The figure in front is
istics in the Hero Pliyas. They all are shown having
shown standing on a pedestal or similar arrangement
water container hanging from the waist. They also
(Figure 6).
wear turban or headgear and shoes.
d) Pliya with camel rider: Instead of a horse, the
male figure is shown riding a camel, dressed in warrior
it just below the carving. In some cases the inscription
attire, and holding bow and arrow with sword and
is not traceable because of erosion or damage of the
dagger hanging from the waist. The left hand holds
stone. It is also because of construction of platform,
the reins of the camel (Figure 7). In another case, two
stone enclosure etc. The inscription either gets buried
male figures are shown on the camel. Both of them
or mutilates because of such construction. Inscriptions
hold a spear over the head and bow and arrow in the
are written in Gujarati script and Gujarati language.
right hand. One of the Pliya housed in the Jivni Sati
They contain the name of the person, astrological de-
temple shows a child in between tow figures (Figure
tails of the dead and period of erection of the memo-
8).
rial stone. Information about the cause of the death is
e) Pliya with a standing posture: A warrior is shown
not available in the inscriptions in Pliyas at Kanmer.
standing holding a sword in attacking posture and

- 177 -
There are some general iconographic character-
Each Pliya is having an inscription engraved on
The stories about the Pliyas are more or less
T. Thakuria et al.
Figure 1 Cluster of Pliyas on a small hillock (Cluster 1)
Figure 2 Pliyas with a stone platform in front

- 178 -
Figure 3 Pliya with a horse rider
Figure 4 Pliya with two horse riders

- 179 -
T. Thakuria et al.
Figure 5 Pliya with a horse rider holding a gun
Figure 6 Pliya with a horse rider and a standing figure
- 180 -
Figure 7 Pliya with a camel rider
Figure 8 Pliya with two camel riders and a child in between

- 181 -
T. Thakuria et al.
Figure 9 Pliya with a standing figure
Figure 10 Pliya with a bullock cart rider

- 182 -
Figure 11 Sati Pliya with a dead husband on lap
Figure 12 Sati Pliya with a raised arm

- 183 -
T. Thakuria et al.
Figure 13 Sati Pliya and a horse rider
Figure 14 Standing Sati Pliya

- 184 -
Figure 15 The ruin of the Darbars house in the village
Figure 16 Blouse as offering on the tree located in the Jivni Sati temple area
- 185 -
T. Thakuria et al.
same as available in other villages in Saurashtra and
the Kanmer village and nearby village worship Jivni
Kachchh. These stories narrate the courage and brave-
as symbol of motherhood. Women folk worship her
ness. The most famous folk story among the people of
to get enough breastfeeding to their child and offer
Kanmer is that of Jivni Sati. According to the story,
blouse to get blessings. They hang the blouse as an
Jivni was the youngest daughter of a Bharvad. The
offering on the tree located in the temple area (Figure
Bharvad had a herd of goats. Among the herd Jivni
16). Local people of the village say that nobody even
used to like one kid. One day, when the herd returned
dares to pass her temple on horse back. It is because
after grazing she did not find the kid she liked. She in-
the curse she gave to the Darbar that the father will
quired about the kid going missing Her father replied
die when the son become able to ride horse.
that it must be nearby somewhere and will appear
soon. Jivni was not convinced by the reply and said
courage and bravery of the individuals who died in
it can not be some where nearby because everyday it
war against invaders, fight with robber and other
comes to her first at the time the herd arrived home.
courageous activities. About the Pliyas in Cluster 4
She realized that her father was lying to her. So she
story says that a bridal procession was plundered and
enquired out the missing of the kid. Finally, she came
killed after the loot. So, in memory of them Pliyas
to know that a Darbar managed to have the kid for
were erected. There is a Pliyas in Cluster 1 showing
a feast with the help of few Koli. It gave her sorrow
a horse rider with gun in hand. The story about this
and anguish. She rushed to the Darbars house to
Pliya is that there was a raid by robbers in the village
get justice. The Darbar did not show any interest in
armed with guns. Villagers were afraid of them as they
Jivnis grief. He did not even open the main door of
possessed gun. So, nobody dared to fight with them.
his house. She became angry because of the Darbars
When the robbers entered and tried to loot his house,
ignorance on the matter and got inside the Darbars
he came out with his gun and fought a gun fire battle
house by breaking the door. The story says that she
with them. Unfortunately, he died in the battle. These
broke the door by a kick. Getting inside the house
stories are a product of oral tradition and it is difficult
she killed herself with a dagger hanging on the wall
to get background story for each of the Pliyas. There
and cursed the family. She cursed that Darbar will
must be some truth in the stories in general, but the
die when his son will become able to ride a horse and
possibility of exaggeration can not be denied.
they can never have more than one kitchen among
brothers. After the curse, as the story says, the social
auspicious occasions and festivals like Diwali. Newly
and economic condition of the Darbar declined. The
married couple and new born pay visit to their ances-
ruin of the Darbars house is still present in the vil-
tor Pliya for blessing and protection from the evil.
lage (Figure 15). Villagers presently worship the place
People believe that Pliyas protect the village from all
where Jivni sacrificed her life. To commemorate Jivnis
kind of evils and enemies.
sacrifice a Pliya was erected outside the village which
is now housed in a temple. It is said that after the
at village Kanmer considering the custom of Pliya
tragic event of Jivnis sacrifice, all the Bharvad people
erection particular to Kanmer or may be Gujarat in
left the village to protest and respect Jivnis sacrifice.
general can be put as (i) They are located outside
They come yearly or occasionally to offer worship to
the village boundary. (ii)They are placed either on a
her Pliya. They bring each and every thing necessary
small hillock or near water sources. (iii) Pliyas are
for worship. They dont even take fire and water from
not necessarily erected at the very spot where the
the people at Kanmer village. At present people of
death occurred. Jivni Sati story suggests the same.

- 186 -
The other stories about the Pliyas narrate the
Villagers offer ancestor-worship to the Pliyas on
Altogether, the general characteristics of Pliyas
Pliya for Jivni was erected outside the village bound-
Acknowledgment
ary though she sacrificed her life inside the village in
I am indebted to members of Kanmer Archaeological
Darbars house. (iv) Sati Pliya is not only for those
Research Project and villager of Kanmer team for help
who immolate themselves on ones husbands fu-
and support.
neral pyre. It can be for both - unmarried or married

women who sacrificed their lives for a noble cause or
References
against unethical deeds. Pliya for Jivni was erected
Doshi, Saryu (1982) Pliyas of Saurashtra, in S. Settar and
to commemorate her sacrifice against injustice. (v)
Gunther D. Sontheimer (eds.) Memorial Stones. Institute
All hero Pliyas face eastward and the figure of the
of Indian Art, Dharwad. pp.157-173.
hero faces north (vi) The most common theme of the
IAR: Indian Archaeology - A Review. Archaeological Survey of
folk stories regarding Pliyas is courage, bravery and
India, New Delhi.
fight against plunder. (vii) A Pliyas can be erected
Jain, Jyotindra (1982) Ethnic Background of some Hero-
after a year or more of ones death. Inscription in One
stones of Gujarat, in S. Settar and Gunther D.

Sontheimer (eds.) Memorial Stones. Institute of Indian
of the Pliyas from Cluster 1 says that the hero died
Art, Dharwad. pp.79-82.
somewhere in Kachchh and the Pliyas was erected
Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada (2007)
by his family after one year of his death. (Viii) It is
Kanmer: A Harappan site in Kachchh, Gujarat,
difficult to make out socio-economic position of
India, in T. Osada (ed.) Occasional Paper 2: Linguistics,
the dead from the iconographic feature. It is because
Archaeology and the Human Past. Research Institute for
iconographic feature is not much different from each
other. (ix) It was customary to show Pliya either on
Kharakwal, J.S., Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada (2009)
horse or Camel. Local people say horse or camel sug-
Excavations at Kanmer: A Harappan Site in Kachchh,
gest that the person was able to keep the same animal
Gujarat. Purtattva 39: 147-164.

Shah, Haku (1982) Tribal Memorials in Gujarat, in S. Settar
as vehicle. Another view suggests that Pliya with
and Gunther D. Sontheimer (eds.) Memorial Stones.
Camel riding belongs to Bharvad community as only
Institute of Indian Art, Dharwad. pp.101-116.
they keep camels. Otherwise, it is difficult to make
Todd, James (1839) Travels in Western India. Reprinted by
out which communities they belong from only the
Oriental Publishers, Delhi in 1971.
iconographic features. (x) Offer worship to their family Pliya on the day after Diwali. A new born infant
or a newlywed bride pays visit to the family Pliya to
get blessings.
- 187 -
T. Thakuria et al.
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ISBN 978-4-902325-61-4

Occasional Paper 10: Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past

Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN)

457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047 Japan

Printed by Nakanishi Printing Co. Ltd., Kyoto, Japan

Archaeological explorations in the Saurashtra coast of Junagadh District, Gujarat

P. Ajithprasad, SV Rajesh and Bhanu Sharma

Annual report of excavation at Kanmer 2007-08 and 2008-09

J. S. Kharakwal, Y.S. Rawat and Toshiki Osada

Report on the faunal remains recovered from Kanmer, Gujarat,

Preliminary anthracological analysis from Harappan Kanmer:

Carla Lancelotti and Marco Madella

Ethnoarchaeological study at the Harappan site of Kanmer, Kachchh, Gujarat

Memorial stones at Kanmer, Gujarat, India

Tilok Thakuria, J.S. Kharakwal, Toshiki Osada and Y.S. Rawat

Project leader and Professor

Research Institute for Humanity and Nature

Pastoralism in Late Harappan Gujarat, western India: an ethnoarchaeological approach

Pastoralism in Late Harappan Gujarat, western India:

which will serve as a background in understanding

This paper is concerned with the relationship

between pastoralism and settlements and the

the archaeological record. An ethnoarchaeological

The climate and environment of Harappan period

India from a time period of second millennium B.C.,

has long been debated in South Asian archaeology.

identified with Late Harappan Phase of the Harappan

The disagreement comes concerning the amounts of

cultural tradition. This will allow more reliable

rainfall and interpretations have ranged from greater

reconstruction of pastoral economy as well as better

rainfall, to lesser or the same rainfall as today. The

understanding of the settlement pattern associated

earliest scholars including Marshall (1931), Dikshit

with this economy.

(1938), Mackay (1943) and Piggott (1962) argued that

Understanding the ecology is necessary first step

prehistoric climate and environment were distinct

in the analysis of pastoralism. The interaction among

from today. Most of them argued for a wetter climate

the animals, land and people produces a complex web

on the basis of variety of archaeological evidence. This

of ecological relationships. Besides, in any attempt

included the presence of laboriously constructed dams

to understand the settlement pattern, subsistence

in south Baluchistan called Gabar-bands, use of burnt

strategies and cultural change the climate and

bricks at Mohenjo-daro and the depiction of animal

environment are prerequisite in any such study. In the

which are commonly found in damp jungle country.

following pages we will first discuss prehistoric and

present-day geographical and environmental setting

lakes Sambhar, Didwana and Pushkar in Rajasthan

Later Singhs (1977, 1971) pollen sequence from salt

also suggested greater rainfall during Harappan

suggestion of marshy habitat is not a precondition

Period, which was later supported by Bryson and

to either rhinos existence, nor should it be treated as

Swain (1981: 135-45) on the basis of climate data from

indicator of any particular climate. Rhinos in Africa

other areas. The palaeoenvironmental reconstructions

live in areas, which are semi arid with xerophytic

indicated there was increased rainfall (as compared