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James Stewart: Calculus, Early Transcendentals, Seventh
Edition, International Metric Version, c2012.
Chapter 1
1.1
f (x)
x
a
D
f (x)
f (x)
f (a)
f
x
E
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 1: (a) machine diagram; (b) arrow diagram; (c) graph () of a function.
We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E are sets of real numbers.
x2
.
1+x
(2) f (x) = (x 2)
D = {x R |
q
1+x
.
1x
D = {x R |
D = {x R |
D = {x R |
1.1-1
}.
}.
}.
}.
Vertical Line Test (page 15). A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function
of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
Example 4. Give examples that one curve is the graph of a function and one curve
is not the graph of a function.
Figure 3: Left curve is a graph of a function; Right curve is not a graph of a function.
There are four possible ways to represent a function:
1.1-2
1 if x > 0
sgn(x) =
0 if x = 0 .
1 if x < 0
.
.
f (x) f (x)
2
and h(x) =
1.1-4
f (x) + f (x)
.
2
1.1-5
1.2
Mathematical models
Why do we learn mathematics? One reason is that mathematics can help us solve
problems.
Real-world problem
Real-world predictions
Mathematical model
Mathematical conclusions
Essential functions
Definition 1 (page 27). A function P is called polynomial if
P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,
where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants called
the coefficients of the polynomial. If the leading coefficient an 6= 0, then the degree
of the polynomial is n.
function. ()
1.2-1
P (x)
,
Q(x)
where P and Q are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of x such that
Q(x) 6= 0.
Definition 4 (page 30). A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be
construct using algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and roots) starting with polynomials.
1.2-2
where m0 is the rest mass of the particle and c = 3 105 km/s is the speed of light
in a vacuum.
Definition 6 (page A26). Trigonometric functions: Let P (x, y) by any
the terminal side of and let r be the distance |OP |. Then we define
y
x
y
x
r
sin =
cos =
tan =
cot =
sec =
csc =
r
r
x
y
x
point on
r
.
y
sin
cos
1.2-3
2
3
3
4
5
6
3
2
sin() = sin ,
cot() = cot ,
sin( + 2) = sin ,
cot( + ) = cot ,
cos() = cos ,
sec() = sec(),
1 + cot2 = csc2 .
tan() = tan ,
csc() = csc .
1+cos 2x
,
2
1cos 2x
.
2
1
x
is bounded on x 6= 0.
1.2-4
1.2-5
1.3
Example 1. Starting from f (x) = x2 , plot the function g(x) = 13 (2x + 5)2 1.
Solution.
y
The notation f g means that the function g is applied first and then f is applied
second. In general f g 6= g f .
Figure 4: Left: Given f (x), plot |f (x)|. Right: Given f (x), plot f (|x|).
1.3-2
1.5
Figure 2: Compare y = ax and y = bx , where a < b. (case 0 < a < b < 1 and
1 < a < b.)
Laws of Exponents (page 53). If a and b are positive numbers and x and y are
any real numbers, then
(1) ax+y = ax ay .
(2) axy =
ax
.
ay
: , 20
The number e
Example 3. 1 ,
: 100%, ,
(1) ?
(2) , ?
Solution. (1) :
= 1 +
,
, n ,
12
365
8760
525600
31536000
2
2.44140625
2.61303529
2.71456748
2.71812669
2.71827924
2.71828178
(2)
n
2
3
n
1
1
1
1
1
n
n
n
n
1+
+ C2
= 1 + C1
+ C3
+ + Cn
n
n
n
n
n
1
1
1
1+1+ + ++
2! 3!
n!
1
1
1
+
++
1+1+
12 23
(n 1) n
1 1
1 1
1
1
1+1+
+
++
1 2
2 3
n1 n
1
1 + 1 + 1 < 3,
n
1.5-2
n
Leonhard Euler 1727 n , 1 + n1
n
, , e 1 + n1 n
1.5-3
1.6
x
y
z
w
x
y
z
w
X
Y
Z
W
A
X
Y
Z
W
A
domain of f 1 = range of f .
range of f 1 = domain of f .
Do not mistake that 1 in f 1 for an exponent. Thus
f 1 (x) does NOT mean
1
= (f (x))1 .
f (x)
f 1 (x) = y f (y) = x.
We get the following cancellation equations:
f 1 (f (x)) = x for every x in A
f (f 1 (x)) = x for every x in B.
4x1
.
2x+3
Solution.
The graph of f (x) and the graph of f 1 (x) are symmetric about
Logarithmic Functions
Definition 7 (page 62). If a > 0 and a 6= 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is
either increasing or decreasing. It therefore has an inverse function f 1 (x), which
is called the logarithmic function with base a and is denoted by loga .
Since f 1 (x) = y f (y) = x, we have loga x = y ay = x.
Definition 8 (page 64). The logarithm with base e 2.718281828 . . . is called the
natural logarithm and has a special notation:
loga x = ln x.
Hence we have
ln x = y ey = x.
ln(ex ) = x for all x R.
eln x = x for all x > 0.
ln e = 1.
Property 9 (Change of Base Formula, page 65). For any positive number a (a 6= 1),
we have
loga x =
ln x
.
ln a
sin1 x 6=
1
.
sin x
3
)
2
Solution.
(3) We restrict the cotangent function y = cot x on 0 < x < and define the
inverse cotangent function cot1 x or arccot x.
(4) We restrict the secant function y = sec x on 0 x <
define the inverse secant function sec1 x or arcsec x.
x or arccsc x.
1.6-5
or x <
3
,
2
and
or < x
3
,
2
and
Chapter 2
2.1
mP Qx =
,
; ()
Example 2. Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of
Taipei 101. Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds.
2.1-1
Solution. If the distance falled after t seconds is denoted by s(t) and measured in
meters, then Galileos law is expressed by the equation
s(t) =
1
9.8 t2 = 4.9t2 .
2
average velocity =
That is,
Time interval
5 t 5.1
5 t 5.01
49.49
49.049
5 t 5.001
5 t 5.0001
49.0049
49.00049
5 t 5.00001
49.000049
It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average velocity is becoming
closer to 49m/s. The instantaneous velocity when t = 5 is defined to be the limiting
value of these average velocities over shorter an shorter time periods that start at
t = 5. Thus the instantaneous velocity after 5 second is v = 49m/s.
Remark 3. Time periods 10n we choose in Example 2 are just some samples. In
general, we can use t to represent any time interval and do the same calculation
to get the average velocity form 5 to 5 + t is 4.9 (10 + t). The average velocity
is becoming closer to 49m/s as well when we shorten the time period.
2.1-2
2.2
(One-Sided) Limit
Definition 1 (page 92). We write
lim f (x) = L
xa
and say the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from the left) is equal to L if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily
close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less than a.
Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get the right-hand limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and we write
lim f (x) = L.
xa+
xa
xa
xa
y
1
x
Figure 3: The Heaviside function H(x).
Solution. lim H(x) =
x0
, lim+ H(x) =
x0
, lim H(x)
x0
Example 4. The graph of a function f (x) is shown in Figure 4. Use it to state the
values (if they exist) of the following:
y
3
2
1
1
x1
x1
x1
x2
x2
x2
x3
x3
2.2-2
x3
(d1) f (1)
(d2) f (2)
(d3) f (3)
sin x
.
x
y
1
sin x
.
x
y
1
1
Figure 6: The graph of
sin
.
x
Infinite Limits
Definition 7 (page 93). Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except
possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) =
xa
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please)
by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
2.2-3
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily negative by taking x sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
lim f (x) = .
lim f (x) =
lim f (x) =
xa+
xa+
xa
Definition 9 (page 94). The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve
y = f (x) if at least one of the following statement is true:
lim f (x) =
xa
lim f (x) =
xa
lim f (x) =
xa
lim f (x) =
xa
lim f (x) =
xa+
lim f (x) = .
xa+
Example 10.
(a) f (x) = tan x has vertical asymptotes
(c) f (x) =
1
x
2.3
Theorem 2 (Limit Laws, page 99). Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
xa
xa
xa
(Sum Law)
xa
xa
(Difference Law)
xa
xa
xa
f (x)
xa g(x)
(5) lim
lim f (x)
xa
lim g(x)
if lim g(x) 6= 0.
(Quotient Law)
xa
xa
(Product Law)
xa
(Power Law)
xa
(7) lim c = c.
xa
(8) lim x = a.
xa
(10) lim
x =
xa
a > 0.)
q
p
(11) lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) where n is a positive integer. (If n is even, we
xa
xa
,
x2 1
.
x1 x1
2.3-1
t2 +93
.
t2
Solution.
Solution.
Example 6. Prove that lim
|x|
x0 x
Solution.
|2x1||2x+1|
.
x
(94 )
x0
Right-hand limit:
x 2x
.
2
|x 4|
(101 )
xa
Theorem 11 (The Squeeze Theorem, page 105). If f (x) g(x) h(x) when x is
near a (except possibly at a) and
lim f (x) lim h(x) = L
xa
xa
then
lim g(x) = L.
xa
Example 12. Show that lim x sin x1 = 0.
x0
Solution.
sin x
x
(93 )
= 1.
Solution (page 192). Assume first that x lies between 0 and 2 . Figure 2 shows a
sector of a circle with center O, central angle x, and radius 1.
Since area of triangle OAB < area of sector OAB < area of triangle OAC,
we have
For 2 < x < 0, since sin x, x, and tan x are odd functions, we get tan x < x <
sin x, then
Hence lim
x0
lim
x0
sin 2x
2x
sin x
x
= 1.
.
sin(|x|)
x
and lim+
x0
sin(|x|)
.
x
(101 )
sin 3x
.
x0 |3x2||x+2|
(91 )
1cos x
x2
and lim
x0
x
2
tan xsin x
.
x3
cos x1
.
x
1cos x
,
2
(92,93 )
we get
(Hint: tan x =
sin x
.)
cos x
(92,93 )
cos x1
.
x0 sin(x sin x)
(101 )
cos(sin x)1
.
tan2 x
x0
(101 )
2.3-4
x3 sin x1
(b) lim
.
x0 sin(x2 )
(91 ; 95 )
Solution.
1sin2 (ax)cos(ax)
.
2
x0 1+sin (bx)cos(bx)
x2
px+q3
= 9, find p and q.
Solution. We compute
exists? If so, find the value of a and the value of the limit.
2.3-5
(101 )
(95 )
2.4
Solution.
Observation: We calculate |(2x + 3) 5| = |2x 2| = 2|x 1|. We want to
find > 0 such that
if 0 < |x 1| < ,
2.4-1
Solution.
Observation: We calculate |x2 9| = |x + 3||x 3| < . We want to find > 0
such that
if 0 < |x| < ,
= .
Proof
Example 4. Prove the Limit Sum Law: Suppose that the limits lim f (x) and
xa
lim g(x) exist. Then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x).
xa
xa
xa
xa
Proof.
Solution. Suppose lim f (x) = L. Notice that both rational numbers and irrational
x0
numbers are dense in real numbers.
If L 21 ,
If L < 12 ,
xa
(b) Show that the reversed direction of the above statement is not true.
(96 )
Definition 9 (Definition of Left-Hand Limit, page 113).
lim f (x) = L
xa
xa+
x = 0.
x0
Definition 12 (page 115). Let f be a function defined on some open interval that
contains the number a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) =
xa
means that for every number M there is a number > 0 such that
if 0 < |x a| <
1
2
x0 x
= .
Solution.
Observation: Let M be a given positive number. We want to find a number
> 0 such that if 0 < |x| < , then x12 > M. Notice that
1
1
1
> M x2 <
|x| < .
2
x
M
M
This suggests us to choose =
1
M
(or smaller).
Proof:
Definition 14 (page 116). Let f be a function defined on some open interval that
contains the number a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) =
xa
means that for every number N there is a number > 0 such that
if 0 < |x a| <
2.4-4
2.5
xa
xa
xa
xa
(1) removable discontinuity: We can redefine the value of the function f (x) at
x = a such that f (x) is continuous at x = a.
(2) infinite discontinuity
(3) jump discontinuity
2.5-1
xa+
xa
Figure 3: (a) f (x) is continuous from the right. (b) f (x) is continuous from the left.
Example 3. Discuss the continuity of the following functions:
( 2
( 2
x x2
x x2
2
if
x
=
6
2
if x 6= 2
x x2
x2
x2
, g(x) =
f (x) =
, h(x) =
.
x2
1
if x = 2,
3
if x = 2
Solution.
2.5-2
f (x)
g(x)
if g(a) 6= 0.
Therefore
2.5-3
Theorem 8 (page 123). The following type of functions are continuous at every
number in their domains:
polynomials: P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 .
rational functions: f (x) =
P (x)
.
Q(x)
x1
Solution.
Exercise 11. Find the limit lim sin1 x sin x1 .
x0
(99 )
Theorem 12. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composition function f g given by (f g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
Proof.
2.5-4
Theorem 13 (The Intermediate Value Theorem, page 125). Suppose that f (x) is
continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N be any number between f (a) and
f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = N.
Example 14. Suppose f is a continuous function on [a, b] and a f (x) b for all
x [a, b]. Show that there exists c [a, b] such that f (c) = c.
Solution.
2.5-5
(100 )
2.6
Definition 1 (page 130). Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ). Then
lim f (x) = L
x
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large.
means that the value of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large negative.
x x
Definition 3 (page 131). The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the
curve y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L or
x
lim f (x) = L.
x
2.6-1
Remark 4. If an one-to-one function has a vertical asymptote, then its inverse function has a horizontal asymptote. For example, tan x and tan1 x. Another example
is ln x and ex .
Theorem 5 (page 133). If r > 0 is a rational number, then
1
= 0.
x xr
lim
Example 6. Evaluate
3x2 x 2
.
x 5x2 + 4x + 1
lim
Solution.
Suppose P (x) and Q(x) are two polynomials with leading terms an and bm . Then
if
P (x)
lim
=
if
x Q(x)
if
1
Solution.
2.6-2
(91, 102 )
Example 8. Evaluate the limit lim x( x2 x x) sin x1 .
(94 )
Solution.
3
Example 9. Find the limit lim x 2 ( x + 2 2 x + 1 + x).
(102 )
Solution.
Solution.
1 x
x
= e. Find lim
x
1+
1 x
.
x
(97 )
f (x)
.
x
(89 )
2.6-3
Solution.
x2 + 4x + 5
x2 + x + 1.
(98 )
Solution.
x2 2x + x.
(93 )
(91 )
Find and .
Solution.
Exercise 15.
(a) Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate lim
x
sin x
.
x
(b) How many times does the graph cross the asymptote?
2.6-4
means that for every > 0 there is a corresponding number N such that
if x > N
means that for every > 0 there is a corresponding number N such that
if x < N
means that for every positive number M there is a corresponding positive number
N such that
if x > N
2.6-5
2.7
Definition 1 (page 143). The tangent line () to the curve y = f (x) at the point
P (a, f (a)) is the line through P with slope
f (x) f (a)
f (a + h) f (a)
= lim
xa
h0
xa
h
m = lim
Figure 1: tangent line is the limiting position of the secant line ().
1
x
at the
Definition 3 (page 145). If f (x) is the position function, then the average velocity
is
average velocity =
displacement
f (a + h) f (a)
=
,
time
h
and the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at time t = a be the limit of these
average velocities:
f (a + h) f (a)
.
h0
h
v(a) = lim
The speed of the particle is the absolute value of the velocity |v(a)|
2.7-1
Example 4. Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of
Taipei 101, 508m above the ground.
(a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds?
(b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits the ground?
Solution. Using the equation of motion s = f (t) = 4.9t2 , we have
.
(a) The velocity after 5 is
q
2
(b) First we solve 4.9t1 = 508. This gives t1 = 508
. The velocity of the ball as it
4.9
hits the ground is
f (a) = lim
if this limit exists.
Example 6. Consider
f (x) =
x sin x1 if x 6= 0
,
0
if x = 0
2.7-2
Rates of Change
Suppose y is a quantity that depends on another quantity x. Thus y is a function
of x and we write y = f (x). If x changes from x1 to x2 , then the change in x (also
called the increment () of x) is x = x2 x1 , and the corresponding change
in y is y = f (x2 ) f (x1 ). The difference quotient
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
y
=
x
x2 x1
is called the average of the change of y with respect to x over the interval [x1 , x2 ].
We say
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
y
= lim
.
x
x
x0 x
x2 x1
2
1
The derivative f (a) is the instantaneous rate of change of y = f (x) with respect to
x when x = a.
Interest (in economics): the rate of change of the debt with respect to time.
Power (in physics, ): the rate of change of work with respect to time.
Rate of reaction (in chemistry): the rate of change in the concentration ()
of a reactant with respect to time.
Rate of change of the population of a colony of bacteria with respect to time.
(biology)
2.7-3
2.8
f (x) = lim
Other Notations
If we use the traditional notation y = f (x) to indicate that the independent variable
is x and the dependent variable is y, then some common alternative notations for
the derivative are as follows:
f (x) = y =
df
d
dy
=
=
f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x).
dx
dx
dx
d
are called differentiation operators because thy indicate the
The symbols D and dx
operation of differentiation.
dy
dx
or
dy
dx
x=a
f (a).
Definition 3 (page 157). A function f is differentiable at a if f (a) exists. It is
differentiable on an open interval (a, b) [or (a, ) or (, a) or (, )] if it is
differentiable at every number in the interval.
Theorem 4 (page 158). If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
2.8-1
Higher Derivatives
If f is differentiable function, then its derivative f is also a function, so f may have
a derivative of its own, denoted by (f ) = f . This new function f is called the
second derivativeof f . We write the second derivative of y = f (x) as
d2 y
d dy
= 2.
dx dx
dx
=
.
y = f (x) =
dx dx2
dx3
In general, the n-th derivative (n 4) of f is denoted by f (n) . If y = f (x), we write
y n = f (n) (x) =
2.8-2
dn y
.
dxn
C k (R) k
Example 6. Suppose
f (x) =
1cos x
sin x
x>0
.
ax + b x 0
(89 )
Solution.
Homework. Suppose
f (x) =
x2
x1
ax + b x > 1
(92 )
Chapter 3
3.1
Differentiation Rules
Property 2 (The Power Rule, page 175176). If n is any real number, then
d n
(x ) = nxn1 .
dx
Proof. Let f (x) = xn . Here we check the case n Z and show the general case in
, we compute
Section 3.6. First, for n N, by the
f (x) =
=
Next, we check the case negative integer n:
f (x) =
=
Application: a b = (a n b n )(a
n1
n
+a
n2
n
3.1-1
bn + + an b
n2
n
+b
x = x 2 is f (x) =
n1
n
).
1 1
2 x
= 12 x 2 .
Property 4 (The Sum and Difference Rule, page 177178). If f and g are both
differentiable, then
d
d
d
(f (x) g(x)) =
f (x)
g(x).
dx
dx
dx
Proof. Let F (x) = f (x) + g(x). Then
F (x) =
=
=
4
x
x + 2.
3.2
Property 1 (The Product Rule, page 185). If f an g are both differentiable, then
d
d
d
(f (x)g(x)) = g(x) f (x) + f (x) g(x).
dx
dx
dx
Proof. Let F (x) = f (x)g(x), then
F (x + h) F (x)
=
h0
h
F (x) = lim
=
=
=
=
(f (x)g(x)h(x)) =
Leibniz Rule: (f g)(n) (x) =
n
P
k=0
f (x)
.
g(x)
f (x)
g(x)
d
d
f (x) f (x) dx
g(x)
g(x) dx
.
(g(x))2
Then
3.2-1
Example 3. Compute
Solution.
d2
dx2
f (x)
g(x)
1
1+x2
x
Homework. The curve y = 1+x
2 is called a witch of Maria Agnesi. Find an equation
3
).
of the tangent line to this curve at the point (3, 10
x2
f (x)
(b) y =
3.2-2
1 + xf (x)
.
x
dy
.
dx
3.3
cos 1
1
cos 1
=
lim
= 0.
0
0
2
2
lim
Example 3.
(a) (sin2 ) = (sin sin ) =
(b) (cos2 ) = (cos cos ) =
Homework.
(a) (tan2 ) = (tan tan ) =
3.3-1
dn
d n
sin and
dn
d n
cos .
3.3-2
Chapter 4
4.1
Applications of Differentiation
Example 4. State the absolute (and local) maximum (and minimum) values of the
function y = f (x).
y
y = f (x)
1
x
Figure 3: Find absolute (and local) maximum (and minimum) values of the function.
Solution.
Absolute maximum:
Local maximum:
Absolute minimum:
Local minimum:
Theorem 5 (The Extreme Value Theorem, page 275). If f is continuous on a closed
interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute maximum value f (c) and an absolute value
f (d) at some numbers c and d in [a, b].
4.1-2
Proof. Here we prove the local maximum case. Since f (c) f (x) if x is sufficiently
close to c, this implies that if h is sufficiently close to 0, with h being positive or
negative, then
If h > 0, we have
f (c+h)f (c)
h
f (c + h) f (c)
=
h0
h
f (c) = lim
If h < 0, we have
f (c+h)f (c)
h
f (c + h) f (c)
=
h0
h
f (c) = lim
Hence f (c) = 0.
4.1-3
The Closed Interval Method (page 278). To find the absolute maximum and
minimum values of a piecewise continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]:
(1) Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
(2) Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval, that is, f (a) and f (b).
(3) The largest and smallest of the values from (1) and (2) are absolute maximum
value and absolute minimum value, respectively.
Homework. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f (x) =
2x3 3x2 12x + 1 on [2, 3].
4.1-4
4.2
Question 1. A highway from Taipei to Kaohsiung is 330 km and the speed limit
is 110 km/h. Man A drove the car on the high way from Taipei at 9 : 00 AM to
Kaohsiung at 11 : 59 AM. Did he exceed the speed limit?
Theorem 2 (Rolles Theorem, page 284). Let f be a function that satisfies the
following three hypotheses:
(1) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(2) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
(3) f (a) = f (b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
, f has a max-
imum somewhere in [a, b]. Since f (a) = f (b), it must attain this maximum
value at a number c in the open interval (a, b). Then f has a
at c, and f is differentiable at c. By
(III) f (x) < f (a) for some x in (a, b). By the
, we know f (c) = 0.
, f has a min-
imum value in [a, b], and since f (a) = f (b), it attains this local minimum value
, f (c) = 0.
at a number c (a, b). By
4.2-1
Example 4 (page 284). Prove that the equation x3 + x 1 = 0 has exactly one
real root.
Solution.
Homework. Let f (x) = a(x3 + x 2) + b(x3 + 3x + 4), ab > 0. Show that f (x) = 0
has exactly one real solution.
(98 )
Theorem 5 (The Mean Value Theorem (MVT), page 285). Let f be a function that
satisfies the following hypotheses:
(1) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(2) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (c) =
f (b) f (a)
ba
or, equivalently,
f (b) f (a) = f (c)(b a).
4.2-2
4.2-3
Example 6. Suppose that f (0) = 3 and f (x) 5 for all values of x. How large
can f (2) possibly be?
Solution.
Theorem 7. If f (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).
Proof. Let x1 and x2 be any two numbers in (a, b) with x1 < x2 . Since f is differentiable on (a, b), it must be differentiable on (x1 , x2 ) and continuous on [x1 , x2 ]. By
to f on the interval [x1 , x2 ], we get a number c
applying the
such that x1 < c < x2 and
Therefore f has the same value at any two numbers x1 and x2 in (a, b). So f (x) is
constant on (a, b).
Corollary 8. If f (x) = g (x) for all x in an interval (a, b), then f g is constant
on (a, b); that is, f (x) = g(x) + c where c is a constant.
Proof. Let F (x) =
. Then
for all x (a, b). Thus, F (x) is constant; that is, f g is constant.
f (x) =
x
.
|x|
for any x, y (, ).
y |x y|
x
tan tan
2
2
2
(89,101 )
By the
, there is a number c (x, y) such that f (x) f (y) =
, we
f (c)(x y), which implies |f (x) f (y)| = |f (c)||x y|. Since f (t) =
. So |f (x) f (y)| 12 |x y|, which means
have |f (c)| =
x
y |x y|
.
tan tan
2
2
2
for x > 0.
Solution 2.
Theorem 11 (Cauchys Mean Value Theorem, Appendix F, A45). Suppose that the
functions f and g are continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and g (x) 6= 0
for all x in (a, b). Then there is a number c (a, b) such that
f (c)
f (b) f (a)
=
.
g (c)
g(b) g(a)
4.2-5
Proof. The key point is to find a new function F (x) and apply the Mean Value
Theorem.
F (x) =
Example 12. Suppose f (x) is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b), and
f (a) = f (b) = 0. Show that for any real number , there exists (a, b) such that
f () + f () = 0.
Solution.
Homework. Suppose both f (x), g(x) are continuous on [a, b], and differentiable on
(a, b). Suppose g (x) 6= 0 for any x (a, b). Show that there exists (a, b) such
that
f () f (a)
f ()
=
.
g ()
g(b) g()
Appendix
Example 13. Evaluate
3
3
lim sin((x + 2) 4 ) sin(x 4 ) .
Solution.
4.2-6
(95 )
4.3
.
, there is c (x1 , x2 ) such that
Example 1. Find where the function f (x) = 3x4 4x3 12x2 + 5 is increasing and
where it is decreasing.
Solution. We compute
f (x) =
Solutions of f (x) = 0 are
.
. Hence
f (x) is increasing on
.
.
f (x) is decreasing on
The First Derivative Test (page 291). Suppose that c is a critical number of a
continuous function f .
(a) If f changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.
(b) If f changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.
(c) If f does not change sign at c (for example, if f is positive on both side of c
or negative on both sides), then f has no local maximum or minimum at c.
4.3-1
27
f
Hence
f has local maximum
Definition 3 (page 293). If the graph f lies above all of it tangents on an interval
I, then it is called concave upward on I. If the graph f lies below all of it tangents
on an interval I, then it is called concave downward on I.
Example 5. Find the concave upward, concave downward intervals, and inflection
points of the function f in Example 1. Sketch the graph of f .
Solution. We compute
f (x) =
So
x
f
f
f
31
32
9
27
.
.
.
4.3-3
Homework. Suppose a cubic function f (x) has the coefficient of leading order 1,
and the graph of f (x) passes through (0, 4). The graph of f (x) is decreasing on
(1, 3) and decreasing on (, 1) and (3, ). Find f (x) and its inflection point. (96
)
The Second Derivative Test (page 295). Suppose f is continuous near c.
(a) If f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
(b) If f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
Example 6. Show that f (x) =
sin x
x
(89
Solution.
tan x
.
x
(93 )
Example (TA) 7.
(a) Show that the function f (x) = xx is strictly increasing on (e1 , ).
(b) If f is the inverse function of f of part (a), find lim
y
4.3-4
g(y) ln ln(y)
.
ln y
(100 )
Appendix
Example 8. Classify all cubic functions f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
Solution.
4.3-5
4.4
In this section, we want to introduce new method to deal with the limit such as
ln x
,
x x 1
lim
or
ex
.
x x2
lim
and
lim f (x) =
and
xa
lim g(x) = 0
xa
or that
xa
lim g(x) =
xa
0
0
or
.)
Then
f (x)
f (x)
= lim
lim
xa g (x)
xa g(x)
if the limit on the right side exists (or is or ).
(x)
: (1) ; (2) xa
lim fg (x)
L
(x) L
(x) L
(x)
xa
lim fg(x)
= M.
= lim fg (x)
= = lim fg (x)
xa
xa
4.4-1
(k)
(k)
Example 2.
(a) Find lim+
t0
tln(1+t)
.
t2
tln(1+t)
.
t
(102 )
Solution.
x(ex +1)2(ex 1)
.
x3
x0
(96 )
xa
f
1/g
or f g =
g
,
1/f
and this converts the given limit into an indeterminate form of type
0
0
or
Solution.
cot 2 x
,0
ln x
4.4-2
xa
xa
xa
x0
1
x2
Solution.
Homework. Compute
1
sin2 x
.
0
0
or
(95 )
x( 2 )
xa
xa
xa
xa
Each of these three cases can be treated either by taking the natural logarithm:
let y = (f (x))g(x) , then ln y = g(x) ln f (x) or by writing the function as an exponential: (f (x))g(x) = eg(x) ln f (x) . In either method we are led to the indeterminate
product g(x) ln f (x), which is of type 0 .
4.4-3
Solution.
x0
1+tan x
1+sin x
13
x
x0
tan x
x
. (, lHospital Rule )
(96 )
3
x
12
x
4.4-4
5 x
.
2
x
(97 )
(100 )
lHospital Rule
f (x)
xa g (x)
lim x
x0 1+sin x
lim xsin x
x x+sin x
; sin x, cos x (as x ) sin x1 , cos x1 , x1 , ln1x (as x 0)
x2 sin x1
x0 sin x
lim
lim x ln x
x0+
, ,
lim 1 1
x0 x2 e x
lim tan xx
x0 xsin x
LHospital Rule ,
(sin x)ex
(x+sin
x)e2x
x
lim
x0
lim
x0
sin x
x
lim
sin x
x
lim
ln(1+x)
x
x0
4.4-5
xa g (x)
We are assuming that lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0. Let lim
xa
F (x) =
xa
f (x) if x 6= a
,
0
if x = 1
G(x) =
= L. Define
g(x) if x 6= a
.
0
if x = 1
Then both F and G are continuous on I since f and g are continuous on {x I|x 6=
a} and
lim F (x) = lim f (x) = 0 = F (a),
xa
xa
xa
xa
Furthermore, F and G are differentiable on (a, x) (or (x, a)) since F = f and G =
g . Since G 6= 0, by the Cauchys Mean Value Theorem, there is a number y such
that a < y < x (or x < y < a) and
F (y)
F (x) F (a)
F (x)
=
=
.
G (y)
G(x) G(a)
G(x)
Hence
F (x)
F (y)
f (y)
f (x)
= lim+
= lim+
= lim+
= L,
xa G(x)
ya G (y)
ya g (y)
xa g(x)
f (x)
F (x)
F (y)
f (y)
lim
= lim
= lim
= lim
= L.
xa g(x)
xa G(x)
ya G (y)
ya g (y)
lim+
and
Therefore,
f (x)
= L.
xa g(x)
lim
4.4-6
4.5
DISAFMSG
2x2
.
x2 1
2
x
.
x+1
cos x
.
2+sin x
x3
.
x+1
(89 )
(91 )
4.5-1
x3 2x2 +x1
.
x2
(92 )
x
.
x2 +9
(93 )
(94 )
(95 )
(96 )
(97 )
2
x +1
x2 4
(99 )
2
(x+1)2
.
x2 +1
x2
6
(98 )
(100 )
(101 )
2 ln x
,
3
x > 0..
(102 )
x2 2x+4
.
x2
(89 )
(x+1)3
.
(x1)2
(93 )
(94 )
(x2)2
.
x+1
(95 )
x3 x1
.
x2
(96 )
x2 (x2)
.
(x+1)2
(98 )
|x|x if x 6= 0
1
if x = 0.
(99 )
1
(100 )
3x 3
.
x1
(101 )
5
(102 )
2x2
.
x2 1
Solution.
A. The domain is
, the function f is
D. Since
2x2
=
x x2 1
lim
the line
is a
2x2
=
x1 x2 1
2x2
lim 2
=
x1 x 1
lim+
and
lim
f is increasing on
F. The only critical number is
at 0, f (0) = 0 is a
and decreasing on
4.5-3
2
x
.
x+1
Solution.
A. The domain is
x2
=
x+1
x1
the line
x2
=
x+1
is a vertical asymptotes.
4.5-4
x
ex
is a horizontal asymptote.
so the
.
and f (x) < 0 when
.
, f is increasing on
, f is concave upward
. The inflection point is
.
H. Using this information to sketch the curve. ()
4.5-5
cos x
.
2+sin x
Solution.
A. The domain is
.
and y-intercept is
. So f is
and decreasing on
F. From part E and First Derivative Test, we see that the local minimum value
is
, f is concave upward on
. The inflection point is
4.5-6
and concave
.
D. Since
lim ln(4 x2 ) =
x2+
lim ln(4 x2 ) =
x2
the lines
E. Direct computation gives
y =
, f is increas-
Test.
G. Direct computation gives
f (x) =
4.5-7
on
and has
x3
.
x+1
Solution.
A. The domain is
, the function f is
is a
So the line
,
.
.
, f is increasing on
.
, we set up the following chart.
4.5-8
4.7
4.7-1
4.7-2
4.7-3
Example 6.
(a) Find the point (denote P ) on the line y =
Q(3, 0).
x at P .
Solution.
x
x
Figure 1: A square piece of cardboard with 30 cm wide.
A box with cover is to be constructed from a square piece of cardboard, 30 cm wide,
by cutting out a square or a rectangle (shaded region) from each of the four corners
an bending up the remaining cardboard (unshaded region) along the dotted lines.
What is the largest volume that such a box can have? Justify that the volume you
obtain actually is the maximum volume.
4.7-4
(97 )
A
R
C
Homework. What is the smallest possible area of the triangle that is cut off by
the first quadrant and whose hypotenuse is tangent to the parabola y = 1 x2 at
some point?
(94 )
4.7-5
4.9
Particular antiderivative
Function
2
Particular antiderivative
cf (x)
cF (x)
sec x
tan x
f (x) + g(x)
xn (n 6= 1)
F (x) + G(x)
sec x tan x
xn+1
n+1
sec x
sin1 x
1
x
x
ln |x|
1
1x2
1
1+x2
tan1 x
e
cos x
ex
sin x
cosh x
sinh x
sinh x
cosh x
sin x
cos x
Example 3. Find the most general antiderivative of the function. (Let F (x) is the
antiderivative of the function f (x).)
(1) f (x) = e2 .
F (x) =
F (x) =
F (x) =
(4) f (x) =
2+x2
.
1+x2
F (x) =
4.9-1
1
1
+ 4.
x x
Example 4. Find f .
(1) f (x) = 2 cos x + sec2 x, 2 < x < 2 , f ( 3 ) = 4.
(2) f (x) = 2et + 3 sin x, f (1) = 0, f (2) = 0.
Differential equations.
Solution.
4.9-2
5 10
James Stewart: Calculus, Early Transcendentals, Seventh
Edition, International Metric Version, c2012.
Chapter 5
5.1
Integrals
Definition 2 (page 365). The area A of the region S that lies under the graph
of the continuous function f is the limit of the sum of the areas of approximating
rectangles:
A = lim Rn = lim (f (x1 )x + f (x2 )x + + f (xn )x).
n
It can also be shown that we get the same value if we use left endpoints:
A = lim Ln = lim (f (x0 )x + f (x1 )x + + f (xn1 )x).
n
5.1-1
In fact, instead of using left endpoints or right endpoints, we could take the height
of the i-th rectangle to be the value of f at anynumber xi in the i-th subinterval
[xi1 , xi ]. We call numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , xn the sample points.
In general, we form lower sums (and upper sums) by choosing the sample points
xi so that f (xi ) is the minimum (and maximum) value of f on the i-th subinterval.
Homework.
(a) Let An be the area of a polygon with n equal sides inscribed in a circle with
radius r. By dividing the polygon into n congruent triangles with central angle
2
,
n
show that
1
An = nr 2 sin
2
2
n
5.1-2
5.2
f (x) dx = lim
n
a
n
X
f (xi )x
i=1
provided that this limit exists and gives the same value for all possible choices of
sample points. If it does exist, we say that f is integrable on [a, b].
f (x) dx
f (xi )x <
a
i=1
integral sign:
integrand:
f (x) dx
limits of integration:
lower limit:
upper limit:
5.2-1
f (x) dx =
a
lim
maxxi 0
n
X
f (xi )xi .
i=1
Not all functions are integrable. For example, the Dirichlet function, or f (x) =
on 0 < x 1.
1
x
1
x
Solution.
Theorem 2 is not the general result. An amazing thing is that Riemann function
on [0, 1] is integrable.
5.2-2
If f is integrable on [a, b], then the limit of Riemann sum exists and gives the same
value no matter how we choose the sample points xi . To simplify the calculation of
the integral, we often taken the sample points to be right endpoints. Then xi = xi
and the definition of an integral simplifies as follows.
Theorem 3 (page 374). If f is integrable on [a, b], then
Z
where x =
ba
n
f (x) dx = lim
n
a
n
X
f (xi )x,
i=1
and xi = a + ix.
Rx
1
ex dx as a limit of sums.
5.2-3
n
X
i=1
(c) lim
n
2
i
1
1
.
n n
1
+
n3
1
(e) lim
n n
(93 )
2
++
n3
n
(d) lim ln
(93 )
!
n
.
n3
(94 )
n!
.
n
ln
n+1
n
n+1
n
(96, 100 )
ln
n+2
n
n+2
n
++
ln
n+n
n
n+n
n
!
(98 )
Evaluating Integrals
Example 6 (page 377). Evaluate the expression in Example 4.
Solution.
R1
0
x2 dx.
We often choose the sample point xi to be the right endpoint of the i-th subinterval
because it is convenient for computing the limit. But if the purpose is to find an
approximation to an integral, it is usually better to choose xi to be the midpoint of
the interval, which we denote by xi . Any Riemann sum is an approximation to an
integral, but if we use midpoints we get the following approximation.
5.2-4
where x =
ba
n
i=1
(2)
(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
(3)
cf (x) dx = c
f (x) dx +
g(x) dx.
(f (x) g(x)) dx =
(5)
(4)
f (x) dx
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx =
g(x) dx.
a
f (x) dx.
a
f (x) dx 0.
f (x) dx
g(x) dx.
a
Solution.
5.2-5
5.3
ux
h0
, we have
g(x + h) g(x)
= f (x).
h0
h
g (x) = lim
sin x
1 + r 3 dr.
1 + t2 dt.
(98 )
Solution.
d
Example 4. Compute
dx
Solution.
x3
x2
g(x)
t3
1
dt.
+2
, where g(x) =
)
d
Homework. Compute
dx
x3
(91 )
x
2
t
dt. Find f (2).
1 + t4
(90
(92 )
t sin t dt.
x
tan x
Z
1
d
du.
(93 )
Homework. Compute
dx x
u4 + 1
Z cos
Homework. Let f () =
sin(t2 ) dt. Find f () and f ().
(94 )
0
Z
Z x
x2
x2
t2
Example 5. Let A =
A
e
dx. Compute the limit lim xe
e dt .
x
(101 )
Solution.
5.3-2
Rx
sin(t2 ) dt
.
x sin(x2 )
R x2
0
t
1+t3
x4
dt
(89 )
(95 )
R1
2
cos x t
dt x2
.
(97 )
x0
x4
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (page 391). If f is continuous
on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a),
Homework. Find the limit lim
where F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), that is, a function such that F (x) = f (x).
Rx
Proof. Let g(x) = a f (t) dt. From the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part
1, we know g (x) = f (x), so g(x) is an antiderivative of f . If F is any other
antiderivative of f on [a, b], then F and g differ by a constant:
So
F (b) F (a) =
(2)
f (t)
x for all x > 0.
6+
dt
=
2
t2
a
5.3-3
5.4
dx
=
tan
x
+
C
dx = sin1 x + C.
2
x2 + 1
Z
Z 1x
sinh x dx = cosh x + C
cosh x dx = sinh x + C
We adopt the convention that when a formula for a general indefinite integral is
given, it is valid only on an interval. For example, the general antiderivative of the
function f (x) = x1 , x 6= 0 is
(
ln |x| + C1 if x > 0
F (x) =
.
ln |x| + C2 if x < 0
Rb
R
A definite integral a f (x) dx is a number; an indefinite integral f (x) dx is a
function (family of functions).
Applications
Recall that the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, part 2:
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (page 391). If f is continuous
on [a, b], then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a),
a
where F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), that is, a function such that F (x) = f (x).
5.4-1
This principle can be applied to all of the rates of change in the natural and
social sciences. For example,
If an object moves along a straight line with position function s(t), then its
velocity is v(t) = s (t), so
Z t2
v(t) dt = s(t2 ) s(t1 )
t1
is the net change of position, or displacement, of the particle during the time
period from t1 to t2 .
If we want to calculate the distance the object travels during the time interval,
we have to consider the intervals when v(t) 0 and also the intervals when
v(t) 0. In both cases the distance is computed by integrating |v(t)|, the
speed. Therefore,
Z t2
|v(t)| dt = total distance traveled.
t1
5.5
f (g(x))g (x) dx =
f (u) du.
a
g(a)
On the other hand, for the right hand side of the equation, we have
Z g(b)
g(b)
= F (g(b)) F ((a)).
f (u) du = F (u)
g(a)
g(a)
x7
dx.
x4 + 1
Solution.
5.5-1
(93 )
64
Example 3. Find
x
dx.
x+1
4 x+73x
dx.
6
x
(94 )
(97 )
tan x dx.
sec2
d.
1 + tan
(91 )
Solution.
sec2 tan2 d.
(94 )
Solution.
Homework. Find
sec x tan x
dx.
sec x
(92 )
5.5-2
Example 5. Find
cos(ax + b) dx.
(ln x)k
dx.
x
Solution.
Example 6. Find
Solution.
esin x
dx.
sec x
(97 )
Solution.
ln 7
(ex + 1) 3
d
Homework. Find
dx
Rx
e2x
dx.
(99 )
(89 )
e t (x t)
dt.
t2
(100 )
1
2
1
4
Solution.
sin1 x
p
dx.
x(1 x)
(96 )
tan1 x
dx.
1 + x2
(96 )
f (x) dx = 0.
a
f (x) dx +
a
f (x) dx =
0
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx =
f (u)(du) =
f (u) du.
0
, so we get
=
, so we get
Homework. Find
x2 tan x dx.
5.5-4
f (x) dx,
Chapter 6
6.1
Applications of Integration
Theorem 1 (page 422). The area A of the region bounded by the curves y =
f (x), y = g(x), and the lines x = a, x = b, where f and g are continuous and
f (x) g(x) for all x [a, b], is
A = lim
n
n
X
(f (xi )
g(xi ))x
i=1
Theorem 2 (page 425). The area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) and
between x = a and x = b is
Z b
A=
|f (x) g(x)| dx.
a
6.1-1
Example 4 (page 426). Find the area enclosed by the line y = x 1 and the
parabola y 2 = 2x + 6.
Solution.
Homework (page 428). The curve with equation y 2 = x2 (x + 3) is called Tschirnhausens cubic. If you graph this curve you will see that part of the curve forms a
loop. Find the area enclosed by the loop.
Example (TA) 5 (page 428). For what values of m do the line y = mx and the
curve y =
x
x2 +1
Solution.
6.1-2
6.2
n
X
f (xi )x
A(x) dx.
i=1
Definition 2 (page 435). The solids are obtained by revolving a region about a line
is called solids of revolution.
In general, we calculate the volume of a solid of revolution by the formula
Z b
Z d
V =
A(x) dx or V =
A(y) dy,
a
where
If the cross-section is a disk, then A = (radius)2 .
If the cross-section is a washer, then A = (outer radius)2 (inner radius)2 .
Example 3 (page 431). Show that the volume of a sphere of radius r is V = 34 r 3 .
Solution.
Homework. Show that the volume of a right circular cone with height h and radius
r is V = 31 r 2 h.
Example 4 (page 440). Compute the volume of the solid torus.
Solution.
6.2-1
Example 5 (page 434). Consider the region R enclosed by the curves y = x and
y = x2 .
(a) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region about the line
y = 2.
(b) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region about the line
x = 1.
Solution.
2e
, y = 1, x = 1, and x = 4.
Homework. Let be the region enclosed by y = 2x1
(99 )
Find the volume generated by revolving about the line x = 12 .
We now find the volumes of two solids that are not solids of revolution.
Example 6 (page 437). Find the volume of a pyramid whose base is a square with
side L and whose height is h.
Solution.
6.2-2
Homework (page 436). A solid has a circular base of radius 1. Parallel crosssections perpendicular to the base are equilateral triangles. Find the volume of the
solid.
Example 7 (page 437). A wedge is cut out of a circular cylinder of radius 4 by two
planes. One plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The other intersects
the first at an angle of 30 along a diameter of the cylinder. Find the volume of the
wedge.
Solution.
Example 8 (page 440). Find the volume common to two circular cylinders, each
with radius r, if the axis of the cylinder intersect at right angles.
Solution.
6.2-3
Example (TA) 9 (page 440). A bowl is shaped like a hemisphere with diameter
30 cm. A heavy ball with diameter 10 cm is placed in the bowl and water is poured
into the bowl to a depth of h centimeters. Find the volume of water in the bowl.
Solution.
6.2-4
6.3
Definition 1 (page 431). The volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the
y-axis the region under the curve y = f (x) from a to b is
V = lim
n
n
X
i=1
2
xi f (
xi )x =
where 0 a < b.
Example 2 (page 444). Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about
Example 3. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about x = 1 the
region bounded by y = 6x2 , x = 1, and y = 0.
(94 )
Solution.
, ,
6.3-1
6.3-2
6.5
Definition 1 (page 452). We define the average value of f on the interval [a, b] as
Z b
n
1
1 X
fave = lim
f (xi )x =
f (x) dx.
n b a
b
a
a
i=1
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals (pgae 452). If f is continuous on [a, b],
then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
Z b
Z b
1
f (x) dx.
or
f (x) dx = f (c)(b a).
f (c) = fave =
ba a
a
Rx
Proof. Consider F (x) = a f (x) dx. Since f (x) is continuous on [a, b], F (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). By the Mean Value Theorem, there
exists c (a, b) such that
. By the Fundamental Theo. Hence
rem, we have
f (c) =
Example 3. Given an increasing continuous function f (x) on [a, b]. Find the line
Rb
y = L such that a |f (x) L| dx is minimum.
Solution.
6.5-1
Example 4. Given a continuous function f (x) on [a, b]. Find the line y = L such
Rb
that a (f (x) L)2 dx is minimum.
Solution.
Homework (page 460). The figure shows a curve with the property that, for
every point P on the middle curve y = 2x2 , the areas A and B are equal. Find an
equation for .
(93 )
y
y = 2x2
y = x2
B
A
x
Figure 1: Find an equation for such that the areas A and B are equal.
6.5-2
Chapter 7
7.1
Techniques of Integration
The rule that corresponds to the Product Rule for differentiation is called the rule
for integration by parts.
The Product Rule states that if f and g are differentiable functions, then
d
(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g (x) + g(x)f (x).
dx
In the notation for indefinite integrals this equation becomes
Z
(f (x)g (x) + g(x)f (x)) dx = f (x)g(x), or
Z
Z
(1)
x sin x dx.
x sin x dx = x cos x + n
Solution.
Homework. Find
x2 sin(3x) dx.
(89 )
7.1-1
ln x dx.
(ln x) dx = x(ln x) n
Solution.
x ex dx.
x2 ex dx.
x e dx = x e n
(97 )
x ln x dx, R.
Solution.
n x
7.1-2
n x
xn1 ex dx.
ex sin x dx.
tan1 x dx.
Solution.
esin
1
2
x tan (x ) dx and
1
(94 )
dx.
Z
x(tan1 x)2 dx
(101 )
Example 7. Consider the region R enclosed by the curves y = cos x and y = sin x,
and 0 x 4 . Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region about
the y-axis.
(93 )
Solution.
7.1-3
Homework. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded
by the given curves about the specified line.
(a) y = 1 + sin x, y = 0, and 0 x 2; about the y-axis.
(b) y = cos x, y = 0, and 0 x 2 ; about the y-axis.
(95 )
(96, 97, 102 )
7.1-4
7.2
k
X
Z X
k
i=0
(1)i+1 Cik
i=0
cosn+2i x d(cos x) =
k
X
(1)i+1 C k
i
i=0
n + 2i + 1
cosn+2i+1 x + C.
(b) If n = 2k + 1, then
Z
Z
Z
m
n
m
2k+1
sin x cos x dx = sin x cos
x dx = sinm x cos2k x d(sin x)
=
=
k
X
i=0
(1)
Cik
sin
m+2i
x d sin x =
sinm x
k
X
i=0
k
X
i=0
(1)i Cik
m + 2i + 1
sinm+2i+1 x + C.
1 cos 2x
2
and
cos2 x =
1 + cos 2x
,
2
we have
Z
Z
m
n
sin x cos x dx = sin2k x cos2l x dx
=
Z
1 cos 2x
2
k
1 + cos 2x
2
l
dx =
Z
k X
l
X
(1)i Cik Cjl
i=0 j=0
2k+l
cosi+j 2x dx.
sin2 x dx.
Solution.
Example (TA) 3 (page 467, 469). Show that the following reduction formulae:
Z
Z
1
n1
n
n1
(a)
sin x dx = cos x sin
sinn2 x dx, n 2.
x+
n
n
Z
Z
1
n1
n
n1
(b)
cos x dx = sin x cos
cosn2 x dx, n 2.
x+
n
n
Solution.
Solution.
sin4 x dx.
7.2-2
sin
2n+1
dx and
sin2n dx.
tan x dx and
sec x dx.
Solution.
(), ()
Example (TA) 6 (page 469). Show that the following reduction formulae:
Z
Z
tann1 x
n
(a)
tan x dx =
tann2 dx, n 6= 1.
n1
Z
Z
tan x secn2 x n 2
n
(b)
sec x dx =
secn2 x dx, n 6= 1.
+
n1
n1
Solution.
tan3 x dx.
sec3 x dx.
7.2-3
(97 )
Solution.
(a) If n = 2k, k N, then
Z
Z
Z
m
n
m
2k
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x dx = tanm x sec2k2 x d tan x
=
=
k
X
Cik
i=0
tanm+2i x d tan x =
k
X
i=0
tan x
k
X
i=0
Cik
tanm+2i+1 x + C.
m + 2i + 1
(b) If m = 2k + 1, k N, then
Z
Z
Z
m
n
2k+1
n
tan x sec x dx = tan
x sec x dx = tan2k x secn1 x d sec x
=
=
(sec x 1) sec
k
X
i=0
n1
x d sec x =
Z X
k
i=0
(1)i Cik
sec2(ki)+n1 x d sec x =
k
X
i=0
(1)i Cik
sec2(ki)+n x + C.
2(k i) + n
7.2-4
Hence we get
1
tanm1 x secn x (m 1)Im2 ,
m+n1
R
R
and the reduction formula will reduce the integral to secn dx = sec2l+1 dx,
l N.
Z
Homework (page 473). Evaluate tan6 x sec4 x dx.
Im =
1
cos mx cos nx dx =
2
=
Z
1
sin mx sin nx dx =
2
7.2-5
7.3
Trigonometric identities are also useful to make substitutions for some radical functions.
Table of Trigonometric Substitutions.
Expression
a2 x2
a2 + x2
x2 a2
Substitution
Identity
x = a sin , 2
1 sin2 = cos2
1 + tan2 = sec2
x = a sec , 0 <
or
3
2
sec2 1 = tan2
x
dx.
3 2x x2
Solution.
9 x2
dx.
x2
7.3-1
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2
b
x2
1
dx.
x2 + 4
Solution.
x2
1
dx.
1 + x2
(94 )
1
dx, where a > 0.
a2
x2
Solution.
x3
2
dx,
x2 1
x > 1.
x
dx.
x2 + 2x + 2
7.3-2
(89 )
(98 )
3 3
2
x3
3
(4x2 + 9) 2
dx.
Solution.
Homework (page 484). Find the area of the crescent-shaped region (called a lune)
bounded by arcs of circles with radii r and R.
r
R
7.3-3
7.4
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions (
).
Z
1
dx, where k N.
Example 1. Discuss the integral
(ax + b)k
Solution.
Ax + B
dx, where b2 4ac < 0, k N.
+ bx + c)k
(ax2
7.4-1
P (x)
,
Q(x)
(a) If the degree of P (x) is less than the degree of Q(x), such a rational function
f (x) is called proper.
(b) If the degree of P (x) is greater or equal to the degree of Q(x), such a rational
function f (x) is called improper.
If f (x) is improper, then we use the long division to get
f (x) =
and
R(x)
Q(x)
R(x)
P (x)
= S(x) +
,
Q(x)
Q(x)
is proper.
R(x)
Q(x)
as a sum of partial
or
Ax + B
.
+ bx + c)n
(ax2
(3) Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated. That
is, Q(x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 4ac < 0, then the expression
R(x)
will have a term of the form
for Q(x)
Ax + B
,
ax2 + bx + c
and then we will use the formula
Z
1
1
1 x
+ C.
dx = tan
x2 + a2
a
a
(4) Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor. If Q(x) has the factor
(ax2 + bx + c)r , where b2 4ac < 0, then instead of the single partial fraction,
the sum
A2 x + B2
Ar x + Br
A1 x + B1
+
+
+
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2
(ax2 + bx + c)r
occurs in the
R(x)
.
Q(x)
Solution.
Solution.
7.4-3
x2 + 3x + 2
dx.
x3 3x + 2
(90 )
Homework. Evaluate
x2 + 4
dx.
x4 + 3x3 + 2x2
(99 )
Z
2x2 + 5x + 3
dx.
(x2 + 2x + 2)(x 1)
(94 )
Solution.
1
dx.
x3 + 1
1
dx.
x3 + x2 + x
Z
1
dx.
Homework. Evaluate the integral
3
x 1
Z 3
x x2 + x + 1
Homework. Evaluate
dx.
x3 + x2 + x + 1
Homework. Find the integral
7.4-4
(93 )
(100 )
(98 )
(102 )
2x + 1
dx.
(x2 + 1)2
(95 )
Solution.
dx.
(96 )
Example 9. Find the integral
3
x x2 + 3
Solution.
Z p
1+
x
7.4-5
dx.
(97 )
x
2
1
=
1 + t2
and
sin
and
sin x =
1 t2
1 + t2
x
2
t
.
1 + t2
2t
.
1 + t2
2
dt.
1 + t2
1
dx.
2 + cos x
(89 )
Solution.
1
dx.
2 + sin x
1
dx.
3 5 sin x
7.4-6
(96 )
(99 )
7.5
+
C
+ C, a > 0
dx
=
tan
dx
=
sin
2 x2
x2 + a2
a
a
a
a
Z
Z
x a
1
1
1
2 a2 + C
+C
ln
x
dx =
dx
=
ln
x
+
2a
x + a
x2 a2
x2 a2
Once you are armed with these basic integration formulae, if you dont immediately see how to attack a given integral, you might try the following four-steps
strategy.
(1) Simplify the integrand if possible. Use algebraic manipulation or trigonometric
identities to simplify the integrand.
Z
x(1 + x) dx =
Z
tan
d =
sec2
Z
(sin + cos )2 d =
(2) Look for an obvious substitution.
Z
x
dx =
x2 1
(3) Classify the integrand according to its form.
(a) Trigonometric function: product of powers of sin x and cos x, of tan x and
sec x, or cot x and csc x.
(b) Rational functions:
P (x)
,
Q(x)
(c) Integration by parts: product of a power of a polynomial and a transcendental function (trigonometric, exponential, or logarithmic).
p
(4) Try again: remember that there are basically only two methods of integration:
substitution and parts.
(a) Try substitution: inspiration, ingenuity, desperation.
(b) Try parts: it is sometimes effective on single function, such as sin1 x,
tan1 x, ln x (inverse functions).
(c) Manipulate the integrand:
Z
1
dx =
1 cos x
=
(d) Relate the problem to previous problems.
Z
tan2 x sec x dx =
(e) Use several methods: substitution, integration by parts, etc.
Z
tan3 x
dx.
Example 1 (page 497). Compute
cos3 x
Solution.
Solution 2.
dx.
7.5-2
Z r
1x
dx.
1+x
(8.1 )
Z x
2
2
(2)
et dt: error function (), ()
0
Z
Z
2
(3)
sin(x ) dx, cos(x2 ) dx: Fresnel integral (),
(4)
sin x
dx,
x
(5)
ex
dx: exponential integral ()
x
1
dx: logarithmic integral ()
ln x
Z
x3 + 1 dx:
(7)
(6)
,
( ) :
r
Z
Z
Z
sin x
2
x
2
e
dx = ,
,
dx = .
sin(x ) dx =
2
7.5-3
2
1. cos x(1 + sin x) dx
2.
(3x + 1) 2 dx
3.
sin x + sec x
dx
tan x
6.
9.
12.
15.
4.
7.
10.
13.
16.
tan d
1
1
4
x2
sin t cos t dt
2
2
19.
22.
25.
28.
31.
Z r
34.
37.
x2
dx
1 x2
x+ex
dx
ln x
p
dx
x 1 + (ln x)2
3x2 2
dx
x2 2x 8
sin
at dt
1+x
dx
1x
1 + 4 cot x
dx
4 cot x
tan3 sec2 d
11.
x2
14.
x3
dx
1 + x2
17.
t sin t cos t dt
x
dx
3 x4
r 4 ln r dr
x1
dx
4x + 5
t cos t dt
20.
23.
26.
29.
e2 dx
1
(1 +
x) dx
x4
1
3
(1 x2 ) 2
ln(x +
32.
35.
38.
x2 + 1) dx
24.
27.
30.
33.
36.
39.
sec tan
d
sec2 sec
42.
tan1 x
dx
x2
45.
x5 ex dx
48.
e t
dt
18.
t
1
Z
21. tan1 x dx
6z + 5
dz
2z + 1
1
dx
1 + ex
2
|ex 1| dx
2x 1
dx
2x + 3
cos 2x cos 6x dx
dx
3x2 2
dx
x3 2x 8
x
dx
+ x2 + 1
p
dy
4y 2 4y 3
Z
x
43.
dx
1 + x3
Z
(x 1)ex
46.
dx
x2
40.
8.
x1
dx
4x 5
2t
dt
(t 3)2
5.
tan1
y
e
dy
1 + y2
sin cot
d
sec
41.
44.
47.
x3
dx
(x 1)4
tan d
1+
ex
7.5-4
dx
3 2x x2 dx
x2 tan x
dx
1 + cos4 x
x 2 1 x2 dx
49.
52.
55.
58.
dx
x 4x + 1
1
dx
4
x(x + 1)
1
dx
x+x x
x ln x
dx
x2 1
50.
53.
x sinh mx dx
1
dx
x+x x
56.
59.
dx
2
x 4x + 1
51.
dx
x 4x2 + 1
54.
(x + sin x)2 dx
57.
60.
x2
1
d
1 + cos2
Z
65.
sin 2x
dx
1 + cos4 x
66.
dx
x+1+ x
Z
68.
x2
dx
x6 + 3x3 + 2
69.
70.
1
dx
1 + 2ex ex
e2x
dx
1 + ex
72.
73.
x + sin1 x
dx
1 x2
61.
1
d
1 + cos
64.
67.
1
p
dx
x+1
dx
x(2 + x)4
76.
79.
x sin2 x cos x dx
82.
sin x cos x
dx
sin4 x + cos4 x
85.
88.
91.
sin(ln t)
dt
t
94.
e2x
dx
1 + e4x
97.
x1
dx
x2 + 2x
sin ecos d
62.
71.
Z x
4 + 10x
74.
dx
2x
Z
xex
dx
77.
1 + ex
Z
sec x cos 2x
dx
80.
sin x + sec x
Z 2
(x + 1)2
dx
83.
x
1
Z
6
86.
t sin 2t dt
63.
75.
78.
81.
x ln x dx
89.
92.
95.
98.
sec6
d
tan2
sin cos d
dx
7.5-5
1
dx
4x2 1
xe
dx
ln(tan x)
dx
sin
x
cos
x
4
Z 3
1 + x2
dx
x2
1
Z
ln(x + 1)
dx
x2
Z
1
dx
(x 2)(x2 + 4)
Z
1 + sin x
dx
1 sin x
Z
1 sin x dx
Z
84.
87.
2t2
90.
93.
93.
x2 + 2
dx
x+2
99.
x sec x tan x dx
tan1 x
dx
1 + x2
x 3 x + c dx
x
dx
(x + 1)2
1
dt
+ 3t + 1
1
dx
1
ex
x2 1
dx
x
100.
x2 + 8x 3
dx
x3 + 3x2
103.
dx
2
x 4x
106.
e cos x dx
109.
112.
115.
(4 x2 )
118.
1 tan
d
1 + tan
121.
101.
104.
107.
dx
ex 1 e2x
113.
1
2
3
2
dx
xe2x
dx
(1 + 2x)2
116.
tan5 sec3 d
105.
dx
x x2 + 1
108.
x sin x cos x dx
111.
114.
117.
te
dt
3x3 x2 + 6x 4
dx
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 2)
Z
3
x+1
dx
3
x1
Z ln 10 x x
e e 1
dx
ex + 8
0
Z
(sin1 x)2 dx
119.
122.
Z
Z
e
1
R x2
0
1
p
dx.
x 1 + (ln x)2
102.
x
dx
1 + |x|
x sin x
dx
cos3 x
1
p
dx
3
x + x2
2 x
dx
x
tan
d
sin 2
x+1
dx
2
9x + 6x + 5
x
dx.
8 2x2 x4
(90 )
(95 )
etx (2t2 + 1) dt
.
x4
(96 )
Hint: ,
Homework. Consider the region bounded by the curves y = sin
6
(x2 +3x+2)
x
2
and y =
for 0 x 1. Note that the two curves meet at x = 1. Find the volume
of revolving the region (a) about the y-axis; (b) about x-axis.
(101 )
7.5-6
7.8
In this section we extend the concept of a definite integral to the case where the
interval is infinite and also to the case where f has an infinite discontinuity in [a, b].
In either case the integral is called an improper integral ().
7.8-1
Example 2 (page 528). Discuss the areas of the region R under the curve y =
1
, p > 0, and between x = 0 and x = 1.
xp
Solution.
7.8-2
R
a
R
a
R
a
R
a
g(x) dx is convergent.
f (x) dx is divergent.
f (x) g(x) 0,
for x a for some x b, b a.
Example 4.
(a) Find the values of a for which the improper integral
verges.
(b) Evaluate the integral
x (1
1
dx con+ x)
sec2 x dx.
Solution.
7.8-3
(97 )
x
a
2
x2 1 x + 1
dx converges.
(96 )
Solution.
dx
x x2 + 4 ax
0
(100 )
converges.
Example 6 (page 528). Let In =
Solution.
Homework. Let In =
xn ex dx.
(a) Compute I3 .
(95 )
(98 )
7.8-4
Example 7.
(a) Determine the values of > 0 such that
Solution.
ln x
dx is convergent.
x
(102 )
ln x
dx.
x3
(89 )
n!
.
(96 )
n n
Remark: We have derived the integral expression of this limit in Homework 8,
section 5.2.
Z
4
7.8-5
2
0
x(2 x)
dx.
x
(101 )
1
dx convergent or divergent?
(1 x)2
(90 )
Homework. Find the volume of solid generated by revolving the curve y = ex sin x,
(100 )
Example
(TA) 10 (page 529). Show that if a > 1 and b > a+1, then the integral
Z
xa
dx is convergent.
1 + xb
0
Solution.
7.8-6
Chapter 8
gration
8.1
The Arc Length Formula (page 539). If f is continuous on [a, b], then the length
of the curve y = f (x), a x b, is
s
2
Z b
Z bp
dy
2
dx.
(1)
1 + (f (x)) dx =
1+
L=
dx
a
a
2
L=
1 + (g (y)) dy =
1+
dy.
(2)
dy
c
c
Proof. Suppose that a curve C is defined by the equation y = f (x), where f (x) is
continuous and a x b. We obtain a polygonal approximation to C by dividing
the interval [a, b] into n subintervals with endpoints x0 , x1 , . . . , xn and equal width
x. If yi = f (xi ), then the point Pi (xi , yi ) lies on C and the polygon with vertices
P0 , P1 , . . . , Pn is an approximation to C.
n
X
|Pi1 Pi |
i=1
When f is continuous on [a, b] (we say f C 1 ([a, b])), then by the Mean Value
Theorem, there is a number xi (xi1 , xi ) such that
p
p
|Pi1Pi | = (xi xi1 )2 + (yi yi1 )2 = (x)2 + (f (xi ) f (xi1 ))2
p
p
= (x)2 + (f (xi )x)2 = 1 + (f (xi ))2 x.
8.1-1
Therefore,
L = lim
n
n
X
|Pi1 Pi | =
i=1
|Pi1 Pi | =
so
L = lim
n
n
X
|Pi1 Pi | =
i=1
8.1-2
1
y(y
3
3), 1 y 9.
(94 )
ex +1
ex 1
for a x b.
(98 )
ds =
1+
dx
dy
8.1-3
2
dy.
8.2
In this section, we will derive the formula of the area of a surface of revolution.
Example 1 (page 545). Find the lateral surface area of a circular cylinder with
radius r and height h.
Solution.
Example 2 (page 546). Find the lateral surface area of a circular cone with base
radius r and slant height l.
Solution.
Example 3 (page 546). Find the lateral surface area of a band, which is a portion
of a circular cone with upper radius r1 , lower radius r2 , and slant height l.
Solution.
8.2-1
Example 4 (page 546). Find the surface area of the surface obtained by rotating
the curve y = f (x), a x b, about the x-axis.
Solution.
2
dx.
2y 1 +
S=
2f (x) 1 + (f (x)) dx =
dx
a
a
Recall that the differential of the arc length function is
s
2
dx
2
2
2
(ds) = (dx) + (dy) ds = 1 +
dy.
dy
(1)
If the curve is described as x = g(y), c y d, then the formula for surface area
(rotating about x-axis) becomes
s
2
Z d
dx
S=
2y 1 +
dy.
(2)
dy
c
Formula (1) and (2) can be formally written as
Z
2y ds.
For rotation about the y-axis, the surface area formula (formally) becomes
s
s
2
2
Z
dy
dx
dx = 1 +
dy
S = 2x ds, where ds = 1 +
dx
dy
8.2-2
Homework.
Z
(a) Find sec3 x dx.
(b) The curve y = ln x, 0 < x < 1, is rotated about y-axis. Find the area of the
resulting surface.
(99 )
8.2-3
Homework. Find the exact area of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
3
x x2 + sin1 ( x), 0 x 1.
8.2-4
8.3
.
.
, where g is the
The pressure P on the plate is defined to be the force per unit area:
P =
The SI unit for measuring pressure is N/m2 , which is called a pascal Pa, and
the kilopascal (kPa) is often used.
When using US Customary units, we write P = gd = d, where = d is the
weight density. For instance, the weight density of water is = 62.5 lb/ft3.
Example. The density of water is = 1000 kg/m3 , the pressure at the bottom
of a swimming pool 2 m(= 6.56 ft) deep is
P = gd = 1000 (kg/m3 ) 9.8 (m/s2 ) 2 (m) = 19, 600 (Pa) = 19.6 (kPa)
= d = 62.5 (lb/ft3) 6.56 (ft) = 410 (lb/ft2).
8.3-1
15
0
20 m
10
xi
a
30 m
x
Figure 2: Find the force on the dam due to hydrostatic pressure.
Solution.
Partition: We choose a vertical x-axis with origin at the surface of the water and
directed downward as in Figure 2. The depth of the water is 16 m, so we divide
the interval [0, 16] into subintervals of equal length with endpoints xi and we choose
xi [xi1 , xi ]. The i-th horizontal strip of the dam is approximated by a rectangle
with height x and width wi .
Approximation: From similarity, we have
10
a
=
a=
16 xi
20
and so
wi =
8.3-2
n
X
1000gxi (46 xi )x =
i=1
=
Example 2 (page 554). Find the hydrostatic force on one end of a cylindrical drum
with radius 3 ft if the drum is submerged in water 10 ft deep.
y
di
10
9 (yi )2
y
yi
x
x2 + y 2 = 9
Solution.
Partition: In this example it is convenient to choose the axes as in Figure 3 so that
the origin is placed at the center of the drum. Then the circle has a simple equation,
x2 +y 2 = 9. We divide the circular region into horizontal strips of equal width. From
p
the equation of the circle, we see that the length of the i-th strip is 2 9 (yi)2 and
so its area is
Ai =
8.3-3
n
X
i=1
p
62.5(7 yi )2 9 (yi)2 y =
=
Homework (page 560). A vertical plate is submerged in water and has the indicated
shaped. Explain how to approximate the hydrostatic force against one side of the
plate by a Riemann sum. Then express the force as an integral and evaluate it.
a
}2 m
12 m
4m
Figure 5: Find the hydrostatic force.
8.3-4
water level
m1
m2
The numbers m1 x1 and m2 x2 are called moments of masses m1 and m2 (with respect
to the origin).
Example 4 (page 555). Generalize the result in Example3 to n particles with masses
m1 , m2 , . . . , mn located at the points x1 , x2 , . . . , xn on the x-axis.
Solution. The center of mass of the system is located at
x =
8.3-5
where m =
n
P
mi is the total mass of the system, and the sum of the individual
i=1
moments M =
n
P
i=1
Example 5 (page 555). Find the center of mass of the system of n particles with
masses m1 , m2 , . . . , mn located at the points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xn , yn ) in the xyplane.
y
m1
(x1 , y1 )
m3
(x3 , y3 )
x
m2
(x2 , y2 )
n
X
mi xi .
i=1
n
X
mi yi .
i=1
n
P
My
,
m
y =
Mx
,
m
i=1
Since m
x = My and m
y = Mx , the center of mass (
x, y) is the point where a
single particle of mass m would have the same moments as the system.
8.3-6
Example 6 (page 556). We consider a flat plate (called a lamina ()) with
uniform density that occupies a region R of the plane. Locate the center of mass
of the plate, which is called the centroid () of R.
Solution. The symmetry principle says that if R is symmetric about a line l, then
the centroid of R lies on l. Thus the centroid of a rectangle is its center.
y
1 f (
Ci (
xi , 2
xi ))
x
xi xi+1
n
X
xi f (
xi )x =
i=1
8.3-7
Just for systems of particles, the center of mass of the plate is defined so that
m
x = My and m
y = Mx . But the mass of the plate is the product of its density
and its area:
Z b
m = A =
f (x) dx,
a
and so the center of mass of the plate on the centroid of R is located at the point
(
x, y), where
Z
Z
1 b1
1 b
xf (x) dx, y =
(f (x))2 dx
x =
A a
A a 2
Example 7 (page 557). Find the center of mass of a semicircular plate of radius r.
Solution.
Homework (page 558). Find the centroid of the region bounded by the curves
y = cos x, y = 0, x = 0, and x = 2 .
If the region R lies between two curves y = f (x) and y = g(x), where f (x)
g(x), then the similar arguments can show that the centroid of R is (
x, y), where
Z
Z
1 b
1 b1
x =
x(f (x) g(x)) dx, y =
[(f (x))2 (g(x))2 ] dx
A a
A a 2
Example 8 (page 559). Find the centroid of the region bounded by the line y = x
and the parabola y = x2 .
Solution.
8.3-8
Theorem of Pappus (page 559). Let R be a plane region that lies entirely on one
side of a line l in the plane. If R is rotated about l, then the volume of the resulting
solid is the product of the area A of R and the distance d traveled by the centroid of
R.
Example 9 (page 560). A torus is formed by rotating a circle of radius r about a
line in the plane of the circle that is a distance R(> r) from the center of the circle.
Find the volume of the torus.
Solution.
Homework (page 561). Find the centroid of the region bounded by y = sin x, y =
cos x, x = 0, and x = 4 .
8.3-9
Chapter 9
9.1
Differential Equations
(1)
In this formula, we allow C to vary through all the real numbers, and we get the
family of solution. But in real world problem, populations have only positive values
and so we are interested only in the solutions with C0 > 0. (We probably concerned
only with values of t greater than the initial time t = 0.) We can put t = 0 and
get P (0) = C0 ek 0 = C0 , so the constant C0 turns out to be the initial population
P (0).
9.1-1
dP
dt
dP
dt
P
M
P
M
is closed to 0 and so
is negative and so
dP
dt
dP
dt
kP .
< 0.
Equation (2) is called logistic differential equation and we can solve the equation by
the method of integration:
dP
k
P
=
= kP 1
P (M P )
dt
M
M
dP
dt
, and the
dP
dt
, and
In either case, if the population approached the carry capacity (p M), then
dP
, which means the population levels off.
dt
The graphs move away from the equilibrium solution P = 0 and move toward
the equilibrium solution P = M.
9.1-2
d2 x
= kx.
dt2
(3)
9.2
-3
-2
-1
-2
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
( )
-3
( )
-3
3
3
-3
-2
-1
-3
-2
-2
-3
-1
-1
-1
( )
-2
( )
-3
9.2-1
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Eulers method does not produce the exact solution to an initial-value problem
it gives approximations. But by decreasing the step size, we obtain successively
better approximations to the exact solution.
Example 2 (page 590). Use Eulers method with step sizes 0.5, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 to
construct a table of approximate values for the solution of the initial-value problem
y = x + y,
y(0) = 1.
Compare the graph of the Euler approximates with the exact solution 2ex x 1.
Solution. We can use Mathematica to get
Step size Euler estimate of y(0.5) Euler estimate of y(1)
0.5 1.5000
0.1 1.7210
0.01 1.78926
Exact solution
2.50000
3.18749
3.40963
1.79744
3.43656
2.5
1.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
9.2-2
0.8
9.2-3
9.3
In this section, we examine a certain type of differential equation that can be solved
explicitly.
Definition 1 (page 594). A separable equation is a first-order differential equation
dy
in which the expression for dx
can be factored as a function of x times a function of
y. In other words, it can be written in the form
dy
= g(x)f (y).
dx
Equivalently, if f (y) 6= 0, we could write
1 dy
= g(x).
f (y) dx
To solve this equation, we integrate both sides of the equations:
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
1 dy
dx = g(x) dx
dy = g(x) dx.
f (y) dx
f (y)
Example 2. Solve the initial value problem:
(
(xy 2 + y 2 + x + 1) dx + (y 1) dy = 0,
.
y(2) = 0
(101 )
Solution.
1 x2
dy
=
0<x1
.
dx
x
y(1) = 0
9.3-1
(89 )
.
(95 )
Homework. Solve
dy
y 2 sin x
=
with the initial condition y(0) = 1. (99 )
dx
1 + y3
(y4)(2x+1)
,
x2 +1
y(0) = 1.
(97 )
y
Example 5 (page 597). Show that the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves
x2 + y 2 = r 2 is ax + by = 0.
Solution.
Homework.
(a) Show that the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves x2 + y 2 = ax is
x2 + y 2 = by.
(b) Show that the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves y = cx2 is x2 +
2y 2 = k.
(c) Show that the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves y = ax3 is x2 +
3y 2 = b.
(98 )
Homework (page 601). Experiments show that the reaction H2 + Br2 2HBr
satisfies the rate law
1
d[HBr]
= k[H2 ][Br2 ] 2
dt
and so this reaction the differential equation becomes
1
dx
= k(a x)(b x) 2 ,
dt
where x = [HBr] and a and b are the initial concentrations of hydrogen and bromine.
(a) Find x as a function of t in the case where a = b. Use the fact that x(0) = 0.
(b) If a > b, find t as a function of x.
9.3-4
9.4
M
P
P,
P (0) = P0 ,
where k, r, and are positive constants. We can alter the differential equation as
dP
= kP cos2 (rt ),
dt
P (0) = P0 ,
m
,
P
lation.
9.4-1
9.5
(1)
dy
+ I(x)P (x)y = I(x)Q(x),
dx
(2)
We hope left hand side of equation (2) is the derivative of the product I(x)y(x):
dy dI
d
(I(x)y(x)) = I(x)
+
y.
dx
dx dx
(3)
Suppose that such I(x) exists, then we can solve the equation (1) as follows:
d
(I(x)y(x)) = I(x)Q(x)
dx
P (x) dx
Conclusion (page 617). To solve the linear differential equation y +P (x)y = Q(x),
R
multiply both sides by the integrating factor I(x) = e P (x) dx and integrate both
sides.
9.5-1
Remark 2. 1,
Example 3.
(a) Find the particular solution of 3xy y = ln x + 1, x > 0, satisfying y(1) = 2.
(98 )
.
(100 )
Solution.
explicitly.
(c) Find the function s(x) explicitly.
(102 )
dI
+ RI = E(t),
dt
switch
Figure 1: Electric circuits.
Example 5 (page 619). Suppose that the resistance is 12 and the inductance is
4 H. If a battery gives a constant voltage of E(t) = 60 sin 30t V and the switch is
closed when t = 0. Find I(t).
Solution.
Homework (page 619). Suppose that the resistance is 12 and the inductance is
4 H. If a battery gives a constant voltage of E(t) = 60 V and the switch is closed
when t = 0.
(a) Find I(t).
(b) Find the current after 1 s.
(c) Find the limit value of the current.
9.5-4
Definition 1 (page 636). Suppose that x and y are both given as functions of a
third variable t (called a parameter) by the equations
x = f (t),
y = g(t),
(called parameter equations). Each value of t determines a point (x, y), which we
can plot in a coordinate plane. As t varies, the point (x, y) = (f (t), g(t)) varies and
traces out a curve C, which we call a parametric curve.
Sometimes t can be realized as time and we can interpret (x, y) = (f (t), g(t))
as the position of a particle at time t, but in many cases, t does not necessarily
represent time, it is just a variable.
Example 2. How do we express the following curves by parametric equations?
Curve
Straight line passing through (x0 , y0)
Circle with center (x0 , y0) and radius r
Ellipse
(x x0 )2 (y y0 )2
+
=1
a2
b2
Hyperbola
x=
( y=
x=
(
Parabola (x x0 )2 = 4p(y y0 )
2
Parametric Equation
(
x=
( y=
(x x0 )
(y y0 )
=1
2
a
b2
y=
x=
y=
x=
y=
Example 4 (page 638). Sketch the curve with parametric equations x = sin t, y =
sin2 t.
Solution.
r
x
O
Figure 1: The cycloid.
If the circle has radius r and rolls along the x-axis and if one position of P is the
origin, find parametric equations for the cycloid.
Solution.
10.1-2
B
Figure 2: Brachistochrone Problem.
The Swiss mathematician John Bernoulli, who posed this problem in 1696,
showed that among all possible curves that join A to B, the particle will take the
least time sliding from A to B if the curve is part of an inverted arch of a cycloid.
Tautochrone Problem (), page 640
The Dutch physicist Huygens had already shown that the cycloid is also the solution
to the tautochrone problem: no matter where a particle P is placed on an inverted
cycloid, it takes the same time to slide to the bottom.
P
P
10.1-3
1.5
1.5
0.5
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
-1.5
1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
-2
-1
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 4: (a) x = sin t + 21 cos 5t + 14 sin 13t, y = cos t + 12 sin 5t + 14 cos 13t, t [0, 2].
(b) x = sin t+ 21 sin 5t+ 41 cos 2.3t, y = cos t+ 21 cos 5t+ 41 sin 2.3t, t [0, 20].
(c) x = sin t sin 2.3t, y = cos t, t [0, 20].
Homework (page 644). Find parametric equations for the set of all points P as
shown in the Figure 5 such that |OP | = |AB|. This curve is called the cissoid of
Diocles after the Greek scholar Diocles, who introduced the cissoid as a graphical
method for constructing the edge of a cube whose volume is twice that of a given
cube.
y
B
A
P
O
x = 2a
x
10.1-4
Homework (page 653). A string is wound around a circle and then unwound while
being held taut. The curve traced by the point P at the end of the string is called
the involute of the circle. If the circle has radius r and center O and the initial
position of P is (r, 0), an if the parameter is chosen as the Figure 6, show that
parametric equations of the involute are
x = r(cos + sin ),
y = r(sin cos ).
y
T
r
P
x
10.1-5
10.2
dx
dt
dy
:
dx
dy
=
dx
dy
dt
dx
dt
dx
6= 0.
dt
if
d2 y
dx2
as follows:
d dy
d dy
d2 y
dt dx
= dx .
=
dx2
dx dx
dt
d2 y
6
=
:
dx2
d2 y
dt2
d2 x
dt2
10.2-1
dy
dx
and
d2 y
.
dx2
upward?
(a) x = t2 + 1, y = t2 + t.
(b) x = cos 2t, y = cos t, 0 < t < .
Rb
a
F (x) dx,where
F (x) 0. If the curve is traced out once by the parameter equations x = f (t) and
y = g(t), t , then we can calculate an area formula by using the Substitution
Rule for Definite Integrals as follows:
Z b
Z
A=
y dx =
g(t)f (t) dt or
a
Example 2 (page 647). Find the area under one arch of the cycloid x = r(
sin ), y = r(1 cos ).
(98 )
Solution.
Homework (page 651). Find the area of the region enclosed by the astroid x 3 +y 3 =
2
a3 .
Homework (page 653). A cow is tied to a silo with radius r by a rope just long
enough to reach the opposite side of the silo. Find the area available for grazing by
the cow.
Hint: Part of the curve is the involute of the circle. (See Homework in section
10.1.)
10.2-2
a
The above formula is generally true even if C cant expressed in the form y = F (x).
Theorem 3 (page 649). If a curve C is described by the parametric equations x =
f (t), y = g(t), t , where f and g are continuous on [, ] and C is traversed
exactly once as t increases from to , then the length of C is
s
Z 2 2
dy
dx
+
dt.
L=
dt
dt
Example 4 (page 649). Find the length of one arch of the cycloid x = r(
sin ), y = r(1 cos ).
(100 )
Solution.
R
R
The general symbolic formulas S = 2y ds and S = 2x ds are still valid, but
for parametric curves we use
s
2
2
dy
dx
+
dt.
ds =
dt
dt
Example 5 (page 650). Show that the surface area of a sphere of radius r is 4r 2.
Solution.
Homework (page 652). Find the exact area of the surface obtained by rotating the
curve x = a cos3 , y = a sin3 , 0
Volume
See section 6.2 and 6.3.
Homework. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded
by one arch of the cycloid: x = r( sin ), y = r(1 cos ), and y = 0 about the
(101 )
x-axis.
10.2-4
10.3
P (r, )
r
O
polar axis
r
+
x
O
polar axis
Q(r, ) = (r, + )
Figure 1: Polar coordinate system. We choose a point in the plane that is called the
pole and is labeled O. Then we draw a ray starting at O called polar axis, which is
usually corresponds to the positive x-axis in Cartesian coordinates.
Here are some remarks about the polar coordinate system.
If P is any other point in the plane, let r be the distance from O to P and let
be the angle between the polar axis and the line OP . Then the point P is
represented by the ordered pair (r, ) are called polar coordinates of P .
We use the convention that an angle is positive if measured in the counterclockwise direction from the polar axis and negative in the clockwise direction.
If P = O, then r = 0 and we agree that (0, ) represents the pole for any value
of .
The points (r, ) an (r, ) lie on the same line through O and at the same
direction |r| from O, but on opposite sides of O. If r > 0, the point (r, ) lies
in the same quadrant as ; if r < 0, it lies in the quadrant on the opposite side
of the pole.
Notice that (r, ) represents the same point as (r, + ).
The connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates:
y
x
, sin = .
r
r
(b) x = r cos , y = r sin .
y
(c) r 2 = x2 + y 2 , tan = .
x
()
(a) cos =
()
()
10.3-1
Using the method for finding slopes of parametric curves and the Product Rule, we
have
dy
=
dx
(1)
Horizontal tangents:
(provided that
Vertical tangents:
(provided that
dy
d
dx
d
6= 0).
6= 0).
Tangent lines at the pole: we put r = 0 into formula (1) and get
dy
=
dx
Example 2 (page 660).
(a) For the cardioid r = 1 + sin , find the slope of the tangent line when = 3 .
(b) Find the points on the cardioid where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
Solution.
10.3-3
Homework. r = 1 + cos x
(96 )
Homework (page 663). Find a formula for the distance between the points with
polar coordinates (r1 , 1 ) and (r2 , 2 ).
Homework (page 664). Find the slope of the tangent line to the given polar curve
at the point specified by the value of . (a) r = 1 , = . (b) r = cos 2, = 4 .
Homework (page 664). Find the points on the given curve the tangent line is
horizontal or vertical. (a) r = 3 cos . (b) r = 1 sin .
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-2
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-0.5
-1.5
-1
-1
4
, 22 ]. (b) r = sin2 (1.2) +
Figure 2: (a) r = sin2 (2.4) + cos
(2.4), [ 2
2.4 2.4
cos3 (6), [0, 6] (c) r = sin 85 , [0, 10].
10.3-4
10.4
In this section, we develop the formula for the area of the region whose boundary is
given by a polar equation.
Example 1 (page 665). The area of a sector of a circle with the radius r and the
.
radian is A =
Example 2 (page 665). Find the area of a region R bounded by the polar curve
r = f () and by rays = a and = b, where f () is a positive continuous function
and 0 < b a 2.
Solution.
Example 3 (page 666). Find the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaved rose
r = cos 2.
Solution.
10.4-1
Example 4 (page 667). Find the area of the region R bounded by curves with
polar equations r = f (), r = g(), = a, and = b, where f () g() 0 and
0 < b a 2.
Solution.
To find all points of intersection of two polar curves, it is recommended that you
draw the graphs of both curves.
Example 5 (page 667). Find all points of intersection of the curves r = cos 2 and
r = 21 .
Solution.
Example (TA) 6. Find the area of the region that lies inside the curve r = 2+cos 2
but outside the curve r = 2 + sin .
(102 )
Solution.
10.4-2
Then using the Product Rule and differentiating with respect to , we obtain
dx
=
d
dy
=
d
so
dx
d
2
dy
d
2
=
Assuming that f () is continuous, we can write the arc length as
s
Z b 2 2
dx
dy
+
d =
L=
d
d
a
Example 7 (page 668). Find the length of the cardioid r = 1 + sin .
Solution.
10.4-3
Example (TA) 8 (page 669). Find the exact length of the polar curve r = 5 , 0
2.
Solution.
Homework (page 659). Find the area of the region that lies inside both curves
r = sin 2 and r = cos 2.
Homework.
(a) Find all points of intersection of the curves r = cos and r = 1 cos .
(b) Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r = cos and outside the
cardioid r = 1 cos .
(95 )
Homework. Consider the cardioid by r = 1 cos , 0 2.
(a) Find the area enclosed by this curve.
(97 )
(a) Plot the region A which is inside the circle r = 6 cos and outside the cardioid
r = 2(1 + cos ).
(b) Find the area of A.
(c) Find the length of the boundary of the region A.
(98 )
Volume
See section 6.2 and 6.3.
10.4-5
10.6
We have learned from high school about conic sections, such as ellipse (),
parabola (), and hyperbola (). At that time, we defined the parabola
in terms of a focus () and directrix (), but defined the ellipse and hyperbola
in terms of two foci.
In this section we give another unified treatment of all three types of conic
sections in terms of a focus and directrix. Furthermore, if we place the focus at the
origin, then a conic section has a simple polar equation.
Theorem 1 (page 678). Let F be a fixed point (called the focus) and L be a fixed
line (called the directrix) in a plane. Let e be a fixed positive number (called the
eccentricity ). The set of all points P in the plane such that
|P F |
=e
|P L|
(1)
(that is the ratio of the distance from F to the distance from L is the constant e) is
a conic section. The conic is an ellipse if e < 1, a parabola if e = 1, or a hyperbola
if e > 1.
y
P
r
L:x=d
Figure 1: Conic sections in polar coordinates.
Proof. If e = 1, then |P F | = |P L|, so it is a parabola.
We place the focus F at the origin and the directrix parallel to the y-axis an d
units to the right. (See Figure 1.) If the point has polar coordinates (r, ), then we
know
|P F | = r,
and |P L| = d r cos .
10.6-1
(2)
If we square both sides of this polar equation and convert to rectangular coordinates,
we get
x2 + y 2 =
After completing the square, we have
2
e2 d
y2
e2 d2
x+
+
=
.
1 e2
1 e2
(1 e2 )2
If e < 1, this is an ellipse of the form
(x h)2 y 2
+ 2 = 1,
a2
b
where h =
a2 =
b2 =
We have to show the focus of an ellipse defined in Theorem 1 is the same as the
focus defined in Section 10.5. It suffices to check
c2 = a2 b2 =
e4 d2
e2 d
c
=
= h.
(1 e2 )2
1 e2
where h =
a2 =
b2 =
We have to show the focus of a hyperbola defined in Theorem 1 is the same as the
focus defined in Section 10.5. It suffices to check
c2 = a2 + b2 =
e4 d2
e2 d
c
=
= h.
(e2 1)2
e2 1
Proof. From (2), we get the polar equation for the conic.
r = e(d r cos )
10.6-2
Homework. Show that each conic in Figure 2 has the corresponding polar equation.
y
y
y
r
L:y=d
x
r
P
x
L : x = d
(a)
L : y = d
(c)
(b)
ed
1e cos
(b) r =
ed
1+e sin
(c) r =
ed
.
1e sin
a(1 e2 )
.
1 + e cos
e2 d2
(1 e2 )2
10.6-3
planet
r
sun
aphelion
perihelion
a(1e2 )
1+e cos 0
a(1e2 )
1+e cos
a(1e)(1+e)
1+e
a(1e)(1+e)
1e
= a(1 e).
= a(1 + e).
a(1 e2 )
1.495 108 (1 (0.017)2)
=
.
1 + e cos
1 + 0.017 cos
Homework (page 684). The orbit of Halleys comet, last seen in 1986 and due to
return in 2062, is an ellipse with eccentricity 0.97 and one focus at the sun. The
length of its major axis is 36.18 AU. (An astronomical unit (AU) is the mean distance
between the earth and the sun, about 93 million miles.) Find a polar equation for
the orbit of Halleys comet. What is the maximum distance from the comet to the
sun?
10.6-5
: () Catenary
(catenary), ,
y
T
(x, y)
(0, a)
1:
1 , y-, (0, a),
H y(x) , (x, y)
T (), T x- () ,
(0, a) (x, y)
Z xp
1 + (y (t))2 dt
= = s =
0
, :
T sin = s
T cos = H,
dy
tan =
= y (x) =
dx
H
x , ,
tan = y (x) =
x
0
1 + (y (t))2 dt,
p
1 + (y (x))2
H
, : v(x) =
p
y (x), v (x) = H 1 + (v(x))2 , v(x)
(separable equation),
Z
Z
p
dv(x) =
dx =
x + C,
H
H
1 + (v(x))2
1
Z
Z
Z
1
1
2
p
p
dv(x) =
sec d = sec d
1 + (v(x))2
1 + tan2
p
2
= ln | sec + tan | + C = ln
1 + (v(x)) + v(x) + C,
p
( 1 + (v(x))2 + v(x) , )
p
ln
x + C
1 + (v(x))2 + v(x) =
H
v(0) = y (0) = 0 () C = 0
,
p
p
1 + (v(x)) = e
2
x
H
2v(x)e
x
H
e H x e H x
,
H
y(x) =
e H x + e H x
2
+ C ,
C , C = 0 y(0) = a a =
x
x
x
e a + e a
y(x) = a
= a cosh
2
a
. , , :
(8.1)
(2.7)
(5.5)
(9.3)
(9.3)
() (7.3)
sec x (7.2)
ex (Chain Rule) (3.4)
cosh x (3.11)
2
H
,
: Brachistochrone Problem
A B () , A B
A
1:
, (Snells Law)
:1 A 1 ( v1 ) 2 ( v2 ) B ,
1 2
sin 1
v1
sin 1
sin 2
=
sin 2
v2
v1
v2
A
y0
v1 y
1
v2
y2
1, v1
..
.
2, v2
vn
yn1
yn
B
y
2:
A B n , i = 1, . . . , n, yi = yi yi1
vi , i [yi1 , yi ] ,
, ,
sin 1
sin 2
sin n
=
= =
,
v1
v2
vn
n ,
sin
= k = ,
v
1
(1)
x-y A y- y(x)
,
1
1
1
=q
=p
=
sin = cos
2
sec 2
1 + (y (x))2
1 + tan2
2
, , y =
(1) :
k
v2
2g
v=
2gy, g
dy
1
=c
=
2gy = p
y(x)(1 + (y (x)) ) =
2
2
2gk
dx
1 + (y (x))
1
cy
(separable equation), :
r
y
dy
dx =
cy
, x y ,
(), :
y = c sin2 , 0 2 , dy = 2c sin cos d,
s
c sin2
2c sin cos d = 2c sin2 d = c(1 cos 2) d,
dx =
c cos2
sin 2
c
x=c
+ x( = 0) = (2 sin 2) = r( sin )
2
2
c
1 cos 2
= (1 cos 2) = r(1 cos ),
y=c
2
2
r =
c
2
= 2
. , :
(4.7)
(5.1)
(2.7)
(9.3)
() (7.2, 7.3)
(9.3)
(cycloid) (10.1)
2
:
A, B, C, D (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1),
1 , : A (B, C, D) B
(C, D, A)
(1) ? ?
(2) A ?
(3) A ?
(4) A ?
B
1:
(1) , A B
, , ,
, 1 , , ,
, , A B , B
,A 1 B , A, B 2
, 2
(2) A r = r(),
:
A : (r cos , r sin ),
, r sin +
= (r sin , r cos ),
B : r cos +
2
2
C : (r cos( + ), r sin( + )) = (r cos , r sin ),
3
3
D : r cos + , r sin +
= (r sin , r cos ),
2
2
1
r = r(t), = (t), A
r cos r sin r sin + r cos
p
, p
(r )2 + ( )2
(r )2 + ( )2
dr
dt
d
dt
= r
1
dr = d,
r
, ln |r| = + c r = c0 e ,
r = 2 > 0, ; r = 2, = 4 c0 = 2 e 4 ,
A r = 2 e 4 , 4 1
(3) , (improper integral):
Z
Z
Z p
2
2
2
(r) + (r ()) d =
d = 2 e lim
=
2e
= 2 e 2 lim
e d
i=
e = 2 e 2 lim e + e 2 = 2
= 2
(4) t 2 , , ,
. :
(10.3)
(2.7)
(10.4)
(9.3)
(9.3)
ex (Chain Rule) (3.4)
(7.8)
(2.1)
1
, r = 0 = A t = 0 t = 2
: (Four-leaved rose)
r = cos 2
1
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
= 4
-1
1: (Four-leaved rose)
2 : = 4 , r = 0 ,
= 4 , r = 0 ,
(a)
(b)
2: (a) ; (b)
(a) (polar equation) , ,
Z
Z
4 1
1 4 1 + cos 4
2
=
d
(cos 2) d =
2 4
2
4 2
=
sin 4 4
1 1
1 1
=
+
,
=
=
2 2
8
2 2 2
8
=
4
=
=
Z
Z
= 4
Z
Z
4
1 4
1 1 3
1
2
2
sin 2 cos 2 d =
sin 2 d sin 2 =
sin 2
= ,
2 4
2 3
3
4
=
4
Z
4
cos 2 sin d =
=
=
=
=
1 cos 2
cos 2
d
2
4
Z
Z
1 4
1 4
2
cos 2 d
cos3 2 d
2 4
2 4
Z
Z
1 4 1 + cos 4
1 4
d
(1 sin2 2) d sin 2
2 4
2
4 4
=
= 4
sin 4 4
1 3
1
1
+
sin 2 sin 2
4
4
4
3
= 4
= 4
2
1
1 1
2
= ,
4 2 4
3
8 3
8 ,
: ,
, , :
(r = f (), ), ,
x() = r() cos x () = r () cos r() sin
y() = r() sin y () = r () sin + r() cos ,
ds =
Z
p
2
((x ()) + (y ()) d =
p
r 2 + (r ())2 d,
, ,
: , ,
. , :
(10.3)
(5.2, 10.4)
(5.2, 10.4)
() (7.2)
(10.2, 10.4)
(7.5)
2
( 398, 495 )
Z
x dx =
n
e dx =
x
sin x dx =
2
sec x dx =
sec x tan x dx =
sec x dx =
tan x dx =
1
dx =
2
x +1
Z
1
dx =
x2 + a2
Z
1
dx =
2
x a2
Z
1
dx =
x
ax dx =
cos x dx =
csc2 x dx =
csc x cot x dx =
csc x dx =
cot x dx =
1
dx =
1 x2
Z
1
dx =
a2 x2
Z
1
dx =
2
x a2
Z
sin2 + cos2 =
1 + tan2 =
1 + cot2 =
sin(x y) =
cos(x y) =
sin 2 =
cos 2 =
sin2 =
cos2 =
sin x cos y =
cos x cos y =
sin x sin y =
( 398, 495 )
Z
xn+1
+C
x dx =
n+1
n
(n 6= 1)
ex dx = ex + C
sin x dx = cos x + C
sec2 x dx = tan x + C
sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
1
dx = tan1 x + C
+1
Z
1
1
1 x
+C
dx
=
tan
x2 + a2
a
a
Z
x a
1
1
+C
dx =
ln
x2 a2
2a x + a
Z
x2
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z
ax
ax dx =
+C
ln a
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C
Z
csc2 x dx = cot x + C
Z
csc x cot x dx = csc x + C
Z
csc x dx = ln | csc x cot x| + C
Z
cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z
1
dx = sin1 x + C
2
1x
Z
x
1
+ C, a > 0
dx = sin1
a
a2 x2
Z
1
dx = ln |x + x2 a2 | + C
x2 a2
Z
sin2 + cos2 = 1
1 + tan2 = sec2
1 + cot2 = csc2
sin(x y) = sin x cos y cos x sin y,
cos(x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 2 cos2 1 = 1 2 sin2
2
sin2 = 1cos
2
2
cos2 = 1+cos
2
11 14
James Stewart: Calculus, Early Transcendentals, Seventh
Edition, International Metric Version, c2012.
Chapter 11
11.1
n
,
n+1
n
{ 21 , 32 , 34 , . . . , n+1
, . . .}.
an =
(1)n (n+1)
,
3n
(c) { n 3}
n=3 ,
an =
4
{ 23 , 93 , 27
, . . . , (1) 3n(n+1) , . . .}.
{0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n 3, . . .}.
(d) {cos n
} ,
6 n=0
, n 0,
an = cos n
6
n
(a) { n+1
}
n=1 ,
n
n 3, n 3,
{1,
3 1
, , 0, . . . , cos n
, . . .}.
2 2
6
Example 3 (page 691). Here are some sequences that dont have a simple defining
equation.
(a) The Fibonacci sequence () {fn } is defined recursively by the conditions
f1 = f2 = 1,
fn = fn1 + fn2 ,
n 3.
The first few terms are {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . .}. This sequence arose
when the 13th-century Italian mathematician known as Fibonacci solved a
problem concerning the breeding of rabbits.
(b) If we let an be the digit in the n-th decimal place of the number 2, then {an }
is a well-defined sequence whose first few terms are {4, 1, 4, 2, 1, 3, 5, 6, 2, . . .}.
11.1-1
or
an L as n
Property 6 (Limit Laws for Sequences, page 693). If {an } and {bn } are convergent
sequences and c is a constant, then
(1) lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn .
n
(5) lim
an
n bn
lim an
n
lim bn
if lim bn 6= 0.
lim an
n
p
, !
, ,
Proof. Since
, by the
, we have lim an = 0.
n
11.1-2
Theorem 9 (page 693). If lim f (x) = L and f (n) = an when n is an integer, then
x
lim an = L.
n
9 10, , !
10 :
n
lim an = 0, lim |an | = lim an = 0 ()
n
n
(e) en = n n + 1 n + 3.
dn = 1 + n2
11.1-3
(2) If r = 1,
(3) If r = 0,
(4) If 1 < r < 0,
(5) If r = 1,
(6) If r < 1,
, :
, :
(completeness axiom)
11.1-4
2 + an . Show that {an } is increasing, bounded above by 3, lim an exists, and find
n
lim an .
n
Solution.
11.1-5
Homework (page 701). Show that the sequence defined by a1 = 1, an+1 = 3 a1n
is increasing and an < 3 for all n. Deduce that {an } is convergent and find its limit.
n
Example (TA) 17 (page 702). Let an = 1 + n1 . Show that lim an exists.
n
Solution.
Homework (page 702). Let a and b be positive numbers with a > b. Let a1 be
their arithmetic mean () and b1 their geometric mean ():
a+b
a1 =
,
b1 = ab.
2
Repeat this process so that, in general
p
an + bn
an+1 =
,
bn+1 = an bn .
2
(a) Use mathematical induction () to show that an > an+1 > bn+1 > bn .
(b) Deduce that both {an } and {bn } are convergent.
(c) Show that lim an = lim bn . Gauss called the common value of these limits
n
n
the arithmetic-geometric mean of the numbers a and b.
11.1-6
11.2
n
X
ak = a1 + a2 + + an .
k=1
def.
an = lim
n
n=1
n
X
k=1
which means the limit of the partial sums of the sequence {an }
n=1 .
(3) If the limit lim sn = s exists (or convergent) as a finite number, then we say
n
P
the series
an convergent, and the number s is called the sum of the infinite
n=1
series
an ().
n=1
an is called divergent.
n=1
Example 2 (page 704). In this chapter, we are not interested in the infinite arithmetic series ( ):
def.
n=1
where each term is obtained from the preceding one by adding it by the common
difference () d. This is because the arithmetic series is convergent if and only if
a = 0 and d = 0.
Example 3 (page 705). The geometric series ( ) is an infinite
series
def.
ar n1 = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + + ar n1 + ,
a 6= 0.
n=1
Each term is obtained from the preceding one by multiplying it by the common ratio
() r. We will discuss the convergence or divergence of the geometric series in
the following theorem.
11.2-1
ar n1 = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + + ar n1 + ,
a 6= 0.
n=1
X
n=1
ar n1 =
a
1r
if
|r| < 1.
def.
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + + xn +
n=0
Homework. Write the number 0.285714, 2.317, and 0.9 as a ratio of integers.
11.2-2
1
n(n+1)
n=1
1
n2
is convergent.
n=1
Hint: (a)
1
n(n+1)
1
n2
n=1
Proof.
Test for Divergence (page 709). If lim an does not exist or if lim an 6= 0, then
n
n
P
an is divergent.
the series
n=1
X
1 1 1
1
1 def.
= 1+ + + ++ + .
n
2 3 4
n
n=1
n
lim an = 0,
:
n=1
an
n=1
1
ar n1
n=1
11.2-3
n=1
n2
an and
n=1
series
c an (where c is a constant),
(an + bn ), and
n=1
c an = c
n=1
(b)
(c)
n=1
n=1
(a)
(an bn ), and
n=1
an .
n=1
(an + bn ) =
n=1
n=1
(an bn ) =
n=1
an
an
n=1
bn .
n=1
n=1
an +
bn .
n=1
bn
n=1
P
P
P
! an bn 6= an bn !
n=1
n=1
n=1
P
P
P
an bn , (an + bn ) ( 11.2, #83)
n=1
n=1
an
n=1
n=1
bn ,
n=1
n=1
Example (TA) 9 (page 711). Determine whether the series is convergent or divergent. If it is convergent, find its sum.
(a)
n
n=1
X
1
1
(b)
+
en n(n + 1)
n=1
Solution.
11.2-4
(c)
X
n=2
n3
1
.
n
X
X
X
n
3
2
1 + 2n
(c)
ln
.
(b)
+
(a)
3n
5n n
n+1
n=1
n=1
n=1
Example (TA) 10 (page 714).
n
.
(n+1)!
n=1
11.3
The Integral Test (page 716). Suppose f (x) is a continuous, positive, decreasing
P
function on [1, ) and let an = f (n). Then the series
an is convergent if and
n=1
R
only if the improper integral 1 f (x) dx is convergent. In other words,
(a) If
(b) If
an is convergent.
n=1
an is divergent.
n=1
1
np
n=1
divergent if p 1.
Proof. If p < 0,
If p = 0,
If p > 0, consider f (x) =
Since
1
,
xp
f (x) ,
n = 1, x = 1 ;
,
11.3-1
ln n
n
converges or diverges.
n=1
Solution.
x ,
Homework. Determine the value of p 0 such that the series
1
n(ln n)p
converges.
n=2
ln n
np
(89, 97 )
where p = 1 and p =
3
,
2
for
n=1
convergence.
(101 )
n=1
ak .
k=n+1
Remainder Estimate for the Integral Test (page 718). Suppose f (k) = ak ,
P
where f (x) is a continuous, positive, decreasing function for x n and
an is
n=1
convergent. If Rn = s sn , then
Z
Z
f (x) dx Rn
n+1
f (x) dx.
11.3-2
(1)
1
.
n3
How many
n=1
terms are required to ensure that the sum is accurate to within 0.005?
Solution.
1
n(ln n)2
n=2
Appendix
Example (TA) 4. Determine the values p such that the series
1
n(ln n)(ln(ln n))p
n=3
converges.
Solution.
11.3-3
(90 )
Example (TA) 5 (page 722). Find all values of c for which the following series
converges:
X
c
n=1
n n+1
Solution.
Example (TA) 6 (page 721). Show that if we want to approximate the sum of the
P
1
series
so that the error is less than 5 in the ninth decimal place, then we
n1.001
n=1
11.3-4
11.4
an and
n=1
bn is convergent, then
n=1
(b) If
n=1
an is also convergent.
n=1
an is divergent, then
n=1
bn is also divergent.
n=1
Proof. Let sn =
n
P
ak , tn =
n
P
bk , and t =
tk .
k=1
k=1
k=1
(a) Monotone: Since both series have positive terms, the sequences {sn }
n=1 and
P
By the
,
an converges.
n=1
(b) If
n=1
bn diverges.
n=1
Most of time we use p-series and geometric series for the purpose of comparison.
(1) p-series:
1
.
np
It is convergent if
and divergent if
n=1
ar n1 . It is convergent if
and divergent if
n=1
n!
nn
is convergent.
(90, 94 )
n=1
Solution.
n+1n .
n+1+ n
(Hint: )
n=0
(b)
q
P
sin n13 . (Hint:
n=1
11.4-1
(99 )
Homework.
(a) Prove that ln(n + 1) < 1 + 12 + +
(b) Test for convergence of
n=1
1
n
< 1 + ln n.
1
1 .
1+ 21 ++ n
(102 )
n=1
an and
bn are series
n=1
an
= c,
bn
where c is a finite number and c > 0, then either both series converge or both diverge.
lim
Proof. Let m and M be positive numbers such that m < c < M. Since abnn is close
to c for large n, there is an integer N such that
an
m<
< M mbn < an < Mbn
when n > N.
bn
, we know both series converge or both diverge.
By the
Example 2 (page 725-726). Determine whether the following series converges or
diverges.
X
X
2n2 + 3n
9n
(b)
.
(a)
n
5
3
+
10
5
+
n
n=1
n=1
Solution.
Homework (page 726). Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.
2
1
X
X
X
en
1
1
n
(c)
.
e
(b)
(a)
1+
1
1+ n
n
n
n=1
n=1 n
n=1
11.4-2
an converges by
n=1
n=1
an by
n=1
comparing remainders.
Consider the remainder Rn = s sn = an+1 + an+2 + and Tn = t tn =
bn+1 + bn+2 + . Since an bn for all n, we have Rn Tn .
P
(1) If
bn is a p-series, we can estimate its remainder Tn as in Section 11.3.
n=1
(2) If
n=1
Example 3 (page 725). Use the sum of the first 100 terms to approximate the sum
P
1
. Estimate the error involved in this approximation.
of the series
n3 +1
n=1
Solution.
10
P
cos2 n
5n
.
= 0.07393 to estimate the error of the sum of
n=1
the series
cos2 n
.
5n
n=1
Solution.
10
P
1
3n +4n
.
= 0.19788 to estimate the error of the sum
n=1
of the series
1
.
3n +4n
n=1
11.4-3
Appendix
Example (TA) 5 (page 727).
(a) Suppose that
an and
n=1
n=1
an
n bn
an and
n=1
= 0, then
an is also convergent.
n=1
n=1
an
n bn
n=1
= , then
an is also divergent.
n=1
X
ln n
n=1
n3
(2)
bn is
n=1
X
ln n
n
ne
n=1
Solution.
11.4-4
(3)
X
1
ln n
n=2
(4)
X
ln n
n=1
bn is
11.5
(1)n1
n=1
(1)n
n=1
1 1 1 1 1
1
= 1 + + +
n
2 3 4 5 6
n
1 2 3 4 5 6
= + + +
n+1
2 3 4 5 6 7
(1)n1 bn = b1 b2 + b3 b4 + b5 b6 + ,
where bn > 0,
n=1
satisfies
(a) bn+1 bn for all n
(b) lim bn = 0,
n
,
Example 3 (page 729). Determine whether the following series converges or diverges.
(a)
X
(1)n1
n=1
(b)
Solution.
11.5-1
X
(1)n 3n
n=1
4n 1
n=1
Solution.
(1)
n=1
1
n
(1)n1 bn is
n=1
( (a) (b)),
,
Example 5 (page 730). Find the sum of the series
(1)n
n!
n=0
place.
1
=
Solution. Since (n+1)!
P (1)n
converges by the
n!
1
(n+1)n!
<
1
n!
1
n n!
and 0 lim
1
n n
lim
= 0, the series
n=0
timation Theorem we hope |s sn | bn+1 < 0.0005, so (n + 1)! > 2000 and n 6.
.
Hence s s6 = 0!1 1!1 + 2!1 3!1 + 4!1 5!1 + 6!1 = 0.368056 correct to three decimal
places.
Homework (page 731). How many terms of the series do we need to add in order
P
to find the sum of the series
(1)n+1 n16 correct to four decimal place?
n=1
11.5-2
11.6
P
(1) A series
an is called absolutely convergent () if the series of absolute
n=1
values
|an | is convergent.
n=1
(2) A series
n=1
P
(1)n
is absolutely convergent.
(a) The series
n2
n=1
(1)n
n
is conditionally convergent.
n=1
n=1
(95 )
Solution.
(1)n1
n=1
n+1 n1
n
and (b)
(1)n
n(ln n)
is
n=2
P
Theorem 4 (page 733). If a series
an is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.
n=1
Proof.
11.6-1
P
=
L
<
1,
then
the
series
an is absolutely convergent (and
(a) If lim an+1
an
n
n=1
therefore convergent).
P
an+1
an+1
(b) If lim an = L > 1 or lim an = , then the series
an is divergent.
n
n=1
an+1
(c) If lim an = 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive (); that is, no
n
P
conclusion can be drawn about the convergence or divergence of
an .
n=1
, r , L < r < 1
P
P
3
2 n
conditionally convergent, or divergent. (a)
(1)n 3nn
(b)
(1)n+1 n n!2 .
n=1
n=1
Solution.
, (Ratio Test)
,
P
P
1
1
:
n
n
2
n=1
n=1
n2
P
P
(n!)2
2
(b)
. (101 )
conditionally convergent, or divergent. (a)
n!
(5n)!
n=1
n=1
p
n
p
n
n=1
therefore convergent).
(b) If lim
p
P
n
|an | = , then the series
an is divergent.
n=1
p
(c) If lim n |an | = 1, the Root Test is inconclusive ().
n
11.6-2
n=1
Solution.
2n+3 n
.
3n+2
n=1
(11.8 )
Homework (page 737). Determine whether the series is absolutely convergent, con
n2
P
P
ditionally convergent, or divergent. (a)
1 + n1
(b)
( n n 1)2n .
n=1
n=1
(101 )
P
By a rearrangement of an infinite series
an () we mean a series obn=1
P
tained by simply changing the order of the terms. Formally, we will write
a(n)
(n)
where (n) is an one-to-one map from the natural number N to itself. For instance,
P
a rearrangement of
a(n) could start as follows:
(n)
n=1
n=1
(b) If
n=1
n=1
11.6-3
P
P
Theorem 9. If
an and
bn are two absolutely convergent series with sum A
n=0
n=0
P
n
P
n=0 k=0
P
n
P
n=0 k=0
Appendix
Proof of Ratio Test, page 734.
(a) Since L <
1, we can choose a number
r such that L < r < 1. Since
an+1
a
lim
will eventually be less than r;
= L and L < r, the ratio n+1
an
n an
that is, there exists an integer N such that
an+1
an < r |an+1 | < |an |r whwnever n N.
In general, we get
|aN +k | < |aN +k1|r < |aN +k2 |r 2 < < |aN |r k
for all k 1.
X
X
X
|aN |
|aN |r k =
|aN +k | <
.
|an | =
1
r
n=N +1
k=1
k=1
Hence
n=1
an is absolutely convergent.
n=1
an+1
an+1
(b) If an+1
L
>
1
or
,
then
the
ratio
an
an will eventually be
an
greater than 1; that is, there exists an integer N such that
an+1
> 1 |an+1 | > |an | whwnever n N.
lim
n an
Since lim an 6= 0, the series
n
n=1
11.6-4
11.7
We have several ways of testing a series for convergence or divergence. There are no
fast rules about which test to apply to a given series, but you may find the following
advice of some use.
(1) If lim an 6= 0, then the Test for Divergence should be used.
n
1
,
np
n=1
be convergent if
and divergent if
ar n1 , it is a geometric series (,
n=1
), which converges if
and diverges if
(4) If the series has a form that is similar to a p-series or a geometric series, then
one of the comparison tests should be considered.
(a) If an is a rational function or algebraic function of n (involving roots of
polynomials), then the series should be compared with a p-series. The
value of p should be chosen by keeping only the highest powers of n in
the numerator and denominator.
(b) The comparison tests apply only to series with positive terms.
P
(c) If
an has some negative terms, then we can apply the Comparison
n=1
Test to
n=1
(Comparison Test)
(5) If the series is of the form
(1)n bn or
n=1
n=1
(6) Series that involve factorials or other products (including a constant raised to
the n-th
power)
are often conveniently tested using the Ratio Test. Notice
an+1
that an as n for all p-series and therefore all rational or algebraic
functions of n. Thus the Ratio Test should note be used for such series.
(Ratio Test)
(7) If an is of the form (bn )n , the the Root Test may be useful.
R
(8) If an = f (n), where 1 f (x) dx is easily evaluated, then the Integral Test is
effective (assuming the hypotheses of this test are satisfied).
11.7-1
P
n
n=1
Solution.
2 1 is divergent.
(90 )
Example (TA) 2. Determine the following series are absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or divergent.
P
(1)n
.
(a)
n+1+ n
n=1
(b)
(1)n
.
n+1 n
n=1
(c)
n=1
(1)n
.
n3 +1 n3
(96 )
Solution.
11.7-2
X
n=1
123n
.
(a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3) (a + n)
(89 )
Homework. Find the values of p for the convergence of the series below
(a)
en(p
2 p2)
n=0
(b)
e n 1
.
np
(102 )
n=1
n=2
11.7-3
1
n ln n
1+
1 n
x
(100 )
X
X
X
n
(2n + 1)n
1
2.
3.
(1)n
1.
n
2n
n+3
n
n+2
n=1
n=1
n=1
n
4.
(1) 2
n +2
n=1
7.
X
n=1
10.
8.
n=1
13.
16.
19.
22.
X
3n n2
n=1
n=1
n=1
X
k=1
n2 + 1
n3 + 1
n ln n
1
2 + sin k
31.
26.
X
en
n=1
k=1
29.
n2
5k
3k + 4k
1
34.
n + n cos2 n
n=1
n
X
n
21
37.
32.
35.
38.
n=1
40.
43.
X
n2 + 1
n=1
X
n=2
46.
X
n=1
n3 + 1
1
n ln n
X
n2 + 1
n=1
n=1
5n
(1)n
cosh n
(n!)n
n4n
1
n=2 n
X
21
41.
44.
X
n3
n=1
X
n=1
47.
5n
ln
n
3n + 1
12.
1
2n + 1
n=1
k 2 ek
X
k=1
18.
21.
X
2k1 3k+1
k=1
n=1
5n n!
11.7-4
kk
(1)n1
n1
(1) cos
n
1
24.
n sin
n
n=1
X
k ln k
27.
(k + 1)3
k=1
X
j
j
30.
(1)
j+5
j=1
n2
X
n
33.
n+1
n=1
n=2
X
n=1
1
k k2 + 1
n=1
39.
X
1 3 5 (2n 1)
n=1
k=1
36.
1
1+ n
n=1
2n
n
(1 + 2n2 )n
n=1
9.
15.
n!
2 5 8 (3n + 2)
n=1
X
n2 1
20.
n3 + 2n2 + 5
n=1
X
1
23.
tan
n
n=1
17.
X
n!
25.
en2
n=1
28.
X
sin 2n
14.
1 + 2n
n=1
n!
(1)
n=1
6.
(5)n
2 k!
(k + 2)!
k=1
X
1
1
11.
+ n
3
n
3
n=1
n ln n
n2 en
5.
X
n2 2n1
1
(ln n)ln n
n3
n
+1
X
(1)n
42.
n+1
n=1
45.
X
n=1
48.
cos 3n
1 + (1.2)n
X
(5)2n
n=1
n2 9n
1
n2
49.
(1)
n1
n=1
52.
n
n+1
(1)n1 n3
n=1
n
50.
X
n=1
53.
n+1
n
X
(1)n (n + 1)3n
22n+1
n=1
cos 3
55.
n!
n=1
5n
X
2n
58.
n+1
n=2
(2)n
56.
nn
n=1
n2
X
1
59.
1+
n
n=1
61.
62.
X
n=1
100
100
n!
n1
X
n=1
n2
2
n!
51.
(1)n1 n 3
n=1
54.
57.
60.
X
(1)n n
n=1
X
n=1
X
n=1
ln n
n2 + 1
2n2 + 1
n
(2n)!
(n!)2
13 135 1357
1 3 5 (2n 1)
+
+ + (1)n1
+
3!
5!
7!
(2n 1)!
2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
+
+
+
64. +
5 5 8 5 8 11 5 8 11 13
X
2 4 6 (2n)
65.
n!
n=1
63. 1
66.
X
n=1
(1)n
2n n!
5 8 11 (3n + 2)
11.7-5
11.8
cn xn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ,
n=0
where x is a variable and the cn s are constants called the coefficients () of the
series.
A power series may converge for some values of x and diverge for other values of
x. The sum of the series is a function
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + + cn xn +
whose domain () is the set of all x for which the series converges.
() ()
Example 2 (page 741). If cn 1, the power series becomes the geometric series
xn = 1 + x + x2 + + xn + ,
n=0
cn (x a)n = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 +
n=0
(x a)0 = 1, x = a
a , x = a ,
Theorem 4 (page 743). For a given power series
n=0
possibilities:
(a) The series converges only when x = a.
(b) The series converges for all x.
(c) There is a positive number R such that the series converges if |x a| < R and
diverges if |x a| > R. (, )
11.8-1
(a R, a + R]
[a R, a + R)
[a R, a + R].
Example 6 (page 742). Find the interval of the convergence of the following series:
(a)
n!x
n=0
(b)
X
(1)n x2n
n=0
22n (n!)2
X
1
(Bessel function of order 0) (c)
(x 3)n .
n
n=1
(90 )
Solution.
11.8-2
Example (TA) 7.
(a) Evaluate lim
x0
1cos x
.
x2
1
1cos( n
)
1
n 1cos( n+1 )
1 cos
n=1
1
n
xn .
(97 )
Solution.
X
n!(3n + 1)
xn .
1 3 5 (2n + 1)
n=0
Homework. Consider the power series
(95 )
1
xn .
n ln n
n=2
n
P
x .
Homework. Find the interval of convergence of the series
ln n+1
n
n=1
(101 )
11.8-3
11.9
X
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + + xn + =
xn
1x
n=0
if |x| < 1.
1
=
1 + x2
(2)
x
=
2+x
n=0
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a) + =
cn (x a)n
n=0
ncn (x a)n1 .
n=1
(b)
X
(x a)2
(x a)n+1
(x a)3
cn
+c2
+ = C+
.
2
3
n+1
n=0
, ,
(term-by-term differentiation and integration)
11.9-1
(a), (b), :
d
(a)
dx
(b)
cn (x a)n
n=0
cn (x a)
n=0
X
d
(cn (x a)n )
dx
n=0
dx =
Z
X
cn (x a)n dx
n=0
(),
Example 3 (page 749). Express the following function as a power series and find
its interval of convergence.
(1) f (x) =
1
(1 x)2
Solution.
Homework (page 751). Find a power series representation for the following function
and determine the interval of convergence.
(1) f (x) =
3
.
x2 x2
(2) g(x) =
x2 +x
.
(1x)3
Homework.
(a) Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence of the power
P
(x1)n
.
series
(2)n n
n=1
(x1)n
(2)n n
n=1
(102 )
Example 4 (page 752). Find the sum of each of the following series.
X
X
n
n
.
(1)
nx , |x| < 1
(2)
2n
n=1
n=1
Solution.
Homework (page 753). Find the sum of each of the following series.
X
X
X
n2 n
n2
n
n(n 1)x , |x| < 1
(2)
(1)
,
(3)
.
n
n
2
2
n=1
n=1
n=1
R 1
Example 5 (page 750). Evaluate 1+x7 dx as a power series and approximate
R 0.5 1
dx correct to within 107.
0
1+x7
1
dx =
1 + x7
, that is
By the Alternating Series Theorem, the error is smaller than the term with n = 4:
1
6.4 1011 , so we have
29229
Z 0.5
1
dx
1 + x7
0
11.9-3
X
xn
n=1
n2
11.9-4
11.10
In this section, we will answer two questions: Which functions have power series
representation? How can we find such representation?
We observe a smooth function f (x) that can be represented by a power series:
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 + c3 (x a)3 +
|x a| < R.
(1)
(2)
cn =
cn (x a)n
|x a| < R
n=0
f (n) (a)
.
n!
Definition 2 (page 754). If f (x) has a power series expansion at a, then it must
be of the following form:
f (x) =
X
f (n) (a)
n=0
n!
(x a)n = f (a) +
f (a)
f (a)
(x a) +
(x a)2 + .
1!
2!
(3)
The series in equation (3) is called the Taylor series of the function f (x) at a (or
about a or centered at a) ( f (x) x = a ).
: f (x) , f (x)
(): ?()
Definition 3 (page 754). For the special cases a = 0 the Taylor series becomes
f (x) =
X
f (n) (0)
n=0
n!
xn = f (0) +
f (0)
f (0) 2
x+
x + .
1!
2!
Example 4 (page 754). Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = ex and
its radius of convergence.
, so f (n) (0) =
Solution. We compute f (n) (x) =
Therefore the Maclaurin series of f (x) = ex is
X
f (n) (0)
n=0
n!
for all n N.
xn =
, then
By the
Question 5 (page 755). Under what circumstances is a function equal to the sum
of its Taylor series? In other words, if f (x) has derivatives of all orders, when is it
true that
X
f (n) (a)
def.
?
(x a)n = lim Tn (x),
f (x) =
n
n!
n=0
where
Tn (x) =
n
X
f (k) (a)
k=0
k!
(x a)k = f (a) +
f (n) (a)
f (a)
(x a) + +
(x a)n .
1!
n!
(4)
Definition 6 (page 755). The polynomial Tn (x) in (4) is called n-th degree Taylor
polynomial of f (x) at a (f (x) x = a n-).
: ,
Solution. Let the remainder () of the Taylor series be
def,
Conversely, if f (x) = lim Tn (x), then lim Rn (x) = lim (f (x) Tn (x)) = 0.
n
Theorem 7 (page 756). If f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x), where Tn (x) is the n-th degree
Taylor polynomial of f (x) at a, then f (x) is equal to the sum of its Taylor series on
the interval |x a| < R if and only if
lim Rn (x) = 0
n
for |x a| < R.
:
11.10-2
Question 8 (page 756). How do we show that lim Rn (x) = 0 for a specific function
n
f (x)?
Theorem 9. Suppose that f (x) has continuous derivative at x = a up to n + 1
order, then
f (x) = f (a) +
where Rn (x) =
f (n) (a)
f (a)
(x a) + +
(x a)n + Rn (x)
1!
n!
f (n+1) (c)
(x a)n+1 , c is a number between a and x.
(n + 1)!
f (n) (t)
f (t)
(x t)
(x t)n ,
1!
n!
n
X
f (k+1) (t)
k=0
=
=
k!
n
X
f (k+1) (t)
k=0
n
X
k=0
k!
(x t)
k
n
X
f (k) (t)
k=1
k!
n
X
f (k) (t)
k
(x t) +
(x t)k1
(k
1)!
k=1
n1
X f (k+1) (t)
f (k+1) (t)
f (n+1) (t)
(x t)k +
(x t)k =
(x t)n .
k!
k!
n!
k=0
Let h(t) = (x t)n+1 , by the Cauchy Theorem (generalized Mean Value Theorem),
then there exists c (a, x) such that
(n+1)
(c)(xc)
f
g(x) g(a)
0 Rn (x)
g (c)
n!
=
=
,
h (c)
h(x) h(a)
(n + 1)(x c)n
0 (x a)n+1
Rn (x) =
so
f (n+1) (c)
(x a)n+1 .
(n + 1)!
, , c
Once we have this expression of the remainder, we can estimate it by the following
theorem.
Taylors Inequality (page 756). If |f (n+1) (x)| M for |x a| d, then the
remainder Rn (x) of the Taylor series satisfies the inequality
(n+1)
f
M
(c)
n+1
(x a)
|x a|n+1 for |x a| d.
|Rn (x)| =
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
11.10-3
Example 11 (page 758). Find the Maclrurin series for f (x) = sin x. Prove that it
represents sin x for all x.
Solution. We compute for k = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
f (4k) (x) =
f (4k) (0) =
f (4k+1) (x) =
f (4k+1) (0) =
f (4k+2) (x) =
f (4k+2) (0) =
f (4k+3) (x) =
f (4k+3) (0) =
Since f (n+1) (x) is sin x or cos x, we know that |f (n+1) (x)| 1 for all x R. By
Taylors Inequality:
|Rn (x)| =
and
lim |Rn (x)|
n
f (4k+1) (x) =
f (4k+2) (x) =
f (4k+3) (x) =
f (4k) ( 3 ) =
f (4k+1) ( 3 ) =
f (4k+2) ( 3 ) =
f (4k+3) ( 3 ) =
is
(2) Instead of computing derivatives and substituting in the Maclaurin series for
cos x, we can differentiate the Maclaurin series for sin x:
cos x =
Since the Maclaurin series for sin x converges for all x, the differential series
for cos x also converges for all x.
(3) We can multiply the series for cos x by x:
x cos x =
Example 13 (page 760). Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x)m , where m
is any real number.
Solution.
11.10-5
Example 14 (page 760). Find the radius of convergence of the binomial series (
P
m(m1)(mn+1) n
x .
, )
n!
n=0
Solution. If m is a nonnegative integer, then the terms are eventually 0 and so the
series is finite. For other values of m, if the n-th term is an , then
an+1
an =
By the
and diverges if
The Binomial Series (page 761). If m is any real number and |x| < 1, then
(1 + x) =
m
Cnm xn = 1 + mx +
n=0
,
Definition 15 (page 769). Numbers Cnm =
called binomial coefficients ().
m(m 1)(m 2) (m n + 1)
are
n!
1
4x
Solution. We rewrite f (x) in a form where we can use the binomial series:
1
=
4x
, we have
1
=
4x
X
1
=
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 +
(1)
1 x n=0
(2) e =
x
X
xn
n=0
(3) sin x =
= 1+
n!
X
(1)n x2n+1
(2n + 1)!
n=0
(4) cos x =
x
x2 x3
+
+
+
1! 2!
3!
X
(1)n x2n
(2n)!
n=0
(5) tan1 x =
=1
X
(1)n x2n+1
2n + 1
n=0
(6) ln(1 + x) =
X
(1)n xn
n=0
(7) (1 + x) =
m
= x
x3 x5 x7
+
+
3!
5!
7!
x2 x4 x6
+
+
2!
4!
6!
=x
=x
x2 x3 x4
+
+
2
3
4
Cnm xn = 1 + mx+
n=0
x3 x5 x7
+
+
3
5
7
R=1
R=
R=
R=
R=1
R=1
+ .
2
3
12 22
32
4 24
Solution.
ex 1 x
.
x0
x2
Solution. Using the Maclaurin series for ex , we have
Example 18 (page 763). Evaluate lim
ex 1 x
=
x0
x2
lim
=
because power series are continuous functions.
11.10-7
11.10-8
1
2
(89 )
Solution.
(1) We replace x with x2 in the series for ex and get, for all x R,
2
ex =
We integrate term by term:
Z
2
ex dx =
The series converges
because ex converges
(2) We compute
Z 1
2
ex dx =
0
The Alternating Series Estimation Theorem shows that the error is less than
(98 )
Solution.
11.10-9
(102 )
11.10-10
(94 )
Homework.
(a) Find the Taylor series for f (x) = (x2 + x + 1) x + 1 at x = 0 up to the third
power of x.
q
2
(b) Let f (x) = ln 1+x
. Find f (10) (0).
(101 )
1x2
1
Homework. Find the first three terms of the Maclaurin series of ((1x2 )(1+x)) 4 .
(99 )
(x tan1 x)(e3x 1)
.
x0
2x2 1 + cos 2x
(100 )
sin x tan1 x x2 +
Homework. Find lim
x0
x6
x4
2
(95 )
Homework.
(a) Find the Maclaurin series for f (y) = sin y.
Z
2
(b) Evaluate
sin(cos x) dx correct to within an error of 0.01.
(98 )
Homework*.
(a) Find the Taylor expansion of
2 cos x at x = 4 .
Homework*. Find the Taylor series representation for f (x) = ln(2 + 3x) about
x = 1. For what values of x is this representation valid?
(100 )
Homework*. Let f (x) = x tan1 x. Find f (16) (0).
(93 )
(97 )
Homework*.
(a) Write down the general terms of the Maclaurin series of f (x) = ln
(b) Find the values of f (10) (0).
1 + x2 .
(99 )
11.10-11
Homework*. Express
with error less than
1
.
1000
Homework*. Estimate
(90 )
Z
(95 )
Homework*.
(a) Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = tan1 x and its radius of convergence.
Z 1
4 tan1 x
11.10-12
11.11
In this section we explore some applications of Taylor polynomials. Computer scientists like them because polynomials are the simplest of functions. Then we investigate how physicists and engineers use them in such fields as relativity, optics,
blackbody radiation, electric dipoles, the velocity of water waves, and building highways across a desert.
(1)
Right hand side of (1), called the linearization of f (x) at x = a, is the first-degree
Taylor polynomial T1 (x). If f (x) is the sum of its Taylor series, then Tn (x) f (x)
as n , and so Tn (x), nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f (x) at x = a, can be
used as an approximation to f (x):
f (x) Tn (x) =
n
X
f (k) (a)
k=0
k!
(x a)k .
f (x) =
f (x) =
f (8) =
f (8) =
f (8) =
f (x) =
x T2 (x) =
=
Example 3 (page 770). What is the maximum error possible in using the approx5
3
imation sin x x x3! + x5! when 0.3 x 0.3? Use this approximation to find
sin 12 correct to six decimal places.
5
Solution. Notice that the Maclaurin series sin x = x x3! + x5! x7! + is alternating
for all x 6= 0, and the successive terms decrease in size because |x| < 1, so we can use
the
. The error in approximating sin x
by the first three terms of its Maclaurin series is at most
7
7
x
= |x|
7! 5040
To find sin 12 , we first convert to radian measure:
sin 12 = sin 12
= sin
180
15
,
v2
c2
where m0 is the mass of the object when at rest and c is the speed of light. The
kinetic energy of the object is the difference between its total energy and its energy
at rest: E = mc2 m0 c2 .
(a) Show that when v is very small compared with c, this expression for E agrees
with classical Newtonian physics: E = 21 m0 v 2 .
(b) Use Taylor Inequality to estimate the difference in these expressions for E
when |v| 100 m/s.
Solution.
(a) Using the expressions given for E and m, we get
m0 c2
E = mc2 m0 c2 = q
m0 c2 = m0 c2
v2
1 c2
2
!
12
v2
1 2
1 .
c
1
2 2 3
1
1
2
2
2
(1 + x) 2 = 1 x +
x2 +
x +
2
2!
3!
1
3
5
= 1 x + x2 x3 + ,
2
8
16
and
5 v6
1 v2 3 v4
+ 1
1+ 2 + 4 +
E = m0 c
2c
8c
16 c6
2
3 v4
5 v6
1v
2
+ 4 +
+
= m0 c
2 c2
8c
16 c6
2
If v is much smaller than c, then all terms after the first are very small when
compared with the first term. If we omit them, we get
2
1v
1
2
E = m0 c
= m0 v 2 .
2
2c
2
11.11-3
1
2
(b) Let f (x) = m0 c2 (1 + x) 2 1 with x = vc2 . We can use Taylors Inequality to write
|R1 (x)| =
|f (
c)| 2
x,
2!
where |
c|
v2
.
c2
3m0 c2
4 (1 c) 2
3m0 c2
4 1
1002
c2
52 .
1
3m0 c2
1004
So when |v| 100 m/s, the magnitude of the error in using the Newtonian
expression for kinetic energy is at most (4.17 1010 )m0 .
Homework. If a surveyor measures differences in elevation when making plans for
a highway across a desert, corrections must be made for the curvature of the earth.
(a) If R is the radius of the earth and L is the length of the highway, show that
the correction is
L
R.
C = R sec
R
(b) Use a Taylor polynomial to show that
C
L2
5L4
+
.
2R 24R3
(c) Compare the corrections given by the formulas in parts (a) and (b) for a
highway that is 100 km long. (Take the radius of the earth to be 6370 km.)
L
R
n=0
11.11-4
(1)n n
32n (2n)!
(b)
(ln 2)2n
.
(2n)!
n=0
(100 )
Appendix
Example 5. Consider the function
f (x) =
e x2
0
if x 6= 0
.
if x = 0
1
2 = 0 = f (0),
y ey
(b) We will show that: For x 6= 0, f (n) (x) = Pn (y)ey , where y = x1 , and Pn (y) is
a polynomial of y with degree 3n.
(1) When n = 1, we compute
f (x) =
df
df dy
2
2
2
=
= ey (2y) (y 2 ) = 2y 3ey = P1 (y)ey ,
dx
dy dx
dk f
dxk
= Pk (y)ey ,
(k+1)
d dk f
d dk f dy
d
dk+1 f
y 2
(y 2 )
P
(y)e
=
=
(x) = k+1 =
k
dx
dx dxk
dy dxk dx
dy
dPk (y) y2
y 2
=
e
+ Pk (y)e (2y) (y 2 )
dy
2
3
2 dPk (y)
+ 2y Pk (y) ey .
= y
dy
k (y)
Let Pk+1 (y) = y 2 dPdy
+ 2y 3Pk (y), which is a polynomial of y with
degree 3 + 3k = 3(k + 1).
2
f (x) f (0)
e x2
ey
f (0) = lim
= lim
= lim 1
x0
x0 x
y
x0
y
y
2
y ey
= lim
),L
(
1
2 = 0.
y 2y ey
11.11-5
lim
(k+1)
f (k) (x)
Pk (y)ey
f (k) (x) f (k) (0)
=
lim
=
lim
(0) = lim
1
x0
y
x0
x0
x
y
yPk (y)
= 0.
y
ey2
= lim
3n1
2
X
f (n) (0)
n=0
n!
xn = f (0) +
f (1)
f (0) 2
f (n) (0) n
x+
x ++
x + = 0.
1!
2!
n!
Denote C (R) be the set consisting of all smooth functions f (x) that for all
x R, there exists R > 0 such that f (x) equals its Taylor series expansion on
(x R, x + R). We say a function f (x) C (R) is analytic ().
(f) The above discussion shows that the function f (x) is a smooth function, but
not an analytic function because f (x) is not analytic at x = 0. So the conclusion is C (R) ( C (R).
Remark that we have the following relations:
C 0 (R) ( C 1 (R) ( C 2 (R) ( ( C (R) ( C (R).
11.11-6
Cnm xn
n=0
X
m(m 1)(m 2) (m n + 1)
n!
n=0
xn .
m(m 1)(m 2) (m n + 1)
=
=
=
n!
|m||(m 1)||(m 2)| |(m n + 1)|
1 2 3n
=
= 1.
n!
n!
So the series
|Cnm (1)n |
|Cnm |
Cnm xn is divergent at x = 1.
n=0
.
=
n
1
2
n1
n
Cnm xn =
Since
n=1
(m)
n
is divergent,
Cnm xn is divergent.
n=0
Cnm xn =
n=0
m(m1)(m2)(mn+1)
n!
is an al-
n=0
n
+
1)
=
1
2
3
n
Y
n
m
+
1
m
+
1
m
+
1
m
+
1
=
= 1
1
1
1
.
1
2
n
k
k=1
11.11-7
Since
X
X
n
n
n
Y
m+1
m+1
m
+
1
m
<
=
ln
1
1
ln |Cn | = ln
k
k
k
k=1
k=1
k=1
= (m + 1)
n
X
1
k=1
and lim
n
P
n k=1
1
k
1
n
= , we get
n=1
ln
lim |Cnm | = lim ln |Cnm | = lim |Cnm | = 0.
Cnm xn is convergent.
n=0
(c) Before we check the case m > 0, we introduce the Raabes Test:
The Raabes Test. Suppose a series
an satisfies
n=1
an+1
= 1 and
lim
n an
an+1
lim n
1 < 1,
n
an
m(m1)(mn)
m
Cn+1
an+1
n!
1 = lim n
1 = lim n
1
lim n
m
m(m1)(mn+1)
n
n
n
an
Cn
n!
|m n|
nm
= lim n
1 = lim n
1
n
n
n+1
n+1
n
= (m + 1) lim
= (m + 1) < 1.
n n + 1
By the Raabes Test,
Cnm xn is convergent.
n=0
11.11-8
n=0
n=0
n=1
(1 + x)g (x) = (1 + x)
Cnm nxn1
n=1
m
Cn+1
(n + 1)xn +
n=0
Cnm nxn1
n=1
X
Cnm nxn
n=0
Cnm nxn
n=1
X
m(m 1)(m 2) (m n + 1)(m n)(n + 1)
n=0
n=0
(n + 1)!
X
m(m 1)(m 2) (m n + 1)((m n) + n)
n=0
=m
xn
n!
xn
Cnm xn = mg(x).
n=0
g(x)
(1+x)m
(c) From (b) we see that h(x) = constant. Since h(0) = 1, we get
X
g(x)
m
Cnm xn on (1, 1).
1
on
(1,
1)
(1
+
x)
=
h(x) =
(1 + x)m
n=0
11.11-9
12.6
, ,
Example 2 (page 827). The following surfaces are cylinders:
(a) Circular cylinder: x2 + y 2 = 1. The rulings are parallel to the z-axis.
(b) parabolic cylinder: z = x2 . The rulings are parallel to the y-axis.
z
y
x
y
x
(a)
(b)
or
Ax2 + By 2 + Iz = 0.
, D, E, F ,
12.6-1
y
x
Figure 2: Ellipsoid ()
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1 and cone ()
z2
c2
x2
a2
y2
.
b2
y
y
x
x
Figure 3: Elliptic paraboloid ()
2
2
2
() zc2 = xa2 yb2 .
2
2
x2
+ yb2 + zc2
a2
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1 and hyperboloid
(e) y 2 + z 2 = 1 + x2 .
12.6-2
(f) 4x2 + y 2 4z 2 = 4.
Chapter 13
13.1
Vector Functions
We now study functions whose values are vectors because such functions are needed
to describe curves and surfaces in space.
Definition 1 (page 840). A vector-valued function, or vector function (), is
a function whose domain is a set of real numbers and whose range is a set of vectors.
Here we will focus on vector functions r whose values are three-dimensional
vectors. This means that for every number t in the domain of r there is a unique
vector in R3 denoted by r(t). We can write
r(t) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)) = f (t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k,
where f, g, h are real-valued functions of t called the component functions (
) of r.
are
f (t) = t3 ,
and h(t) =
t.
By the usual convention, the domain () of r consists of all values of t for which
the expresstion for r(t) is defined. Therefore the domain of r is [0, 3).
Definition 3 (page 840). The limit of a vector function r is defined by taking the
limits of its components functions as follows. If r(t) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)), then
lim r(t) = lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t) = lim f (t) i + lim g(t) j + lim h(t) k
ta
ta
ta
ta
ta
ta
ta
r ( t = a) f (t), g(t), h(t) ( t = a)
13.1-1
y = g(t),
z = h(t),
(1)
and t varies throughout the interval I, is called a space curve (). The
equations in (1) are called parametric equations of C () and t is called a
parameter ().
Example 7.
(a) Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line that join the
point A(a1 , a2 , a2 ) to the point B(b1 , b2 , b3 ).
(b) Find a vector equation and parametric equations that represents the curve of
intersection of the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1 and the plane y + z = 2.
Solution.
13.1-2
y = t2 ,
z = t3 .
z
Figure 2: (a) Toroidal spiral. (b) Trefoil knot. (c) Twisted cubic.
Homework (page 847). Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection of the two surfaces.
p
(a) The cone z = x2 + y 2 and the plane z = 1 + y.
(b) The semiellipsoid x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 = 4, y 0, and the cylinder x2 + z 2 = 1.
13.1-3
13.2
r (t)
.
|r(t)|
Theorem 3 (page 848). If r(t) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)) = f (t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k, where
f, g, and h are differentiable functions, then
r (t) = (f (t), g (t), h (t)) = f (t) i + g (t) j + h (t) k.
Theorem 4 (page 850). Suppose u(t) and v(t) are differentiable vector functions,
c is a scalar, and f (t) is a real-valued function. Then
(1)
d
(u(t)
dt
(2)
d
(c u(t))
dt
(3)
d
(f (t) u(t))
dt
(4)
d
(u(t)
dt
(5)
d
(u(t)
dt
(6)
d
(u(f (t)))
dt
= u (f (t))f (t).
Proof. Let u(t) = u1 (t) i + u2 (t) j + u3 (t) k and v(t) = v1 (t) i + v2 (t) j + v3 (t) k.
13.2-1
(1)
u(t + h) + v(t + h) (u(t) + v(t))
d
(u(t) + v(t)) = lim
h0
dt
h
v(t + h) v(t)
u(t + h) u(t)
+ lim
= u (t) + v (t).
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
(2)
d
c u(t + h) c u(t)
u(t + h) u(t)
(c u(t)) = lim
= c lim
= c u (t).
h0
h0
dt
h
h
(4)
d
(u(t) v(t))
dt
d
= (u1 (t)v1 (t) + u2 (t)v2 (t) + u3 (t)v3 (t))
dt
= u1 (t)v1 (t) + u2 (t)v2 (t) + u3 (t)v3 (t) + u1 (t)v1 (t) + u2 (t)v2 (t) + u3 (t)v3 (t)
= u (t) v(t) + u(t) v (t).
(6)
d
d
(u(f (t))) = (u1 (f (t)) i + u2 (f (t)) j + u3 (f (t)) k)
dt
dt
= u1 (f (t))f (t) i + u2 (f (t))f (t) j + u3 (f (t))f (t) k
= (u1 (f (t)) i + u2 (f (t)) j + u3 (f (t)) k)f (t) = u (f (t))f (t).
d
(f (t) u(t))
dt
(5)
d
(u(t)
dt
13.2-2
d
r(t) r (t)
|r(t)| =
.
dt
|r(t)|
r(t) dt = lim
n
a
n
X
r(ti )t
i=1
= lim
n
n
X
i=1
Z
f (ti )t i +
n
X
g(ti )t j +
i=1
n
X
i=1
! !
h(ti )t k
Z b
Z b
f (t) dt i +
g(t) dt j +
h(t) dt k
a
h
it=b
= R(b) R(a),
r(t) dt = R(t)
t=a
13.2-3
r(t) dt
13.3
Concept of a Curve
Definition 1 (page 855). Suppose that C is a space curve given by a vector function
r(t) = f (t) i + g(t) j + h(t) k,
a t b.
() ()
Definition 2 (page 855). A space curve C is called smooth curve () if it
has a smooth parametrization.
A smooth curve has no sharp corners or cusps; when the tangent vector turns,
it does so continuously.
Definition 3 (page 854). A space curve C can be smooth parametrized by more
than one vector function. We say all vector functions are parametrizations (
) of the curve C.
Example 4 (page 854). The twisted cubic r(t) = (t, t2 , t3 ), 1 t 2 could also
be represented by the function r(u) = (eu , e2u , e3u ), 0 u ln 2, where t = eu .
Example 5 (page 854). A plane curve can be thought as a special case of a space
curve. So we have many parametrizations to represent a unit circle x2 +y 2 = 1, z = 0.
For example, r1 (t) = (cos t, sin t, 0), 0 t 2, or r2 (u) = (cos 2u, sin 2u, 0), 0
u , where t = 2u.
13.3-1
a t b.
(1)
Thus s(t) is the length of the part of C between r(a) and r(t).
By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we obtain
ds
=
dt
(2)
(3)
a t b,
c s d,
where t(c) = a and t(d) = b. We will show that r(s) is a smooth parametrization:
dr dt
df (t) dt
dg(t) dt
dh(t) dt
dr
=
=
i+
j+
k,
ds
dt ds
dt ds
dt ds
dt ds
so r(s) is a nonzero, continuous vector function.
Thus the arc length s can be introduced along the curve as a parameter. It is
often useful to parametrize a curve with respect to arc length () because
arc length arises naturally from the shape of the curve and does not depend on a
particular coordinate system.
13.3-2
Definition 8 (page 853). The length of a space curve C is the limit of lengths of
inscribed polygons. Suppose that a simple smooth curve has the vector equation
r(t) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)), a t b, where f (t), g (t), and h (t) are continuous. Then
its length () is
Z b
Z bp
(well-defined); ,
Example 9 (page 855). Reparametrize the helix r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k with
respect to arc length measured from (1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t. Find
the length of the arc length of the helix from the point (1, 0, 0) to the point (1, 0, 2).
Solution.
Remark that if a space curve is parametrized by arc length r(s) = r(t(s)), then
dr dr dt dr 1
= = = dr 1 = 1.
ds dt ds dt ds dt dr
dt
dt
That is, if a space curve C is parametrized by arc length r(s), then r (s) is unit
tangent vector.
, 1,
Definition 10 (page 855). The curvature () of a space curve is
dT
=
ds
where T is the unit tangent vector.
, , (chain rule)
,
The curvature of C at a given point is a measure of how quickly the curve changes
direction at that point. Specifically, we define it to be the magnitude of the rate of
change of the unit tangent vector with respect to arc length.
Theorem 11 (page 855861).
(a) If t is another parameter instead of the arc length s, then
(t) =
|T (t)|
.
|r(t)|
(b) The curvature of the curve given by the vector function r(t) is
(t) =
|r (t) r (t)|
.
|r (t)|3
(c) If a plane curve is given as the graph of a function y = f (x), then the curvature
of the curve is
(x) =
|f (x)|
3
(1 + (f (x))2 ) 2
(d) If a plane curve is given as a plane parameter x = x(t), y = y(t), then the
curvature of the curve is
=
Proof.
(a) By chain rule, we have
dT(t(s))
def. dT(s)
=
=
=
ds ds
|r (x)| =
r (x) = 0 i + f (x) j + 0 k
1 + (f (x))2
r (x) r (x) =
so the curvature is
(x) =
|r (x) r (x)|
=
|r (x)|3
13.3-5
We compute
r (t) = x (t) i + y (t) j + 0 k
|r(t)| =
(x (t))2 + (y (t))2
r (t) r (t) =
so the curvature is
|r (t) r (t)|
(t) =
=
|r (t)|3
(e) A plane curve can be parametrized by (r() cos , r() sin , 0) in R3 , that is,
r() = r() cos i + r() sin j + 0 k.
We compute
r () = (r cos r sin ) i + (r sin + r cos ) j + 0 k |r ()| =
p
r 2 + (r )2
13.3-6
Example 13. Find the curvature of the circular helix r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k.
Solution.
T (t)
.
|T (t)|
(b) The vector B(t) = T(t) N(t) is called the binormal vector (). It is
perpendicular to both T and N and is also a unit vector.
Example 15 (page 858). Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the circular
helix r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k.
Solution.
13.3-7
T
0 0
T
d
N = 0 N
ds
B
0 0
B
Physically, we can think of a space curve as being obtained from a straight line
by bending (curvature) and twisting (torsion). The following theorem states that
and describe completely the local behavior of the curve.
Fundamental Theorem of the Local Theory of Curves. Given a smooth function (s) > 0 and (s), there exists a regular parametrized curve r(s) such that s is
the arc length, (s) > 0 is the curvature, and (s) is the torsion of r(s). Moreover,
any other curve
r, satisfying the same condition, differs from r by a rigid motion;
that is, there exists an orthogonal linear map T of R3 , with positive determinant,
and a vector c such that
r = T r + c.
13.3-8
5
t4
, t, 45 t 2
2
for t 0.
13.3-9
Homework. Find the curvature , the unit tangent vector T, the unit normal vector
N, and binormal vector B of the curve r(t) = (cos t, sin t, ln(cos t)) at r(0) = (1, 0, 0).
(97 )
Homework. Find the curvature of the graph of the function y = ln(cos x) at x = 4 .
(95 )
Homework*. A particle moves on the circular helix r(t) = (a cos t, a sin t, b t).
(a) Is the speed of the particle constant?
(b) Find the angle of the velocity vector and z-axis.
(c) Find the curvature of the circular helix.
t
Homework*. Let r(t) = (et t, 2 6 e 2 , 3t), 1 t 1.
(92 )
(92 )
Homework*. Let r(t) = (t2 , sin t + t cos t, cos t + t sin t), t > 0. Find an equation
of the osculating plane of the curve r(t) at the point ( 2 , , 1).
(92 )
Homework*. Consider the curve r(t) = (t+sin t cos t) i+(sin2 t) j+(2 cos t) k, t R.
(a) Find the curvature of the curve (t).
(b) Find all points where the curvature (t) is maximal, and find the unit tangent
T and principal unit normal N at those points.
(96 )
Homework*. Find the curvature of the curve r(t) = 3t i + sin(3t) j + cos(3t) k at
t = .
(99 )
13.3-10
Chapter 14
14.1
Partial Derivative
x+y+1
.
x1
x+y+1=0
x=1
0
1
x = y2
0
(b)
(a)
Figure 1: (a) Domain of f (x, y) =
x+y+1
.
x1
Homework. Find and sketch the domain of the function f (x, y) = sin1 (x2 +y 2 2).
z
3
1
4
0
-1
3
2
2
3
Figure 2: The graph of f (x, y) = sin xy, 0 x 4, 0 y 4 and its level curves.
z
y
0
r=
5k
x
Figure 3: Level curves of the function f (x, y) = 5 (x 3)2 (y 3)2 .
14.1-2
Homework (page 891). Match the function (a),(b),(c) with its graph (A),(B),(C)
and its contour map (I), (II), (III). Give reasons for your choices.
(a) f (x, y) = sin x sin y
60
40
20
0
-20
-4
(b) g(x, y) =
xy
1 + x2 + y 2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-2
-2
y0
0
2
-4
-4
-2
44
0
2
-4
(B)
-2
-2
-2
-4
-4
-2
(C)
(I)
0
2
44
-2
y0
-2
-4
-2
-4
44
(A)
-4
0.5
0
-0.5
-2
y0
(II)
-4
-4
-2
(III)
14.1-3
14.2
(x,y)(a,b)
f (x, y) = L
if for every number > 0 there is a corresponding number > 0 such that if
p
(x, y) D and 0 < (x a)2 + (y b)2 < , then |f (x, y) L| < .
Other notations for the limit are
lim f (x, y) = L
xa
yb
and
The definition refers only to the distance between (x, y) and (a, b). It does not
refer to the direction of approach. Therefore, if the limit exists, then f (x, y) must
approach the same limit no matter how (x, y) approaches (a, b). Therefore, we get
Property 2 (page 894). If f (x, y) L1 as (x, y) (a, b) along a path C1 and
f (x, y) L2 as (x, y) (a, b) along a path C2 , where L1 6= L2 , then lim f (x, y)
(x,y)(a,b)
Example 3 (page 894). Show that
x2 y 2
2 +y 2
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
Solution.
xy
,
x2 +y 2
does
Solution.
14.2-1
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) exist?
xy 2
,
x2 +y 4
does
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) exist?
Solution.
,
We can use polar coordinates to find the limit. Note that if (r, ) are polar
coordinates of the point (x, y) with r 0, then r 0+ as (x, y) (0, 0).
Example 6 (page 896). Find
3x2 y
2 +y 2
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
if it exists.
Solution.
Homework (page 899900). Find the limit, if it exists, or show that the limit does
not exist.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
lim
xy
x2 +y 2
(x,y)(0,0)
(94 )
x2 y ey
4 +4y 2 .
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
x2 +y 2
lim
lim
(x2 + y 2 ) ln(x2 + y 2 ).
(x,y)(0,0)
(x,y)(0,0)
x2 +y 2 +11
14.2-2
(x,y)(a,b)
(x,y)(a,b)
x2 y 2
x2 +y 2
continuous?
x2 y 2
x2 +y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
Here f (x, y) is defined at (0, 0) but f (x, y) is still discontinuous there because
lim f (x, y) does not exist. (See Example 3.)
(x,y)(0,0)
3x2 y
x2 +y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
Therefore,
, and so it is continuous on
y
x
continuous?
x2 y 3
2x2 +y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
(x,y,z)(a,b,c)
f (x, y, z) = L
means that the values of f (x, y, z) approach the number L as the point (x, y, z)
approaches the point (a, b, c) along any path in the domain of f . The function f is
continuous at (a, b, c) if
lim
(x,y,z)(a,b,c)
f (x, y, z) = f (a, b, c) = f
lim
x,
(x,y,z)(a,b,c)
lim
(x,y,z)(a,b,c)
y,
lim
(x,y,z)(a,b,c)
z .
xa
Homework. Let
f (x, y, z) =
xy+yz 3
x2 +z 6
if (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0)
14.2-4
(92 )
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
(92 )
f (x, y) exist?
Solution.
2x2 y
x4 +y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
t0
(92 )
2yx3
2
6.
y
(x,y)(0,0) +x
lim
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
xy
x2 +y 2
(94 )
Homework*.
(a) Find
xy 3
2 +y 6 .
x
(x,y)(0,0)
(b) Find
x2 y
2 +y 2 .
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
(95 )
lim
Homework*. Given a > 1, let Ca be the curve y = xa , x > 0. Find the limit of
as (x, y) tends towards (0, 0) along the curve Ca .
(99 )
f (x, y) = x3xy
y 3
14.2-5
14.3
fx (x, y) = lim
f
=
f (x, y) =
x
x
f
fy (x, y) = fy =
=
f (x, y) =
y
y
fx (x, y) = fx =
z
= f1 = Dx f = D1 f,
x
z
= f2 = Dy f = D2 f.
y
, , ,
Example 3 (page 903). If f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 2y 2 , then
(a) fx (x, y) =
fx (2, 1) =
(b) fy (x, y) =
fy (2, 1) =
14.3-1
(x0 , y0 , 0)
x
1+y
, calculate
f
x
and
f
.
y
z
z
and y
if z is defined implicitly as a function of x
Example 5 (page 905). Find x
and y by the equation x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz = 1.
Solution.
x esin(x
2 y)
3
(x2 + y 2) 2
fxy
Homework. Let r(x, y) =
and ryy .
Example 6. Let f (x, y) =
2f
yx
p
x2 + y 2 . For (x, y) 6= (0, 0), compute rx , ry , rxx , rxy , ryx ,
x3 xy 2
.
x2 + y 2
(a) Determine the value f (0, 0) such that f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
(b) Find fx (x, y), fx(x, y), fx (0, 0) and fy (0, 0).
(c) Compute fxy (0, 0) and fyx (0, 0).
Solution.
14.3-3
(89 )
,
(c) , ;
Clairauts Theorem (page 907). Suppose f is defined on a disk D that contains
the point (x0 , y0 ). If the functions fxy and fyx are both continuous on D, then
fxy (x0 , y0 ) = fyx (x0 , y0 ).
fxy fyx ,
Homework (page 915). Let f (x, y) =
x3 yxy 3
x2 +y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
2u
x2
(b)
u
t
(c)
2u
t2
+
=
=
2y
y 2
2u
:
x2
2u
:
x2
14.3-4
14.4
T2
S
C2
y
(x0 , y0 , 0)
()
()
(fx fy ),
Example 3. Where does the tangent plane of the surface z = exy at (1, 1, 1)
intersect the z-axis?
(97 )
Solution.
14.4-1
(1)
,
14.4-2
f
z
z
f
dx +
dy =
dx +
dy.
x
y
x
y
(2)
z
dz
x = dx
x
(x0 , y0 , 0)
y
(x0 + x, y0 + y, 0)
y = dy
14.4-3
x2 y
x2 +y 2
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
(101 )
(b) fx (0, 0) =
(c) fy (0, 0) =
(d) For (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
(e)
f
x
f
(x, y)
x
is not continuous at (0, 0) because we take the path C1 (x) = (x, x), x 6=
0, then the function fx (x, y)|C1 =
(89 )
16
(x3 +y 2 )+xyz 2 +8z
3
= 0.
14.4-4
(92 )
14.5
The Chain Rule, Case 1 (page 924). Suppose that z = z(x, y) is a differentiable
function of x and y, where x = x(t) and y = y(t) are both differentiable function of
t. Then z is a differentiable function of t and
z dx z dy
dz
=
+
.
dt
x dt
y dt
dz
dt
Solution.
d2 z
.
dt2
Solution. We compute
d2 z
=
dt2
z
z x z y
=
+
.
t
x t
y t
z
x
(b) Let x =
and
z
y
u
u2 +v3 +1
at x = 0 and y = 21 .
and y =
v
.
u+v4 +1
Find
z
u
and
z
v
Solution.
Example 4. Let z = y+f (x2 y 2 ) and f be a differentiable function in one variable.
z
z
+ x y
when x = a and y = b.
Find the value of y x
Solution.
14.5-2
(98 )
Coordinate Changes
In R2 , denote (x, y) as the Cartesian coordinates and (r, ) as the polar coordinates.
We know relations between these coordinates are
(
(
p
x = r cos
r = x2 + y 2
.
y = r sin .
= tan1 xy
So we know x = x(r, ), y = y(r, ) and r = r(x, y), = (x, y), and hence
x = x(r(x, y), (x, y)) and y = y(r(x, y), (x, y)).
Since x and y are independent variables, we have
14.5-3
Example 5. Let z = f (x, y) such that all the second partial derivative of f are
continuous. Let x = r cos and y = r sin .
(a) Evaluate
r 2 r
,
, ,
x x2 x
and
2
.
x2
Homework. Suppose that w = f (x, y) satisfies the Laplace equation: wxx +wyy = 0.
Let x = 12 (u2 v 2 ) and y = uv. Show that w also satisfies the Laplace equation:
wuu + wvv = 0.
(90 )
Homework (page 932). Let z = f (x, y) be a differentiable function. From relations
x = r cos and y = r sin , we get the identity:
2
2
2 2
z
z
z
z
+
= A(r, )
+ B(r, )
.
x
y
r
(96 )
Implicit Differentiation ()
The Chain Rule can be used to give a more complete description of the process of
implicit differentiation. Suppose that an equation of the form F (x, y) = 0 defines y
implicitly as a differentiable function of x, that is, y = f (x), where F (x, f (x)) = 0
for all x in the domain of f . If F is differentiable, we can apply the Chain Rule to
differentiate both side of the equation F (x, y) = 0 with respect to x to get
If
F
y
6= 0, we solve
dy
dx
and obtain
dy
=
dx
Implicit Function Theorem (page 929). If F (x, y) is defined on a disk containing
(x0 , y0 ), where F (x0 , y0 ) = 0, Fy (x0 , y0 ) 6= 0, and Fx and Fy are continuous on the
disk, then the equation F (x, y) = 0 defines y as a function of x near the point (x0 , y0 )
dy
and the derivative of this function is dx
= FFxy .
Now we suppose that z is given implicitly as a function z = f (x, y) by an equation
of the form F (x, y, z) = 0. This means that F (x, y, f (x, y)) = 0 for all (x, y) in the
domain of f . If F and f are differentiable, then we can use the Chain Rule to
differentiable the equation F (x, y, z) = 0 as follows:
If
F
z
6= 0, we solve
z
x
and obtain
z
x
and
z
y
if F (x, y, z) = x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz 1 = 0.
Solution.
14.5-5
f
x
f
.
y
(91 )
f
.
v
Solution.
y = r sin ,
z = z.
(89 )
(100 )
14.6
y
x
ha
(x0 , y0 , 0)
hb
u ; ,
+
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = g (0) =
x dh y dh h=0
= fx (x0 , y0)a + fy (x0 , y0 )b = (fx (x0 , y0 ), fy (x0 , y0)) (a, b).
If the unit vector u makes an angle with the positive x-axis, then we can write
u = (cos , sin ) and the directional derivative becomes
Du f (x, y) = fx (x, y) cos + fy (x, y) sin = (fx (x, y), fy (x, y)) (cos , sin )
14.6-1
f
f
i+
j.
x
y
Maximizing the Directional Derivative
Theorem 5 (page 939). Suppose f is a differentiable function of two variables. The
maximum value of the directional derivative Du f (x, y) is |f (x, y)| and it occurs
when u has the same direction as the gradient vector f (x, y).
Proof. Since |u| = 1, we have
Du f = f u = |f ||u| cos = |f | cos ,
where is the angle between f and u. The maximum value of cos is 1 and this
occurs when = 0. Therefore the maximum value of Du f is f when u is the same
direction as f .
Example 6. Let f (x, y) = 2x2 xy + y 2 2x + y.
(a) Find the directional derivative Du f (p), where p = (0, 0) and u =
3 1
,
2 2
.
(b) Find the unit vector v that the directional derivative of Dv f (p) is maximal.
(91 )
Solution.
14.6-2
(101 )
is
f = (fx , fy , fz ) =
f
f
f
i+
j+
k
x
y
z
If we use vector notation, then we can write the directional derivative in the
compact form:
f (x0 + hu) f (x0 )
= f (x0 ) u.
h0
h
where x0 = (x0 , y0) if n = 2 and x0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) if n = 3.
Du f (x0 ) = lim
2 3y 2 9z 2
(a) Find the directional derivative of T (x, y, z) at P0 = (2, 1, 2) toward the point
(3, 3, 3).
(b) Find the maximum of directional derivative of T (x, y, z) at P0 = (2. 1, 2).
(98 )
Solution.
z
attain the maximum rate of
Homework. In what direction does f (x, y, z) = xy
change at the point (1, 2, 4)? What is this maximum rate of change? (99 )
14.6-3
(1)
(2)
,
Definition 10 (page 941). The normal line () to S at P is the line passing
through P and perpendicular to the tangent plane. The direction of the normal line
is the gradient vector F (x0 , y0, z0 ), and so its symmetric equations are
x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=
.
Fx (x0 , y0 , z0 )
Fy (x0 , y0 , z0 )
Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 )
(3)
14.6-4
Homework (page 945). Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line
at P (0, 0, 1) to the surface x + y + z = exyz .
f (x, y) = l
x
(1, 1, 1).
Solution.
2 y 2
and p = ( 2, 2).
3
).
2
(102 )
Solution.
Homework*. Let f (x, y) = x2 + xy and p = (2, 3). Find u = (cos , sin ) such
that Du f (p) = 0.
(90 )
Homework* (page 945). Show that the ellipsoid 3x2 + 2y 2 + z 2 = 9 and the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 8x 6y 8z + 24 = 0 are tangent to each other at the point (1, 1, 2).
(92 )
Homework*. For f (x, y, z) = ln(x2 + y 2 ) + z.
(a) Find f .
(b) Consider the cylinder of radius 5 with axis along the z-axis. Find the normal
vector to the cylinder at the point (3, 4, 4).
(c) Find the rate of change of f in the direction normal to the cylinder at the
point (3, 4, 4).
(94 )
Homework*. Let T (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 xyz xz.
(a) Find Du T (1, 2, 3) where u is the direction i + 2 j + 3 k.
(b) In what direction does T (x, y, z) at (1, 2, 3) have the maximum rate of change?
What is this maximum rate of change?
(95 )
14.6-6
Homework*. Suppose that the function z = f (x, y) satisfies the following equation
sin(x + y) + sin(y + z) + sin(z + x) = 0
in the neighborhood of the point (x, y, z) = (, , ). In what direction does z =
f (x, y) at (, ) have the maximum rate of change? What is this maximum rate of
change?
(96 )
Homework*. You are wandering around in a strange desert where the temperature
2
at the point (x, y) is given by the function T (x, y) = eyx .
(a) You have stopped at the point (2, 1). Suddenly you are feeling chilled and
want to warm up - in what direction should you go to warm up as rapidly as
possible?
(b) Figure out the coordinates of all points where there is no increase or decrease
in temperature in the (1, 1) direction.
(97 )
Homework*. Consider the function
(
f (x, y) =
(a) Find
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f
y
(d) Find
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
x3
x2 +y 2
f
x
and
f
.
y
and
2f
(0, 0).
yx
x2 (x2 + y 2) 2 esin(x
0
2 y)
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0).
14.6-7
(92 )
(94 )
14.6-8
14.7
) at (x0 , y0 ) if f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) when (x, y) is near (x0 , y0). (This means
that f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) for all points (x, y) in some disk with center (x0 , y0).) The
number f (x0 , y0) is called a local maximum value (). If f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 )
when (x, y) is near (x0 , y0), then f has a local minimum () at (x0 , y0 )
and f (x0 , y0 ) is a local minimum value ().
Definition 2 (page 946). If the inequalities in Definition 1 hold for all points (x, y)
in the domain of f , then f has an absolute maximum () or absolute minimum
() at (x, y0 ).
z
y
x
y
x
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: (a) Local and absolute minimum. (b) Local and absolute maximum.
Theorem 3 (page 946). If f has a local maximum or minimum at (x0 , y0 ) and the
first-order partial derivatives of f exist there, then fx (x0 , y0) = 0 and fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0.
Proof. Let g(x) = f (x, y0 ). If f has a local maximum (or minimum) at (x0 , y0), then
g(x) has a local maximum (or minimum) at x0 , so by Fermats Theorem, we get
g (x0 ) = 0 = fx (x0 , y0 ). Similarly, by applying Fermats Theorem to the function
g(y) = g(x0 , y0), we obtain g (y0 ) = 0 = fy (x0 , y0 ).
(x0 , y0) , f (x0, y0) = (fx (x0 , y0), fy (x0 , y0)) = (0, 0) = 0
Definition 4 (page 946). A point (x0 , y0 ) is called a critical point () or stationary point ( ) of f if fx (x0 , y0 ) = 0 and fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0, or if one of
these partial derivatives does not exist.
fy (x, y) = 2y 6.
These partial derivative are equal to 0 when x = 1 and y = 3, so the only critical
point is (1, 3). Since f (x, y) = 4 + (x 1)2 + (y 3)3 4 for all x and y, f (1, 3) = 4
is a local minimum, and in fact it is the absolute minimum of f .
with vertex (1, 3, 4).
The graph of f is the
Example 6 (page 947). Consider the function f (x, y) = y 2 x2 . Since fx = 2x and
. For points on the x-axis (x 6= 0) we have
fy = 2y, the only critical point is
2
f (x, 0) = x < 0 and for points on the y-axis (y 6= 0) we have f (x, 0) = y 2 > 0.
Thus every disk with center (0, 0) contains points where f takes positive values and
negative values. Therefore, f has no extreme value.
The graph of f is the
.
Definition 7 (page 947). The graph of z = y 2 x2 has a horizontal tangent plane
z = 0 at the origin. f (0, 0) = 0 is a maximum in the direction of x-axis but a
minimum in the direction of the y-axis. Near the origin the graph has the shape of
a saddle and so (0, 0) is called a saddle point () of f .
z
y
x
Figure 2: (0, 0) is a saddle point of f (x, y) = y 2 x2 .
For a function of one variable f (x), we use second derivative of f (x) to detect
the critical points are local maximum or local minimum. Here we will introduce the
Second Derivative Test for functions of two variables to investigate the properties
of critical points.
Definition 8. The Hessian matrix or Hessian () of f (x, y) at (x0 , y0 ) is
"
#
fxx (x0 , y0) fxy (x0 , y0 )
Hess (f )(x0 , y0) =
.
fyx (x0 , y0 ) fyy (x0 , y0 )
14.7-2
Second Derivative Test (page 947). Suppose the second partial derivatives of f
are continuous on a disk with center (x0 , y0), and suppose that fx (x0 , y0 ) = 0 and
fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0 (that is, (x0 , y0 ) is a critical point of f ). Let
D = D(x0 , y0 ) = det (Hess(f )(x0 , y0 )) = fxx (x0 , y0 )fyy (x0 , y0 ) (fxy (x0 , y0))2 .
(a) If D > 0 and fxx (x0 , y0) > 0, then f (x0 , y0 ) is a local minimum.
(b) If D > 0 and fxx (x0 , y0) < 0, then f (x0 , y0 ) is a local maximum.
(c) If D < 0 and f (x0 , y0), then f (x0 , y0 ) is not a local maximum or minimum.
(c)
D = 0, ( ) ;
Remark 9.
(1) , Hess(f ) = P DP 1, D ; P
, ()
Example 10. Find the extreme value (local maximum and minimum values and
saddle points) of the function f (x, y) = 2x3 4xy + 3y 2.
Solution.
14.7-3
(90 )
Example 11 (page 950). Find the shortest distance from the point (1, 0, 2) to the
plane x + 2y + z = 4.
Solution.
14.7-4
(a)
(b)
Figure 3: (a) Closed sets. (b) Sets that are not closed.
, ,
14.7-5
Example 15. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of f (x, y) = 4x +
6y x2 y 2 in the region x2 + y 2 1.
(92 )
Solution.
14.7-6
Example (TA) 16. Find and classify the critical points of the function f (x, y) =
2
2
(x2 + y 2 )ey x .
(98 )
Solution.
Example (TA) 17. Find the extreme value of the function f (x, y) = e3x 2y in
the region D = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 1, y x 1, y x 1}.
(89 )
Solution.
14.7-7
2 y 2
(97 )
Homework. Find the local maximum, and local minimum values and saddle point(s)
of f (x, y) = y 3 + 3x2 y 3x2 3y 2 + 3.
(102 )
Homework (page 955). Find the maximum volume of a rectangular box that is
inscribed in a sphere of radius r.
2
2
Homework*. Find the extreme value and critical points of f (x, y) = x2 3xy y2
in the region x2 + y 2 1.
(91 )
Homework*. Let f (x, y) = y 3 + 2x2 + 6xy + 6y. Find all critical points of the
function, and determine they are local maximum, local minimum, or saddle points.
(95 )
Homework*. Find all critical points of the function z = x3 2x + xy 2 + y + 1 and
determine they are local maximum, local minimum or saddle points. (96 )
Homework*. Find the critical points of f (x, y) = x3 + y 2 2xy + 7x 8y + 2.
Which of them give rise to maximum values, minimum values and saddle points?
(99 )
Homework*. Find and classify the critical points of the function f (x, y) = x4 +
y 4 4xy.
(100 )
Appendix
Proof of the Second Derivative Test. We compute the second-order directional derivative of f in the direction of u = (h, k). The first-order derivative is
Du f = fx h + fy k.
Apply this theorem a second time, we have
2
(fx h + fy k), (fx h + fy k) (h, k)
Du f = Du (Du f ) = (Du f ) u =
x
y
= (fxx h + fyx k)h + (fxy h + fyy )k = fxx h2 + 2fxy hk + fyy k 2 .
We are given that fxx (x0 , y0 ) > 0 and D(x0 , y0 ) > 0. But fxx and D are continuous
functions, so there is a disk B with center (x0 , y0) and radius > 0 such that
fxx (x, y) > 0 and D(x, y) > 0 whenever (x, y) is in B. Therefore, we see that
Du2 (x, y) > 0 whenever (x, y) is in B. This means that if C is the curve obtained
by intersecting the graph of f with the vertical plane through P (x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 )) in
the direction of u, then C is concave upward on an interval of length 2. This is
true in the direction of every vector u, so if we restrict (x, y) to lie in B, the graph
of f lies above its horizontal tangent plane at P . Thus f (x, y) f (x0 , y0) whenever
(x, y) is in B. This shows that f (x0 , y0 ) is a local minimum.
14.7-9
14.8
Method of Lagrange Multipliers (page 958). To find the maximum and minimum values of f (x, y, z) subject to the constraint g(x, y, z) = k (assuming that these
extreme values exist and g 6= 0 on the surface g(x, y, z) = k):
(a) Find all values of x, y, z, and such that
f (x, y, z) = g(x, y, z)
and
g(x, y, z) = k.
(b) Evaluate f at all the points (x, y, z) that result from step (a). The largest
(smallest) of these values is the maximum (minimum) value of f .
Proof. For R, consider F (x, y, z, ) = f (x, y, z) (g(x, y, z) k), then on the
level set g(x, y, z) = k, the function F (x, y, z, ) and f (x, y, z) take the same value.
So to find the extreme value of f (x, y, z) on the surface g(x, y, z) = k is equivalent
to find the extreme value of F (x, y, z, ), and it implies
F (x, y, z, ) = 0
f = g
and g(x, y, z) = k.
14.8-1
Example 2. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f (x, y) =
x3 + 3x2 y in the region x2 + 4xy + 5y 2 5.
(95 )
Solution.
Example 3 (page 960). Find the points on the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 that are
closest to and farthest from the point (3, 1, 1).
Solution.
14.8-2
f = g + h and g(x, y, z) = k
14.8-3
and h(x, y, z) = c.
Example 5 (page 962). Find the maximum value of the function f (x, y, z) = x +
2y + 3z on the curve of intersection of the plane x y + z = 1 and the cylinder
x2 + y 2 = 1.
Solution.
14.8-4
14.8-5
Example (TA) 7. Suppose that the temperature of a metal plate is given by the
function T (x, y) = 4x2 4xy + y 2. An ant walks around the circle x2 + y 2 = 5.
What are the highest and lowest temperatures that ant is received? (90 )
Solution.
2
2
2
Homework. The plane x + y + 2z = 0 and the ellipsoid x4 + y4 + z2 = 1 intersect
an ellipse.
(a) Find the farthest distance and the closest distance from the point on the ellipse
to the origin.
(96 )
(92 )
Homework*. Use the method of Lagrange multipliers to find the extreme values
of z on the curve of intersection x2 + y 2 = 1 and y 2 + z 2 + z = 1.
2
(97 )
Homework*. If the ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1(a, b > 0) is to enclose the circle x2 +y 2 = 2y,
what values of a and b minimize the area of the ellipse?
(100 )
Homework*. Find the extreme value of f (x, y) = x2 y xy + xy 2 on x2 + xy + y 2
x y = 1.
(102 )
14.8-7
14.9
Midterm Review
(f (x) x = 0 )
Remark 2.
(1) Taylor series or Maclaurin series of f (x) is a power series (). We need
.
to know the domain of a power series, that is, the
(2) Most of time, the orders of the coefficients and xn () are different, we
can use the
to find the interval of convergence.
, then the series is convergent.
(4) If
is, we have to use other Tests to prove the series is convergent or divergent at
.
the
(5) If we use the Ratio Test to know that lim an+1
= C|x a|, C > 0, then the
an
n
R=
ex =
R=
ln(1 + x) =
R=
sin x =
R=
tan1 x =
R=
cos x =
R=
(1 + x)m =
R=
Cnm =
C0m = 1
14.9-1
(8) Applications:
(a)
x2
1 + x3
(b) ln(5 x)
(c) sin x at x =
(d) sin2 x
(e) tan x
(f) sin1 x
(9) Applications:
(a) Find the limit: It is difficult to use L Hospital Rule.
(b) Find higher derivatives f (n) (0): Compare coefficients of xn .
P
(1)n n
.
(c) Find the sum: Find correct function and take the value.
32n (2n)!
n=0
(d) Approximate the value and estimate the errors: 5 240, sin 12 .
Space Curve
Given a space curve parametrized by r(t), and s(t) =
parameter, then
Rt
0
and
and
.
.
=
,
yt y
x y
0 1
sin r cos
x y
0 1
we have
"
# "
"
# "
#1
#
cos sin
rx ry
cos r sin
1 r cos r sin
=
,
=
=
r sin cos
sinr cosr
x y
sin r cos
and
rxx = (rx )x = (cos )x = sin x =
ryy = (ry )y = (sin )y = cos y =
r cos x sin rx
r sin cos + sin cos
sin
=
=
xx = (x )x =
2
r
r
r2
x
cos
r sin y cos ry
r sin cos cos sin
yy = (y )y =
=
=
,
2
r
r
r2
y
so we get
u =
Suppose that u = u(r) is a function only depends on r, then we get u (r) + u r(r) = 0.
= 0 is a first order linear ordinary differential
Let v(r) = u (r), then v (r) + v(r)
r
equation.
(rv(r)) = 0 rv(r) = ru(r) = c1 ,
The integrating factor is
and u (r) = cr1 u(r) = c1 ln r + c2 , where c1 and c2 are constants.
14.9-3
P
for x n and
an is convergent. If Rn = s sn , then
n=1
f (x) dx Rn
n+1
f (x) dx.
(1)
(2) If the series is controlled by a geometric series, we can sum the geometric series
exactly. (11.4)
(3) If the series is an alternating series, we can use the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem. (11.5)
(4) Power series approximation. (11.9)
(5) We can use Taylor Inequality: If |f (n+1) (x)| M for |x a| d, then
(n+1)
f
M
(c)
n+1
(x a)
|x a|n+1 for |x a| d.(11.11)
|Rn (x)| =
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
Example 4 (page 770). What is the maximum error possible in using the approx3
5
imation sin x x x3! + x5! when 0.3 x 0.3? Use this approximation to find
sin 12 correct to six decimal places.
3
Solution. Notice that the Maclaurin series sin x = x x3! + x5! x7! + is alternating
for all x 6= 0, and the successive terms decrease in size because |x| < 1, so we can
use the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem. The error in approximating sin x
by the first three terms of its Maclaurin series is at most
7
7
7
x
= |x| (0.3) 4.3 108
7! 5040
5040
To find sin 12 , we first convert to radian measure:
= sin
sin 12 = sin 12
180
15
1 3 1 6
+
0.20791169.
15 3! 15
5! 15
P
Solution. From the binomial series f (x) = (1 + x)m =
Cnm xn with m = 15 and
n=0
x = 314 , we have
240 =
243 3 =
s
5
1
n
X
1
1 5
3
1
5
=3 1 4
,
243 1
=3
Cn 4
243
3
3
n=0
(n
1)
1 4 9
5n 6
5
5
5
5
= (1)n1
Cn5 =
n!
5 10 15
5n
n
n1 Y
(1)
6
=
1
5
5k
k=2
so
!
n
X
6 (1)n
1 1
(1)n1 Y
240 = 3
Cn
1
=3 1 4 +
5
3
5
5k
34n
n=0
n=2
k=2
!
n
X
6
1 1
1 Y
1
.
=3 1 4
4n
5 3
5
3
5k
n=2
k=2
If we approximate 5 240 3 1 15 314 2.9926, then the error is
!
n
n
X
X
6
6
1 Y
1 Y
1
1
|error| = 3
=3
5 34n k=2
5k
5 34n k=2
5k
n=2
n=2
1
5
X
n=2
1
4
3
n
1
1
1
4
6 X 1
6
1
38
=
=
=
<
.
1
5 34n 10
25 n=2 34n
25 1 34
25 27 40
10000
Cn5 xn with m =
n=0
1
5
and
1
n
P
x = 314 , we have 5 240 = 3 1 + 314 5 = 3
Cn5 314 . If we approximate
n=0
5
240 by first two terms, that is, 5 240 3 1 51 314 2.9926, the remainder is
f (c) 2 3|f (c)| 2
1
1
3|R1 (x)| = 3
x
|x| , for |x| 4 and c 4 , 0 .
2!
2!
3
3
4
4
(1 + x) 5 , then
We compute f (x) = 51 (1 + x) 5 and f (x) = 25
95
2
4
4
1
81
81
4
4
|f (c)| =
,
9
9 =
25(1 + c) 5 25 1 1 5
25
80
25
80
34
so
1 3
3 R1 4
3
4
25
2!
81 2
80
1 2
= 3 = 0.0000375 < 0.0001.
34
27 54
14.9-5
1
,
x(ln x)2
1
n(ln n)2
would
n=2
Furthermore, we compute
f (x) =
so f (x) is decreasing on [2, ). By the Integral Test, we can estimate the remainder
of the series
Z
Z
Rn
f (x) dx =
n
Z t
Z t
1
1
1
dx = lim
dx = lim
d ln x
2
2
2
t
t
x(ln x)
n x(ln x)
n (ln x)
n
x=t
1
1
1
1
1
= lim
= lim
=
+
<
.
t
ln x x=n t
ln t ln n
ln n
100
Example 7 (Homework 2 #2). How many terms of the series do we need to add
P
in order to find the sum of the series
(1)n+1 n16 correct to four decimal place?
n=1
1
Solution. By the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem, we require bn+1 = (n+1)
6 <
6
1
0.00005 = 20000 , and it implies (n + 1) > 20000 5.21. So we need to add at least
5 terms.
Example 8 (Homework 1 #16). Use
10
P
1
3n +4n
.
= 0.19788 to estimate the error
n=1
1
.
3n +4n
n=1
Solution. Since an =
1
3n +4n
<
1
3n +3n
R10 T10
1
23n
= bn , so the error is
1
1
1
2311
=
1 = 10 .
n
23
3
1 3
n=11
x=t
Z t x
1
3
1 3x
T10
dx = lim
dx = lim
x
t 10 2
t
2 ln 3 x=10
10 2 3
1
310
3t
=
+
.
lim
10
t
2 ln 3 2 ln 3
2 3 ln 3
Z
14.9-6
15 16
James Stewart: Calculus, Early Transcendentals, Seventh
Edition, International Metric Version, c2012.
Chapter 15
15.1
Multiple Integrals
ba
.
n
n
P
f (xi )x.
i=1
b
def.
f (x) dx = lim
n
X
f (xi )x.
i=1
: ; x-;
Volumes and Double Integrals, page 974
Similarly, we consider a function f (x, y) defined on a closed rectangle
R = [a, b] [c, d] = {(x, y) R2 |a x b, c y d},
and we first suppose that f (x, y) 0. The graph of f is a surface with equation
z = f (x, y). Let S be the solid that lies above R and under the graph of f , that is
S = {(x, y, z) R3 |0 z f (x, y), (x, y) R},
The goal is to find the volume of S.
15.1-1
ba
.
m
dc
.
n
m X
n
X
i=1 j=1
n
m X
X
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
: ; xy-
dA ,
dx dy () (dy dx = dx dy)
The Midpoint Rule, page 978
The method that we used for approximating single integrals (the Midpoint Rule,
the Trapezoidal Rule, Simpsons Rule) all have counterparts for double integrals.
Here we introduce the Midpoint Rule for double integrals.
Midpoint Rule for Double Integrals (page 978).
ZZ
m X
n
X
f (x, y) dA
f (
xi , yj )A,
R
i=1 j=1
1
=
ba
f (x) dx.
1
=
Area(R)
ZZ
f (x, y) dA.
R
Properties of Double Integrals, page 981
We assume that all of the integrals exist.
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
(a)
(f (x, y) + g(x, y)) dA =
f (x, y) dA +
g(x, y) dA.
R
(b)
ZZ
cf (x, y) dA = c
R
ZZ
15.1-3
15.2
, , dy dx dx dy
Similarly, the iterated integral ( x y )
Z dZ b
Z d Z b
Z d
f (x, y) dx dy =
f (x, y) dx dy =
B(y) dy.
c
In general, this is true if we assume that f (x, y) is bounded on R, f (x, y) is discontinuous only on a finite number of smooth curves, and the iterated integrals exist.
RR
Example 3 (page 985). Evaluate R sin(xy) dA, where R = [1, 2] [0, ].
Solution. If we first integrate with respect to x, we get
ZZ
y sin(xy) dA =
R
15.2-1
We use
and get
So
,
Example 4 (page 986). Find the volume of the solid S that is bounded by the
elliptic paraboloid x2 + 2y 2 + z = 16, the plane x = 2 and y = 2, and the three
coordinate planes.
Solution.
15.2-2
1
dA, R = [1, 3] [1, 2].
(1)
x + y dx dy.
(2)
R 1+x+y
0
0
Homework (page 988). Find the volume of the solid in the first octant bounded
by the cylinder z = 16 x2 and the plane y = 5.
Substitution Rules:
Z
tan x dx =
1
dx =
Z x
ax dx =
Z
cos x dx =
Z
sec x tan x dx =
Z
1
dx =
2
a x2
Z
Integration by Parts:
Z
x sin x dx =
Z
ln x dx =
Z
x ex dx =
Z
sin1 x dx =
Z
tan1 x dx =
Trigonometric Integrals:
Expression
Substitution
Identity
1 sin2 = cos2
a2 x2
a2 + x2
x2 a2
Z
1 + tan2 = sec2
sec2 1 = tan2
1
dx =
x2 a2
ZZ
Solution.
15.2-4
15.3
Goal: We will learn how to integrate a function f (x, y) over a bounded region D.
Define a new function F (x, y) with a rectangular region R D by
(
f (x, y) if (x, y) is in D
F (x, y) =
0
if (x, y) is in R but not in D.
(1)
Definition 1 (page 989). If F (x, y) is integrable over R, then we define the double
integral of f (x, y) over D ( D f (x, y) ) by
ZZ
ZZ
f (x, y) dA =
F (x, y) dA, where F is given by (1).
D
15.3-1
f (x, y) dA =
y=g2 (x)
f (x, y) dy dx.
y=g1 (x)
f (x, y) dA =
d
c
x=h2 (y)
f (x, y) dx dy.
x=h1 (y)
Proof of (a). We choose a rectangle R = [a, b] [c, d], where c and d are constants
satisfy c min g1 (x) and d max g2 (x). Let F (x, y) be the function given by (1).
x[a,b]
x[a,b]
F (x, y) dy dx.
For fixed x [a, b], since F (x, y) = 0 if y < g1 (x) or y > g2 (x), the lower limit can
be replaced by g1 (x), and the upper limit can replaced by g2 (x). Therefore,
!
!
ZZ
Z b Z g2 (x)
Z b Z g2 (x)
f (x, y) dA =
F (x, y) dy dx =
f (x, y) dy dx
D
g1 (x)
g1 (x)
,
y , y , y = g2(x) y = g1(x)
();
RR
Example 4 (page 990). Evaluate D (x + 2y) dA, where D is the region bounded
by the parabolas y = 2x2 and y = 1 + x2 .
15.3-2
Example 5 (page 991). Find the volume of the solid that lies under the paraboloid
z = x2 + y 2 and above the region D in the xy-plane bounded by the line y = 2x and
the parabola y = x2 .
Solution.
Solution 2.
RR
Example 6 (page 992). Evaluate D xy dA, where D is the region bounded by the
line y = x 1 and the parabola y 2 = 2x + 6.
Solution.
15.3-3
Example 7 (page 440, 996). Find the volume common to two circular cylinders,
each with radius r, if the axis of the cylinder intersect at right angles.
Solution.
Solution 2.
15.3-4
R1R1
0
sin(y 2 ) dy dx.
(b)
ZZ
cf (x, y) dA = c
D
ZZ
f (x, y) dA.
D
ZZ
f (x, y) dA
ZZ
g(x, y) dA.
D2
D1
This property can be used to evaluate double integrals over regions D that are
neither type I nor type II but can be expressed as a union of regions of type I
or type II.
ZZ
1 dA = Area(D).
D
Z 8Z
0
ZZ
1 + x4 dx dy.
(95 )
sin(y 2) dy dx.
(97 )
x
2
Homework (page 996). Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinder
y 2 + z 2 = 4 and the planes x = 2y, x = 0, z = 0 in the first octant.
Z 4Z 2
2
ex dx dy.
(98 )
Homework*. Evaluate the integral
0
y
2
15.3-5
15.4
RR
Goal: We want to evaluate a double integral R f (x, y) dA, where R is easily
described using polar coordinates.
Recall that relations between Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates:
(
(
p
x = r cos
r = x2 + y 2
= tan1 xy .
y = r sin
Definition 1 (page 997). Define the polar rectangle ()
R = {(r, )|a r b, }.
Here we use the definition of double integral to find the formula of double integrals in polar rectangles.
(1) Divide the polar rectangle into small polar rectangles:
Dividing [a, b] into m subinterval [ri1 , ri ] with width r =
ba
.
m
.
n
1
ri = (ri1 + ri ),
2
We compute the area of Rij :
1
1 2
1
Ai = ri2 ri1
= (ri + ri1 )(ri ri1 ) = ri r.
2
2
2
(3) We get the double Riemann sum in polar rectangles:
n
m X
X
n
m X
X
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
Z Z
15.4-1
Change to Polar Coordinates in a Double Integral (page 999). If f is continuous on a polar rectangle R given by 0 a r b, , where 0 2,
then
ZZ
Z Z b
f (x, y) dA =
f (r cos , r sin )r dr d.
R
r dr d; dr rd:
r dr d r Jacobian: (x,y)
(r,)
RR
Example 2 (page 999). Evaluate R (3x + 4y 2 ) dA, where R is the region in the
upper half-plane bounded by the circles x2 + y 2 = 1 and x2 + y 2 = 4.
Solution.
Example 3 (page 1000). Find the volume of the solid bounded by the plane z = 0
and the paraboloid z = 1 x2 y 2 .
Solution.
15.4-2
f (x, y) dA =
D
Z Z
r=h2 ()
f (r cos , r sin )r dr d.
r=h1 ()
r , r = h2 (), r = h1(),
Example 5 (page 1000). Use a double integral to find the area enclosed by one
loop of the four-leaved rose r = cos 2.
Solution.
Example 6 (page 1001). Find the volume of the solid that lies under the paraboloid
z = x2 + y 2 , above the xy-plane, and inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 2x.
Solution.
RR
ZZ
1
dA, where R is the region enclosed
(1 + x2 + y 2 )
(95 )
(94 )
15.4-3
Z 2 Z 4x2
2
2
Homework. Evaluate the integral
e(x +y ) dy dx
(99 )
2 0
Z 1Z 1y2
2
ln(x2 + y 2) dx dy.
(96 )
3y
ZZ
e(x
2 +y 2 )
dA.
R2
Appendix
The area form (or volume form) has the following structure: Since
(
"
# "
#"
#
dx = dr cos r sin d
dx
cos r sin
dr
=
.
dy = dr sin + r cos d
dy
sin r cos
d
We compute the determinant of the matrix, called Jacobian:
(x, y) cos r sin
=
= r cos2 + r sin2 = r.
sin r cos
(r, )
15.4-4
15.6
Goal: Find the formula of the surface area of the graph of f (x, y).
Let S be a surface with equation z = f (x, y), where f (x, y) has continuous partial
derivatives. We assume that f (x, y) 0 and the domain D of f is a rectangle. The
idea is to approximate the surface area by the tangent plane areas.
(1) Divide D into small rectangles Rij with area A = xy.
(2) If we choose (xi , yi ), the corner of Rij closest to the origin, as a sample point,
then the tangent plane to S at Pij = (xi , yj , f (xi , yj )) is an approximation to
S near Pij . The area Tij of the part of this tangent plane that lies directly
above Rij is an approximation to the area Sij of the part of S that lies
directly above Rij .
Tij = |ui vj | = |(x i + fx (xi , yi )x k) (y j + fy (xi , yj )y k)|
= | fx (xi , yi )xy i fy (xi , yi )xy j + xy k|
q
= 1 + (fx (xi , yi ))2 + (fy (xi , yi ))2 A.
z
Pij
u
Tij
y
x
y
m P
n
P
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
Theorem 1 (page 1014). The area of the surface with equation z = f (x, y), (x, y)
D, where fx and fy are continuous, is
ZZ q
Area(S) =
1 + (fx (x, y))2 + (fy (x, y))2 dA.
D
:
L=
Rbp
a
1 + (y (x))2 dx.
15.6-1
Example 2 (page 1015). Find the surface area of the part of the surface z = x2 +2y
that lies above the triangular region T in the xy-plane with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0),
and (1, 1).
Solution.
Example 3 (page 1015). Find the area of the part of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4
that lies within the cylinder x2 + y 2 = x.
Solution.
Homework (page 1016). Find the area of the surface created by the cylinder y 2 +
z 2 = r 2 that lies within another cylinder x2 + z 2 = r 2 .
(91 )
2
15.7
Goal: Define and compute triple integrals of f (x, y, z) over a bounded region.
We first deal with the case where f (x, y, z) is defined on a rectangular box:
B = {(x, y, z)|a x b, c y d, r z s}.
(1) Divide the box B into lmn sub-boxes: Bijk = [xi1 , xi ] [yj1, yj ] [zk1 , zk ].
Each Bijk has area V = xyz.
l P
m P
n
P
f (xijk , yijk
, zijk
)V .
f (xijk , yijk
, zijk
)V
f (x, y, z) dV = lim
l,m,n
(, )
:
Just as for double integrals, the practical method for evaluating triple integrals
is to express them as iterated integrals as follows.
Fubinis Theorem for Triple Integrals (page 1017). If f is continuous on the
rectangular box B = [a, b] [c, d] [r, s], then
ZZZ
Z sZ dZ b
f (x, y, z) dV =
f (x, y, z) dx dy dz.
B
r c a
RRR
Example 2 (page 1018). Evaluate the triple integral
xyz 2 dV , where B =
B
[0, 1] [1, 2] [0, 3].
Solution. Direct computation gives
ZZZ
Z 3Z 2 Z 1
Z 3Z
2
2
xyz dV =
xyz dx dy dz =
B
yz 2
dy dz =
2
3
0
27
3z 2
dz = .
4
4
y=g1 (x)
z=u2 (x,y)
f (x, y, z) dz dy dx.
z=u1 (x,y)
z
z
u2 (x, y)
y
(0, 0, 1)
z =1xy
u1 (x, y)
y =1x
(0, 1, 0)
(x
g2
(1, 0)
(1, 0, 0)
g 1 (x )
(0, 1)
x
(a)
(b)
15.7-2
RRR
E
R 1R x2R y
0 0
f (x, y, z) dz dy dx
15.7-3
Example 7 (page 1022). Use a triple integral to find the volume of the tetrahedron
T bounded by the plane x + 2y + z = 2, x = 2y, x = 0, and z = 0.
Solution.
(b) The moments () of region E about the three coordinate planes are
ZZZ
ZZZ
Myz =
x(x, y, z) dV,
Mxz =
y(x, y, z) dV,
E
Z Z ZE
Mxy =
z(x, y, z) dV.
E
Myz
,
m
y =
Mxz
,
m
z =
Mxy
.
m
(d) The moments of inertia () about the three coordinate axes are
ZZZ
ZZZ
2
2
Ix =
(y + z )(x, y, z) dV, Iy =
(x2 + z 2 )(x, y, z) dV,
E
Z Z ZE
Iz =
(x2 + y 2)(x, y, z) dV.
E
15.7-4
Definition 9 (page 1023). The total electric charge on a solid object occupying a
region E and having charge density (x, y, z) is
ZZZ
Q=
(x, y, z) dV.
E
Example 10 (page 1024). Find the center of mass of a solid of constant density
that is bounded by the parabolic cylinder x = y 2 and the planes x = z, z = 0, and
x = 1.
Solution.
Homework (page
1026).
Write five other iterated integrals that are equal to the
Z 1Z
1Z y
iterated integral
f (x, y, z) dz dx dy.
0
Z 2Z
0
4x2Z x
0
sin 2z
dy dz dx.
4z
Homework (page 1025). Use a triple integral to find the volume of the solid enclosed by the cylinder y = x2 and the planes z = 0 and y + z = 1.
15.7-5
1x2Z 1x
f (x, y, z) dy dz dx.
Rewrite this integral as an equivalent iterated integral in the five other orders.
z
x
Figure 2: Integration of f (x, y, z) on the solid.
Solution.
15.7-6
RRR
15.7-7
Appendix
f (x, y, z) dV =
f (x, y, z) dV =
Z bZ
z=g1 (x)
f (x, y, z) dV =
E
f (x, y, z) dy dz dx.
y=u1 (x,z)
Z sZ
r
x=h1 (z)
f (x, y, z) dy dx dz.
z=u1 (x,y)
f (x, y, z) dz dx dy.
z=u1 (x,y)
x=h1 (y)
Z dZ
f (x, y, z) dV =
E
Z dZ
c
z=g1 (y)
f (x, y, z) dx dz dy.
x=u1 (y,z)
f (x, y, z) dV =
Z sZ
r
y=h1 (z)
f (x, y, z) dx dy dz.
z=u1 (x,y)
15.7-8
(96 )
(100 )
15.8
P (r, , z)
z
x
Figure 1: Cylindrical coordinate system.
To convert from cylindrical to rectangular coordinate, we use the equations
x = r cos ,
y = r sin ,
z = z,
y=
z=
in rectangular coordinates.
(b) We compute
r=
tan =
z=
, and another is
Therefore one of cylindrical coordinates is
. As with polar coordinates, there are infinitely many choices.
15.8-1
Example 2 (page 1029). Describe the surface whose equation in cylindrical coordinates is z = r.
Solution. Since z 2 = r 2 = x2 + y 2 , it is a
r=h1 ()
z
z
z = u2
z = u1
h1
r=
dz
rd
dr
D
=
r = h2
x
Figure 2: Cylindrical coordinate system.
Example 3. Evaluate
4x2
4x2
(x2 + y 2) dz dy dx.
(98 )
x2 +y 2
Therefore we have
15.8-2
Example 4 (page 1030). A solid E lies within the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1, below the
plane z = 4, and above the paraboloid z = 1 x2 y 2. The density at any point is
proportional to its distance from the axes of the cylinder. Find the mass of E.
Solution.
Z 4y2 Z
4y 2
xz dz dx dy.
x2 +y 2
Homework (page 1032). Find the volume of the solid enclosed by the three cylinders x2 + y 2 = 1, x2 + z 2 = 1, and y 2 + z 2 = 1.
15.8-3
15.9
x
Figure 1: Spherical coordinate system.
( r ) ( )
The spherical coordinate system is useful in problems where there is symmetry
about a point, and the origin is placed at this point. Figure 2 shows the surfaces of
= c, = c, and = c.
z
c
y
c
x
y = sin sin ,
tan =
y
,
x
15.9-1
z = cos .
x2 + y 2
tan =
.
z2
2
Example 1 (page 1034). The point (x, 4 , 3 ) is given in spherical coordinates. Plot
the point and find its rectangular coordinates.
Solution.
where (
i , j , k ) is some point in Eijk . Let (xijk , yijk
, zijk
) be the rectangular
coordinates of the sample point (
i , j , k ).
15.9-2
f (
i sin k cos j , i sin k sin j , i cos j )
2i sin k .
z
d
sin d
y
d
x
Figure 3: Volume element of the spherical coordinate system.
This formula can be extended to include more general spherical regions such as
E = {(, , )| , c d, g1 (, ) g2 (, )}, and in this case the
triple integration will be
ZZZ
Z dZ Z g2 (,)
f dV =
f ( sin cos , sin sin , cos )2 sin d d d,
E
g1 (,)
ZZZ
e(x
3
2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 2
Solution.
15.9-3
Example 4 (page 1036). Use spherical coordinates to find the volume of the solid
p
that lies above the cone z = x2 + y 2 and below the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = z.
Solution.
x2 +y 2
(94 )
Solution.
15.9-4
16x2 y 2
4x
4x2
3(x2 +y 2 )
x2 + y 2 + z 2 dz dy dx.
(94 )
ZZZ
z3
p
x2 + y 2 + z 2 dV , where E is the solid
that lies above the xy-plane and below the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1. (92 )
Homework. Find the volume of the solid bounded below by the cone z 2 = 4(x2 +y 2 )
and below by the ellipsoid 4(x2 + y 2 ) + z 2 = 8.
(101 )
Appendix
)
in E such that
Claim: For each spherical wedge E, there exists (
, ,
V = 2 sin .
z
z
r 2 + z 2 = a2
r
a
y
E
2
1 2
2Z a sin 0Z
a2 r 2
r dz dr d =
r cot 0
a sin 0
2
2
2
r a r r cot 0 dr
ir=a sin 0
h
3
2
2 32
=
(a r ) r cot 0
3
r=0
3
=
(a2 a2 sin 0 ) 2 + a3 a3 sin3 0 cot 0
3
a3
a3
=
1 cos3 0 sin2 0 cos 0 =
(1 cos 0 ).
3
3
15.9-5
(b) Next, we will show that the volume of the spherical wedge given by 1
2 , 1 2 , 1 2 is
V =
3
( 31 )(cos 1 cos 2 ).
3 2
Denote Vij by the volume of the region bounded by the sphere of radius i and
the cone with angle j , and from 1 to 2 . and letting V be the volume of
the wedge E, then we have
V = (V22 V21 ) (V12 V11 )
3
=
( (1 cos 2 ) 32 (1 cos 1 ) 31 (1 cos 2 ) + 31 (1 cos 1 ))
3 2
3
((2 31 )(1 cos 2 ) (32 31 )(1 cos 1 ))
=
3
3
=
( 31 )(cos 1 cos 2 ).
3 2
(c) By the Mean Value Theorem with f () = 3 , there exists some (1 , 2 )
such that f (2 ) f (1 ) = f (
)(2 1 ) 32 31 = 3
2 . Similarly, for
2
g() = cos , there exists (1 , 2) such that g(2) g(1 ) = g ()(
15.9-6
15.10
f (x) dx =
where S is the region in the r-plane that corresponds to the region R in the
xy-plane.
More generally, we consider a change of variables that is given by a C 1 and one-toone transformation T form the uv-plane to the xy-plane (
):
T (u, v) = (x, y),
where x and y are related to u and v by the equations
(
(
x = x(u, v)
u = u(x, y)
T :
T 1 :
.
y = y(u, v),
v = v(x, y)
v
y
T
(u0 , v0 )
T 1
S
u
R
(x0 , y0 )
x
15.10-1
Now we will see how a change of variables affects a double integral. We start
with a small rectangle S in the uv-plane whose lower corner is the point (u0 , v0 )
and whose dimensions are u and v. The image of S is a region R in the xyv
(u0 , v0 ) u
v = v0
r(u
0,
v)
u = u0
(x0 , y0 ) r(u, v )
0
15.10-2
of the lower side of S is v = v0 , whose image curve is given by the vector function
r(u, v0 ). The tangent vector at (x0 , v0 ) to this image curve is
ru = xu (u0 , v0 ) i + yu (u0 , v0 ) j
Similarly, the tangent vector at (x0 , y0) to the image curve of the left side of S
(namely, u = u0 ) is
rv = xv (u0 , v0 ) i + yv (u0 , v0 ) j
We can approximate the image region R = T (S) by a parallelogram determined by
the secant vectors
a = r(u0 + u, u0 ) r(u0 , v0 )
and
b = r(u0 , v0 + v) r(u0 , v0 ).
Since
r(u0 + u, v0 ) r(u0 , v0 )
u0
u
ru = lim
and so
.
u v v u
(u, v) u
v
(x,y)
With this notation we can get A (u,v)
uv, where the Jacobian is evaluated at (u0 , v0 ).
For the general region S in the uv-plane we divide S into rectangles Sij and
call their images in the xy-plane Rij . Applying the approximation to each Rij , we
approximate the double integral of f over R as follows:
ZZ
m X
n
X
f (x, y) dA = lim
f (xi , yi )A
R
m,n
i=1 j=1
m X
n
X
(x, y)
uv + H.O.T.
f (x(ui , vi ), y(ui, vi ))
= lim
m,n
(u,
v)
(u
,v
)
i i
i=1 j=1
ZZ
(x, y)
du dv.
=
f (x(u, v), y(u, v))
(u, v)
S
15.10-3
RR
Example 5 (page 1045). Use x = u2 v 2 , v = 2uv to evaluate the integral R y dA,
where R is the region bounded by the x-axis and the parabolas y 2 = 4 4x and
y 2 = 4 + 4x, y 0.
Solution.
15.10-4
Example 6. Evaluate
Solution.
RR
x2 +xy+y 2 1
e(x
2 +xy+y 2 )
(98 )
dA
y = br sin ,
z = cz,
y = b sin sin ,
z = c cos ,
, Jacobian (Homework 7)
15.10-5
RR
1 x 2, 0 xy 2, and 0 z 1.
Homework. Evaluate the integral
y 2 a2 }.
RR
ex
2 xy+y 2
RR
Homework*. Evaluate the integral R sin(x2 +2xy +y 2) dA, where R is the region
bounded by x + y = 0, x = 0, and y = 0.
(93 )
RR
x2
Homework*. Evaluate the integral R x2 +4y
2 dA, where R is the region bounded
2
2
2
2
by two ellipses x + 4y = 1 and x + 4y = 4.
(94 )
Homework*. Evaluate the integral
Homework. Evaluate the integral
3y 2 + 5z 2 + 6yz + 2xz 1}.
R 3 R 1 y
2
RRR
(95 )
Homework*. Compute the area of the domain in the first quadrant bounded by
the four curves xy = 1, xy = 4, xy2 = 1, and
y
x2
= 2.
(97 )
RRR
Homework*. Find the region E R3 for which the triple integral
(4 x2
E
4y 2 9z 2 ) dV is a maximum, and compute this maximum value.
(97 )
Homework*. Evaluate
Homework*. Find
16y 2 + 9z 2 144}.
e(x
x2 +xy+y 2 1
RRR
Homework*. Evaluate
RR
2 +xy+y 2 )
2y and y 0.
(98 )
RR
RR
e4x
sin
R
2yx
2y+x
x = 1, 2y + x = 2, 2y x = 0, and 2y + 5x = 0.
Homework*. Evaluate
dA
2 +12xy10y 2
(99 )
2 9y 2
e4x
and x 0.
RR
Homework*. Evaluate
4, y = 1, and y = 3.
RR
Homework*. Evaluate
15.10-6
Chapter 16
16.1
Vector Calculus
F(x, y)
x
Figure 1: Vector fields on R2 and on R3 .
Since F(x, y) is a two-dimensional vector, we can write it in terms of its component functions () P and Q as follows:
F(x, y) = P (x, y) i + Q(x, y) j = (P (x, y), Q(x, y)).
Functions P (x, y) and Q(x, y) are called scalar function () or scalar fields.
Example 2 (page 1057). A vector field on R2 is defined by F(x, y) = y i + x j.
Denote x = x i + y j by the position vector.
Example 3 (page 1059). Newtons Law of Gravitation states that the magnitude
of the gravitational force between two objects with masses m and M is
mMG
,
r2
where r is the distance between the objects and G is the gravitational constant.
Let the position vector of the object with mass m be x = (x, y, z), then r 2 = |x|2 .
Therefore the gravitational force acting on the object at x is
|F| =
F(x) =
mMG x
mMG
=
x,
2
|x| |x|
|x|3
(1)
qQ x
qQ
=
x,
2
|x| |x|
|x|3
where is a constant. For like charges, we have qQ > 0 and the force is repulsive;
for unlike charges, we have qQ < 0 and the force is attractive.
Instead of considering the electric force F, physicists often consider the force per
unit charge ():
E(x) =
Q
1
F(x) =
x.
q
|x|3
then
f =
Example 7. Let f (x, y) be a smooth function, then the gradient vector field f (x, y)
is perpendicular to the level curves f (x, y) = k.
4
-2
-4
-4
-2
16.1-3
Homework (page 1062). Match the functions f1 , f2 , f3 , and f4 with the plots of
their gradient vector fields labeled I - IV. Give reasons for your choices.
(a) f1 (x, y) = x2 + y 2 .
(b) f2 (x, y) = x(x + y).
(c) f3 (x, y) = (x + y)2 .
p
(d) f4 (x, y) = sin x2 + y 2 .
1
1
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
III
-1
-0.5
0.5
II
-1.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
IV
-1
-1
16.1-4
-0.5
-0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
16.2
Pi (xi , yi)
Pi
Pn
ti
P0
a t1 t2 ti1 ti tn1 b
Pn1
x
i=1
ds , , ,
, ,
We can define the line integrals on piecewise smooth curve () C,
which is a union of a finite number of smooth curves C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn . Then we define
the integral of f (x, y) along C as the sum of the integrals of f along each of the
smooth pieces of C:
Z
Z
Z
Z
f (x, y) ds.
f (x, y) ds + +
f (x, y) ds +
f (x, y) ds =
C
C2
C1
Cn
f (x, y)
y
(x, y)
C
x
Figure 2: Line integrals: The area of the fence. The total calories of running.
16.2-2
Solution.
R
Example 2 (page 1064). Evaluate C 2x ds, where C consists of the arc C1 of the
parabola y = x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 1) followed by the vertical line segment C2 from
(1, 1) to (1, 2).
Solution.
R
Any physical interpretation of a line integral C f (x, y) ds depends on the physical
interpretation of the function f . Suppose that (x, y) represents the linear density
at a point (x, y) of a thin wire shaped like a curve C. Then the mass of the part of
the wire from Pi1 to Pi in Figure 1 is approximately (xi , yi)si and so the total
n
P
mass of the wire is
(xi , yi )si . When n tends to infinity, we obtain the mass
i=1
() m of the wire:
m = lim
n
n
X
(xi , yi)si
(x, y) ds.
i=1
The center of mass () of the wire with density function (x, y) is located at the
point (
x, y), where
Z
Z
1
1
x(x, y) ds and y =
y(x, y) ds.
x =
m C
m C
16.2-3
f (x, y) dx = lim
f (xi , yi )xi =
f (x(t), y(t))x (t) dt.
n
i=1
f (xi , yi )yi =
f (x, y) dy = lim
f (x(t), y(t))y (t) dt.
n
i=1
(c) The original line integral is line integrals of f along C respect to are length:
Z
Z b
n
X
p
f (x, y) dx = lim
f (xi , yi )si =
f (x(t), y(t)) (x (t))2 + (y (t))2 dt.
n
i=1
f C x , dx ,
It frequently happens that line integrals with respect to x and y occur together.
When this happens, its customary to abbreviate by writing
Z
Z
Z
P (x, y) dx +
Q(x, y) dy =
P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy.
C
16.2-4
y 2 dx + x dy, where
i=1
=
=
a
b
p
f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) (x (t))2 + (y (t))2 + (z (t)) dt
f (r(t))|r(t)| dt.
Line integrals along C with respect to x, y, and z can also be defined. For example,
Z
Z b
n
X
f (x, y, z) dz = lim
f (xi , yi , zi )zi =
f (x(t), y(t), z(t))z (t) dt.
n
i=1
i=1
(4) When n tends to infinity, we define the work () W done by the force field F:
Z
Z
W =
F(x, y, z) T(x, y, z) ds =
F T ds.
(1)
C
Hence, work is the line integral with respect to arc length of the tangential component
of the force.
z
P0
P1
P2
Pi
Pn1
Pn
Pi1
Pi (xi , yi , zi )
T(ti )
F(xi , yi , zi )
|r (t)| dt =
F(r(t)) r (t) dt
W =
F(r(t))
|r
(t)|
C
ZC
Z
Z
=
F(r(t)) dr =
F(x(t), y(t), z(t)) dr =
F dr.
C
16.2-6
F dr =
F(r(t)) r (t) dt =
F T ds.
C
(, )
R
R
C C , C F dr = C F dr
Example 7. Find the work done by the force field F (x, y) = y 2 i + x2 j in moving
to ( 2, 0).
(90 )
Solution.
=
F(r(t)) r (t) dt =
(P i + Q j + R k) (x (t) i + y (t) j + z (t) k) dt
a
a
Z b
=
(P (x(t), y(t), z(t))x (t) + Q(x(t), y(t), z(t))y (t) + R(x(t), y(t), z(t))z (t)) dt
Za
=
P (x, y, z) dx + Q(x, y, z) dy + R(x, y, z) dz.
C
16.2-7
R
Example (TA) 8. Evaluate C F dr, where F = 3z i + 23 x j and C is the space
curve which is the intersection of x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and y = 1 x2 in the first octant
(95 )
from ( 12 , 12 , 21 ) to (1, 0, 0).
Solution.
R
Homework. Evaluate C xy dx+yz dy +zx dz, where C consists of the line segment
C1 from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 0) followed by another line segment C2 from (1, 1, 0) to
(1, 1, 1).
(90 )
Homework. Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = x2 y i xy 2 j on a
particle that starts at (2, 0) and moves once around the circle x2 + y 2 = 4 oriented
in the counterclockwise direction.
(92 )
R
Homework. Evaluate C x ds, where C is part of unit circle from ( 12 , 12 ) to
(0, 1).
(92 )
Homework. Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = z i + y j x k in
moving a particle along the circular helix given by the equations x(t) = cos t, y(t) =
sin t, z(t) = t, 0 t 2.
(92 )
R
Homework. Find the line integral C 6y 2 dx + 4x3 dy, where C is the arc of the
parabola y = 1 x2 from (1, 0) to (0, 1) and then to (1, 0).
(99 )
16.2-8
16.3
(1)
where F (x) is continuous on [a, b]. We also called equation (1) the Net Change
Theorem: The integral of a rate of change is the net change.
Here we will introduce the Fundamental Theorem for line integrals, where we
think of the gradient vector f of a function f as a sort of derivative of f .
Theorem 1 (page 1075). Let C be a smooth curve given by the vector function
r(t), a t b. Let f be a differentiable function of two or three variables whose
gradient vector f is continuous on C. Then
Z
f dr = f (r(b)) f (r(a)).
C
(),
R
R
, C f dr = C f dr
y
A(x1 , y1 )
A(x1 , y1, z1 )
B(x2 , y2, z2 )
y
B(x2 , y2 )
x
C
x
f dr =
f (r(t)) r (t) dt =
dt
+
+
x dt
y dt
z dt
C
a
a
Z b
d
f (r(t)) dt = f (r(b)) f (r(a)).
=
a dt
Theorem 1 is also true for piecewise smooth curves. This can be seen by subdividing C into a finite number of smooth curves and adding the resulting integrals.
16.3-1
Example 2 (page 1076). Find the work done by the gravitational field F(x) =
G
x in moving a particle with mass m from the point (3, 4, 12) to the point
mM
|x|3
(2, 2, 0) along a piecewise smooth curve C.
Solution.
C1
for any two path C1 and C2 in D with the same initial and terminal points.
In general vector field F,
F dr 6=
C1
C2
For conservative vector field F = f , the Fundamental Theorem for line inteR
R
grals tells us C1 f dr = C2 f dr = f (r(b)) f (r(a)).
The following discussion will say that the only vector fields that are independent of path are conservative vector fields.
Definition 4 (page 1077). A curve is called closed () if its terminal point
coincides with its initial point, that is, r(b) = r(a).
16.3-2
R
Theorem 5 (page 1077). The line integral C F dr is independent of path in D if
R
and only if C F dr = 0 for every closed path C in D.
Proof. () We choose any two points A and B on C and regard C as being composed
C1
C2
C1
C1 C2
C2
and hence
C1
F dr =
C1
C2
C2
C1
F dr
F dr,
C2
F dr.
()
Definition 6 (page 1077).
(a) A domain D is open () if for every point P in D, there is a disk with
center P that lies entirely in D. (D doesnt contain any of its boundary points.)
(b) A domain D is path connected () if any two points in D can be joined
by a path that lies in D.
Figure 3: Open set; non-open set; path connected region; non-path connected region.
16.3-3
y
(x, y)
(x, y)
(x1 , y)
C2
C2
(x, y1 )
C1
C1
(a, b)
(a, b)
(a,b)
C2
C2
F dr.
(2)
f (x, y) = 0 +
x
x C2
R
R
If we write F = P (x, y) i + Q(x, y) j, then C2 F dr = C2 P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy.
On C2 , y is constant, so dy = 0. Let x1 t x, then (2) implies
Z
Z x
P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy =
P (t, y) dt = P (x, y).
f (x, y) =
x
x C2
x x1
Similarly, using a vertical line segment, we have
Z
Z y
P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy =
Q(x, t) dt = Q(x, y).
f (x, y) =
y
y C2
y y1
Thus
f
f
i+
j = f.
x
y
Theorem 7 :
16.3-4
Figure 5: (Left to right) Simple, not closed; simple closed; not simple, not closed;
not simple, closed.
(b) D is a simply connected region () in a plane if it is path connected
and every simple closed curve in D enclosed only points that are in D.
16.3-5
throughout D,
then F is conservative.
We will prove Theorem 10 in the next section.
, (genus);
Finally, we will use partial integration to find the potential functions.
Example 11 (page 1079).
(a) If F(x, y) = (3 + 2xy) i + (x2 3y 2) j, find a function f such that F = f .
R
(b) Evaluate the line integral C F dr, where C is the curve given by r(t) =
et sin t i + et cos t j, 0 t .
(92 )
Solution.
R
P
=
z
x
R
Q
=
.
z
y
P
y
y
x2 +y 2
i+
x
x2 +y 2
j.
Q
.
x
Solution.
1
xy2
f
y
f
x
x
i
+
i+
j=
i+ 2
j.
y 2
y 2 j = 2
2
x
y
1 + (x)
1 + (x)
x +y
x + y2
So
Example 14 ? ?
16.3-7
F dr =
W =
F(r(t)) r (t) dt =
m r (t) r (t) dt
C
a
a
Z b
Z b
m
m h ib
d
d 2
m
|r (t)|
(r (t) r (t)) dt =
|r (t)| dt =
=
a
2 a dt
2 a dt
2
m 2
1
1
= (|r (b)| |r(a)|2 ) = m|v(b)|2 m|v(a)|2 ,
(3)
2
2
2
where v(t) = r (t) is the velocity.
The quantity 21 m|v(t)|2 , is called the kinetic energy () of the object. Therefore we can rewrite Equation (3) as W = K(B) K(A), which says that the work
done by the force field along C is equal to the change in kinetic energy at the
endpoints of C.
Now lets further assume that F is a conservative force field; that is, we can write
F = f . In physics, the potential energy () of an object at the point (x, y, z) is
defined as P (x, y, z) = f (x, y, z), so we have F = f = P . Then we have
Z
Z
W =
F dr = P dr = (P (r(b)) P (r(a))) = P (A) P (B).
C
(90 )
16.3-8
Homework*.
(a) Find a the potential function of the following vector field:
1
1
2x sin y j + k.
F = 2 cos y i +
y
z
R
(b) Find C F dr, where C is any curve from (0, 2, 1) to (1, 2 , 2). (91 )
(92 )
Homework. Let
F(x, y, z) =
y
i+
1 + x2 y 2
z
x
+p
2
2
1+x y
1 y 2z 2
j+
y
p
+z
1 y 2z 2
k.
xi + yj + zk
.
x2 + y 2 + z 2
yz
1
1+z
k,
y
F(x, y, z) = yz i + xz + 2
y + z2 + 1
(96 )
F dr.
j + xy +
z
+ cos z
2
y + z2 + 1
k.
1 + x2 , y = x, 0 x 1}.
(101 )
Homework*.
(a) Find a scalar function f (x, y, z) such that f = sin y i + x cos y j sin z k.
R
(b) Find the line integral C sin y dx + x cos y dy + (y sin z) dz, where C : r(t) =
(102 )
t i + 2 cos t j + 2 sin t k, 0 t .
16.3-10
16.4
Greens Theorem gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple
closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by C.
Definition 1 (page 1084). We say a simple closed curve C is positive orientation
() if the curve is traverses counterclockwise.
If C is given by the vector function r(t), a t b, then the region D is always
on the left at the point r(t) traverses C.
y
y
P dx + Q dy =
x
y
C
D
Remark 2. Sometimes we use the following notations
P dx + Q dy,
C
P dx + Q dy,
or
P dx + Q dy
D
and dx dx = 0,
and d(dx) = 0.
Greens Theorem can be regarded as the relationship between the integral, differential forms, and wedge product:
P dx + Q dy =
d(P dx + Q dy)
P
Q
Q
P
=
dx +
dy dx + P d(dx) +
dx +
dy dy + Q d(dy)
x
y
x
y
D
Q P
P
Q
dA.
dy dx +
dx dy =
=
x
y
D y
D x
D
C
16.4-1
consisting of the line segments from (0, 0) to (1, 0), form (1, 0) to (0, 1), and from
(0, 1) to (0, 0).
Solution.
y 4 + 1) dy, where C
Solution.
16.4-2
C2
D
C1
(a)
(b)
x
y
x
y
x
y
D
D
D
P dx + Q dy +
D
P dx + Q dy.
D
Since the line integrals along the common boundary lines are in opposite directions,
they cancel and we get
Q P
dA =
P dx + Q dy +
P dx + Q dy =
P dx + Q dy.
x
y
D
C1
C2
C
Example 8 (page 1090).
(a) If C is the line segment connecting the point (x1 , y1) to the point (x2 , y2), then
x dy y dx = x1 y2 x2 y1 .
C
(b) If the vertices of a polygon, in counterclockwise order, are (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2), . . .,
(xn , yn ), then the area of the polygon is
1
A = ((x1 y2 x2 y1 ) + (x2 y3 x3 y2 ) +
2
+ (xn1 yn yn1 xn ) + (xn y1 yn x1 )).
16.4-3
y
x2 +y 2
i+
x
x2 +y 2
j.
(a) Show that C F dr = 0 for every positively oriented simple closed path that
does not encloses the origin.
(b) Show that C F dr = 2 for every positively oriented simple closed path that
encloses the origin.
Solution.
16.4-4
P (x, y) dx =
C
P
dA and
y
Q(x, y) dy =
C
Q
dA.
x
y
y = g2 (x)
C4
C3
C2
y = g1 (x) C1
P
dA =
y
b
a
g2 (x)
g1 (x)
P
(x, y) dy dx =
y
P (x, y) dx =
C1
Observe that C3 goes from right to left but C3 goes from left to right, so we can
write the parametric equations of C3 as x = x, y = g2 (x), a x b. Therefore
P (x, y) dx =
C3
P (x, y) dx =
C3
P (x, y) dx = 0 =
C2
Hence
C1
b
a
P (x, y) dx +
C3
P (x, g2(x)) dx =
a
Q(x, y) dy =
Equality
P (x, y) dx +
C2
P (x, g1 (x)) dx
=
P (x, y) dx +
P (x, y) dx =
C
P (x, y) dx.
C4
Q
dA can be proved similarly.
x
16.4-5
P (x, y) dx
C4
P
dA.
y
x
y
C
C
R
R
A curve that is not simple crossed itself at one or more points and can be broken up
into a number of simple curve. We have shown that the line integral of F around
these simple curves are all 0 and, adding these integrals, we see that C F dr = 0
for any closed curve C. Therefore C F dr is independent of path in D, and F is a
conservative vector field.
Homework*. Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = x2 y i xy 2 j on a
particle that starts at (2, 0) and moves once around the circle x2 + y 2 = 4 oriented
in the counterclockwise direction.
(92 )
Homework. Find the positive-oriented simple closed curve C such that the integral
(y 3 y) dx x3 dy is maximum. Find the maximum value.
(93 )
C
Homework*. Find the integral C (4y + 3x+ sin y) dx+ (3y + 2x+ x cos y) dy, where
C is the circle (x 2)2 + (y 5)2 = 9.
(94 )
Homework*. Compute the line integral C (3xy + 1) dx + (x2 + x) dy, where the
closed curve C is the cardioid given by the polar equation r = 1 + sin , and is
oriented counterclockwise.
(97 )
Homework*. Let P =
y3
(x2 +y 2 )2
and Q = (x2xy
. Let C be the counterclockwise
+y 2 )2
x2 y 2
+ 16
9
ellipse
(b) Evaluate
P dx + Q dy.
(98 )
r=1cos
16.5
y
z
z
x
x
y
rot F
We introduce the vector differential operator as
=
i+
j+
k.
x
y
z
f
f
f
i+
j+
k.
x
y
z
, y
, z
, then curl F is the
(2) If we think of as a vector with components x
formal cross product of with the vector field F as follows:
i
j
k
P
Q P
R
R Q
i+
j+
k
F = x y z =
y
z
z
x
x
y
P Q R
= curl F.
Theorem 2 (page 1092). If f (x, y, z) is a function that has continuous second order
partial derivatives, then curl(f ) = 0.
Proof. By Clairauts Theorem, we have
i
j k
curl(f ) = (f ) = x y z
f f f
x
P
Q R
+
+
.
x
y
z
2f
2f
2f
+
+
.
x2
y 2
z 2
16.5-2
curl F =
=
k.
x
y
z
x
y
P (x, y) Q(x, y) 0
So we can rewrite Greens Theorem in the vector form
I
ZZ
F dr =
(curl F) k dA.
C
y (t)
x (t)
i
+
j,
|r(t)|
|r (t)|
and n(t) =
y (t)
x (t)
i
j.
|r (t)|
|r (t)|
y
T(t)
n(t)
r(t)
D
C
Figure 1: Unit tangent vector T(t) and unit normal vector n(t) of the curve C : r(t).
So we have
I
Z b
F n ds =
(F n)|r (t)| dt
C
a
Z b
P (x(t), y(t))y (t) Q(x(t), y(t))x (t)
=
|r(t)| dt
(t)|
(t)|
|r
|r
a
Z b
=
P (x(t), y(t))y (t) dt Q(x(t), y(t))x (t) dt
a
Z b
ZZ
Q
P
dA.
=
+
P dy Q dx =
x
y
a
D
16.5-3
Appendix
Physics meaning of curl and divergence, page 1094 - 1095
The reason for the name curl occurs when F represents the velocity field in fluid
flow. Particles near (x, y, z) in the fluid tend to rotate about the axis that points
in the direction of curl F(x, y, z), and the length of this curl vector is a measure of
how quickly the particles move around the axis.
C
(x, y, z)
16.5-4
16.6
Here we use vector functions to describe more general surfaces, called parametric
surfaces, and compute their areas.
y = y(u, v),
z = z(u, v),
(1)
where (u, v) varies throughout D, is called parametric surfaces S (). Equations (1) are called parametric equations of S ().
v
z
S
r
(u, v)
y
u
16.6-1
z
D
S
(u0 , v0 )
v = v0
Cu
Cv
y
u = u0
Solution.
y = f (x) cos ,
z = f (x) sin .
(2)
16.6-2
Example 5 (page 1103). Find parametric equations for the surface generated by
rotating the curve y = sin x, 0 x 2, about x-axis.
Solution.
y
z
x
(u0 , v0 ) i +
(u0 , v0 ) j +
(u0 , v0 ) k.
u
u
u
z
P0
D
ru
(u0 , v0 )
v = v0
rv
Cu S Cv
y
u = u0
u
x
x
y
z
(u0 , v0 ) i +
(u0 , v0 ) j +
(u0 , v0 ) k
v
v
v
(u, v) D,
and S is covered just cone as (u, v) ranges throughout the parametric domain D,
then the surface area of S is
ZZ
A(S) =
|ru rv | dA,
D
where
ru =
z
x
y
z
x y
i+ j +
k and rv =
i+
j+
k.
u u
u
v
v
v
y=y
We compute
16.6-4
z = f (x, y).
Example 9 (page 1107). For surfaces of revolution, prove that the surface area
formula is consistent with the surface area formula from single-variable calculus.
Solution.
(95 )
16.7
The relationship between surface integrals and surface area is much the same as the
relationship between line integrals and arc length.
Suppose f is a function of three variables whose domain includes a surface S.
First, we will define the surface integral of f over S.
(u, v) D.
(1) We first assume that the parameter domain D is a rectangle and we divide it
into subrectangles Rij with dimensions u and v. The surface S is divided
into corresponding patches Sij .
(2) We evaluate f at a point Pij in each patch, multiply by the area Sij .
(3) We form the Riemann sum
n
m P
P
f (Pij )Sij .
i=1 j=1
(4) Taking the limit as the number of patches increasing and define the surface
integral of f over the surface S () as
ZZ
f (x, y, z) dS = lim
:
m,n
m X
n
X
f (Pij )Sij
f (x, y, z) ds =
i=1 j=1
ZZ
Rb
a
16.7-1
RR
Surface integrals have applications. For example, if a thin sheet has the shape
of a surface S and density (x, y, z), then the total mass () of the sheet is
ZZ
m=
(x, y, z) dS.
S
1
z =
m
ZZ
z(x, y, z) dS.
y=y
z = g(x, y).
So we have
Sn
S1
16.7-2
RR
16.7-3
(a) For a surface z = g(x, y) given as a the graph of g, we can get the unit normal
vector
j+k
2 .
g
g 2
1 + x + y
n= r
g
i
x
g
y
The unit normal vector gives the upward orientation of the surface.
(b) If S is a smooth orientable surface given by r(u, v), then the orientation of the
unit normal vector is
n=
ru rv
.
|ru rv |
(c) If a surface S is given by a graph z = g(x, y), then we can use parameter
equation r(x, y) = x i + y j + g(x, y) k and get
ZZ
ZZ
F dS =
F (rx ry ) = (P i + Q j + R k) (gx i gy j + k) dA
S
D
ZZ
=
(P gx Qgy + R) dA.
D
16.7-5
Example 6 (page 1117). Find the flux of the vector field F(x, y, z) = z i + y j + x k
across the unit sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1.
Solution.
RR
Example 7 (page 1118). Evaluate S F dS, where F = y i + x j + k and S is the
boundary of the solid region E enclosed by the paraboloid z = 1 x2 y 2 and the
plane z = 0.
Solution.
16.7-6
Appendix
Definition 8 (page 1119). If E is an electric field, then the surface integral
is called the electric flux of E () through the surface S.
RR
EdS
One of the important laws of electrostatics is Gausss Law (), which says
that the net charge enclosed by a closed surface S is
ZZ
Q = 0
E dS,
S
where 0 is a constant (called the permittivity of free space) that depends on the
units used. Therefore, if the vector field F = y i + x j + k represents an electric field,
we can conclude that the charge enclosed by S is Q = 34 0 .
Another application of surface integrals occurs in the study of heat flow. Suppose
the temperature at a point (x, y, z) in a body is u(x, y, z). Then the heat flow is
defined as the vector field
F = Ku,
where K is an experimentally determined constant called the conductively of the
substance. The rate of heat flow across the surface S in the body is then given by
the surface integral
ZZ
ZZ
F dS = K
u dS.
S
RR
Homework. Find the surface integral S y 2z dS, where S is the part of the sphere
p
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 between the cone z = x2 + y 2 .
(90 )
RR
Homework. Find the surface integral x2 +y2 +z 2 =R2 z 4 dS.
(91 )
RR
Homework. Evaluate S (x2 + y 2 )z dS, where S is the upper hemisphere x2 + y 2 +
z 2 = 1, z 0.
(93 )
p
RR
Homework. Evaluate S 1 + x2 + y 2 dS, where S is the helicoid parameterized
as r(u, v) = u cos v i + u sin v j + v k, 0 u 1, 0 v .
(97 )
RR
Homework. Evaluate the surface integral S (x2 + y 2 )z dS, where S is the part of
the plane z = 4 + x + y that lies inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4.
(101 )
RR
Homework. Evaluate S F dS, where F = (x2 + y 2)k and S is the surface (z +
xy)3 = x2 + y 2 lies in 1 x2 + y 2 4 with upward orientation.
(90 )
RR
Homework. Evaluate S F dS, where F = xz i + yz j + z 2 k, and S is the part of
(91 )
sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z 12 with upward orientation.
16.7-7
2 +y 2
surface z = 1 x y that lies above xy-plane oriented upwards (that is, with
RR
normal having k-component 0). Calculate the flux S F dS of F across S. Note
(102 )
16.7-8
16.8
x
x
n C
Stokes Theorem (page 1122). Let S be an oriented piecewise smooth surface
that is bounded by a simple, closed, piecewise smooth boundary curve C with positive orientation. Let F be a vector field whose components have continuous partial
derivatives on an open region on R3 that contains S. Then
Z
ZZ
F dr =
curl F dS.
C
(a) Since
F dr =
F T ds and
ZZ
curl F dS =
S
ZZ
curl F n dS,
Stokes Theorem says that the line integral around the boundary curve of S
of the tangential component of F is equal to the surface integral over S of the
normal component of the curl of F.
(b) Greens Theorem is the special case of Stokes Theorem, where S is flat and
lies in the xy-plane with upward orientation, and the unit normal is k, so
Z
Z
ZZ
Q P
dA
F dr =
P dx + Q dy =
x
y
C
C
D
ZZ
ZZ
=
curl F dS =
(curl F) k dA.
S
16.8-1
R
Example 1 (page 1124). Evaluate C F dr, where F(x, y, z) = y 2 i + x j + z 2 k
and C is the curve of intersection of the plane y + z = 2 and the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1.
(Orient C to be counterclockwise when viewed from above.)
Solution.
RR
Example 2 (page 1125). Use Stokes Theorem to compute the integral S curl F
dS, where F(x, y, z) = xz i+yz j+xy k and S is the part of the sphere x2 +y 2 +z 2 = 4
that lies inside cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1 and above the xy-plane.
Solution.
,
RR
16.8-2
curl F dS ()
Example 4. Suppose that C is the circle that is the intersection of the plane passing
through the origin and the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4. Let F = z i + x j + y k. Find
R
the equation of the plane such that the line integral C F dr attains the maximum.
(91 )
Solution.
16.8-3
Appendix
Proof of a special case of Stokes Theorem. We assume that the equation of S is
z = z(x, y), (x, y) D, where z(x, y) has continuous second order partial derivatives
and D is a simple plane region whose boundary curve C1 corresponds to C. If the
orientation of S is upward, then the positive orientation of C corresponds to the
positive orientation of C1 . So we have
r(x, y) = x i + y j + z(x, y) k
z
z
rx (x, y) = 1 i + 0 j +
k
ry (x, y) = 0 i + 1 j +
k
x
y
z
z
rx ry (x, y) = i
j + 1 k.
x
y
z
n
z = z(x, y)
S
C
y
D
C1
y
z x
z
x y
x
y
R
where the partial derivative of P, Q, and R are evaluated at (x, y, z(x, y)). On the
other hand, if x = x(t), y = y(t), a t b is a parametric representation of C1 , then
a parametric representation of C is x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(x(t), y(t)), a t b.
By Greens Theorem, we have
Z
Z b
dx
dy
dz
F dr =
P
dt
+Q +R
dt
dt
dt
C
a
Z b
dy
z dx z dy
dx
dt
+Q +R
+
=
P
dt
dt
x dt
y dt
a
Z b
z dx
z dy
=
P +R
dt
+ Q+R
x dt
y dt
a
Z
z
z
dx + Q + R
dy
=
P +R
x
y
C
ZZ
z
=
Q+R
dx
P +R
dA.
x
y
y
x
D
16.8-4
Using the Chain Rule carefully, that is, P, Q, and R are functions of x, y, and z and
z itself a function of x and y, we will get
Z
ZZ
2z
Q Q z R z R z z
+
+
+
+R
F dr =
x
z x
x y
z x y
xy
C
D
P z R z R z z
2z
P
dA
+
+
+
+R
y
z y
y x
z y x
yx
ZZ
R Q z
P
R z
Q P
=
dA.
y
z x
z
x y
x
y
D
Homework*. Suppose that S consists of the part of cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1, 0 z 1
RR
and the lid x2 + y 2 1, z = 1. Let F = y i + x j + x2 k. Evaluate S F n dS.
(90 )
Homework. Suppose that S is the part of the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 that lies
below the plane z = 1 and oriented upward. Let F = x2 y i xy 2 j + zex k. Evaluate
RR
F n dS.
(91 )
S
Homework*. Suppose that C is the circle that is the intersection of the plane
passing through the origin and the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4. Let F = z i + x j + y k.
R
Find the equation of the plane such that the line integral C F dr attains the
maximum.
(91 )
H
Homework*. Evaluate C FT ds, where F(x, y, z) = xy i+yz j+zx k and C is the
triangle with vertices (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) oriented counterclockwise as viewed
from above.
(92 )
Homework*. Let F = x2 yz i + yz 2 j + z 3 exy k.
(a) Find the curl of F.
RR
(b) Evaluate S curl F n dS, where S is the part of sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 5, z 1
that lies above the plane z = 1, oriented upward.
(92 )
RR
Homework. Evaluate S curl F n dS, where F = yz 5 i + sin(xyz) j + x k and S is
the part of paraboloid y = 1 x2 z 2 that lies to the right of the xz-plane, oriented
in the direction of the positive y-axis.
(93 )
Homework*. Let a2 + b2 + c2 = 1. Let C be the curve that is the intersection
of the plane ax + by + cz = 54 and the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, and the curve is
R
oriented clockwise as viewed from the center. Evaluate C F dr, where F(x, y, z) =
(2y z) i + (3x + 2z) j + (2x y) k.
(93 )
16.8-5
RR
Homework*. Evaluate
Homework*. Evaluate
(94 )
the part of the plane z = x + 2 lies inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1, oriented upward.
(95 )
Homework. Let closed curve C be the intersection of the plane x + y + z = 1
and the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 9, oriented counterclockwise as viewed from above, and
H
F(x, y, z) = x2 z i + xy 2 j + z 2 k. Find C F dr.
(97 )
RR
2
Homework*. Compute the integral S curl F dS, where F(x, y, z) = (ez + y) i +
(4z y) j + (8x sin y) k and S is the part of z = 4 x2 y 2 above the xy-plane with
(98 )
RR
2
(a) Find curl F, where F = y 3 i+x3 j +ez k and evaluate S curl FdS, where S
is the portion of the surface of z = x3 +y 3 3xy within the cylinder x2 +y 2 = a2
with upward normal.
R
(b) Use Stokes Theorem to evaluate C F dr, where C is the boundary of S
oriented counterclockwise when viewed from above.
(99 )
Homework. Evaluate
0 t 2,
(100 )
z
= 1. Find the flux of curl F in the direction of the upper
of the ellipsoid x4 + y9 + 25
unit normal n (pointing away from the origin).
(101 )
16.8-6
16.9
In section 16.5, we have discussed the vector version of the following line integral
ZZ
Z
ZZ
Q
P
dA =
div F dA,
+
F n ds =
x
y
D
C
D
where C is the positively oriented boundary curve of the plane region D. Here we
will generalize this result to vector fields on R3 , and this is called the Divergence
Theorem ().
y
n
S
n
r(t)
D
C
n
x
Figure 1: Normal line integral (left) and the Divergence Theorem (right).
The Divergence Theorem (page 1129). Let E be a simple solid region and let
S be the boundary surface of E, given with positive outward orientation. Let F be
a vector field whose component functions have continuous partial derivatives on an
open region that contains E. Then
Z
ZZZ
F dS =
div F dV.
S
16.9-1
RR
2
Example 2 (page 1131). Evaluate S FdS, where F(x, y, z) = xy i+(y 2 +exz ) j+
sin(xy) k, and S is the surface of the region E bounded by the parabolic cylinder
z = 1 x2 and the planes z = 0, y = 0, and y + z = 2.
Solution.
Example 3. Let
3
p
z
x2 +y 2
1
2
2
2
4
k.
e
F(x, y, z) = xy + y + z i + tan x + x y j +
3
RR
Find S F dS, where the surface S is the top half of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1
with the unit normal vectors pointing away from the origin.
(97 )
Solution.
16.9-2
RR
(x4 + y 4 + z 4 ) dS.
(94 )
n2
n1
S1
n1
S2
Figure 2: General version of the divergence theorem.
Let n1 and n2 be outward normals of S1 and S2 . Then the boundary surface of
E is S = S1 S2 and its normal n is given by n = n1 or n = n2 on S2 . Applying
the Divergence Theorem on S, we get
ZZZ
ZZ
ZZ
div FdV =
F dS =
F n dS
E
S
S
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
F dS.
F dS +
F n2 dS =
F (n1 ) dS +
=
S1
S2
16.9-3
S1
S2
Example 5 (page 1132). Show that the electric flux of E through any closed surface
RR
S2 that encloses the origin is S2 E dS = 4Q.
Solution. We let S1 be a small sphere with radius r0 and center the origin. For the
E dS =
S2
Q
x,
|x|3
ZZ
we have div E = 0. So
E dS +
S1
ZZZ
div E dV =
E
ZZ
E dS =
ZZ
E n dS.
S1
S1
We can compute the surface integral over S1 because S1 is a sphere. The normal
vector at x is
x
.
|x|
Therefore
Q
x
En=
|x|3
x
|x|4
Q
Q
Q
xx=
= 2.
2
|x|
|x|
r0
Thus we have
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
Q
Q
Q
E dS = 2
E dS =
1 dS = 2 Area(S1 ) = 2 4r02 = 4Q.
r0
r0
r0
S1
S2
S1
Appendix
Proof of the Divergence Theorem for simple solid regions. Let F = P i + Q j + R k.
+ Q
+ R
, so
Then div F = P
x
y
z
ZZZ
divF dV =
ZZZ
P
dV +
x
ZZZ
Q
dV +
y
ZZZ
R
dV.
z
So, to prove the Divergence Theorem, it suffices to prove the following equations:
ZZ
ZZZ
ZZ
ZZZ
P
Q
P i n dS =
dV
Q j n dS =
dV
S
E x
S
E y
ZZ
ZZZ
R
dV.
(1)
R k n dS =
S
E z
Here we only prove (1) and E is a type z region:
E = {(x, y, z)|(x, y) D, u1(x, y) z u2 (x, y)},
16.9-4
ZZ
R
dV =
z
ZZ
z=u2 (x,y)
z=u1 (x,y)
R
(x, y, z) dz
z
dA
On the other hand, the boundary surface S consists of three pieces: the bottom surface S1 , the top surface S2 , and a vertical surface S3 , which lies above the boundary
curve of D.
z
S2 : z = u2 (x, y)
S3 E
S1 : z = u1 (x, y)
y
D
x
Figure 3: Proof of the Divergence Theorem.
We write
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
R k n dS.
R k n dS +
R k n dS +
R k n dS =
S
S2
S1
S3
S3
The equation of S2 is z = u2 (x, y), (x, y) R, and the outward normal n points
upward, so we have
ZZ
ZZ
R k n dS =
R(x, y, u2(x, y)) dA.
D
S2
On S1 we have z = u1 (x, y), but here the outward normal n points downward, so
we multiply by 1:
ZZ
ZZ
R k n dS =
R(x, y, u1(x, y)) dA.
D
S1
Therefore,
ZZ
R k n dS =
ZZ
16.9-5
RR
RR
Homework*. Evaluate S F n dS, where F = x2 i + xy j + z k and S is the surface
of the solid bounded by the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 and the plane z = 1.
(92 )
Homework. Evaluate
RR
y2
2
j + z k, and S =
RR
(x4 + y 4 + z 4 ) dS.
(94 )
outward flux of F on S.
16.9-6
Homework*. Let
3
p
z
2 +y 2
x
1
2
2
e
k.
F(x, y, z) = xy + y 2 + z 4 i + tan x + x y j +
3
(a) Find div F.
RR
(b) Find S FdS, where the surface S is the top half of the sphere x2 +y 2 +z 2 = 1
with the unit normal vectors pointing away from the origin. Warning: S is
(97 )
RR
upwards.
RRR
div F dV .
RR
RR
RR
F
dS
and
then
find
F dS.
S1 S2
S1
(99 )
F n dS, where
2
F(x, y, z) = (z x + y z) i +
1 3
y + z tan x j + x2 z + 2y 2 + 1 k
3
16.9-7
16.10
The main results of this chapter are all higher dimensional versions of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. In each case, we have an integral of a derivative
over a region on the left side, and the right side involves the values of the original
function only on the it boundary of the region.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Suppose F (x) is continuous on [a, b]. Then
Z b
F (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
a
r(a)
a
r(b)
x
y
D
C
Stokes Theorem. Let S be an oriented piecewise smooth surface that is bounded
by a simple, closed, piecewise smooth boundary curve C with positive orientation.
Let F be a C 1 vector field in an open region S S. Then
ZZ
Z
curl F dS =
F dr.
S
n
D
n
S
16.10-1
The Divergence Theorem. Let E be a simple solid region and let S be the boundary surface of E, given with positive outward orientation. Let F be a C 1 vector field
in an open region S E. Then
ZZZ
ZZ
div F dV =
F dS.
E
n
S
n
n
Figure 3: The divergence theorem.
16.10-2
(1) C , r(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k, a t b,
Z
Z b
f (x, y, z) ds =
f (r(t))|r(t)| dt
C
a
Z b
p
=
f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) (x (t))2 + (y (t))2 + (z (t))2 dt.
a
(2) C , C z(t) 0
(3) : f 1; f = ; (moment) f = x, y, z ;
(4) ds (),
F T ds =
F dr =
F(r(t)) r (t) dt =
P dx + Q dy + R dz
C
C
a
C
Z b
=
(P (x(t), y(t), z(t))x (t) + Q(x(t), y(t), z(t))y (t) + R(x(t), y(t), z(t))z (t)) dt.
a
(2) C , C z(t) 0
(3) : (work done by the force F); (circulation)
(4) dr ,
() C , F C n :
Z
Z
Z b
F n ds = (F n)|r (t)|dt =
Q dx + P dy.
C
(2) S , S z(u, v) 0
(3) : f 1; f = ; (moment) f = x, y, z ;
(4) dA (),
16.11-1
(1) S , r(u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k, D =
{(u, v)|a u b, c v d} F(x, y, z) = P (x, y, z) i + Q(x, y, z) j +
R(x, y, z) k R3 ,
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
F n dS =
F dS =
F(r(u, v)) (ru rv )(u, v) dA.
S
(2) S , S z(u, v) 0
(3) : (flux integral)
(4) dS = n dS , n
(5) , n ; , n
: () ()
(1)
f dr = f (r(b)) f (r(a))
(2)
(3)
(4)
ZZ
curl F dS =
S
ZZZ
div F dV =
F dr
Green, Stoke ()
ZZ
F dS
()
( )
(1) Green ():
I
I
ZZ
ZZ
Q P
G.T.
dA =
P dx + Q dy =
F dr.
curl F k dA =
x
y
C
C
D
D
(2) Green ():
ZZ
ZZ
I
I
P
Q
G.T.
div F dA =
dA =
Q dx + P dy =
F n ds.
+
x
y
D
D
C
C
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
ZZ
(3)
curl F dS =
curl F n dS =
( F) dS =
( F) n dS.
S
(4)
ZZZ
div F dV =
ZZZ
F dV .
16.11-2
(1) F (conservative vector field): f f = F
(2) :
, : curl F = curl (f ) = 0
(3) : Stoke : S C (),
ZZ
I
I
curl F dS =
F dr =
f dr = f (r(b)) f (r(a)) = 0.
S
(4) F : curl F = 0 ,
F = P i + Q j:
F = P i + Q j + R k:
Q
P
=
x
y
Q P
R Q
P
R
=
,
=
,
=
y
z z
x x
y
(1) , , Green
(2) , , ,
Stoke
(3) , ,
(4) F , F1 F = F1 + F2 ,
F1
: r(t), r(u, v)
(1)
(2)
ZZ
F dr =
F dS =
S
ZZ
16.11-3
16.12
1 +
1
22
1
32
+ +
1
n2
2
6
+ ;
2
6
,
,
:
Z x=1Z y=1
Z x=1Z y=1
f (x, y) dy dx =
x=0
y=0
x=0
y=0
dy dx = lim
t1
1 xy
x=tZ y=t
x=0
y=0
1
dy dx
1 xy
: (improper integral)
, ,
X
X
1
f (x, y) =
=
(xy)n =
xn y n ,
1 xy
n=0
n=0
|xy| < 1 ,
!
Z x=1Z y=1 X
Z x=1Z y=1
1
dy dx =
xn y n dy dx
x=0 y=0
x=0 y=0 1 xy
n=0
!
y=1 !
Z x=1 X
Z y=1
Z x=1 X
1
n+1
n
n
n
dx
y
=
x
y dy dx =
x
n+1
x=0
y=0
x=0
y=0
n=0
n=0
x=1 X
Z 1
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
n
n+1
=
=
x dx =
x
=
2
2
n
+
1
n
+
1
n
+
1
(n
+
1)
n
0
x=0
n=0
n=0
n=0
n=1
, x = u v, y = u + v,
(x, y)
1 1
= 2,
(u, v) = det
1 1
R = {(x, y)|0 x 1, 0 y 1} u v = 0, u v =
1, u + v = 0 u + v = 1 S
y
v
v=u
1
S
R
1
v = u1
u
v = u + 1
v = u
Figure 1: x = u v y = u + v R S
16.12-1
x=1Z y=1
x=0
y=0
u= 21
u=0
1
dy dx
1 xy
v=u
v=u
2
dv du +
1 u2 + v 2
u=1
u= 21
v=u+1
v=u1
2
dv du = I + II
1 u2 + v 2
1
1
dx =
2
2
a +x
a
1
1+
I=
=4
u= 21
u=0
1
2
d
x 2
a
x
a
x
1
+ C,
tan1
a
a
v=u
2
v
1
du
tan
1 u2
1 u2 v=u
1
u
1
tan
du
1 u2
1 u2
u = sin , du = cos d, = 6 , = 0,
I=4
Z
II =
=4
1
1
2
sin
cos
cos d = 4
=
1
1 2 6
= 2
d = 4
2
18
=0
v=u+1
2
v
1
du
tan
1 u2
1 u2 v=u1
Z 1
1 sin
1u
1
1
1
1
cos d
tan
tan
du = 4
1 cos
cos
1 u2
1 u2
2
u=1
u= 21
1
tan1
cos
sin2 2 + cos2 2 2 sin 2 cos 2
cos 2 sin 2
1 tan 2
1 sin
,
=
=
=
= tan
cos
4 2
cos2 2 sin2 2
cos 2 + sin 2
1 + tan 2
II = 4
4 2
x=1Z y=1
x=0
y=0
=
i= 2
h
1
1 2 2
2
= = 2
d = 4
4
4
9
= 6
=
1
1
2
1
dy dx = I + II = 2 + 2 =
1 xy
18
9
6
16.12-2
Homework 1. Starting from f (x) = sin x, x [0, 2], plot the function g(x) =
sin(2x + ).
Solution. See the Figure 1. The black curve is the graph of f (x) = sin x. To get
the graph of g(x), first we shift the graph of f (x) a distance units to the left.
Denote the new function f1 (x). Next, we shrink the graph of f1 (x) horizontally by
a factor of 2. It turns out that the graph of g(x) is the red curve.
y
1
1
Figure 1: f (x) = sin x and g(x) = sin(2x + ).
1.6
ex
.
1+2ex
Solution.
(a) Let y = 1 +
y1=
2 + 3x (y 1)2 = 2 + 3x x =
(y 1)2 2
.
3
2 + 3x is f 1 (x) =
(x1)2 2
.
3
1 + ln y
.
2
1+ln x
.
2
x xy = 0 x=
1+ 1+4y
.
2
1+ 1+4x
.
2
Since x 12 , we choose x =
x2 x is f 1 (x) = x =
(d) Let y =
ex
.
1+2ex
1 + 4y
.
2
ex
y
y=
y(1 + 2ex ) = ex ex =
x = ln
x
1 + 2e
1 2y
Hence the inverse function of f (x) =
ex
1+2ex
y
1 2y
x
is f 1 (x) = ln 12x
.
2
)
2
(c) tan1
))
(e) sin1 (sin( 7
3
1
3
1 3
(f) sin(2 sin ( 5 )).
Solution.
(a) sin1 (
2
)
2
= 4 .
(d) Let = tan1 (10), then tan = 10 and 2 < < 2 . Hence tan(tan1 (10)) =
tan = 10.
(e) Since sin
7
3
= sin
3
,
2
we have sin
3
5
(sin( 7
))
3
= sin
3
2
= 3 .
4
5
24
.
25
2.3
(94 )
|2x1||2x+1|
.
x
|2x 1| |2x + 1|
(2x 1) (2x + 1)
4x
= lim
= lim
= lim 4 = 4.
x0
x0
x0
x
x
x
x 2x
.
2
|x 4|
(101 )
x 2x
x 2x
x2 2x
lim 2
= lim
=
lim
x2
x2
x2 (4 x2 )(x +
|x 4|
4 x2
2x)
x
1
x(x 2)
= lim
= lim
= .
x2 (x + 2)(x 2)(x +
8
2x) x2
(x + 2)(x + 2x)
Homework 6. Find the limit lim
x0
sin(|x|)
x
and lim+
x0
sin(|x|)
.
x
(101 )
Solution.
sin(x)
sin x
sin x
sin(|x|)
= lim
= lim
= lim
= 1.
x0
x0
x0
x0
x
x
x
x
sin x
sin(|x|)
= lim+
= 1.
lim+
x0
x0
x
x
lim
sin 3x
.
x0 |3x2||x+2|
(91 )
sin x
cos x
tan xsin x
.
x3
(Hint: tan x =
2 sin2
x2
x0
= lim
x
2
sin x
.)
cos x
2 x
1 sin ( 2 )
x 2
2
(
)
x0
2
= lim
(92,93 )
= 21 . So we have
sin x
sin x 1 cos x
1
1
1
=
lim
=
1
=
.
x0 cos x
x3
x
x2
2
2
cos x1
.
x0 sin(x sin x)
(101 )
x sin x
x
1
1
cos x 1
cos x 1
= lim
1
=
.
x0
x0 sin(x sin x)
x2
sin(x sin x) sin x
2
2
lim
cos(sin x)1
.
tan2 x
(101 )
1sin2 (ax)cos(ax)
.
2
x0 1+sin (bx)cos(bx)
(101 )
) sin2 (ax)
2 sin2 ( ax
1 sin2 (ax) cos(ax)
2
lim
= lim
x0 1 + sin2 (bx) cos(bx)
x0 2 sin2 ( bx ) + sin2 (bx)
2
a2
2
x0 b2
2
= lim
sin2 ( ax
)
2
2
( ax
)
2
sin2 ( bx
)
2
( bx
)2
2
a2
sin2 (ax)
(ax)2
+ b2
sin2 (bx)
(bx)2
a2
2
b2
2
a2
+ b2
a2
.
3b2
exists? If so, find the value of a and the value of the limit.
Solution. Notice that
3x2 +ax+a+3
x2 +x2
3x2 +ax+a+3
.
(x+2)(x1)
3x2 +ax+a+3
x2 +x2
x2
2
exists,
the numerator must hace a factor (x + 2). Hence the solution of 3(2) + a(2) +
a + 3 = 0 is a = 15, and 3x2 + 15x + 15 + 3 = 3(x2 + 5x + 6) = 3(x + 2)(x + 3). So
3x2 + ax + a + 3
3(x + 2)(x + 3)
3(x + 3)
lim
= lim
= lim
= 1.
2
x2
x2
x2
x +x2
(x + 2)(x 1)
x1
Homework 1.
(a) Give an - proof to show that lim f (x) = L implies lim |f (x)| = |L|.
xa
xa
(b) Show that the reversed direction of the above statement is not true.
(96 )
Solution.
(a) By the definition of lim f (x) = L, for any > 0, there exists > 0 such that
xa
1 if x is rational
f (x) =
.
1 if x is irrational
Then |f (x)| 1, so we take L = 1 that lim |f (x)| = |L|. However, lim f (x)
xa
x = 0.
x0
Hence lim+
x<
x = 0.
x0
2 = .
xa
2.5
Continuity
Homework 3. Find the limit lim sin1 x sin x1 .
(99 )
x0
Solution. Since sin x1 1 for all x 6= 0, we have
1
1
1
| sin x| sin x sin
| sin1 x|.
x
2.6
3
Homework 5. Find the limit lim x 2 ( x + 2 2 x + 1 + x).
(102 )
Solution.
3
lim x 2 ( x + 2 2 x + 1 + x)
x
3
= lim x 2 (( x + 2 x + 1) ( x + 1 + x))
x
3
x + 2 (x + 1)
x+1x
2
= lim x
x
x+2+ x+1
x+1+ x
3
1
1
= lim x 2
x
x+2+ x+1
x+1+ x
3
x x+2
2
= lim x
x
( x + 2 + x + 1)( x + 1 + x)
3
2
= lim x 2
x
( x + 2 + x + 1)( x + 1 + x)( x + x + 2)
2
q
q
= lim q
q
x
1 + x2 + 1 + x1
1 + x1 + 1 1 + 1 + x2
=
1
2
= .
(1 + 1)(1 + 1)(1 + 1)
4
x2 + 4x + 5
x2 + x + 1.
(98 )
Solution.
(x2 + 4x + 5) (x2 + x + 1)
x2 + x + 1 = lim
x
x
x2 + 4x + 5 + x2 + x + 1
3 + x4
3x + 4
q
q
= lim
= lim
x
x2 + 4x + 5 + x2 + x + 1 x 1 + 4 + 52 1 + 1 + 12
x
x
x
x
lim
x2 + 4x + 5
3
= .
2
x2 2x + x.
(93 )
Solution.
(x2 2x) x2
2x
x2 2x + x = lim
= lim
x
x
x
x2 2x x
x2 2x x
2
2
q
= 1.
=
= lim
x
1 1
1 2 1
lim
Homework 8.
sin x
.
x
(b) How many times does the graph cross the asymptote?
Solution.
(a) Since 1 sin x 1, x > 0, we have
1
sin x
1
.
x
x
x
1
x x
lim
x
sin x
x
= 0.
sin x
x
2.7
Homework 9. (parabola) y =
1 2
x,
2p
p
2
y0 p2
x0
x.
1 2
x
2p
f (x0 ) = lim
1 2
x
2p
1 2
x
2p 0
x x0
xp0 (x
1 2
x
2p
at (x0 , y0 ) is
xp0 ,
at (x0 , y0 ) is
=
1
(x + x0 )(x x0 )
lim
2p xx0
x x0
x0
(x
p
x0 ).
x = x0 t,
tR
N : px + x0 y = px0 + x0 y0 .
x0 ( p2
p
2
+ x0 s, s R. Solve
+ x0 s) = px0 + x0 y0 to get
s=
px0
2
+ x0 y0
.
+ p2
x20
y =
px0
+ x0 y0
p2 x0 + 2py0 x0
p2 x0 + x30
=
=
= x0 ,
2ps = 2p 2 2
p + x20
p2 + x20
p2 + x20
px0
+ x0 y0
p
p px20 + 2x20 y0
p
p
=
= +
+ 2x0 s = + 2x0 2 2
+
2
2
2
2
2
p + x0
2
p + x0
2
x20
.
p
Homework 1. Suppose
x2
x1
f (x) =
.
ax + b x > 1
(92 )
x1
f (1) = lim
Hence a = 2, b = 1.
Homework 2.
2
1
x3
f (x) f (0)
= lim
= lim x 3 .
f (0) = lim
x0 x
x0
x0
x0
x3 a3 x3 + x3 a3 + a3
x3 a3
= lim
4
f (a) = lim
2
2
4
xa x a
xa x a
x3 + x3 a3 + a3
x+a
2a
2 1
x2 a2
a 3.
= lim 4
= lim
4
4 =
2
2
4
2
2
4 =
xa x 3 + x 3 a 3 + a 3
xa (x a)(x 3 + x 3 a 3 + a 3 )
3
3a 3
(c) From (b), we know that for x 6= 0, the derivative of f (x) = x 3 is f (x) = 23 x 3 .
2
Since lim |f (x)| = lim 23 11 = , y = x 3 has a vertical tangent line at (0, 0).
x0
3.1
x3
x0
x = x 2 is f (x) =
1 1
2 x
= 12 x 2 .
Solution.
1
f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h) 2 x 2
f (x) = lim
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
1
1
1
1
(x + h) 2 x 2 (x + h) 2 + x 2
1
1
1 1
x 2.
= lim
1
1
1 =
1 = lim
1 =
h0
h0 (x + h) 2 + x 2
h
2
(x + h) 2 + x 2
2x 2
3.2
4
1 1
.
2
x
2 x
x
1+x2
3
tangent line to this curve at the point (3, 10
).
Solution. From the Quotient Rule, the slope of the tangent line of the serpentine
3
) is
at (3, 10
dy
(1 + x2 ) x 2x
1 x2
2
=
=
= .
2
2
2
2
dx x=3
(1 + x )
(1 + x ) x=3
25
x=3
3
10
2
= 25
(x 3).
x2
,
f (x)
(b) y =
1 + xf (x)
.
x
Solution.
(a) From the Quotient Rule, we have
2xf (x) x2 f (x)
dy
=
.
dx
(f (x))2
2
dy
.
dx
3.3
Homework 7.
(a) (tan2 ) = (tan tan ) = sec2 tan + tan sec2 = 2 tan sec2 .
(b) (sec2 ) = (sec sec ) = sec tan sec + sec sec tan = 2 sec2 tan .
Homework 8. If f (x) = ex cos x, find f (x) and f (x).
Solution. From the Product Rule, we have
f (x) = ex cos x ex sin x.
f (x) = ex cos x ex sin x ex sin x ex cos x
= 2ex sin x.
3.4
(98 )
x cos x
.
(x+1)(x+2)(x+n)
Find f (0).
(96 )
Notice that (x cos x) |x=0 = (cos x x sin x)|x=0 = 1 and (x cos x)|x=0 = 0, so
f (0) =
Homework 11. Find
d3
dx3
3
1+x
1 2n
1
= .
2
(1 2 n)
n!
.
3
3
1+x
= x(1 + x) 3 and
1
4
1
d
(1 + x) 3 = (1 + x) 3
dx
3
2
d
1
7
7
4
1 4
(1 + x) 3 = (1)2 (1 + x) 3 = (1 + x) 3
2
dx
3 3
9
28
1
d3
4
7
1
10
10
(1 + x) 3 = (1)3 (1 + x) 3 = (1 + x) 3 ,
3
dx
3 3 3
27
x(1
+
x)
=
dx3 3 1 + x
dx3
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
+ 3(x) (1 + x)
+ x (1 + x)
= (x) (1 + x) + 3(x) (1 + x)
1
7
10
1
28
4
= 3 (1 + x) 3 + x (1 + x) 3
= (1 + x) 3 x(1 + x) 3 .
3
27
(99 )
d
= g (f (2)) f (2) = g (2) 23 + 1 = 22 + 5 3 = 9.
g(f (x))
dx
x=2
1
d
d 3
.
(95 )
sec x + tan x and dx
Homework 13. Find dx
1+x2 (x+ 1+x2 )
Solution. Direct computation gives
1
d
1
1 (sec x tan x + sec2 x)
3
sec x + tan x =
= sec x(sec x + tan x) 3 ,
2
dx
3 (sec x + tan x) 3
3
and
1
d
1
d
1
x(1 + x2 ) 2 + 1 + x2
=
dx 1 + x2 (x + 1 + x2 )
(1 + x2 )(x + 1 + x2 )2 dx
!
x
1
2x
1
+ 2x
=
(1 + x2 ) 2 +
2
2
2
2 (1 + x2 ) 21
(1 + x )(x + 1 + x )
1
1 + 2x2 + 2x(1 + x2 ) 2
=
3
(1 + x2 ) 2 (x + 1 + x2 )2
Homework 14. Let
x3 sin 1 x 6= 0
x
f (x) =
0
x=0
4
(91 )
The above limit exists because of x2 x2 sin x1 x2 and by the Squeeze Theorem.
When x 6= 0, we have
1
1
1
1
1
3
f (x) = 3x sin + x cos 2 = 3x2 sin x cos .
x
x
x
x
x
So we compute
3x2 sin x1 x cos x1
f (x) f (0)
1
1
f (0) = lim
.
= lim
= lim 3x sin cos
x0
x0
x0
x0
x
x
x
1
2n
and xn =
1
2n+
for n N, then
1
1
n
xn 0
xn
xn
If lim 3x sin x1 cos x1 exists, they must have
x0
1
1
1
1
but the above computations give a contradiction. Hence f (0) does not exist.
1
d
cos1 x =
dx
1 x2
1
d
sec1 x =
dx
x x2 1
1
d
tan1 x =
dx
1 + x2
1
d
csc1 x =
.
dx
x x2 1
Solution.
d
= 1, so
Let = cos1 x, then cos = x and sin dx
d
1
1
1
cos1 x =
=
=
.
dx
sin
1 cos2
1 x2
d
= 1, so
Let = tan1 x, then tan = x and sec2 dx
d
1
1
1
tan1 x =
=
=
.
2
2
dx
sec
1 + tan
1 + x2
d
= 1, so
Let = cot1 x, then cot = x and csc2 dx
d
1
1
1
cot1 x = 2 =
=
.
2
dx
csc
1 + cot
1 + x2
d
= 1, so
Let = sec1 x, then sec = x and sec tan dx
d
1
1
1
.
sec1 x =
=
=
dx
sec tan
sec sec2 1
x x2 1
d
Let = csc1 x, then csc = x and csc cot dx
= 1, so
d
1
1
1
csc1 x =
=
=
.
dx
csc cot
csc csc2 1
x x2 1
Homework 2. Consider the equation x3 + y 3 = 2xy. Find
dy
dx
and
d2 y
dx2
at (x, y) =
(89 )
(1, 1).
= 2
= 1.
=
3x + 3y
dx
dx
dx
3y 2x
dx (x,y)=(1,1) 3 2
2
dy
2y3x
We use the quotient rule on dx
= 3y
2 2x and get
(3y 2 2x)(2y 6x) (2y 3x2 )(6yy 2)
d2 y
=
= 16.
dx2 (x,y)=(1,1)
(3y 2 2x)2
(x,y)=(1,1)
Solution. Using the implicit differentiation with respect to x, we get the slope of
the tangent line:
dy
dy
dy
2+y
+2
=0
=
.
dx
dx
dx
1x
y+x
= .
2x 3y
dx
dx
dx
3y + x
dx (2,1) 3 + 2
5
dy
dx
2xy
3y 2 +x
to get
d2 y
(3y 2 + x)(2 y ) (2x y)(6yy + 1)
34
=
=
.
dx2 (2,1)
(3y 2 + x)2
125
(2,1)
Homework 5. Find the equation of the line normal to the graph of sin(xy) =
x2 cos y at the point (2, 2 ).
(95 )
Solution. We use the implicit differentiation with respect to x to get the slope of
the tangent line of the curve sin(xy) = x2 cos y at (2, 2 ):
dy
dy
cos(xy) y + x
= 2x cos y x2 sin y
dx
dx
2x cos y y cos(xy)
dy
=
= .
2
dx (2, )
2 cos(xy) + x sin y (2, )
4
2
So the slope of the normal line is 4 and the equation of the normal line is y 2 =
4 (x 2).
Homework 6. Find the equation of the tangent line of the curve sin1 xy =
(99 )
tan1 (xy) at ( 2, 26 ).
Solution. We use the implicit differentiation with respect to x to get
dy
y
x dx
dy
1
1
p
.
y+x
=
1 + (xy)2
dx
1 ( xy )2 x2
dy
Put (x, y) = ( 2, 26 ) into the above equation and get dx
= 5 6 3 . So the equation of
3.6
(102 )
3x ln 3+4x3
.
ln 2(3x +x4 +56 )
cos x
2+sin x
(b) f (0) = ln 2 + 21 .
Homework 9. Differentiate y =
q
3
(x+1)(x+2)
(x+3)(x+4)
1
(ln(x + 1) + ln(x + 2) ln(x + 3) ln(x + 4)) .
3
y
3 x+1 x+2 x+3 x+4
Hence
1
1
1
1
+
=
3 (x + 3)(x + 4) x + 1 x + 2 x + 3 x + 4
y
y =
3
x ln x
1
1
1
1
y
= ln x + x = ln x + .
y
x
2 x
2 x
x
Hence
y =y
1
1
ln x +
2 x
x
=x
1
1
ln x +
2 x
x
.
(96 )
ln y =
Hence
y =y
1
1
ln(ln x) +
2
2 ln x
d
(sec x)x , 2
dx
= (ln x)
x
2
1
1
.
ln(ln x) +
2
2 ln x
(102 )
< x < 2 .
sec x tan x
y
= ln(sec x) + x
= ln(sec x) + x tan x.
y
sec x
Hence
y = y (ln(sec x) + x tan x) = (sec x)x (ln(sec x) + x tan x) .
Homework 13.
(a) Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of the function y =
1
x x , x > 0.
(b) Find the tangent line of the function y = tan1 (ex ) at x = 0.
(97 )
Solution.
1
x
=x
.
y =y
x2
x2
4
1
1
ex y (0) = .
x
2
1 + (e )
2
= 21 x.
Homework 1.
(a) Use the fact that the world population was 2560 million in 1950 and 3040
million in 1960 to model the population of the world in the second half of the
20th century.
(b) What is the relative growth rate?
(c) Use the model to estimate the world population in 1993 and to predict the
population in the year 2020.
Solution.
(a) We use t = 0 to represent the year 1950 and t = 10 to the year 1960. Then from
.
1
the formula P (t) = P (0) ekt, we have 3040 = 2560e10k . So k = 10
ln 3040
=
2560
0.017185. Hence the population of the world in the second half of the 20th
century is modelled by
P (t) = 2560 e0.017185t .
.
(b) The relative growth rate is k = 0.017185.
(c) In this setting, the year 1993 is t = 43 and the year 2020 is t = 70, so
.
P (43) = 2560 e0.01718543 = 5360 (millions),
.
P (70) = 2560 e0.01718570 = 8525 (millions).
Homework 2. Experiments show that if the chemical reaction
1
N2 O5 2NO2 + O2
2
takes place at 45 C, the rate of reaction of dinitrogen pentoxide is proportional to
its concentration as follows:
d[N2 O5 ]
= 0.0005[N2O5 ]
dt
1
(a) Find an expression for the concentration [N2 O5 ] after t seconds if the initial
concentration is C.
(b) How long will the reaction take to reduce the concentration of N2 O5 to 90%
of its original value?
Solution.
(a) The expression for the concentration [N2 O5 ] after t seconds is
[N2 O5 ](t) = [N2 O5 ](0) e0.0005t = C e0.0005t .
(b) We solve at t = t0 ,
[N2 O5 ](t0 ) =
90
C = C e0.0005t0 .
100
So
1
ln
t0 =
0.0005
90
100
.
= 210.7 (sec).
Homework 3. A roast turkey is taken from an oven when its temperature has
reached 85 C and is placed on a table in a room where the temperature is 22 C.
(a) If the temperature of the turkey is 65 C after half an hour, what is the temperature after 45 minutes?
(b) When will the turkey have cooled to 40 C?
Solution.
(a) Let y(t) = T (t) Ts = T (t) 22. So we have y(0) = 85 22 = 63 and
y(30) = 65 22 = 43. Since y(t) satisfies y(t) = y(0) ekt, we solve 43 = 63 e30k
.
1
to get k = 30
ln 43
= 0.0127312. Now we want to know the temperature
63
at 45 minutes, that is, t = 45. So
.
y (45) = 63 e0.012731245 = 35.5.
Hence the temperature is 35.5 + 22 = 57.5 (C).
(b) We want to solve t = t0 such that y(t0 ) = T (t0 ) 22 = 40 22 = 18. That is,
we will solve 18 = 63 e0.0127312t0 . Hence
1
18 .
t=
= 98.40 (mins).
ln
0.0127312
63
When the turkey puts about 98.4 minutes, it will cool to 40 C.
Homework 4.
(a) If $3000 is invested at 5% interest, find the value of the investment at the end
of 5 years if the interest is compounded (1) annually, (2) semiannually, (3)
monthly, (4) weekly, (5) daily, and (6) continuously.
(b) If A(t) is the amount of the investment at time t for the case of continuous
compounding, write a differential equation and an initial condition satisfied
by A(t).
Solution.
(a) (1) annually: 3000(1 + 0.05)5 = 3828.84.
52
= 3840.25.
(2) semiannually: 3000 1 + 0.05
2
512
= 3850.08.
(3) monthly: 3000 1 + 0.05
12
552
(4) weekly: 3000 1 + 0.05
= 3851.61.
52
5365
= 3852.01.
(5) daily: 3000 1 + 0.05
365
(6) continuously: 3000 e50.05 = 3852.08.
(b)
3.9
dA(t)
dt
Related Rate
Homework 5. A ladder 13 m long is leaning against a wall when its base starts to
slide away. By the time the base is 12 m from the wall, the base is moving at the
rate of 0.5 m/sec. At what rate is the area of the triangle formed by the ladder, the
(97 )
Solution. The area formula is A(t) = 21 x(t)y(t). We take derivative with respect
to t to get
1
dA
=
dt
2
dx
dy
y(t) + x(t)
dt
dt
dy
dx
+ 2y(t)
= 0.
dt
dt
is completely submerged?
R
r
h
x(t)
y(t)
z(t)
dx dz
dx
dy
=
+
=
1.
dt
dt
dt
dt
r 2
R y(t) = Vol water + V (t) = Vol water +
(x(t))3 .
3 h
2
(1)
Homework 7. Car A at the lower level pulls car B, which is located on the upper
lever 9 meters higher, with constant velocity 5 m/ min to the right while a pulley
6 meters above the upper level is used to connect the two cars. Suppose that the
total length of the rope is 35 meters. Let O be the point right underneath pulley P
on the lower level, and = BP O. Find the changing rate of when car A is 20
(98 )
6
O
9
A 5 m/min
20
Figure 2: Car A pulls Car B with constant velocity 5 m/ min to the right.
Solution. Let OA = x(t), then we have
p
35 152 + (x(t))2 = 6 sec((t)).
We differentiate both sides with respect to t to get
2x(t) dx
dt
d
= 6 sec((t)) tan((t)) .
p
2
2
dt
2 15 + (x(t))
= 5 and x(t0 ) = 20, and it gives sec((t0 )) =
At t = t0 , we know dx
dt t=t0
tan((t0 )) = 34 , so we get
4
d
1 3 3
3
= 5 = (rad/min).
dt t=t0
5
6 5 4
10
5
5
3
and
Homework 8. 4000 ,
3000 6000 /,
?
(92 )
Solution. Set h(t) is the height of the rocket from the ground and (t) is the
angle between the horizontal line and the rocket. We have tan((t)) =
h(t)
4000
or
dh
dt
6000 = 4000
p
1 + tan2 ((t)) = 54 , so
25 d
d
24
=
(rad/sec).
16 dt
dt
25
passes through the point ( 2, 4 ), its y-coordinate increases at a rate 2 cm/s. How
fast is the distance from the particle to the origin changing at this moment? (99
)
Solution. Let x(t) and y(t) be the x-coordinate and y-coordinate of the particle at
time t, respectively. Let the distance from the particle to the origin at time t be
z(t). By the Pythagorean Theorem, we have
(z(t))2 = (x(t))2 + (y(t))2 .
We differentiate with respect to t to get
2z(t)
dx
dy
dz
= 2x(t)
+ 2y(t) .
dt
dt
dt
So
dx
dt t=t0
= 2 2. Hence
1
dy
1 dx
=r
.
2 2 dt
dt
x(t)
1 2
!
dx
dy
x(t0 )
+ y(t0)
dt t=t0
dt t=t0
4 + 2
1
.
=q
22 2+ 2 = q
4
2
2
2 + 16
2 + 16
dz
1
=
dt t=t0
z(t0 )
dy
dt t=t0
= 2.
Homework 10. The minute hand () on a clock is 8cm long and the hour hand
() is 4cm long. How fast is the distance between the tips of the hands changing
at two oclock? Give your answer in the unit cm/hour.
(102 )
42 + 82 (x(t))2
248
1
dx
d
= x(t)
dt
32
dt
0
cos
=
x(t0 ) = 4 3.
3
248
and we know
3.10
d
dt
2
12
2 = 11
, and sin( 3 ) = 23 . Hence
6
32 23
dx
22
11
=
(cm/hr).
=
dt t=t0
6
3
4 3
x1
1
g(x) = sin
tan1 ( x)
x+1
(102 )
at the point x = 3.
Solution. Since
1
tan1 ( 3) = = ,
g(3) = sin
2
6
3
6
1
1
(x + 1) (x 1)
1
2
g (x) = q
2
2
(x + 1)
1 + ( x) 2 x
1 x1
1
x+1
1
1
1
=
=
.
x(x + 1) 2 x(x + 1)
2 x(x + 1)
1
g (3) = ,
8 3
= + (x 3).
6 8 3
7
1+cos x
.
1+sin x
)
Solution. Since
2
2
2
2
= 1,
1+
(1 + sin x)( sin x) (1 + cos x)(cos x)
f (x) =
(1 + sin x)2
sin x cos x 1
=
(1 + sin x)2
2 2 1
1
2
2
2
2
3
2
= 2 2 2.
= 2
f
= 3 =
2
4
+ 2
3+2 2 32 2
2
1 + 22
f
1+
is
+f
x
f (x) f
4
4
4
= 1 + (2 2 2) x
.
4
So we estimate
f (44 ) 1 + (2 2 2)
44
180
4
( 2 1)
=1+
.
90
Homework 13. For a ball with radius r meter, its surface area and volume are
A = 4r 2 meter2 and v = 34 r 3 meter3 , respectively.
(a) When r = 2 meter, what is the instantaneous rate of change of volume with
respect to the radius?
(b) Let h be a very small positive number. When the radius increases from 2 meter
to (2 + h) meter, use differential to give an approximation on the increase of
volume.
(c) Use geometric point of view to explain the relationship between the increase
of volume derived in (b) to the surface area of the ball with radius 2 meter.
(89 )
Solution.
(a) Since V = 43 r 3 , we have
dV
dr
= 4r 2 . At r = 2, we get
8
dV
dr
= 16.
4.1
Homework 14. Prove that the function f (x) = x101 + x51 + x + 1 has neither a
local maximum nor a local minimum.
Solution. Since f (x) = 101x100 + 51x50 + 1 1 > 0 for all x R, by Fermats
Theorem, the function has neither a local maximum nor a local minimum.
Homework 15. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of
f (x) = 2x3 3x2 12x + 1 on [2, 3].
Solution. We compute f (x) = 6x2 6x 12 = 6(x + 1)(x 2). So the solution of
f (x) = 0 is x = 1 and x = 2. We compare the following values:
f (2) = 3,
f (1) = 8,
f (2) = 19,
f (3) = 8.
4.2
Homework 16. Let f (x) = a(x3 + x 2) + b(x3 + 3x + 4), ab > 0. Show that
(98 )
Solution. Since f (1) = 8b and f (1) = 4a, which imply f (1) f (1) = 32ab <
0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exists c (1, 1) such that f (c) = 0,
so f (x) = 0 has at least one real solution.
Suppose x1 and x2 are two solutions of f (x) = 0. Since f (x) is continuous on
[x1 , x2 ], differentiable on (x1 , x2 ) and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0, by Rolles Theorem, there
exists c (x1 , x2 ) such that f (c) = 0. We compute
f (x) = a(3x2 + 1) + b(3x2 + 3) = 3(a + b)x2 + (a + 3b).
9
If a > 0 and b > 0, then f (x) = 3(a + b)x2 + (a + 3b) > 0. If a < 0 and b < 0,
then f (x) = 3(a + b)x2 + (a + 3b) > 0. In both cases, they imply f (x) 6= 0 and it
contradicts to f (c) = 0. So f (x) = 0 has exactly one real solution.
Homework 17. Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove the inequality
| sin a sin b| |a b| for all a and b.
Solution. Given any two numbers a, b with a < b, consider the function f (x) = sin x
on [a, b]. Then f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). By the Mean
Value Theorem, there exists c (a, b) such that
f (a) f (b) = f (c)(a b) |f (a) f (b)| = |f (c)||a b|.
Since f (x) = cos x and |f (c)| = | cos c| 1, we have
| sin a sin b| = | cos c||a b| |a b|.
Homework 18. Show that
ln(1 + x)
1
<
<1
1+x
x
(99 )
for x > 0.
Solution. Consider the function f (t) = ln(1 + t) defined on [0, x]. Then f (t) is
continuous on [0, x] and differentiable on (0, x). By the Mean Value Theorem, there
exists c (0, x) such that
f (c) =
Since f (x) =
1
,
1+c
f (x) f (0)
ln(1 + x)
=
.
x0
x
we have f (c) =
1
1+c
and
1
1+x
< f (c) =
1
1+c
ln(1 + x)
1
<
< 1.
1+x
x
Homework 19. Suppose both f (x), g(x) are continuous on [a, b], and differentiable
on (a, b). Suppose g (x) 6= 0 for any x (a, b). Show that there exists c (a, b)
such that
f (c) f (a)
f (c)
=
.
g (c)
g(b) g(c)
10
Solution. Consider the function F (x) = f (x)g(x) g(b)f (x) f (a)g(x) on [a, b].
Since f (x) and g(x) are continuous on [a, b], so is F (x). Since f (x) and g(x) are
differentiable on (a, b), so is F (x). By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists c
(a, b) such that
F (b) F (a) = F (c)(b a).
(2)
Since
F (x) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x) g(b)f (x) f (a)g (x)
F (b) = f (b)g(b) g(b)f (b) f (a)g(b) = f (a)g(b)
F (a) = f (a)g(a) g(b)f (a) f (a)g(a) = g(b)f (a),
which implies F (b) F (a) = 0, equation (2) gives
F (c) = f (c)g(c)+f (c)g (c) g(b)f (c) f (a)g (c) = 0
and
f (c) f (a)
f (c)
=
.
g (c)
g(b) g(c)
Remark that g(b) g(c) 6= 0. This is because if g(b) = g(c), by the Mean
Value Theorem, there exists d between b and c such that g (d) = 0, and this fact
contradicts to g (x) 6= 0.
11
(96 )
cot 2 x
,0
ln x
(100
x1
)
Solution. By lHospital Rule, we have
lim f (x) = lim
x1
x1
cot 2 x L
csc2 ( x)
= lim 2 1 2 = .
x1
ln x
2
x
We compute
(ln x)( 2 csc2 ( 2 x)) (cot( 2 x)) x1
=
f (x) =
(ln x)2
2
So
x(ln x) + sin( 2 x) cos( 2 x)
1
2
lim f (x) = lim
lim
2
x1 x sin ( x) x1
x1
(ln x)2
2
(ln x) + 2 + 2 cos2 ( 2 x) 2 sin2 ( 2 x)
L
2
= lim
x1
2(ln x) x1
1
ln x + 2 cos2 ( 2 x) L
+ 4 cos( 2 x) sin( 2 x) 2
x
= lim
= lim
1
4 x1
ln x
4 x1
x
= .
4
Homework 3. Compute
x( 2 )
x( 2 )
x( 2 )
x( 2 )
cos x cos x
cos x
cos x
L
= 0.
= lim
x( 2 )
sin x
1
1+tan x
1+sin x
1+tan x
1+sin x
13
x
1 + tan x
1 + sin x
13
x
.
(96 )
1
x3
, then ln y(x) =
= lim
x0
ln
1+tan x
1+sin x
, and by lHospital
cos x
1+sin
1 + sin x cos3 x(1 + tan x)
x
=
lim
= lim
x0 3x2 cos2 x(1 + tan x)(1 + sin x)
x0
3x2
1
1 + sin x cos3 x(1 + tan x)
= lim
lim
x0 3 cos2 x(1 + tan x)(1 + sin x) x0
x2
cos x + 3 cos2 x sin x(1 + tan x) cos3 x sec2 x
L 1
= lim
3 x0
2x
cos x(1 + tan x) + sin x sec2 x
sin x(1 + tan x) L
1
2
= lim
= lim 3 cos x lim
x0
x0
3 x0
2x
2
2
1
cos x + sin x + sin x sec x
= lim
= .
x0
2
2
L
x
1+tan x
3
x
5 x
,
2
x
then ln y(x) = x ln 1 +
3
x
5
x2
, and by
ln 1 + x3 + x52
5
3
lim ln y(x) = lim x ln 1 + + 2 = lim
1
x
x
x
x x
x
1
x32 x103
5
3
+
3 + 10
1+
(
)
L
x
x2
x
= 3.
=
lim
= lim
x 1 + 3 + 52
x
x12
x
x
x0
x0
tan x
x
12
x
tan x
x
12
x
= e3 .
(100 )
, then ln y(x) =
5
3
1+ + 2
x x
1
x2
tan x
x
ln(tan x)ln x
x2
+
1
x
sin
x
cos
x
= lim sin x x cos x = lim 2
x0
2x
2 x0 x sin x cos x
2
1 cos x + sin2 x
L 1
= lim
2 x0 2x sin x cos x + x2 cos2 x x2 sin2 x
1
2 sin2 x
= lim
2 x0 2x sin x cos x + x2 cos2 x x2 sin2 x
1
1
1
= lim
= .
=
2
2
2
2
x
x0 2 x cos x +
211+1 1 0
3
cos2 x x2
sin x
sin x
1
ln lim y(x) = lim ln y(x) = lim y(x) = lim
x0
x0
x0
x0
3
4.3
tan x
x
12
x
= e3 .
Homework 7. Suppose a cubic function f (x) has the coefficient of leading order
1, and the graph of f (x) passes through (0, 4). The graph of f (x) is decreasing on
(1, 3) and increasing on (, 1) and (3, ). Find f (x) and its inflection point. (96
)
Solution. Let f (x) = x3 + bx2 + cx + d. Since the graph of f (x) passes through
(0, 4), we have f (0) = d = 4. We compute the derivative of f (x):
f (x) = 3x2 + 2bx + c.
Since The graph of f (x) is decreasing on (1, 3) and increasing on (, 1) and
(3, ), x = 1 and x = 3 are critical point of f (x), so f (1) = 0 and f (3) = 0. This
information gives
3 + 2b + c = 0 and 27 + 6b + c = 0.
So we get b = 6 and c = 9. Thus f (x) = x3 6x2 +9x+4 and f (x) = 3x2 12x+9.
We compute f (x) = 6x 12 and f (x) = 0 implies x = 2. Since f (x) > 0 on
(2, ) and f (x) < 0 on (, 2), the inflection point is (2, 6).
Homework 8. Let f (x) =
(93 )
tan x
.
x
Solution. We compute
f (x) =
x sin x cos x
x sec2 x tan x
=
.
2
x
x2 cos2 x
Let g(x) = x sin x cos x. To prove f (x) is increasing on (0, 2 ), it suffice to show
that g(x) > 0 on (0, 2 ). Since g(0) = 0 and g (x) = 1 cos2 x + sin2 x = 2 sin2 x > 0
on (0, 2 ), we get g(x) > 0 on (0, 2 ). Hence for any 0 < x1 < x2 < 2 , f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
4.5
(96 )
lim x 3 (x 3) 3 = ,
x
lim (x 3 (x 3) 3 x)
x
2
3
1
3
= lim (x (x 3) x)
= lim
x 3 (x 3) 3 + x 3 (x 3) 3 x + x2
x(x 3)2 x3
= lim
x 3 (x 3) 3 + x 3 (x 3) 3 x + x2
x 3 (x 3) 3 + x 3 (x 3) 3 x + x2
6x2 + 9x
x 3 (x 3) 3 + x 3 (x 3) 3 x + x2
6 + x9
6 + 0
= lim
= 2.
=
4
2
x (1 3 ) 3 + (1 3 ) 3 + 1
1+1+1
x
Since y (x) > 0 when (, 1) and (3, ) and y (x) < 0 when (1, 3), y is
increasing on (, 1) and (3, ) and decreasing on (1, 3).
F. The critical numbers are x = 0, 1, 3. Since y changes from positive to negative
y
x1 3 x 3 x3
3x(x 1)(x 3)
6
x
1
2
y =
= 5
1
4 .
2
3x 3 (x 3) 3 3x(x 1)(x 3)
x 2 (x 3) 3
We know y (x) > 0 on (, 0) and y (x) < 0 on (0, 3) and (3, ). Thus the
curve is concave upward on the interval (, 0) and concave downward on
(0, 3) and (3, ). The point of inflection is (0, 0).
H. Using this information to sketch the curve in Figure 1.
2
1
2
-1
-2
-3
-4
1
(99 )
Solution.
A. The domain is R.
B. The x-intercepts are x(2x + 3) = 0 x = 0, 32 and y-intercept is y(0) = 0.
C. Symmetry: none.
D. Since
4x + 3 L
4
2x2 + 3x L
= lim
= lim x = 0,
x
x
x
x e
x
x
e
e
the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. No vertical asymptotes.
lim (2x2 + 3x)ex = lim
5 41
4
-2
4.7
Optimization Problems
x
x
Figure 3: A square piece of cardboard with 30 cm wide.
where 0 x, y 15.
1000
2000
= 2r 2 +
.
2
r
r
q
q
and increasing on 3 500
, , r = 3 500
is the absolute minimum.
Homework 13. A cone-shaped drinking cup is made from a circular piece of paper
of radius R by cutting out a sector and joining the edges CA and CB. Find the
maximum capacity of such a cup.
8
A
R
C
R
,
2
R2 (r())2 =
R 2
4 2 .
2
1
R3
2
4 2 2 .
V () = (r())2 h() =
3
24 2
To find the maximum value of V (), we compute
2
R3
2
2
2
2 4 +
V () =
24 2
2 4 2 2
3
R
=
2(4 2 2 ) 2
24 2 4 2 2
R3
8 2 32 .
=
24 2 4 2 2
Since 0 2, the critical number and endpoints are =
compare these three values that V
V
)
( 2 2
3
2R3
9 3
)
( 2 2
3
3
2R
,V
9 3
2 2
,0
3
and 2. We
Homework 14. What is the smallest possible area of the triangle that is cut off by
the first quadrant and whose hypotenuse is tangent to the parabola y = 1 x2 at
(94 )
some point?
1a2
, 0)
2a
= ( 1+a
, 0) and R(0, 1 + a2 ). Since we want the
2a
(a2 + 1)2
1 a2 + 1
(a2 + 1) =
.
2
2a
4a
10
4 3
.
9
Antiderivative
1
1
+ 4.
x x
1
x
1
x4
is
5.1
Homework 3.
(a) Let An be the area of a polygon with n equal sides inscribed in a circle with
radius r. By dividing the polygon into n congruent triangles with central angle
2
, show that
n
1 2
2
An = nr sin
.
2
n
(b) Show that lim An = r 2 .
n
Solution.
, so the total area of the polygon
(a) The area of each small triangle is 21 r r sin 2
n
2
1
2
1
2
is An = n 2 r r sin n = 2 nr sin n .
(b) We compute
1
lim An = lim nr 2 sin
n
n 2
2
n
= lim r 2
n
sin
2
n
2
n
= r 2 2lim
n
sin
2
n
2
n
= r 2 .
f (xi )x =
i=1
n
X
0 x = 0 lim
n
i=1
n
X
f (xi )x = 0.
i=1
On the other hand, since irrational numbers are dense in [0, 1], if we take irrational
numbers as sample points xi on each subinterval, then
n
X
f (xi )x
n
X
1 x = 1 lim
n
i=1
i=1
n
X
f (xi )x = 1.
i=1
Two limits are not equal, so the Dirichlet function is not integrable.
Homework 2. Change the following limits of sums as integrals:
n
X
i
.
sin
(a) lim
n
2n
2n
i=1
(b) lim
n
n
X
i=1
(c) lim
n
2
i
1
.
1
n n
1
+
n3
(d) lim ln
n
1
(e) lim
n n
(93 )
2
++
n3
!
n
.
n3
(94 )
n!
.
n
ln
n+1
n
n+1
n
(93 )
(96, 100 )
ln
n+2
n
n+2
n
++
ln
n+n
n
n+n
n
!
(98 )
Solution.
(a) We have
lim
n
n
X
sin
i=1
i
2n
f (xi )x,
= lim
2n n i=1
where f (x) = sin x, and we divide [0, 2 ] into n-subintervals with width x =
i
i
i
sin
= lim
= lim
f(xi )x,
lim
sin
n
n
n
2n 2n
2 i=1
2 n n
2
i=1
i=1
where f(x) = sin( 2 x), and we divide [0, 1] into n-subintervals with width
x = n1 , and we choose sample points xi = ni on each subinterval [ i1
, i ], i =
n n
1, . . . , n. Hence
Z
n
X
1
i
=
sin
x dx.
lim
sin
n
2n
2n
2
2
0
i=1
(b) We have
lim
n
n
X
i=1
2
n
X
1
i
= lim
f (xi )x,
1
n
n n i=1
1
+
n3
2
++
n3
n
n3
= lim
n
n
X
i=1
= lim
n
n
X
i=1
X
i
=
lim
n3 n i=1
f (xi )x,
i 1
n n
where f (x) =
, i ], i = 1, . . . , n.
and we choose sample points xi = ni on each subinterval [ i1
n n
Hence
r
r
r ! Z 1
1
2
n
x dx.
lim
+
+
+
=
n
n3
n3
n3
0
(d) We have
(n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1) n
n
1
n n1 n2
3 2 1 n
= lim ln
n
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
X
i
1X
ln
= lim
f (xi )x,
= lim
n
n n
n
i=1
i=1
n!
lim ln
= lim ln
n
n
n
Z 1
n
n!
ln x dx.
lim ln
=
n
n
0
Remark that this is an improper integral (since ln x as x 0). We
will show this integral is meaningful (exists), and evaluate it in section 7.8.
(e) We have
1
lim
n n
ln
n+1
n
n+1
n
ln
n+2
n
n+2
n
++
ln
n+n
n
n+n
n
!
n
X
ln 1 + ni
1
= lim
i
n
n
1+ n
i=1
= lim
n
n
X
f (xi )x,
i=1
where f (x) =
ln x
,
x
5.3
g(x)
, where g(x) =
t
dt. Find f (2).
4
1+t
(90 )
Solution. By the chain rule, we have f (x) = eg(x) g (x). The Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus, Part 1, tells us
x
2
g (2) = .
4
1+x
17
g (x) =
We also know
g(2) =
2
17
x3
t
dt = 0.
1 + t4
2
.
17
t sin t dt.
(92 )
1
d
3
2
3
(
t)
sin
t
dt
=
x
sin(x
)
3x
x(sin
x)
dx x
2 x
7
1 1
= 3x 2 sin(x3 ) x 4 (sin x).
2
Z tan x
1
d
du.
(93 )
Homework 5. Compute
dx x
u4 + 1
Solution. We use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and Chain Rule to get
Z tan x
1
1
1
d
du =
sec2 x 4
.
4
4
dx x
u +1
(tan x) + 1
x +1
Homework 6. Let f () =
cos
(94 )
Solution. We use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and Chain Rule to get
f () = sin(cos2 ) ( sin ) = sin sin(cos2 )
f () = cos sin(cos2 ) sin cos(cos2 ) 2 cos ( sin )
= cos sin(cos2 ) + 2 cos sin2 cos(cos2 ).
Rx
sin(t2 ) dt
.
x sin(x2 )
(89 )
Solution. By l Hospital Rule, Product Rule, Chain Rule, and the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, we have
Rx
sin(t2 ) dt ( 00 ,L)
sin(x2 )
=
lim
lim+ 0
x0+ sin(x2 ) + 2x2 cos(x2 )
x0
x sin(x2 )
1
1
1
= lim+
=
= .
2
x
x0 1 + 2
1+211
3
cos(x2 )
sin(x2 )
Homework 8. Find the limit lim
x0
R x2
0
t
1+t3
x4
dt
(95 )
Solution. By l Hospital Rule, Chain Rule, and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have
R x2 t
2
x
dt ( 00 ,L)
2x
1
1
1
0
1+t3
1+x6
= .
lim
= lim
= lim
=
4
3
x0
x0 2 1 + x6
x0
x
4x
2
2 1+0
R1 2
dt x2
.
(97 )
Homework 9. Find the limit lim cos x t 4
x0
x
Solution. By l Hospital Rule, Chain Rule, and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we have
R1 2
2 ( sin x) 2x
dt x2 ( 00 ,L)
tan x x
=
lim
= lim cos x
lim cos x t 4
x0
x0
x0
x
4x3
2x3
2
2
0
( 0 ,L)
sec x 1
tan x
= lim
= lim
2
x0
x0 6x2
6x
2
sin x
1
1
1
1
= 11= .
= lim
2
x0 6
x
cos x
6
6
Homework 10 (page 396). Find a function f and a number a such that
Z x
f (t)
dt
=
2
x for all x > 0.
6+
t2
a
Solution. If we take x = a, then the equation becomes
Z a
f (t)
6+
dt
=
2
a
6
=
2
a a = 9.
t2
a
We take derivative with respect to x on both sides, and by the Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus, Part 1, we get
3
1
f (x)
= f (x) = x 2 .
2
x
x
x
dx.
(94 )
x+1
0
Solution. Let u = x + 1, then du = dx and x = u 1. Upper limit is u = 4 and
lower limit is u = 1. So we have
u=4
Z 3
Z 4
Z 4
1
1
x
u1
2 3
12
2
2
2
du =
u 2u
(u u ) du =
dx =
u
3
x+1
Homework 1. Compute the integral
2
8
2
= (8 1) 2(2 1) = 7 2 = .
3
3
3
Z 64
3
4 x+7 x
u=1
(97 )
Solution. Let u = x 6 , then du = 16 x 6 dx, which implies dx = 6u5 du. Upper limit
1
1
is u = 2 and lower limit is u = 1. Furthermore, we get x 2 = u3 and x 3 = u2 . Thus
Z 2
Z 64
Z 2 3
4 x+73x
4u + 7u2
5
6u du =
(24u7 + 42u6) du
dx =
6
u
x
1
1
1
8
7 u=2
= 3(356 1) + 6(128 1) = 1527.
= 3u + 6u
u=1
Z 64
Z 64
h 4
i
1
7 x=64
1
4 x+73x
3 + 7x 6 ) dx =
3 + 6x 6
3x
dx
=
(4x
6
x=1
x
1
1
= 3(256 1) + 6(128 1) = 1527.
Homework 3. Find
sec x tan x
dx.
sec x
(92 )
Solution.
Z 0
Z 0
h
ix=0
1
sec x tan x
1
4
dx =
d sec x = 2 sec x
=
2
1
2
.
sec x
sec x
x= 4
4
4
Z ln 7
e2x
(99 )
Homework 4. Compute the integral
1 dx.
(ex + 1) 3
0
Solution. Let u = ex + 1, then du = ex dx. Upper limit is u = 8 and lower limit is
u = 2. Thus
Z ln 7
Z ln 7 x
Z 8
Z 8
2
1
e2x
(e + 1) 1 x
u1
e dx =
du =
(u 3 u 3 ) du
1 dx =
1
1
(ex + 1) 3
(ex + 1) 3
u3
0
0
2
2
u=8
3
2
3
3
3 2
3 5 3 2
u3 u3
32 4
2 23 23
=
=
5
2
5
2
5
2
u=2
3 2
66
+ 23 .
=
5
10
d
Homework 5. Find
dx
e t (x t)
dt.
t2
(100 )
Solution.
Z
tan1 x
1
1
1
dx
=
tan
x
d(tan
x)
=
(tan1 x)2 + C.
2
1+x
2
Z
4
x2 tan x dx.
Homework 8. Find
Z
Solution. Let f (x) = x2 tan x, then f (x) = (x)2 tan(x) = x2 tan x = f (x),
so f (x) = x2 tan x is an odd function. The value of this integral is 0.
6.1
Homework 9 (page 428). The curve with equation y 2 = x2 (x+3) is called Tschirnhausens cubic. If you graph this curve you will see that part of the curve forms a
loop. Find the area enclosed by the loop.
Solution. From the equation y 2 = x2 (x + 3), we know that if (x0 , y0) lies on the
graph, then (x0 , y0 ) lies on the graph as well. That means the graph is symmetric
about the x-axis. We solve y 2 = x2 (x + 3) = 0 that x = 0 or x = 3, so we know
the loop lies between x = 3 and x = 0.
The area enclosed by the loop is
Z 0 p
p
x2 (x + 3) x2 (x + 3)
dx
A=
3
Z 0
Z 0
=
x x + 3 x x + 3 dx = 2
x x + 3 dx.
3
x x + 3 dx = 2
(u 3) u du = 2
3
1
u 2 3u 2 du
u=3
3
2 5
2
24
= 2 u 2 2u 2
= 2
9 323 3 =
3.
5
5
5
u=0
6.2
Homework 10. Show that the volume of a right circular cone with height h and
radius r is V = 13 r 2 h.
Solution. We rotate the region bounded by y = hr x, y = 0, and x = h, about the
x-axis to get the volume of a right circular cone:
V =
x=h
r 2
1
r 2 1 3
= r 2 h.
x dx = 2
x
h
h
3
3
x=0
2e
Homework 11. Let be the region enclosed by y = 2x1
, y = 1, x = 1, and x = 4.
(99 )
Find the volume generated by revolving about the line x = 21 .
1
2
2e x
2x1
is
x
Z 4
2e
1
1 dx =
2e x (2x 1) dx
V =
2 x
2
2x 1
1
1
Z 4
Z 4
= 2
e x dx
(2x 1) dx = V1 + V2 .
Z
x, then du =
2 x
limit is u = 1. So
h i
Z 4
Z 2
Z 2
Z 2
u=2
u
x
u
u
u
V1 = 2
e dx = 4
e du
ue du = 4
u de = 4 ue
u=1
1
1
1
1
h iu=2
2
= 4 2e2 e e2 + e = 4e2 .
= 4 2e e eu
u=1
Next, we evaluate V2 :
Z 4
h
ix=4
2
V2 =
(2x 1) dx = x x
= (42 12 4 + 1) = 12.
x=1
Homework 12 (page 436). A solid has a circular base of radius 1. Parallel crosssections perpendicular to the base are equilateral triangles. Find the volume of the
solid.
Solution. We take the circle to be x2 + y 2 = 1. The base and a cross-section of the
solid are shown in Figure 1.
y
A
y=
1 x2
x
A
3y
y
B
(a)
(b)
1
A(x) = 2 1 x2 3 1 x2 = 3(1 x2 ).
2
So the volume of the solid is
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
2
3(1 x ) dx = 2 3
(1 x2 ) dx
V =
A(x) dx =
1
6.3
x=1
4
1 3
1
=2 3 1
=
=2 3 x x
3.
3
3
3
x=0
Homework 13. The region in the first quadrant enclosed by x = y 2 , x-axis and
x = 1 is rotated about the line y = 3. Use the disk method (Section 6.2) and
cylindrical shell method to find the volume of the solid. The answers should be the
same.
(98 )
Solution. First, we use the disk method to get the volume:
Z 1
Z 1
2
2
V =
3 ( x 3) dx =
x + 6 x dx
0
0
x=1
3
1
7
1
= + 4 = .
= x2 + 4x 2
2
2
2
x=0
4
Homework 14 (page 445). Use the method of cylindrical shells to find the volume
generated by rotating the region by x = y 2 + 1, x = 2 about y = 2.
Solution. The volume is
Z 1
Z 1
2
V =
2(y + 2)(2 (y + 1)) dy = 2
(y + 2)(1 y 2 ) dy
1
1
Z 1
Z 1
= 2
(y 3 2y 2 + y + 2) dy = 4
(2y 2 + 2) dy
0
y=1
2
16
2 3
= 4 + 2 = .
= 4 y + 2y
3
3
3
y=0
Homework 1 (page 460). The figure shows a curve with the property that, for
every point P on the middle curve y = 2x2 , the areas A and B are equal. Find an
equation for .
(93 )
y
y = 2x2
y = x2
B
A
x
Figure 1: Find an equation for such that the areas A and B are equal.
Solution. Let P : (x, 2x2 ). First, we compute the area A:
Z x
1
Area of A =
(2t2 t2 ) dt = x3 .
3
0
Suppose : x = g(y) = f 1 (x), then the area of B (integration along the y-axis) is
!
Z 2x2 r
t
1
Area of B =
g(t) dt = x3 .
2
3
0
We require Area of A = Area of B, so
!
Z y
Z 2x2 r
t
1 3
g(t) dt = x
2
3
0
0
t
g(t)
2
dt =
1 y 23
.
3 2
1 3 y 12 1
1 y 21
3 y 21
g(y) =
=
g(y) =
.
3 2 2
2
4 2
4 2
7.1
Homework 2. Find
x2 sin(3x) dx.
(89 )
Solution.
Z
Z
Z
1
1
2
2
2
2
x sin(3x) dx =
x d cos(3x) =
x cos(3x) cos(3x) dx
3
3
Z
2
1 2
x cos(3x) dx
= x cos(3x) +
3
3
Z
2
1 2
x d sin(3x)
= x cos(3x) +
3
9
Z
2
1 2
x sin(3x) sin(3x) dx
= x cos(3x) +
3
9
Z
1 2
2
2
= x cos(3x) + x sin(3x)
sin(3x) dx
3
9
9
1
2
2
= x2 cos(3x) + x sin(3x) +
cos(3x) + C.
3
9
27
Z
Homework 3 (page 465). Evaluate (ln x)2 dx.
Solution.
Z
Z
Z
1
2
2
2
2
(ln x) dx = (ln x) x x d(ln x) = x(ln x) 2x(ln x) dx
x
Z
Z
2
2
= x(ln x) 2 ln x dx = x(ln x) 2 (ln x)x x d(ln x)
Z
Z
1
2
2
= x(ln x) 2x(ln x) + 2 x dx = x(ln x) 2x(ln x) + 2 1 dx
x
(97 )
Solution. If 6= 1,
Z
Z
Z
1
1
+1
+1
+1
x ln x dx =
ln x dx
=
(ln x)x
x
d ln x
+1
+1
Z
Z
1
x+1 ln x
1
x+1 ln x
+1 1
x
dx =
x dx
=
+1
+1
x
+1
+1
x+1 ln x
x+1
=
+ C.
+1
( + 1)2
If = 1,
Z
x ln x dx =
ln x
dx =
x
Z
2
1
ln x d ln x = (ln x)2 + C.
2
2 x
x e dx =
x2 ex dx.
2 x
dx.
2 x
x de = x e e dx = x e 2xex dx
Z
Z
2 x
x
2 x
x
x
= x e 2 x de = x e 2 xe e dx
Z
2 x
x
= x e 2xe + 2 ex dx = x2 ex 2xex + 2ex + C.
x
esin
(94 )
Hence
Z
1
1
1
1
1
esin x dx = (eu sin u + eu cos u) = (esin x sin(sin1 x) + esin x cos(sin1 x))
2
2
1 sin1 x
x + 1 x2
= e
2
Z 1
Z 1
1 2
Homework 7. Evaluate
x tan (x ) dx and
x(tan1 x)2 dx (101 )
0
Solution.
Z
Z
Z 1
1 u=1
1 1
1 2
2
1 2
tan (x ) dx =
tan1 u du
x tan (x ) dx =
2 0
2 u=0
0
u=1 Z 1
1
1
1
u d tan u
u tan u
=
2
u=0
0
Z
Z
1 1 1 u
1 1 1
=
du =
d(u2 + 1)
2
2
2 4 2 0 1+u
8 4 0 u +1
u=1 1
1
= ln 2.
= ln(1 + u2 )
u=0
8 4
8 4
Remark that the above calculation gives
Z 1
1
tan1 x dx = ln 2.
4 2
0
3
Z
1 1
(tan1 x)2 dx2
x(tan x) dx =
2 0
0
Z 1
x=1
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
x d(tan x)
=
(tan x) x
2
x=0
0
Z
1 2 1 1 2
1
=
x 2 tan1 x
dx
2 4
2 0
1 + x2
Z 1
Z 1
1 2
1 2
x2
1
1
1
=
dx =
dx
tan x
tan x 1
2 4
1 + x2
2 4
1 + x2
0
0
Z 1
Z 1
1 2
1
1
=
dx
tan x dx +
tan1 x
2 4
1 + x2
0
0
Z 1
1 2 1
=
+ ln 2 +
tan1 x d tan1 x
2 4
4 2
0
1
2
1
1 2 1
1 2
1
1
1
2
=
=
(tan x)
+ ln 2 +
+ ln 2 +
2 4
4 2
2
2 4
4 2
2 4
x=0
2 1
+ ln 2.
=
4
4 2
Z
Homework 8. Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded
by the given curves about the specified line.
(95 )
x sin x dx = I + II,
where
I = 2
x=2
x dx = x2 x=0 = 4 3 ,
and
II = 2
x sin x dx = 2
x d cos x
0
Z 2
x=2
2
2
= 4 2 .
= 2 [x cos x]|x=0
cos x dx = 4 + 2[sin x]
0
x=0
= 2 2.
= 2 [x sin x]
x=0
7.2
x=0
Solution.
Z
Z
Z
5
2
4
2
sin x cos x dx = sin x cos x d cos x = (1 cos2 x)2 cos2 x d cos x
Z
= (1 2 cos2 x + cos4 x) cos2 x d cos x
Z
= ( cos2 x + 2 cos4 x cos6 x) d cos x
1
2
1
= cos3 x + cos5 x cos7 x + C.
3
5
7
Z
Homework 10 (page 472). Evaluate
sin4 x dx.
sec3 x dx.
(97 )
Solution. Since
Z
Z
Z
3
I = sec x dx = sec x d tan x = sec x tan x tan x d sec x
Z
Z
2
= sec x tan x sec x tan x dx = sec x tan x sec x(sec2 x 1) dx
Z
Z
3
= sec x tan x sec x dx + sec x dx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| I,
we have
I=
sec3 x dx =
1
(sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|) + C.
2
Remark that
Z
Z
Z
sec2 x + sec x tan x
sec x + tan x
dx =
dx
sec x dx = sec x
sec x + tan x
sec x + tan x
Z
1
d(sec x + tan x) + ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
=
sec x + tan x
Z
Homework 13 (page 473). Evaluate
tan6 x sec4 x dx.
Solution.
Z
Z
Z
6
4
6
2
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x d tan x = tan6 x(tan2 x + 1) d tan x
Z
1
1
= (tan8 x + tan6 x) d tan x = tan9 x + tan7 x + C.
9
7
Z
Homework 14 (page 474). Evaluate
tan5 x sec7 x dx.
Solution.
Z
Z
Z
5
7
4
6
tan x sec x dx = tan x sec x d sec x = (sec2 x 1)2 sec6 x d sec x
Z
= (sec4 x 2 sec2 x + 1) sec6 x d sec x
Z
= (sec10 x 2 sec8 x + sec6 x) d sec x
=
1
2
1
sec11 x sec9 x + sec7 x + C.
11
9
7
7.3
9 x2
dx.
x2
Solution. Let x = 3 sin , 2 2 , then dx = 3 cos d. So we have
Z
Z p
Z
Z
9 x2
9 9 sin2
cos2
dx =
3 cos d =
d = cot2 d
x2
9 sin2
sin2
Z
9 x2
1 x
2
+ C.
sin
= (csc 1) d = cot + C =
x
3
Z 2
1
sec d =
d
dx =
2
2
2
tan sec
sin2
1+x
1 x
4
4
=tan1 (2)
Z tan1 (2)
1
1
5
=
d sin =
+ 2.
=
2
sin
sin
=
4
4
Z
2
dx, x > 1.
(89 )
Homework 17. Find the integral
x3 x2 1
Solution. Let x = sec , 0 < 2 or < 32 , then dx = sec tan d. So
Z
Z
Z
2
2
2
sec tan d =
d
dx =
3
3
2
sec tan
sec2
x x 1
Z
Z
sin 2
2
= 2 cos d = (1 + cos 2) d = +
+C
2
x2 1
1
2
+ C.
= + sin cos + C = tan ( x 1) +
x2
Z
x
p
dx,
dx =
2
x + 2x + 2
(x + 1)2 + 1
let x + 1 = tan , 2 < < 2 , then dx = sec2 d, so the integral becomes
Z
Z
Z
x
tan 1
2
2
2
= x + 2x + 2 ln x + 2x + 2 + x + 1 + C.
7
Homework 19 (page 484). Find the area of the crescent-shaped region (called a
lune) bounded by arcs of circles with radii r and R.
r
R
r
x
For small circle, the center is (0, R2 r 2 ) and radius is r, so the equation is
(r, R2 r 2 ).
The area of the crescent-shaped region is
Z r
Area =
( R2 r 2 + r 2 x2 R2 x2 ) dx
r
Z r
=2
( R2 r 2 + r 2 x2 R2 x2 ) dx = I+II+III,
0
where
I=2
Z r
R2
r2
dx = 2
R2
r2
x=r
= 2r R2 r 2 .
x
x=0
sin r cos d = 2
0
0
= 2
Z
2
sin
2
= r2
(1 + cos 2) d = r 2 +
= r2.
2
2
0
=0
r2
r2
and lower
r 2 cos2 d
r
)
sin1 ( R
R2
R2
sin R cos d = 2
r
)
sin1 ( R
R2 cos d
=sin1 ( Rr )
sin 2
= R
(1 + cos 2) d = R +
2
0
=0
r r
r
2 r2
R
= R2 sin1
+
= R2 sin1
r R2 r 2 .
R
R
R
R
2
r
sin1 ( R
)
Hence
r
Area = 2r R2 r 2 + r 2 R2 sin1
r R2 r 2
2
rR
2
2
1
.
= r R2 r 2 + r R sin
2
R
Remark that the crescent-shaped area is half circle ( 2 r 2 ) plus triangular with
Homework 1. Evaluate
2
1
x2 + 4
dx.
x4 + 3x3 + 2x2
(99 )
Solution.
Z
x2 + 4
dx =
x4 + 3x3 + 2x2
x2 + 4
dx
2
1 x (x + 1)(x + 2)
Z 2
A3
A4
A1 A2
dx,
+ 2 +
+
=
x
x
x+1 x+2
1
Z
x2 + 4
dx =
x4 + 3x3 + 2x2
2
5
2
3
dx
+ 2+
x x
x+1 x+2
x=2
2
= 3 ln |x| + 5 ln |x + 1| 2 ln |x + 2|
x
x=1
2 2 2
4
3
= 3 ln + + 5 ln 2 ln
1
2 1
2
3
= 1 12 ln 2 + 7 ln 3.
Z
1
dx.
Homework 2. Evaluate the integral
3
x +1
Solution.
Z
1
dx =
3
x +1
1
dx =
(x + 1)(x2 x + 1)
Z
(93 )
A2 x + B2
A1
+ 2
x+1 x x+1
dx.
13 x + 23
dx
+
x + 1 x2 x + 1
Z
Z
Z
1
2x 1
1
1
1
1
dx
dx +
dx
=
2
2
3
x+1
6
x x+1
2
x x+1
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
=
dx
d(x
x
+
1)
+
dx
1
3
x+1
6
x2 x + 1
2
(x 2 )2 + 34
1
x
1
1
1 1
= ln |x + 1| ln |x2 x + 1| + q tan1 q 2 + C
3
6
2 3
3
4
4
1
1
1
2x 1
2
1
= ln |x + 1| ln |x x + 1| + tan
+ C.
3
6
3
3
Z
1
dx.
(100 )
Homework 3. Find the integral
3
x + x2 + x
1
dx =
3
x +1
Solution.
Z
Z
1
3
1
dx =
3
x + x2 + x
1
dx =
2
x(x + x + 1)
Z
A2 x + B2
A1
+ 2
x
x +x+1
dx.
dx
=
x
2
x2 + x + 1
2
x2 + x + 1
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
2
= ln |x|
d(x + x + 1)
1 2
2
2
x +x+1
2
(x + 2 ) +
1
x+
1
1 1
= ln |x| ln |x2 + x + 1| q tan1 q 2 + C
2
2 3
3
4
4
1
1
2x + 1
2
1
= ln |x| ln |x + x + 1| tan
+ C.
2
3
3
2
3
4
dx + C
1
dx =
3
x 1
x3
1
dx.
1
1
=
(x 1)(x2 + x + 1)
Z
(98 )
A1
A2 x + B2
+ 2
x1 x +x+1
dx.
13 x 32
dx
+
x 1 x2 + x + 1
Z
Z
Z
1
1
2x + 1
1
1
1
=
dx
dx
dx
2
2
3
x1
6
x +x+1
2
x +x+1
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
dx
=
dx
d(x + x + 1)
1 2
2
3
x1
6
x +x+1
2
(x + 2 ) + 34
1
x+
1
1
1 1
= ln |x 1| ln |x2 + x + 1| q tan1 q 2 + C
3
6
2 3
3
4
4
1
1
2x + 1
1
2
1
+ C.
= ln |x 1| ln |x + x + 1| tan
3
6
3
3
Z 3
x x2 + x + 1
Homework 5. Evaluate
dx.
(102 )
x3 + x2 + x + 1
1
dx =
3
x 1
Z
1
3
Solution.
Z
Z
Z 3
2x2
A1
A2 x + B2
x x2 + x + 1
dx.
dx = 1 +
dx =
1+
+
x3 + x2 + x + 1
(x + 1)(x2 + 1)
x+1
x2 + 1
We will determine A1 , A2 , an B2 by comparing
A1 (x2 + 1) + (A2 x + B2 )(x + 1) = (A1 + A2 )x2 + (A2 + B2 )x + (A1 + B2 ) = 2x2 .
We take x = 1, then 2A1 = 2 A1 = 1.
We take x = 0, then A1 + B2 = 0 B2 = 1.
We take x = 1, then 2A1 + 2(A2 + B2 ) = 2 A2 = 1.
3
So
x3 x2 + x + 1
dx =
x3 + x2 + x + 1
1
x + 1
dx
1+
+ 2
x+1
x +1
Z
Z
Z
Z
2x
1
1
1
dx
dx
+
dx
= 1 dx
x+1
2
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
1
= x ln |x + 1| ln |x2 + 1| + tan1 x + C.
2
Z p
1+ x
Homework 6. Evaluate the integral
dx.
(97 )
x
p
du =
So
Z p
1+
x
Z
1
1
1
1
2
p
dx = p
dx dx = 4(u 1)u du.
2 1+ x2 x
4 x 1+ x
dx =
4u2 (u2 1)
du =
(u2 1)2
4u2
du =
u2 1
Z
4
2
2
+
u+1 u1
du
= 4u 2 ln |u + 1| + 2 ln |u 1| + C
q
q
q
= 4 1 + x 2 ln 1 + x + 1 + 2 ln 1 + x 1 + C.
Z
1
dx.
(96 )
Homework 7. Find the integral
2 + sin x
2t
2
Solution. Let t = tan x2 , < x < , then we have sin x = 1+t
2 and dx = 1+t2 dt.
So
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
2
dx =
dt =
dt =
dt
2
2t
2
2
2 + sin x
t +t+1
2 + 1+t2 1 + t
t + 21 + 43
1
2t + 1
1
2
1
1 t + 2
q
+C
= q tan
+ C = tan
3
3
3
3
4
4
2 tan( x2 ) + 1
2
1
= tan
+ C.
3
3
Z
2
1
dx.
(99 )
Homework 8. Evaluate
0 3 5 sin x
2t
2
Solution. Let t = tan x2 , < x < , then we have sin x = 1+t
2 and dx = 1+t2 dt.
Upper limit is t = 1 and lower limit is t = 0. So
Z
Z 1
Z 1
2
1
1
2
2
dx =
dt. =
dt
2t
2
2
1+t
0 3 5 sin x
0 3 5 1+t2
0 3t 10t + 3
Z 1
2
dt.
=
0 (t 3)(3t 1)
4
Be careful that this is an improper integral! (Sorry, I should put this homework in
section 7.8.) This is because there is an infinity discontinuity at t = 13 . So
Z
2
dt
0 (t 3)(3t 1)
Z s
Z 1
2
2
= lim
dt + lim+
dt
1
1
s 3
s 3
0 (t 3)(3t 1)
s (t 3)(3t 1)
1
dx =
3 5 sin x
= I + II.
For the first term, we have
Z s
Z s 1
43
2
4
I = lim
dt
dt = lim
+
t 3 3t 1
s 31
s 31
0 (t 3)(3t 1)
0
t=s
1
3
= lim
ln |t 3| ln |3t 1|
3
4
s 31
t=0
1
3
1
= lim
ln |s 3| ln |3s 1| ln 3.
1
3
4
3
s 3
The limit does not exist, so the improper integral does not converge. We can check
the limit of the second term does not exist as well:
Z 1
Z 1 1
43
2
4
dt
dt = lim+
+
II = lim+
t 3 3t 1
s 31
s 31
s (t 3)(3t 1)
s
t=1
1
3
= lim+
ln |t 3| ln |3t 1|
3
4
s 31
t=s
1
1
3
3
= lim+
ln 2 ln |s 3| ln 2 + ln |3s 1| .
3
3
4
4
s 31
The above limit does not exist because lim+ 34 ln |3s 1| does not exist.
s 31
7.5
1
p
dx.
x 1 + (ln x)2
(90 )
p
dx =
sec d
sec d =
2
2
1 + tan
0
0
1 x 1 + (ln x)
h
i= 4
2
+
1
= ln | sec + tan |
= ln
.
=0
x
dx.
8 2x2 x4
(95 )
p
du.
dx =
du =
2
4
2
2
2
8 2x x
8 2u u
(u + 1)2 + 9
We use the Substitution Rule again that let u + 1 = 3 sin , then du = 3 cos d, so
Z
Z
Z
1
x
1
1
1
p
p
3 cos d
du =
dx =
2
2
8 2x2 x4
(u + 1)2 + 9
(3 sin )2 + 32
Z
1
1
1 1 u + 1
=
d = + C = sin
+C
2
2
2
3
1 1 x2 + 1
+ C.
= sin
2
3
Homework 11. Find the limit lim
x
R x2
0
etx (2t2 + 1) dt
.
x4
(96 )
Hint: ,
Solution. We first compute
Z
x2
tx2
x2
(2t + 1) dt = e
x2
t 2
e t dt +
x2
e dt .
t
Since
2
x2
et t2 dt = 2
x2
t2 det = 2
t=0
h it=x2 Z
t2 et
x2
= 2x4 e
x2
x2
t det = 2x4 e
= 2x4 ex 4x2 ex
x2
2tet dt
it=x2 Z
t
te
t=0
x2
et dt
h it=x2
2
2
2
= 2x4 ex 4x2 ex + 4ex 4
+ 4 et
t=0
and
Z
we have
lim
x
R x2
0
x2
h it=x2
2
= ex 1,
e dt = et
t
t=0
etx (2t2 + 1) dt
2x4 4x2 + 4 4ex + 1 ex
=
lim
x
x4
x4
5
5
4
= lim 2 2 + 4 4 x2 = 2.
x
x
x
xe
6
and y =
Homework 12. Consider the region bounded by the curves y = sin x
2
6
for 0 x 1. Note that the two curves meet at x = 1. Find the volume
(x2 +3x+2)
of revolving the region (a) about the y-axis; (b) about x-axis.
(101 )
Solution.
(a) We use the method of cylindrical shell:
Z 1
x
6
dx
sin
Volume =
2x
x2 + 3x + 2
2
0
Z 1
Z 1
x
x
= 12
dx = I + II,
dx 2
x sin
2
0 (x + 1)(x + 2)
0
where
I = 12
= 12
1
0
h
x
dx = 12
(x + 1)(x + 2)
0
ix=1
ln |x + 1| + 2 ln |x + 2|
x=0
2
1
+
x+1 x+2
dx
= 12 ( ln 2 + ln 1 + 2 ln 3 2 ln 2) = 12 (2 ln 3 3 ln 2)
and
Z
x
x
dx = 4
x d cos
II = 2
x sin
2
2
0
0
h
x ix=1 Z 1
x
= 4 x cos
dx
cos
2
2
x=0
0
h
x ix=1
2
8
= 4 sin
= .
x=0
Hence
Volume = 12 (2 ln 3 3 ln 2)
8
.
dx
sin2
2 + 3x + 2
x
2
0
Z 1
Z 1
1
2 x
dx = I + II.
dx
sin
= 36
2
2
2
0
0 (x + 1) (x + 2)
We compute the first term:
Z 1
1
dx
I = 36
2
2
0 (x + 1) (x + 2)
Z 1
A2
A3
A4
A1
+
+
+
dx,
= 36
x + 1 (x + 1)2 x + 2 (x + 2)2
0
7
2
1
2
1
+
+
+
2
x + 1 (x + 1)
x + 2 (x + 2)2
dx
x=1
1
1
+ 2 ln |x + 2|
= 36 2 ln |x + 1|
x+1
x + 2 x=0
1 1
1 1
= 36 2 ln 2 + 2 ln 1 + + 2 ln 3 2 ln 2 +
2 1
3 2
2
.
= 36 4 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 +
3
0
sin x
1
= .
x
=
2
2
2
x=0
Hence Volume = 36 4 ln 2 + 2 ln 3 + 23 2 = 72(2 ln 2 + ln 3) +
7.8
47
.
2
dx
x x2 + 4 ax
0
(100 )
converges.
1
Solution. The function xx12 +4 ax
has infinity discontinuity at x = 0, so the
integral is improper and
Z 2
Z 2
1
1
1
1
dx = lim
dx
t0 t
x x2 + 4 ax
x x2 + 4 ax
0
Z 2
Z 2
1
1
dx = lim (I + II) .
dx
= lim
2
t0
t0
t ax
t x x +4
tan1 ( 2t ),
1
2 sec2 d
t
tan1 ( 2 ) 2 tan 2 sec
t
Z
i= 4
1 4
1h
=
csc d =
ln | csc + cot |
2 tan1 ( 2t )
2
=tan1 ( 2t )
1
t
1
t
1
1
+ cot tan
= ln 2 + 1 + csc tan
2
2
2
2
1 t2 + 4 + 2
1
= ln 2 + 1 + ln
.
2
2
t
I=
dx =
x x2 + 4
1
1
dx
x x2 + 4 ax
0
!
1
1 t2 + 4 + 2 1
1
= lim
+
ln
ln
t
ln
2
+
1
ln 2
t0
2
t
a
2
a
1
1
1
1
1
= lim ln ( t2 + 4 + 2) 2 t a 2 ln 2 + 1 ln 2
t0
2
a
1
1 1
1
= lim ln t a 2 + ln 2 ln 2 + 1 ln 2.
t0
2
a
Z
The above limit exists if and only if a = 2, so the integral converges if and only if
a = 2.
Homework 14. Let In =
xn ex dx.
0
(a) Compute I3 .
(95 )
(98 )
Solution.
So
Z
3 x
x e dx = lim
x3 ex dx
t
0
0
h
ix=t
3 x
2 x
x
x
= lim x e 3x e 6x e 6e
t
x=0
3 t
2 t
t
t
= lim t e 3t e 6t e 6e + 6 = 6.
I3 =
lim tn et = lim
t
(
,L)
(
,L)
ntn1
n!
=
lim t = 0.
t
t
t
e
e
lim
e dx = lim t e + n
x e dx
= lim x e
t
x=0
= nIn1 .
We compute
Z
Z t
h
ix=t
x
x
x
= lim et + 1 = 1.
I0 =
e dx = lim
e dx = lim e
0
x=0
10
n
Homework 15. Find the limit lim
n
n!
.
n
(96 )
1
n
n
n!
(n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1)
= lim ln
lim ln
n
n
n
n
1
n n1 n2
3 2 1 n
= lim ln
n
n
n
n
n n n
n
n
X
i
1X
f (xi )x,
ln
= lim
= lim
n
n n
n
i=1
i=1
where f (x) = ln x, and we divide [0, 1] into n-subintervals with width x = n1 , and
, i ], i = 1, . . . , n. Hence
we choose sample points xi = ni on each subinterval [ i1
n n
Z 1
n
n!
lim ln
=
ln x dx.
n
n
0
This is an improper integral (since ln x as x 0). So we have to deal with
it carefully:
h
Z 1
Z 1
n
ix=1 Z 1
n!
1
x dx
=
ln x dx. = lim
ln x dx = lim x ln x
lim ln
t0 t
t0
n
x=t
n
x
t
0
= lim (t ln t 1 + t) = 1.
t0
because
lim t ln t = lim
t0
t0
ln t
1
t
,L
= lim
t0
1
t
t12
= lim t = 0.
t0
Hence
!
n
n
n!
n!
= 1 lim
lim
= e1 .
n n
n n
n!
= ln
lim ln
n
n
1
dx = lim
t1
(1 x)2
1
(1x)2
t
2
0
1
dx convergent or divergent?
(1 x)2
(90 )
1
dx + lim+
t1
(1 x)2
11
2
t
1
dx = I + II.
(1 x)2
Since
1
dx = lim
I = lim
2
t1
t1
0 (1 x)
1
= lim
1 ,
t1
1t
Z
t
0
h 1 ix=t
1
d(1 x) = lim
t1
(1 x)2
1 x x=0
2
2
Z
1 2 2x 1
2x
2x
sin x cos xe
e
d sin x cos x
= sin x e
2
2
Z
1
1 2 2x 1
2x
e2x (cos2 x sin2 x) dx
sin x cos x e
+
= sin x e
2
2
2
Z
1 2 2x 1
1
2x
= sin x e
e2x (1 2 sin2 x) dx
sin x cos x e
+
2
2
2
Z
Z
1
1 2 2x 1
2x
2x
e
dx e2x sin2 x dx
sin x cos x e
+
= sin x e
2
2
2
Z
1 2 2x 1
1 2x
2x
= sin x e
sin x cos x e
e
(ex sin x)2 dx + C .
2
2
4
So we get
Z
1
1
1
(ex sin x)2 dx = sin2 x e2x sin x cos x e2x e2x + C.
4
4
8
So
Z
(e sin x) dx = lim
(ex sin x)2 dx
t
0
0
x=t
1 2 2x 1
1 2x
2x
= lim sin x e
sin x cos x e
e
t
4
4
8
x=0
1
1 2t 1
1 2 2t 1
2t
= .
= lim sin t e sin t cos t e e +
t
4
4
8
8
8
x
12
Remark that because | sin2 t e2t | e2t and | sin t cos t e2t | e2t , by the Squeeze
Theorem, we get lim sin2 t e2t = 0 and lim sin t cos t e2t = 0.
t
13
2
x = 1+ 2 + x =
+ x
1 + (f (x)) = 1 +
x 4
x
2 16
x 4
1 1
= + x.
x 4
So
Length =
1+
3
= ln 2 + .
8
(f (x))2
dx =
x=2
1 1
1 2
+ x dx = ln |x| + x
x 4
8
x=1
1
x2
t3 + 1 dt,
1
2
x 1.
(94 )
+1
f (x) = 3
x
x2
s
s
r
2
p
2
1
4
2
4
4
2
1+ 6
+ 1 = 1 + 6 + 12 =
= 1 + 6.
1 + (f (x)) = 1 + 6
6
x x
x
x
x
x
So
Length =
1
1
Z
p
2
1 + (f (x)) dx =
1
1
x=1
2
2 1
1 + 6 dx = x 5
x
5 x x= 1
2
2
1 2
129
= 1 (1 32) =
.
2 5
10
ex +1
ex 1
Solution. We compute
f (x) =
=
ex + 1
(ex 1)2
e2x 1
1
for a x b.
(98 )
1 + (f (x))2 =
=
1+
2ex
e2x 1
e2x + 1
.
e2x 1
2
(e2x + 1)2
(e2x 1)2
So
Z b x
Z b 2x
Z bp
e + ex
e +1
2
dx =
dx
1 + (f (x)) dx =
Length =
e2x 1
ex ex
a
a
a
b
Z b
h
b
ix=b
1
e
e
x
x
x
x
=
= ln a
d(e e ) = ln e e
.
x=a
ex ex
e ea
a
8.2
Homework 4.
Z
(a) Find sec3 x dx.
(b) The curve y = ln x, 0 < x < 1, is rotated about y-axis. Find the area of the
resulting surface.
(99 )
Solution.
(a) Since
Z
Z
Z
3
I = sec x dx = sec d tan = sec tan tan d sec
Z
Z
2
= sec tan tan sec d = sec tan (sec2 1) sec d
Z
Z
Z
2
3
= sec tan (sec 1) sec d. = sec tan sec d + sec d
= sec tan I + ln | sec + tan | + C,
we get
I=
We compute f (x) =
1
1
sec tan + ln | sec + tan | + C.
2
2
1
x
and
p
1 + (f (x))2 =
2 r
1
1
= 1 + 2,
1+
x
x
so
Z 1 r
p
1
x 1 + 2 dx
Surface Area =
2x 1 + (f (x))2 dx = 2
x
0
0
Z 1
Z p
4
= 2
x2 + 1 dx = 2
tan2 + 1 sec2 d
0
0
= 4
Z
4
1
1
3
sec tan + ln | sec + tan |
= 2
sec d = 2
2
2
=0
0
=
2 + ln( 2 + 1) .
Z
Remark that we use the Substitution Rule x = tan , dx = sec2 dx, upper
limit u = 4 , lower limit u = 0 in the calculation.
Homework 5. Find the exact area of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
3
So
1
1
1
x (y) = (y 2 + 2) 2 2y = y(y 2 + 2) 2
2
p
p
p
p
2
1 + (x (y)) = 1 + y 2(y 2 + 2) = y 4 + 2y 2 + 1 = (y 2 + 1)2 = y 2 + 1.
Z 2
Z 2
p
2
2
y(y + 1) dy = 2
(y 3 + y) dy
Surface Area =
2y 1 + (x (y)) dy = 2
1
1
1
y=2
1 4 1 2
1
1
21
= 2
= 2
y + y
(16 1) + (4 1) = .
4
2
4
2
2
y=1
Z
Homework 6.
a>b
Solution.
(a) First we write the equation of the ellipse above the x-axis:
r
b 2
x2
a x2
y =b 1 2 =
a
a
Then
b
2x
bx
=
2
2
a2 a x
a a2 x2
s
p
2 x2
p
a4 (a2 b2 )x2
b
1 + (y )2 = 1 + 2 2
.
=
a (a x2 )
a a2 x2
y =
Hence
Z
p
4b a p 4
2
a (a2 b2 )x2 dx.
Surface Area =
2y 1 + (y ) dx = 2
a
a
0
2
2
sin1 a ab and lower limit is = 0, so
Z
4b a p 4
a (a2 b2 )x2 dx
Surface Area = 2
a
0
Z sin1 a2 b2
a
4b
=
a2 cos a2 cos d
2
2
2
a a b 0
Z sin1 a2 b2
2
a
4ba
1 + cos 2
d
=
2
a2 b2 0
a2 b2
1
=sin
a
4ba2
sin 2
1
=
+
4
a2 b2 2
=0
2
2 b2
a
a b2 b
4ba2
1
+
=
sin
a
a
a
a2 b2
2
a
a b2
b
= 2ab
+
.
sin1
a
a
a2 bb
Z
(b) First we write the equation of the ellipse above the x-axis:
r
y2
ap 2
b y2
x=a 1 2 =
b
b
Then
a
ay
2y
p
= p
b 2 b2 y 2
b b2 y 2
s
p
2y2
p
b4 + (a2 b2 )y 2
a
p
=
.
1 + (x )2 = 1 + 2 2
b (b y 2)
b b2 y 2
x =
Hence
Z
p
4a b p 4
2
b + (a2 b2 )y 2 dy.
Surface Area =
2x 1 + (x ) dy = 2
b
0
b
a2 b2
and lower limit is = 0, so
= tan1
b
Z
4a
Surface Area = 2
b
Z bp
b4 + (a2 b2 )y 2 dy
tan1
a2 b2
b
4a
b2 sec b2 sec d
2
2
a b 0
a2 b2
2 Z tan1
b
4ab
sec3 d
=
2
2
a b 0
a2 b2
1
h
i
2
=tan
2ab
b
=
sec tan + ln | sec + tan |
2
2
=0
a b
2
2 b2
a
a2 b2
a
2ab
a
+ ln +
=
b
b
b
a2 b2 b
2ab2
a + a2 b2
2
= 2a +
.
ln
b
a2 b2
=
8.3
b2
Homework 7 (page 560). A vertical plate is submerged in water and has the
indicated shaped. Explain how to approximate the hydrostatic force against one
side of the plate by a Riemann sum. Then express the force as an integral and
evaluate it.
a
expression for each edge. For example, edge in quadrant one is y = x + 22 a, and
2a
.
n
For each subinterval on the top half, we can take sample point yi such that the
area of strip is equal to one piece of the subinterval of the square, which is shaped
as a trapezoid. That is, we can get the area Ai = 2( 22 a yi )y. The pressure on
the strip is approximately gdi = g( 22 a yi ). So the total force ton the top half
is
F1 = lim
n
n
X
= 2g
2
a
2
2
2
a yi 2
a yi y
2
2
i=1
!2
!3 y= 22 a
2
2
2a3 g
1
=
ay
a y
.
dy = 2g
2
3
2
6
Pi Ai = lim
i=1
n
X
y=0
Next, for each subinterval on the top half, we can take sample point yi such that the
area of strip is equal to one piece of the subinterval of the square, which is shaped
as a trapezoid. That is, we can get the area Ai = 2( 22 a + yi)y. The pressure on
the strip is approximately gdi = g( 22 a yi ). So the total force ton the top half
is
!
!
n
n
X
X
2
2
g
Pi Ai = lim
F2 = lim
a + yi 2
a yi y
n
n
2
2
i=1
i=1
2
y=0
Z 0
2
1
1
2
3
2
a y dy = 2g
a y y
= 2g
2
2
3
22 a
y= 22 a
2 3
2 3
2 2a3 g
= 2g
a
a =
.
4
12
6
2a3 g
2
(N).
Homework 8. A vertical dam has semicircular gate as shown in the Figure 2. Find
the hydrostatic force against the gate.
Solution. We set up a coordinate system such that the x-axis is the bottom of the
}2 m
water level
12 m
4m
Figure 2: Find the hydrostatic force.
Next, we compute the pressure of each strip: Pi = gdi = g(10 yi ). Hence
the hydrostatic force against the gate is
F = lim
n
n
X
Pi Ai = lim
n
i=1
2
= 2g
Since
Z
and
Z
2
0
we get
i=1
p
g(10 yi )2 4 (yi )2 y
Z
p
2
(10 y) 4 y dy = 20g
n
X
y 2 dy
y 2 dy
2g
p
4 y 2 dy.
Z
p
2
2
2
2
2 2 sin 2 d cos =
4 cos2 d
=
0
0
=
Z
2
1
sin 2 2
1 + cos 2
d = 4 +
= ,
4=
2
2
4
0
=0
Z
y=2
Z 2p
p
3
8
1
1
2
2
2
= ,
4 y 2 d(4 y ) =
y 4 y 2 dy =
(4 y ) 2
2 0
2 3
3
y=0
16
16
16
= 9800 20
(N).
F = 20g g = g 20
3
3
3
Homework 9 (page 558). Find the centroid of the region bounded by the curves
y = cos x, y = 0, x = 0, and x = 2 .
Solution. First of all, we calculate the area of the region:
Z
h
ix= 2
2
cos x dx = sin x
= 1.
A=
x=0
Next, we calculate
Z
Z
h
ix= 2 Z 2
2
2
My =
x cos x dx =
x d sin x = x sin x
sin x dx
x=0
0
0
0
ix= 2
h
= + cos x
= 1.
2
2
x=0
7
1
Mx =
2
1
cos x dx =
2
0
Hence (
x, y) = 2 1, 8 .
Z
1 + cos 2x
2
x=
1 1
sin 2x 2
dx =
x+
= .
2 2
4
8
x=0
Area of R =
sin x dx =
Next, we compute
My =
=
Z
Z
x sin x dx =
x d cos x =
cos x dx =
ix= 2
= 1.
sin x
1
sin dx =
2
2
x=0
h
ix= 2 Z
x cos x
x=0
and
1
Mx =
2
ix= 2
cos x
= 1.
cos x dx
x=0
1 cos 2x
2
Hence (
x, y) = (1, 8 ).
x=
1 1
sin 2x 2
= .
dx =
x
2 2
4
8
x=0
=
.
d=
=
2
2
10
10 40
8 +6
By the Theorem of Pappus, the volume of solid is
Volume = (Area of R) 2d =
17
3
2.
5
20
(102 )
cos x dx =
0
2
= .
4
1 + cos 2x
2
x=
1
sin 2x 2
dx =
x+
2
4
x=0
(b) We can compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolving R about y-axis
by the method of cylindrical shell:
Volume =
2x cos x dx = 2
= 2
x d sin x
!
h
ix= 2 Z
x sin x
x=0
sin x dx
= 2 2.
h
ix= 2
= 2 + 2 cos x
x=0
1
2
2
y = .
4
8
Z
h
ix= 4
4
2
2
A=
(cos x sin x) dx = sin x + cos x
=
0+
1 = 2 1.
2
2
x=0
0
Next, we compute
Z
Z
4
4
x(cos x sin x) dx =
x d(sin x + cos x)
My =
0
0
h
ix= 4
h
ix= 4 Z 4
2
(sin x + cos x) dx =
+ cos x sin x
= x(sin x + cos x)
4
x=0
x=0
0
2
=
1.
4
9
and
Z
1 4 1 + cos 2x 1 cos 2x
(cos x sin x) dx =
dx
2 0
2
2
0
x=
Z
1 sin 2x 4
1 4
1
cos 2x dx =
=
= .
2 0
2
2
4
x=0
1
Mx =
2
Hence
(
x, y) =
21
1
4
21
2
1
1 ( 2 + 1), ( 2 + 1) .
4
4
10
Homework 1 (page 644). Find parametric equations for the set of all points P as
shown in the Figure 1 such that |OP | = |AB|. This curve is called the cissoid of
Diocles after the Greek scholar Diocles, who introduced the cissoid as a graphical
method for constructing the edge of a cube whose volume is twice that of a given
cube.
y
B
x = 2a
Let P = k(2a, 2a tan ), where k > 0 satisfies k 2 (2a sec )2 = |AB|2 . Since
|AB|2 = (2a sin2 )2 + (2a(tan cos sin ))2
= 4a2 (sin4 + tan2 2 sin2 + (1 sin2 ) sin2 )
= 4a2 (tan2 sin2 ) = 4a2 sec2 sin4 ,
it implies k = sin2 =
Diocles is
tan2
.
1+tan2
(t) =
2at2 2at3
,
1 + t2 1 + t2
t R.
Homework 2 (page 653). A string is wound around a circle and then unwound
while being held taut. The curve traced by the point P at the end of the string
is called the involute of the circle. If the circle has radius r and center O and the
initial position of P is (r, 0), an if the parameter is chosen as the Figure 2, show
that parametric equations of the involute are
x = r(cos + sin ),
y = r(sin cos ).
1
y
T
r
P
x
10.2
dy
dx
and
d2 y
.
dx2
(a) x = t2 + 1, y = t2 + t.
(b) x = cos 2t, y = cos t, 0 < t < .
Solution.
(a) We have
dy
dt
dx
dt
2t + 1
1
=1+ .
2t
2t
d
1+
d2 y
1
d
dt
1
+
=
=
dx
2
dx
dx
2t
dt
dy
=
dx
1
2t
2t12
1
= 3.
2t
4t
dy
dt
dx
dt
sin t
1
sin t
=
=
.
2 sin 2t
4 sin t cos t
4 cos t
1
d
1 sin t
d2 y
1
d
1
dt 4 cos t
4 cos2 t
=
=
=
=
.
dx
2
dx
dx 4 cos t
4 sin t cos t
16 cos3 t
dt
When
Homework 4 (page 651). Using the parametric equation to find the area of the
2
y(t) dx(t) = 4
y(t)x (t) dt = 4
a sin3 t (3a cos2 t sin t) dt
A=4
= 12a2
We compute
Z
2
Z
1 cos 2t
1 cos 2t cos2 2t
sin t dt =
dt
+
dt =
2
4
2
4
Z
Z
3 cos 2t cos 4t
1 cos 2t 1 1 cos 4t
dt =
dt
=
4
2
4
2
8
2
8
3
1
1
= t sin 2t
sin 4t + C,
8
4
32
Z
so
Z
0
4
sin t dt =
Next, we compute
Z
so
Z
t=0
1
1
3
3
t sin 2t
sin 4t
= .
8
4
32
16
t=
2
3
Z
1 cos 2t
3
1 3
2
3
sin t dt =
cos 2t + cos 2t cos 2t dt
dt =
2
8 8
8
Z
3 1 + cos 4t
1 3
3
cos 2t dt
cos 2t +
=
8 8
8
2
Z
5
3
3
1
3
=
cos 2t +
cos 4t cos 2t dt
16 8
16
8
1 3
3
3
1
5
sin 2t sin 2t + C,
sin 2t +
sin 4t
= t
16
16
64
8
3
6
0
6
sin t dt =
Z
5
3
3
1
t
sin 2t +
sin 4t
16
16
64
8
Hence
2
A = 12a
0
4
t=0
1 3
5
sin 2t sin 2t
= .
3
32
t=
2
3
5
+
16
32
3a2
.
8
Homework 5 (page 653). A cow is tied to a silo with radius r by a rope just long
enough to reach the opposite side of the silo. Find the area available for grazing by
the cow.
Hint: Part of the curve is the involute of the circle. (See Homework in section
10.1.)
Solution. The available region for grazing by the cow is shown in Figure 3, where
region I is bounded by a semicircle with radius r, and the boundary of regions II,
III is the involute of the circle. Recall the parametric equation of the involute is
P = (x(), y()) = (r(cos + sin ), r(sin cos )),
(, ).
II
III
Z 0
1
= r2
(sin cos )( cos ) d r 2
2
Z 0
1
( sin cos 2 cos2 ) d r 2 .
= r2
2
Since
Z 0
Z
Z
Z
1 0
1 0
1
sin cos d =
sin 2 d =
sin 2 d =
d cos 2
2
2
4 0
i= Z
i=
1
1h
1 h
cos 2 d =
cos 2
sin 2
=
4
4
8
=0
=0
0
1
= ,
4
4
and
Z 0
=0
Z
1 0 2
1 3
1 + cos 2
+
d =
d sin 2
cos d =
2
6
4
=
=0
Z
1 3
1 0
1 2
= +
sin 2 d
sin 2
6
4
2
=
=0
Z
Z
1 3 1 0
1 0
1 3
1
= +
cos 2
d cos 2 +
cos 2 d
6
4
6
4
4
=
=0
1
1 3
1
= 3 .
=
sin 2
6
4
8
6
4
2
Homework 6. Using the parametric equation to find the length of the astroid
2
2
2
x3 + y 3 = a3 .
(95 )
Solution. The parametric equation of the astroid is x(t) = a cos3 t, y(t) = a sin3 t.
By symmetry, we just compute the length in the first quadrant. In this case, we
know 0 t 2 . Since x (t) = 3a cos2 t sin t and y (t) = 3a sin2 t cos t, we have
p
p
(x (t))2 + (y (t))2 = 9a2 sin2 t cos4 t + 9a2 cos2 t sin4 t
p
= 9a2 sin2 t cos2 t = 3a sin t cos t.
So the total length is
Z p
Z
2
2
Length = 4
(x (t)) + (y (t)) dt. = 4
0
3a sin t cos t dt
t=
sin2 t 2
= 12a
= 6a.
2 t=0
2
Length =
(x (t)) + (y (t)) dt =
3t, y (t) = 2t t t2 , 0
(99 )
3t2 + 4t2 (t t2 ) dt
s
2
Z 1
Z 1
1
4
3
2
dt.
4t + 4t + 3t dt =
2t 1 t
=
2
0
0
0
=
Z
Z
6
6
1 + cos 2
1
sin 2 6
3
2
= +
cos d =
Length =
d =
+
.
2
2
4
6
4
6
6
=
6
Homework 8. Find the arc length of the curve x = t sin 2t, y = t cos 2t, 0 t 1.
(102 )
Solution. Since x = sin 2t + 2t cos 2t and y = cos 2t 2t sin 2t, we have
p
p
Hence by letting 2t = tan , 2 dt = sec2 d, upper limit = tan1 (2) and lower
limit = 0, we get
Z tan1 (2)
Z 1
1
2
sec3 d
Length =
1 + 4t dt =
2
0
0
=tan1 (2)
1
1
1
1
=
= 5 2 + ln 5 + 2
sec tan + ln | sec + tan |
4
4
4
4
=0
1
1
5 + ln 5 + 2 .
=
2
4
Homework 9 (page 652). Find the exact area of the surface obtained by rotating
the curve x = a cos3 , y = a sin3 , 0 2 about the x-axis.
Solution. The parametric equation of the astroid is x(t) = a cos3 t, y(t) = a sin3 t.
By symmetry, we just compute the length in the first quadrant. In this case, we
know 0 t 2 . Since x (t) = 3a cos2 t sin t and y (t) = 3a sin2 t cos t, we have
p
p
(x (t))2 + (y (t))2 = 9a2 sin2 t cos4 t + 9a2 cos2 t sin4 t
p
= 9a2 sin2 t cos2 t = 3a sin t cos t.
So
Surface Area =
t=
1 5 2
6
2
sin t
= 6a
= a2 .
5
5
t=0
sin4 d sin t
Homework 10. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region
bounded by one arch of the cycloid: x = r( sin ), y = r(1 cos ), and y = 0
about the x-axis.
(101 )
Solution.
Volume =
2
2
Since
Z 2
1 3 cos + 3 cos2 cos3 d
0
Z 2
1 + cos 2
2
(1 sin ) cos d
=
1 3 cos + 3
2
0
=2
3
1 3
3
= 5,
= 3 sin + + sin 2 sin + sin
2
4
3
(1 cos ) d =
=0
we get Volume = 5r 3 2 .
10.3
(96 )
dy
1
3 3
3
changes
sign
from
positive
to
negative
at
=
,
y(
)
=
(1
+
)
=
is the
d
3
3
2 2
4
maximum value of the height on the cardioid.
Homework 12 (page 663). Find a formula for the distance between the points with
polar coordinates (r1 , 1 ) and (r2 , 2 ).
Solution. Let P1 = (r1 , 1 ) and P2 = (r2 , 2 ) in polar coordinates. We get their
Cartesian coordinates are
P1 = (x = r1 cos 1 , y = r1 sin 1 ),
P2 = (x = r2 cos 2 , y = r2 sin 2 ).
So the distance is
p
|P1 P2 | = (r1 cos 1 r2 cos 2 )2 + (r1 sin 1 r2 sin 2 )2
q
= r12 (cos2 + sin2 ) + r22 (cos2 + sin2 ) 2r1 r2 (cos 1 cos 2 + sin 1 sin 2 )
q
= r12 + r22 2r1 r2 cos(1 2 ).
Homework 13 (page 664). Find the slope of the tangent line to the given polar
curve at the point specified by the value of . (a) r = 1 , = . (b) r = cos 2, = 4 .
Solution.
(a) We compute
dy
=
dx
dy
d
dx
d
12 sin + 1 cos
f () sin + f () cos
sin cos
=
= 1
.
=
1
f () cos f () sin
cos + sin
2 cos sin
So
dy
= .
=
dx = 1
(b) We compute
dy
=
dx
dy
d
dx
d
f () sin + f () cos
2 sin 2 sin + cos 2 cos
=
f () cos f () sin
2 sin 2 cos cos 2 sin
5 22 12 +
dy
=
2
1
dx =
+
5
2
2
4
2
4
2
4
= 1.
Homework 14 (page 664). Find the points on the given curve the tangent line is
horizontal or vertical. (a) r = 3 cos . (b) r = 1 sin .
Solution.
(a) We compute
dy
=
dx
dy
d
dx
d
f () sin + f () cos
3 sin2 + 3 cos2
cos 2
=
=
.
f () cos f () sin
3 sin cos 3 cos sin
sin 2
The condition for the tangent line being horizontal is cos 2 = 0 and sin 2 6= 0,
(b) We compute
dy
d
dx
d
f () sin + f () cos
cos sin + (1 sin ) cos
=
f () cos f () sin
cos cos (1 sin ) sin
cos (1 2 sin )
.
=
(1 + 2 sin )(1 + sin )
dy
=
dx
6= 76 , 11
1 + 2 sin 6= 0, 1 + sin 6= 0
, 2 .
6
So ( 21 , 16 ), ( 12 , 56 ), (2, 23 ) are points that their tangent lines are horizontal.
. If = 67
The condition for the tangent line being vertical is = 2 , 76 , 11
6
dy
, numerators of dx
are nonzero, so they have vertical tangent line.
and = 11
6
If = 21 , we have to check
lim
lim
+
cos (1 2 sin )
cos sin 2
= lim
(1 + 2 sin )(1 + sin ) 2 2 sin2 sin 1
( 00 ,L )
sin 2 cos 2
= ,
= lim
2 sin 2 cos
2
cos (1 2 sin )
cos sin 2
= lim
(1 + 2 sin )(1 + sin ) 2 + 2 sin2 sin 1
( 00 ,L )
sin 2 cos 2
= ,
= lim
2 + 2 sin 2 cos
so the curve at =
( 23 , 11
) are points that their tangent lines are vertical.
6
Homework 1 (page 659). Find the area of the region that lies inside both curves
r = sin 2 and r = cos 2.
Solution. Both of curves r = sin 2 and r = cos 2 are four leaved roses, where
black one is r = sin 2 and gray one is r = cos 2 in Figure 1. The symmetry shows
1
0.5
I
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
2
, ).
2 8
Z
Z
4 1
8
1
2
2
sin2 2 d
(sin 2) d +
(cos 2) d =
2
2
0
8
= 8
sin 4
1
1 cos 4
d =
=
.
2
2
8
16 8
=0
Area = 8
16 8
1.
2
Homework 2.
(a) Find all points of intersection of the curves r = cos and r = 1 cos .
(b) Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r = cos and outside the
(95 )
cardioid r = 1 cos .
1
1
0.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
1
1
cos2 (1 cos )2
2
2
(1 + 2 cos ) d =
i= 3
+ 2 sin
= + 3.
=0
3
(97 )
2
2
(1 cos ) + (sin ) d =
2 2 cos d
Length =
0
0
Z 2
Z 2
Z 2 r
1 cos
sin d
d = 2
sin d = 2
=2
2
2
2
0
0
0
=2
= 4 cos
= 4(1 1) = 8.
2
=0
Homework 4.
(a) Plot the region A which is inside the circle r = 6 cos and outside the cardioid
r = 2(1 + cos ).
(b) Find the area of A.
(c) Find the length of the boundary of the region A.
(98 )
Solution.
(a) The region A is the gray part in Figure 3.
3
2
1
A5
-1
-2
-3
Figure 3: The circle r = 6 cos and outside the cardioid r = 2(1 + cos ).
(b) From Figure 3, we know two curves intersections at three points, but we only
need to find the intersections in region A. If we solve 6 cos = 2(1 + cos ),
then cos = 12 or = 35 . Hence two curves intersect at (3, 3 ) and (3, 35 ).
So the area of A is
Z
3
1
1
2
2
(6 cos ) (2(1 + cos )) d
Area of A =
2
2
0
Z 2
1
1
2
2
+
(6 cos ) (2(1 + cos )) d
5
2
2
3
Z
Z
3
3
2
=2
(3 + 4 cos 2 2 cos ) d
16 cos 2 4 cos d = 4
0
0
h
i= 3
= 3
3
= 4 3 + 2 sin 2 2 sin
=4 +
= 4.
=0
=0
Z
=2 2
=4
(2(1 +
cos ))2
(2 sin )2
1 + cos d + 6
d +
1 d = 4
(6 cos )2 + (6 sin )2 d
cos d + 4
2
=
3
+ 4 = 8 + 4.
cos d + 4 = 8 sin
2
2 =
3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
+
r
cos
dr
dy
d
d
= dx
= dr
6= 0.
= tan if
dx r=0
d r=0
cos r sin
d
d
r=0
r=0
dr
= 2 sin 6= 0 at = 3 and = 53 . Thus the slope of the
We compute d
Area = 2
=
=
Z
Z
1
(1 2 cos )2 d
2
2
5
(1 4 cos + 4 cos ) d
(3 4 cos + 2 cos 2) d
1
(1 2 cos )2 d
2
(1 4 cos + 4 cos2 ) d
5
(3 4 cos + 2 cos 2) d
5
h
i=2
h
i=
= 3 4 sin + sin 2 3 4 sin + sin 2 5
= 3
= 3
!
3
3
3
3
2
1
=3 4
= + 3 3.
3 4
+
3
2
2
3
2
2
Homework 6. Find the area both inside r 2 = 2 cos 2 and inside r = 1.
(101 )
Solution. We plot two curves in Figure 5. To find the area both inside r 2 = 2 cos 2
1
0.5
II
I
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
2
1 d + 4
(2 cos 2) d = + 4 sin 2
=4
= 6
2
2
3
0
6
!
= + 2 3.
= +2 1
3
2
3
Homework 7. Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the cardioid
(99 )
r = 1 + sin about = 2 .
Solution. We plot the cardioid r = 1 + sin , 2
in Figure 6. When we
1.5
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
2x ds = 2
= 2
(1 + sin ) cos
(1 + sin )2 + (cos )2 d
= 2
5
2
(1 + sin ) 2
= 2 2
(1 + sin ) d(1 + sin ) = 2 2
5
2
= 2
5
2
32
= 2 2 (2) 2 = .
5
5
3
2
Homework 8. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve r =
sin , 0
(101 )
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
When we rotate the curve about the polar axis = 0, the surface area is
Surface area =
2y ds = 2
= 2
10.6
sin2
1 cos 2
2
(sin )2 + (cos )2 d
=
1
sin 2 2
= 2.
d = 2
2
4
2
=0
Homework 9. Show that each conic in Figure 8 has the corresponding polar equation.
y
y
P
r
L:y=d
x
r
L : x = d
(a)
L : y = d
(c)
(b)
ed
1e cos
(b) r =
ed
1+e sin
(c) r =
ed
.
1e sin
Solution.
(a) In Figure 8 (a), the condition
|P F |
|P L|
= e becomes
ed
r
= e r = e(d + r cos ) r(1 e cos ) = ed r =
.
d + r cos
1 e cos
(b) In Figure 8 (b), the condition
|P F |
|P L|
= e becomes
ed
r
= e r = e(d r sin ) r(1 + e sin ) = ed r =
.
d r sin
1 + e sin
(c) In Figure 8 (c), the condition
|P F |
|P L|
= e becomes
ed
r
= e r = e(d + r sin ) r(1 e sin ) = ed r =
.
d + r sin
1 e sin
Homework 10 (page 684). The orbit of Halleys comet, last seen in 1986 and due
to return in 2062, is an ellipse with eccentricity 0.97 and one focus at the sun.
The length of its major axis is 36.18 AU. (An astronomical unit (AU) is the mean
distance between the earth and the sun, about 93 million miles.) Find a polar
equation for the orbit of Halleys comet. What is the maximum distance from the
comet to the sun?
Solution.
(a) The length of the major axis is 2a = 36.18 AU, so a = 18.09 AU. We are given
that e = 0.97, so a polar equation for the orbit of Halleys comet is
r=
18.09(1 (0.97)2 )
1.06912
a(1 e2 )
=
=
.
1 + e cos
1 + 0.97 cos
1 + 0.97 cos
9.3
1 x2
dy
=
0<x1
.
dx
x
y(1) = 0
(89 )
x
Let u = 1 x2 , then x2 = 1 u2 and du = 22x
dx = 1x
2 dx, so
1x2
Z
Z
Z
1 x2
1 x2
1 x2
u2
dx =
du =
du
x
x
x
1 u2
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
du = u +
du
=
1 2
u 1
2
u+1 u1
1 x2 + 1
1 u + 1
1
+ C.
+ C = 1 x2 + ln
= u + ln
2
u 1
2
1 x2 1
So we get
1 x2 + 1
1
+ C.
y(x) = 1 x2 + ln
2
1 x2 1
8
1
2
ln | 1| + C, so C = 0. Hence the
solution is
2
1 x2 + 1
1
x
1
+
1
1
= 1 x2 + ln
.
y(x) = 1 x2 + ln
2
2
1 x2 1
1 1 x2
(95 )
Solution. We change the equation into
y dy
y dy
= cos x e
e
dx = cos x esin x dx
dx
Z
Z
y
e dy = esin x d sin x ey = esin x + C.
e
sin x
dx
y 2 sin x
dy
=
with the initial condition y(0) = 1.
dx
1 + y3
(99 )
1
2
is
1
1 2 1
y = cos x + .
2
y
2
(y4)(2x+1)
,
x2 +1
y(0) = 1.
(97 )
dx =
dx
y4
x +1
y4
x2 + 1
Z
Z
2x
1
1
dx
dy =
+
y4
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
ln |y 4| = ln |x2 + 1| + tan1 x + C.
y = (a 2x) =
2x =
.
2y
2y
x
2xy
We want to find a family of curves (x, y(x)) satisfies
2 xy
dy
2xy
= 2
=
2 .
dx
x y2
1 xy
xv =
v =
=
.
xv + v =
1 v2
1 v2
1 v2
1 v2
So we have
1 v2 1
v =
v(v 2 + 1)
x
10
1 v2
dv =
v(v 2 + 1)
1
dx
x
2xy
x2
2y
,
x
so We
dy
x
1
= 2y dy = x dx y 2 = x2 + C x2 + 2y 2 = k.
dx
2y
2
So the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves y = cx2 is x2 + 2y 2 = k.
(c) We differentiate y = ax3 with respect to x and get y = 3ax2 =
We want to find a family of curves (x, y(x)) satisfies
3x2 y
x3
3y
,
x
so
dy
x
3
1
= 3y dy = x dx y 2 = x2 + C x2 + 3y 2 = bk.
dx
3y
2
2
So the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves y = ax3 is x2 + 3y 2 = b.
Homework 16 (page 601). Experiments show that the reaction H2 + Br2 2HBr
satisfies the rate law
1
d[HBr]
= k[H2 ][Br2 ] 2
dt
where x = [HBr] and a and b are the initial concentrations of hydrogen and bromine.
(a) Find x as a function of t in the case where a = b. Use the fact that x(0) = 0.
(b) If a > b, find t as a function of x.
11
Solution.
(a) If a = b, the differential equation becomes
3
3
1
dx
= k(a x)(a x) 2 = k(a x) 2 (a x) 2 dx = k dt.
dt
12
12
= kt + 2a
=
ax
2
kt +
a
2
x(t) = a
4a
.
(k at + 2)2
To deal with the integration of the right hand side, we let u = b x, then
du = 21bu dx, which implies dx = 2u du. Furthermore, we have a x =
a b + u2 , so we get
Z
Z
Z
1
1
2
2u
du
du =
1 dx =
2
2
k(a b + u )u
k
u + ( a b)2
k(a x)(b x) 2
2
u
1
=
+C
tan
k ab
ab
bx
2
1
+ C.
tan
=
k ab
ab
Hence
2
tan1
t=
k ab
12
bx
+ C.
ab
(1)
e
We multiply
1
x2
x2 dx
= e2 ln x = x2 =
1
.
x2
1
2
d y
y
y
y
=
sec
x
tan
x
1
(x + 1) cos x
y=
,
x(x + 1)
x
(2)
1
x(x+1)
dx
1
1
= e ( x x+1 ) dx = eln xln(x+1) =
x
.
x+1
We multiply
x
x+1
( + 1)
= .
+1
x+1
( sin x + ).
x
1
dy
+ 3x(x2 + 1)y = 2x with the initial condition
Homework 3. Solve (x2 + 1)2
dx
y(0) = 3.
(99 )
Solution. We change this linear differential equation to the standard form:
3x
2x
dy
+ 2
y= 2
,
dx x + 1
(x + 1)2
(3)
3x
x2 +1
dx
= e2
1
x2 +1
d(x2 +1)
= e 2 ln(x
2 +1)
= (x2 + 1) 2 .
=
(x2 + 1) 2 y + 3x(x2 + 1) 2 y =
1
1
dx
(x2 + 1) 2
(x2 + 1) 2
Z
Z
1
3
1
2x
2
2
2 + C.
(x2 + 1) 2 y =
1 dx =
1 d(x + 1) = 2(x + 1)
(x2 + 1) 2
(x2 + 1) 2
Since y(0) = 3, we get 3 = 2 + C, so C = 1. Hence the solution of the initial value
problem is
y(x) =
x2
2
1
.
+
2
+ 1 (x + 1) 32
.
(101 )
(4)
cos x dx
= esin x .
(5)
x3 dx
= e3 ln x = x3 =
1
.
x3
1
x3
We multiply
explicitly.
(c) Find the function s(x) explicitly.
(102 )
Solution.
(a) The arc length of y = h(x) is
Z xp
1 + (h (t))2 dt,
s(x) =
0<x<
.
2
(b) We solve
s(x) =
1+
(h (t))2
dt =
eh(t) dt.
p
h (x)
h (x) = e2h(x) 1
= 1.
e2h(x) 1
We integrate the equation on both sides and get
Z
Z
Z
1
h (x)
dx = 1 dx
dh(x) = x + C.
e2h(x) 1
e2h(x) 1
du =
dh(x) =
2
du
2
2h(x)
u
u +1
u +1
e
1
p
= tan1 u + C = tan1 e2h(x) 1 + C.
Thus we get
tan1
e2h(x) 1 = x + C.
x
ln sec t
dt =
Homework 7 (page 619). Suppose that the resistance is 12 and the inductance
is 4 H. If a battery gives a constant voltage of E(t) = 60 V and the switch is closed
when t = 0.
(a) Find I(t).
(b) Find the current after 1 s.
(c) Find the limit value of the current.
Solution.
(a) Recall the Electric Circuits equation is
L
dI
+ RI = E(t).
dt
When we put L = 4, R = 12, and E(t) = 60, then the equation becomes
4
dI
dI
+ 12I = 60
+ 3I = 15.
dt
dt
We also have the initial value condition I(0) = 0. Multiplying the integrating
R
factor e
3 dt
= e3t , we get
dI
d 3t
e
e I = 15e3t e3t I =
+ 3 e3t I = 15e3t
dt
dt
3t
15e3t dt = 5e3t + C.
1
(5e3t 5) = 5 5e3t .
e3t
9.1
dP
dt
represents the
k dt
and get
ekt
d kt
dP
e P (t) = kMekt ekt P (t) = Mekt + C.
+ kekt P (t) = kMekt .
dt
dt
P (t) =
t
Figure 1: Learning curves.
(d) dn = 1 + n2
(e) en = n n + 1 n + 3.
(2n1)!
(2n+1)!
(c) cn =
cos2 n
2n
Solution.
3
3
2
n + 4n
2n
Since {an }
n=1 is divergent, {an }n=1 is divergent.
(b) Since
0
1
n n
and lim
1
1
(2n 1)!
=
,
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1) 2n
n
(2n1)!
n (2n+1)!
= 0, we get lim
2
(c) Since |cn | = cos2n n
1
2n
1
n
n 2
and lim
2
1+
x
x
lim
= 0, we have lim
n
2 x
,
x
= 0.
then
x !2
2 2
1+
=
x
= lim
cos2 n
2n
lim
1+
1
x
2
x2 !2
Thus
2
1+
n
n
x
2
= lim 1 +
= e2 .
x
x
(e) Since
n + 1 n + 3) (n + n + 1 n + 3)
en = n n + 1 n + 3 =
n+ n+1 n+3
4 n3
n2 (n2 + 4n + 3)
4n 3
=
=
=
,
n+ n+1 n+3
n + n2 + 4n + 3
1 + 1 + 4 + 32
(n
we have lim en =
n
40
1+ 1+0+0
4
2
= 2.
1
= e2 .
x
1 x
),L
(
lim
x
= lim
x
lim r
rx
= x = 0.
ln r
ln r
x
1 x
r
1
ln( 1r )
Homework 3 (page 701). Show that the sequence defined by a1 = 1, an+1 = 3 a1n
is increasing and an < 3 for all n. Deduce that {an } is convergent and find its limit.
Solution. Increasing: We claim: an+1 > an for all n N.
(1) When n = 1, a1 = 1 and a2 = 3
1
1
= 2, so a2 > a1 .
1
ak
1
ak+1
=
ak+1 ak
ak ak+1
> 0.
Remark that the denominator is positive because ak+1 > ak > > a1 > 0.
1
ak
Since an+1 = 3
L = lim an+1
n
1
,
an
we have
1
1
1
=3
= lim 3
= 3 L2 3L + 1 = 0.
n
an
lim an
L
n
The solution is L =
3 5
.
2
3+ 5
.
2
Homework 4 (page 702). Let a and b be positive numbers with a > b. Let a1 be
their arithmetic mean () and b1 their geometric mean ():
a+b
a1 =
,
b1 = ab.
2
Repeat this process so that, in general
an+1 =
an + bn
,
2
bn+1 =
p
an bn .
(a) Use mathematical induction () to show that an > an+1 > bn+1 > bn .
(b) Deduce that both {an } and {bn } are convergent.
(c) Show that lim an = lim bn . Gauss called the common value of these limits
n
2
a+b
1
a 2 ab + b =
ab =
a1 b1 =
a b >0
2
2
2
a b > 0.
b1 b0 = ab b = b
So a0 > a1 > b1 > b0 .
(2) Assume that it is true for n = k, that is, ak > ak+1 > bk+1 > bk .
(3) When n = k + 1, we compute
ak+1 bk+1
ak+1 + bk+1
=
>0
ak+1 ak+2 = ak+1
2
2
p
1
ak+1 + bk+1 p
ak+1 2 ak+1 bk+1 + bk+1
ak+2 bk+2 =
ak+1 bk+1 =
2
2
2
p
1
ak+1 bk+1 > 0
=
2
p
p
p
bk+2 bk+1 = ak+1 bk+1 bk+1 = bk+1
ak+1 bk+1 > 0.
(4) By mathematical induction, we know an > an+1 > bn+1 > bn .
an+1 =
we get A =
11.2
lim an + lim bn
an + bn
an + bn
n
lim an+1 = lim
= n
,
n
n
2
2
2
A+B
2
and it implies A = B.
def.
xn = 1 + x+ x2 + x3 + + xn +
n=0
x
1
x
1
x
n=0
k=0
n
X
Homework 6. Write the number 0.285714, 2.317, and 0.9 as a ratio of integers.
Solution.
n
X
1
= lim
= lim 285714
0.285714 =
6n
6k
n
n
10
10
106k
n=1
k=1
k=1
n
n
1
1 1016
1
2
285714
106
1
=
.
= lim 285714
= lim
1
n
n 999999
106
7
1 106
X
285714
n
X
285714
n
n
X
X
17
1
17
= 2.3 + lim
= 2.3 + lim 17
2.317 = 2.3 +
2n+1
2k+1
2k+1
n
n
10
10
10
n=1
k=1
k=1
n
n
1
1 1012
17
1
103
= 2.3 + lim 17
= 2.3 + lim
1
n
n 990
106
1 1012
17
2 990 + 3 99 + 17
2294
= 2.3 +
=
=
.
990
990
990
n
n
X
X
X
9
1
9
= lim
= lim 9
= lim 9
0.9 =
n
k
n
n
10
10
10k n
n=1
k=1
k=1
n
n
1
1
= lim 1
= 1 lim
= 1.
n
n 10
10
1
10
1
1
1 n
10
1
10
1
n(n+1)
n=1
1
n2
is convergent.
n=1
Solution.
n
X
k=1
X
1
=
k(k + 1) k=1
=
n
X
k=1
1
1
k k+1
n+1
X
k=2
n
X
1
k=1
1
1
=1
.
k
n+1
n
X
k=1
1
k+1
So
X
n=1
1
1
1
= lim 1 lim
= lim sn = lim 1
= 1.
n
n n + 1
n
n(n + 1) n
n+1
(b) Let an =
1
n2
k=2
k=2
P
1
= lim sn is convergent.
Theorem, the Euler series
n2
n=1
X
1 + 2n
(a)
3n
n=1
n
n+1
1
3
(c)
ln
n=1
Solution.
(a) Both
1
3n
and
2n
3n
and 32 , re-
n=1
n=1
spectively, so
1+2n
3n
is convergent, and
n=1
n
1
X
X
2
1
3
=
+
=
n
3
3
1
n=1
n=1
X
1 + 2n
3n
n=1
(b) Since
2
n
1
n
>
and
divergent. Since
n=1
1
n
1
3
2
3
2
3
5
1
+2= .
2
2
2
n
is
n=1
3
5n
1
5
< 1, which
n=1
3
5n
n=1
that
3
5n
n=1
2
n
is convergent. Then
2
n
X
X
3
2
3
2
3
2 X 3
n
=
+ n =
+
n
n
n n=1 5
n 5
5
n
5
n=1
n=1
X
X
3
2
3
=
+
5n n
5n
n=1
n=1
is convergent, and it contradicts to
2
n
is divergent.
n=1
ln
n
n+1
n=1
sn =
=
n
X
k=1
n
X
ln
k
k+1
ln k
k=1
n+1
X
n
X
k=1
n
X
ln k
k=1
n
X
k=2
ln(k + 1)
k=1
n=1
divergent.
ln
n
n+1
is
n
.
(n+1)!
n=1
1
2
2!1
,
2!
(n+1)!1
.
(n+1)!
(k+1)!1
.
(k+1)!
sk+2 = sk+1 +
(n+1)!1
.
(n+1)!
(c) We compute
X
n=1
n
X
n
1
k
(n + 1)! 1
= lim
= lim
= lim 1
n
(n + 1)! n
(k + 1)! n (n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
k=1
1
= 1,
n (n + 1)!
= 1 lim
which is convergent.
11.3
1
n(ln n)p
con-
n=2
verges.
(89, 97 )
1
,
x(ln x)p
f (x) =
f (x) dx = lim
t
t
2
is divergent.
h
ix=t
1
d ln x = lim ln(ln x)
= lim (ln(ln t) ln(ln 2))
t
t
ln x
x=2
If p 6= 1, then
Z
f (x) dx = lim
x=t
1
1
1
1
=
.
lim
P
1
By the Integral Test, the series
is convergent if p > 1.
n(ln n)p
n=2
ln n
np
n=1
convergence.
Solution. Let f (x) =
ln x
,
xp
(101 )
function on [2, ). We find the region that the function is decreasing by calculating
f (x) =
xp
1
x
(ln x)pxp1
1 p(ln x)
=
,
2p
x
xp+1
3
2
on [2, ). So f (x) =
function on [2, ).
Next, we compute the integral
R
2
ln x
xp
dx:
ln x
xp
is a decreasing
(a) If p = 1, then
x=t
Z t
Z t
Z
1
ln x
ln x
2
dx = lim
dx = lim
(ln x)
ln x d ln x = lim
t 2
t 2
t 2
x
x
2
x=2
1
1
= lim
(ln t)2 (ln 2)2
t
2
2
is divergent. By the Integral Test, we get the series
ln n
n
is divergent.
n=1
(b) If p = 23 , then
Z
ln x
ln x
3
2
dx = lim 2
ln x dx 2
t
xh
Z2 t
i
x=t
21
21
x d ln x
= lim 2 x ln x
t
x=2
2
Z t
ln t ln 2
32
= lim 2 + +
x dx
t
t
2
2
h 1 ix=t
= 2 ln 2 + lim 4 x 2
t
x=2
4
4
= 2 ln 2 + lim + = 2 ln 2 + 2 2
t
t
2
P
ln n
is convergent. By the Integral Test, we get the series
3 is convergent.
2
3
2
dx = lim
n=1 n 2
Remark that
ln t
lim
t
t
),L
(
1
t
1
t
2 t
lim
1
= lim = 0.
t 2 t
1
,
x(ln x)2
1
n(ln n)2
would you
n=2
Furthermore, we compute
f (x) =
so f (x) is decreasing on [2, ). By the Integral Test, we can estimate the remainder
of the series
Z
Z
Rn
f (x) dx =
n
Z t
Z t
1
1
1
dx = lim
dx = lim
d ln x
2
2
t n x(ln x)
t n (ln x)2
x(ln x)
n
x=t
1
1
1
1
1
=
lim
=
= lim
+
<
.
t
ln x x=n t
ln t ln n
ln n
100
11.4
n+1n .
n+1+ n
n=0
(b)
q
P
sin n13 .
(99 )
n=1
Solution.
(a) Let an =
n+1n ,
n+1+ n
then
n+1 n
n+1 n
n+1+ n
n+1n
an =
=
=
n+1+ n
n+1+ n
n+1+ n
( n + 1 + n)2
1
.
=
2n + 1 + 2 n2 + n
Let bn = n1 , then
an
lim
= lim
n bn
n
1
2n+1+2 n2 +n
1
n
= lim
n
Since
bn =
n=1
1
n
2+
1
n
n 2n + 1 + 2 n2 + n
1
1
1
q
=
= > 0.
4
2+0+2 1+0
+2 1+ 1
= lim
n=1
n+1 n
n+1+ n
is also divergent.
n=0
q
q
q
sin n13 . Since sin x x for x 0, we have sin n13 n13 = 13 .
n2
P
P
3
1
bn is convergent.
bn is a p-series with p = 2 > 1, so
Let bn = 3 , then
n2
n=1
n=1
q
P
P
By the Comparison Test, we get
an =
sin n13 is convergent.
(b) Let an =
n=1
n=1
Homework 14.
n=1
Solution.
1
1 .
1+ 21 ++ n
10
1
n
< 1 + ln n.
(102 )
f (x) =
1
x
f (x) =
n n+1
1 2 3
1 2 3
1
x
1
x
1
x
and rectangles.
area of these gray rectangles is greater than the area of the region bounded by
f (x) = x1 , x-axis, x = 1, and x = n + 1. So we have
Z n+1
h
ix=n+1
1
1
1 1
= ln(n + 1).
dx = ln x
1+ + ++ >
x=1
2 3
n
x
1
The total area of these red rectangles is less than the area of the region bounded
by f (x) = x1 , x-axis, x = 1, and x = n. So we have
Z n
h
ix=n
1
1
1 1
= 1 + ln n.
dx = 1 + ln x
1+ + ++ < 1+
2 3
n
x
x=1
1
(b) Since an =
1
1+ 12 ++ n
>
1
1+ln n
>
1
1+n
= bn and
1
1+n
n=1
1
n
is harmonic
n=2
n=1
divergent.
1
1
1+ 12 ++ n
is
Remark that we can show ln n < n for all n N by proving f (x) = xln x > 0
for x 1. This is because f (x) = 1 x1 =
x1
x
(b)
X
n=1
1
1
n1+ n
(c)
X
en
n=1
Solution.
(a) Let an = 1 +
1 2 n
e
n
and bn = en , then
2
2
1 + n1 en
1
an
= lim
= lim 1 +
= 1 > 0.
lim
n
n
n bn
en
n
11
Since
bn =
n=1
1 n
e
n=1
1 2 n
e
n
1+
n=1
(b) Let an =
and bn = n1 , then
1
1
n1+ n
an
lim
= lim
n bn
n
Since
bn =
n=1
parison Test,
1
n
n=1
n1+ n
1
n
= lim
n
1
n
lim n
1
n
1
e
< 1, it is
is also convergent.
1
= 1 > 0.
1
1
1
1+
n=1 n n
is also divergent.
1
ln n
ln x
= lim
n n
x x
lim
),L
(
lim
x
1
x
1
= 0,
n x
= lim
(c) Let an =
en
n
and bn = n1 , then
1
an
= lim
lim
n
n bn
Since
n=1
parison Test,
1
n
n=1
1
P
en
n
n=1
bn =
en
n
1
n
= lim e n = 1 > 0.
n
10
P
1
3n +4n
.
= 0.19788 to estimate the error of the
n=1
1
.
3n +4n
n=1
Solution. Since an =
1
3n +4n
<
1
3n +3n
R10 T10
1
23n
= bn , so the error is
1
1
1
2311
=
1 = 10 .
n
23
3
1 3
n=11
1
(1)n e n 1 for convergence or divergence.
n=1
(97 )
Solution. We observe the function f (x) = ex for x [0, 1]. By the Mean Value
Theorem, we know there exists c (0, x) such that f (x) f (0) = f (c)(x 0),
that is, ex 1 = ec (x 0). When we put x =
1
,
n
1
n
en 1
ex 1
|an |
= lim
= f (0) = 1.
=
lim
lim
1
n
x0
n bn
x
n
Since
1
n
n=1
orem, we know
|an | is divergent.
P
1
n=1
n=1
n=1
x
(a) {cn }
n=1 is decreasing: This is because e is an increasing function, so we know
1
x0
1
P
By the Alternating Series Test, we know
(1)n e n 1 is convergent. Hence
n=1
1
P
n
the series
(1) e n 1 is conditionally convergent.
n=1
Homework 2 (page 731). How many terms of the series do we need to add in order
P
to find the sum of the series
(1)n+1 n16 correct to four decimal place?
n=1
1
Solution. By the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem, we require bn+1 = (n+1)
6 <
6
1
0.00005 = 20000 , and it implies (n + 1) > 20000 5.21. So we need to add at least
5 terms.
1
11.6
(1)n1
n+1 n1
n
and (b)
(1)n
n(ln n)
is
n=2
n=1
(94 )
n+1 n1
n+1 n1
n+1+ n1
n
n
n+1+ n1
2
2
q
=
= 3 q
.
n( n + 1 + n 1)
n2
1+ 1 + 1 1
n
Let an = (1)n1
n2
n+1 n1
n
and bn =
1
3
n2
, then
|an |
2n 2
= lim q
= lim
n bn
n n( n + 1 +
n 1) n 1 +
lim
Since
1
n
= 1 > 0.
1
1
n
n=1
ison Theorem,
convergent.
an is convergent. Hence
n=1
(1)n1
n+1 n1
n
is absolutely
n=1
1
x ln x
ln x x
x2 (ln x)2
1
x
(ln x + 1)
< 0.
x2 (ln x)2
x=2
1
n(ln n)
is divergent.
n=2
(1)n
n(ln n)
is convergent or
n=2
n=2
(1)n
n(ln n)
n=2
(1) {an }
n=1 is decreasing: This is because both x and ln x are increasing
functions, so we know
an =
1
1
>
= an+1 .
n ln n
(n + 1) ln(n + 1)
1
1
lim = 0.
n n ln n
n n
0 lim an = lim
n
(1)n
n(ln n)
is convergent.
n=2
(1)n
n(ln n)
is conditionally convergent.
n=2
n2
P
P
(n!)2
2
(b)
. (101 )
conditionally convergent, or divergent. (a)
n!
(5n)!
n=1
n=1
Solution.
(a) Let an =
2n
n!
and f (x) =
22x+1
.
x+1
We compute
2(n+1)2
an+1
n!
22n+1
= lim
=
lim
lim
n
an n (n + 1)! 2n2 n n + 1
22x+1
x x + 1
= lim
),L
(
2n
n!
22x+1 (2 ln 2)
= .
x
1
lim
is divergent.
n=1
(b) Let an =
(n!)2
.
(5n)!
We compute
((n + 1)!)2 (5n)!
an+1
= lim
lim
n (5(n + 1))! (n!)2
n an
(n + 1)2
= lim
n (5n + 5)(5n + 4)(5n + 3)(5n + 2)(5n + 1)
1
+ n24 + n15
n3
= lim 5
= 0 < 1.
n 5 (1 + 1 )(1 + 4 )(1 + 3 )(1 + 2 )(1 + 1 )
n
4n
5n
5n
5n
By the Ratio Test, the series
(n!)2
(5n)!
n=1
is absolutely convergent.
n2
P
P
(b)
( n n 1)2n .
conditionally convergent, or divergent. (a)
1 + n1
n=1
n=1
(101 )
Solution.
(a) Let an = 1 +
lim
n
2
1 n
.
n
p
n
We compute
|an | = lim
n
n2 ! n1
n
1
1
1+
= lim 1 +
= e > 1.
n
n
n
1+
n=1
2
1 n
n
is divergent.
p
n
1
= 0 < 1.
= lim
n
n+ n1
P
( n n 1)2n is convergent.
n=1
11.7
X
n=1
123n
.
(a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3) (a + n)
(89 )
Solution.
(1) If a = 1, then the series is
X
n=1
X 1
X1
123n
=
=
,
2 3 4 (1 + n) n=1 n + 1 n=2 n
X
n=1
Let an =
2
(n+1)(n+2)
an
= lim
lim
n
n bn
Since
1
n2
X
123n
2
=
.
3 4 5 (2 + n) n=1 (n + 1)(n + 2)
and bn =
2
(n+1)(n+2)
1
n2
1
,
n2
then
2n2
2
= lim
3
2
n n + 3n + 2
n 1 +
+
n
= lim
2
n2
= 2 > 0.
n=1
123n
345(2+n)
is convergent.
n=1
Homework 7. Find the values of p for the convergence of the series below
(a)
en(p
2 p2)
n=0
(b)
e n 1
.
np
(102 )
n=1
Solution.
(a) Fixed p, the series
en(p
2 p2)
n=0
ep
2 p2
2 p2
en(p
2 p2)
n=0
P
n(p2 p2)
is convergent.
is divergent.
n=0
(b) Let an =
e n 1
, bn
np
1
,
np+1
an
lim
= lim
n bn
n
Since
1
np+1
e n 1
np
1
np+1
= lim
en 1
1
n
ex 1
= f (0) = 1 > 0.
x0
x
= lim
n=1
n=1
and divergent if p 0.
e n 1
np
is convergent if p > 0
1
n ln n
1+
n=2
1 n
x
lim
n
n n + 1 ln(n + 1)
1
n
an n
x
1 + x1
n ln n
1
= 1 + .
x
Remark that we consider a continuous function f (y) =
(
),L
ln y
ln n
= lim
lim
= lim
y ln(y + 1)
n ln(n + 1)
y
1
= lim 1 +
= 1.
y
y
P
(a) If 1 + x1 < 1 x < 21 , the series
1
n ln n
n=2
1+
ln y
ln(y+1)
1
y
1
y+1
1 n
x
P
(b) If 1 + x1 > 1 x > 21 and x 6= 0, the series
= lim
y
y+1
y
is absolutely convergent.
1
n ln n
n=2
on [2, ), then
1+
1 n
x
is divergent.
n=2
11.8
X
n=0
n!(3n + 1)
xn .
1 3 5 (2n + 1)
(95 )
n!(3 +1)
xn . We compute
Solution. Let an = 135(2n+1)
an+1
(n + 1)!(3(n+1) + 1)xn+1
1
(2n
+
1)
= lim
lim
n
n 1 3 5 (2(n + 1) + 1)
an
n!(3n + 1)xn
1 + n1 3 + 31n
n + 1 3 3n + 1
3
n
|x| = lim
= lim
|x| = |x| < 1.
2
1
n 2 +
n 2n + 3
3 +1
2
1 + 3n
n
n=0
n!(3n +1)
xn
135(2n+1)
is absolutly convergent,
1
xn .
n ln n
n=2
x = r.
Solution.
1
xn
n ln n
|x| = |x|.
= lim
1
n
n
n
n n + 1 ln(n + 1)
an
x
n ln n
(a) Let an =
If |x| < 1, then the power series is convergent, so the radius of convergence is
r = 1.
(b) If x = 1, then the series is
decreasing function f (x) =
Z
1
.
n ln n
n=2
1
x ln x
Z t
Z t
1
1
1
dx = lim
dx = lim
d ln x
f (x) dx =
t 2 x ln x
t 2 ln x
x ln x
2
h
ix=t
= lim (ln(ln t) ln(ln 2))
= lim ln(ln x)
Z
x=2
(1)n n ln1 n =
n=2
1
n ln n
is divergent.
n=2
n=2
1
1
<
= bn ,
(n+1) ln(n+1)
n ln n
P
the series
(1)n n ln1 n is
n=2
1
n n ln n
and lim
= 0, by the
convergent.
ln
n+1
n
n=2
Solution. Let an = ln
xn . We compute
ln n+2 xn+1
an+1
ln
n+1
= lim
=
|x|
lim
lim
n ln
n
an n ln n+1
xn
n
n+1
n
n+2
n+1
n+1
n
xn .
(101 )
= |x|.
ln( y+2
y+1 )
lim
n
ln
ln
n+2
n+1
n+1
n
ln
= lim
y
ln
1
y 1 +
= lim
y+2
y+1
y+1
y
2
y
on [2, ), then
y+1 (y+1)1(y+2)1
y+2
(y+1)2
lim
y1(y+1)1
y
y
y+1
y2
(
),L
ln( y+1
y )
y
y y + 2
= lim
= 1.
X
n=2
ln
n+1
n
= lim
n
= lim
n
n
X
(ln(k + 1) ln k) = lim
k=2
n+1
X
(1)n ln
n=2
ln k
n
X
ln k
k=2
n+1
n
1
y2
1+ y1
n
X
ln k
k=2
= lim ln(n + 1) = .
n
n=2
(1) {bn }
n=1 is decreasing: Let f (y) = ln
f (y) =
ln(k + 1)
k=2
k=3
If x = 1, we get
n
X
y+1
y
= ln 1 + y1 on [2, ), then
1
lim bn = lim f (y) = ln lim 1 +
= ln 1 = 0.
n
y
y
y
By the Alternating Series Test, we know
(1)n ln
n+1
n
n=2
ln
n=2
n+1
n
xn is [1, 1).
is convergent.
Homework 1 (page 751). Find a power series representation for the following
function and determine the interval of convergence.
(1) f (x) =
3
.
x2 x2
(2) g(x) =
x2 +x
.
(1x)3
=
x2 x+1
2 1
X
1
n+1
=
(1)
n+1 xn .
2
n=0
f (x) =
x
2
1
1 X x n X
=
(x)n
1 (x)
2 n=0 2
n=0
Since f is represented as the sum of two geometric series and one is convergent
on (2, 2) and the other is convergent on (1, 1), the interval of convergence
of f (x) =
3
x2 x2
is (1, 1).
(2) We compute
x2 + x
2
x2 + x d2
1
x2 + x
=
=
2
g(x) =
(1 x)3
2
(1 x)3
2
dx
1x
!
!
x2 + x d2 X n
x2 + x X d2 n
=
=
x
x
2
dx2 n=0
2
dx2
n=0
!
X
n(n 1) n X n(n 1) n1
x2 + x X
n2
=
n(n 1)x
x +
x
=
2
2
2
n=2
n=2
n=2
=
X
n(n 1)
n=2
xn +
X
(n + 1)n
n=1
xn = x +
n2 xn =
n=2
n2 xn .
n=1
n2 , which is
n=1
n=1
x2 +x
(1x)3
is (1, 1).
(3) We compute
X
(1)n 3 2n+1 X (1)n 6n+5
h(x) = x tan (x ) = x
(x )
=
x
.
2n + 1
2n + 1
n=0
n=0
2
(1)n
.
2n+1
n=0
If x = 1, the series is
2n+1
n=0
1
,
2n+1
(1)n
(1)6n+5 =
(1)n+1
2n+1
n=0
which is decreasing bn =
1
2n+1
1
2(n+1)+1
= bn+1
convergent. Hence the interval of convergence of h(x) = x2 tan1 (x3 ) is [1, 1].
Homework 2.
(a) Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence of the power
P
(x1)n
.
series
(2)n n
n=1
(x1)n
(2)n n
n=1
(102 )
Solution.
(a) Let an =
(x1)n
.
(2)n n
We compute
r
n
an+1
(x 1)n+1
|x 1|
(2)
n
n
= lim
= lim
lim
n
an n (2)n+1 n + 1 (x 1)n n n + 1
2
|x 1|
1
|x 1|
=
lim q
.
=
2 n 1 + 1
2
n
|x1|
2
radius of convergence is R = 2.
P
(1)n
. Let bn =
If x = 3, the series is
n
1 ,
n
then bn =
1
n
1
n+1
= bn+1
n=1
P
n
(1)
series
is convergent.
n
n=1
If x = 1, the series is
1 ,
n
1
2
< 1, so it is
n=1
n=1
(x1)n
(2)n n
is (1, 3].
X
n=1
X
f (m) (1)
1
n
(x
1)
=
(x 1)m .
(2)n n
m!
m=0
1
(2)3 3
f (3) (1)
,
3!
so f (3) (1) =
3
.
4
Homework 3 (page 753). Find the sum of each of the following series.
(1)
n(n 1)x ,
|x| < 1
(2)
n=1
X
n2 n
2n
n=1
(3)
X
n2
n=1
2n
Solution.
(1) We compute for |x| < 1,
n(n 1)xn =
n=1
n(n 1)xn = x2
n(n 1)xn2 = x2
n=2
n=2
2
d2
x
=x 2
x
dx
1x
n=2
2x2
1
d2
=
.
= x2 2 x 1 +
dx
1x
(1 x)3
d
=x 2
dx
2
1
2
X
X
1
n2 n X
n
n(n
1)
=
=
n(n
1)x
n
n
2
2
n=1
n=1
n=1
(2) Since
2x2
=
= 4.
(1 x)3 x= 1
x= 21
X
d
d n
(x ) = x
nxn1 = x
nxn = x
dx
dx
n=1
n=1
n=1
d
1
x
=x
1 +
=
.
dx
1x
(1 x)2
Since
X
d2 n
(x )
2
dx
n=2
1
2
X
X
n
n
=
nx
n
2
n=1
n=1
x= 21
and hence
X
n2
n=1
2n
X
n2 n + n
n=1
2n
n=1
d
= x
dx
x
=
= 2,
2
(1 x) x= 1
2
X
n2 n
n=1
2n
X
n
+
= 4 + 2 = 6.
2n
n=1
x
1x
11.10
(94 )
Solution.
(1)n 2n
x ,
(2n)!
n=0
cos x =
(1)n 2n
x ,
(2n)!
we have
n=0
1
1
sin2 x = (1 cos 2x) =
2
2
=
X
(1)n+1 22n1
(2n)!
n=1
X
(1)n
n=0
(2n)!
(2x)2n
1
=
2
X
(1)n 22n
n=1
(2n)!
x2n
x2n .
f (m) (0) m
x .
m!
When
m=0
(a) Find the Taylor series for f (x) = (x2 + x + 1) x + 1 at x = 0 up to the third
power of x.
(b) Let f (x) = ln
Solution.
1+x2
.
1x2
(101 )
1
2
x + 1 = (1 + x) =
Cn2 xn ,
n=0
where
1
2
Cn =
)( 21 (n1))
1
21 1
2
n!
if n N
if n = 0
x + 1 is R = 1, so
X
1
2
f (x) = (x + x + 1) x + 1 = (x + x + 1)
Cn2 xn
2
n=0
n=0
Cn2 xn+2 +
n=0
1
2
Cn2xn +
n=2
1
2
Cn1xn +
n=1
Cn2 xn+1 +
n=0
1
2
Cn2 xn
n=0
Cn xn
n=0
1
X
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
= C0 + C0 + C1 x +
Cn2 + Cn1 + Cn2 xn
n=2
1
1
1 3
( 12 )
1
1
2 ( 2) ( 2)
2
=
=
,
and
C
= 16
, the
3
2!
8
3!
x is
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
C02 + C02 + C12 x + C02 + C12 + C22 x2 + C12 + C22 + C32 x3 +
11
7
3
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + .
2
8
16
(b) Since f (x) = ln
1+x2
1x2
1
1 X (1)n1 2 n X (1)n1 2n
ln(1 + x2 ) =
(x ) =
x ,
2
2 n=1
n
2n
n=1
R=1
X 1
1
1 X (1)n1
ln(1 x2 ) =
(x2 )n =
x2n ,
2
2 n=1
n
2n
n=1
R=1
we get
f (x) =
X
((1)n1 + 1)
2n
n=1
x2n .
f (m) (0) m
x ,
m!
m=0
when
(1 x )
= (1 + (x ))
41
1
Cn 4 (x2 )n
n=0
(1 + x) 4 =
Cn 4 (1)n x2n ,
R=1
n=0
R = 1,
Cm 4 xm ,
m=0
so
14
1
Cn 4 (1)n x2n
n=0
1
Cm 4 xm
m=0
where
1
4
Cn =
We compute
14 ( 41 1)( 41 (n1))
n!
if n N
if n = 0
41
41
41
coefficients of x0 : C0 4 (1)0 C0
coefficients of x1 : C0 4 (1)0 C1
coefficients of x2 : C1 4 (1)1 C0
= 1.
= 41 .
1
41
+ C0 4 (1)0 C2
1
4
4
32
13
.
32
1
So the first three terms of the Maclaurin series of ((1 x2 )(1 + x)) 4 is
13
1
1 x + x2 .
4
32
(x tan1 x)(e3x 1)
.
x0
2x2 1 + cos 2x
(100 )
X
(1)n 2n+1
x=
x
2n + 1
n=0
R=1
X
X
X
1 n
1
3n n
n
3x
e =
x e =
(3x) =
x
n!
n!
n!
n=0
n=0
n=0
R=
cos x =
X
(1)n
n=0
(2n)!
2n
cos 2x =
X
(1)n
n=0
(2n)!
(2x)
2n
X
(1)n 22n
n=0
(2n)!
x2n , R = ,
sin x tan1 x x2 +
Homework 8. Find lim
x0
x6
x4
2
(95 )
Solution. Since
X
(1)n 2n+1
x
,
sin x =
(2n + 1)!
n=0
tan
X
(1)n 2n+1
x=
x
,
2n + 1
n=0
R=
R = 1,
sin x tan1 x x2 + x2
lim
x0
x6
5
7
3
5
7
4
3
x x3! + x5! x7! + x x3 + x5 x7 + x2 + x2
= lim
x0
x6
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
+ 35!
+ 7!1 x8 + x2 +
x 3 + 3! x + 5 + 33! + 5!1 x6 71 + 53!
= lim
x0
x6
19
1
1
1
1
19
x2 + = .
+
+
+
= lim
x0
72
7 5 3! 3 5! 7!
72
x4
2
Homework 9.
(a) Find the Maclaurin series for f (y) = sin y.
Z
2
(b) Evaluate
sin(cos x) dx correct to within an error of 0.01.
(98 )
Solution.
(a) We compute for k = 0, 1, 2, . . .,
f (4k) (y) = sin y f (4k+1) (y) = cos y f (4k+2) (y) = sin y f (4k+3) (y) = cos y
f (4k) (0) = 0
f (4k+1) (0) = 1
f (4k+2) (0) = 0
7
f (4k+3) (0) = 1,
(1)n 2n+1
y
.
(2n+1)!
n=0
P
(1)n 2n+1
y
for all y R.
(2n+1)!
n=0
X
(1)n
cos2n+1 x,
sin(cos x) =
(2n
+
1)!
n=0
and
Z
X
(1)n
cos2n+1 x dx
sin(cos x) dx =
0 n=0 (2n + 1)!
R
2n+1
2
X
x dx def. X
n 0 cos
=
(1)
=
(1)n bn .
(2n + 1)!
n=0
n=0
cos2n+1 x 1 and
R
2
bn+1 =
cos2n+3 x dx
(2n + 3)!
R
2
cos2n+1 x dx
= bn .
(2n + 1)!
x dx
2
0 cos
|cos2n+1 x| dx
2
0
=
.
|bn |
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1)!
2(2n + 1)
From the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem, we know that the error of
n
P
(1)k bk can be estimated by bn+1 , and we hope bn+1 < 0.01. We compute
k=0
1
bn =
(2n + 1)!
1
=
(2n + 1)!
=
1
(2n + 1)!
1
=
(2n + 1)!
cos
2n+1
1
x dx =
(2n + 1)!
cos2n x d sin x
1
(1 sin x) d sin x =
(2n + 1)!
0
Z
n
X
2
k n
sin2k x d sin x
(1) Ck
Z
k=0
n
X
k=0
n
X
k=0
(1)
Ckn
x=
n
X
sin2k+1 x 2
(1)k Ckn
1
=
.
2k + 1 x=0
(2n + 1)! k=0 2k + 1
8
Since
(1)0
1
C00
=1
1!
1
0
1
1
1
1 (1)
1 (1)
C0
=
+ C1
b1 =
3!
1
3
9
0
1
2
1
1
1
2 (1)
2 (1)
2 (1)
C0
=
+ C1
+ C2
<
= 0.01,
b2 =
5!
1
3
5
225
100
b0 =
the integral
0.01.
R
2
1
9
8
9
Homework 1. Approximate
Cnm xn with m =
1
5
and
n=0
x = 314 , we have
240 =
243 3 =
s
5
1
n
X
1
1 5
3
1
5
Cn 4
=3 1 4
=3
,
243 1
243
3
3
n=0
(n
1)
1 4 9
5n 6
5
5
5
= (1)n1
Cn5 = 5
n!
5 10 15
5n
n
n1 Y
6
(1)
1
=
5
5k
k=2
so
240 = 3
1
5
Cn
n=0
1
4
3
n
!
n
X
(1)n1 Y
1 1
6 (1)n
=3 1 4 +
1
5 3
5
5k
34n
n=2
k=2
!
n
X
6
1 1
1 Y
.
1
=3 1 4
5 3
5 34n
5k
n=2
k=2
If we approximate 5 240 3 1 15 314 2.9926, then the error is
!
n
n
X
X
1 Y
6
6
1 Y
|error| = 3
1
1
=3
4n
4n
5
3
5k
5
3
5k
n=2
n=2
k=2
X
n=2
1
5 34n
k=2
1
4
6 X 1
6
1
1
38
=
=
<
.
1 =
4n
10
25 n=2 3
25 1 34
25 27 40
10000
Homework 2 (page 776). If a surveyor measures differences in elevation when making plans for a highway across a desert, corrections must be made for the curvature
of the earth.
(a) If R is the radius of the earth and L is the length of the highway, show that
the correction is
L
R.
C = R sec
R
(b) Use a Taylor polynomial to show that
C
L2
5L4
+
.
2R 24R3
(c) Compare the corrections given by the formulas in parts (a) and (b) for a
highway that is 100 km long. (Take the radius of the earth to be 6370 km.)
L
R
(1)n 2n
x ,
(2n)!
we have
n=0
so
2n
X
L2
(1)n L
L4
L6
L
=
=1
+
+
cos
2
4
6
R
(2n)!
R
2R
24R
720R
n=0
2
L4
L6
L
+
,
=1
2R2 24R4 720R6
C=R
1
cos
L
R
1
=R
L2
2R2
1
L6
+ 720R
6
!
n
1
L4
24R4
X
L2
L4
L6
=R 1+
+
2R2 24R4 720R6
n=1
n
X
L4
L6
L2
+
.
=R
2R2 24R4 720R6
n=1
When expanding the above eries and collect terms in power of L, we have
C
5L4
L2
+
.
2R 24R3
(c) We put L = 100 km and R = 6370 km into the formula in (a) and get
L
100
C = R sec
R = 6370 sec
6370 0.78500996544 km.
R
6370
The formula in (b) gives
5L4
1002
5 1004
L2
+
=
+
0.78500995736 km.
2R 24R3
2 6370 24 63703
(1)n n
32n (2n)!
n=0
(b)
(ln 2)2n
.
(2n)!
n=0
(100 )
Solution.
(a)
(1)n n
32n (2n)!
(1)n
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
(b) Since
2n
n=0
(1)n 2n
x
(2n)!
x=
= cos
.
3
X 1
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
e =1+x+
+
+
+
+
+ =
xn
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
n!
n=0
X (1)n
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
+
+ =
xn ,
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
n!
n=0
ex = 1 x +
X 1
1 x
x2 x4 x6
e + ex = 1 +
+
+
+ =
x2n ,
2
2!
4!
6!
(2n)!
n=0
we have
#
1 ln 2
1 x
1 2n
x
=
=
e +e
e + e ln 2
=
x
(2n)!
(2n)!
2
2
x=ln 2
n=0
x=ln 2
1
1
5
=
2+
= .
2
2
4
X
(ln 2)2n
n=0
"
X
12.6
(e) y 2 + z 2 = 1 + x2 .
(f) 4x2 + y 2 4z 2 = 4.
Solution.
(a) Since 4x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 4y 24z + 36 = 4x2 + (y 2)2 + 4(z 3)2 4 = 0, we
get
x2 +
(y 2)2
+ (z 3)2 = 1,
4
y2
4
z 2 = 1, which
13.1
Homework 5 (page 847). Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection of the two surfaces.
p
(a) The cone z = x2 + y 2 and the plane z = 1 + y.
(b) The semiellipsoid x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 = 4, y 0, and the cylinder x2 + z 2 = 1.
Solution.
(a) First we observe that z 2 = x2 + y 2 = (1 + y)2, and it gives x2 = 1 + 2y. If we
2
let x = t, then y = t 21 , and
s
2 s 2
2
2
p
t
+
1
t2 + 1
t
1
=
=
.
z = x2 + y 2 = t2 +
2
2
2
2
2
Hence a vector function is r(t) = t i + t 21 j + t 2+1 k, t R.
(b) We can first assume that x = cos t and z = sin t, and then solve y from the
equation x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 = 4, y 0:
13.2
d
(f (t) u(t))
dt
(5)
d
(u(t)
dt
Solution.
(3) Let u(t) = u1 (t) i + u2 (t) j + u3 (t) k, then
d
d
(f (t) u(t)) = (f (t)u1(t) i + f (t)u2 (t) j + f (t)u3 (t) k)
dt
dt
= (f (t)u1 (t) + f (t)u1(t)) i + (f (t)u2 (t) + f (t)u2 (t)) j + f (t)u3 (t) + f (t)u3(t)) k
= f (t)(u1 (t) i + u2 (t) j + u3 (t) k) + f (t)(u1 (t) i + u2 (t) j + u3 (t) k)
= f (t) u(t) + f (t) u(t).
5
d
r(t) r (t)
|r(t)| =
.
dt
|r(t)|
Solution. We compute
13.3
d
r (t) r(t) + r(t) r (t)
r(t) r (t)
dp
p
r(t) r(t) =
=
|r(t)| =
.
dt
dt
|r(t)|
2 r(t) r(t)
t R,
and
p
|r (t)| =
1 t2
2t
1
r (t)
=
i+
j + k,
2
2
|r (t)|
2(t + 1)
2(t + 1)
2
6
t R.
2u3 + 3 2u
s(t) =
|r (u)| du =
3 2(u2 + 1) du =
u=0
0
0
3
= 2t + 3 2t.
(c) We compute
(t2 + 1)2 2t(2t)
(t2 + 1)(2t) (1 t2 )(2t)
i+
j+0k
2(t2 + 1)2
2(t2 + 1)2
2(1 t2 )
2 2t
i
+
j + 0 k,
= 2
(t + 1)2
(t2 + 1)2
T (t) =
and
1
|T (t)| = 2
(t + 1)2
(2
2t)2
+ ( 2(1
t2 ))2
02
2(t2 + 1)2
2
= 2
,
2
2
(t + 1)
t +1
T (t)
2t
1 t2
=
i
+
j + 0 k.
|T (t)|
t2 + 1
t2 + 1
1
|T (t)|
2
= t +1
.
=
(t) =
|r (t)|
3(t2 + 1)2
3 2(t2 + 1)
Homework 9. Find the curvature , the unit tangent vector T, the unit normal
vector N, and binormal vector B of the curve r(t) = (cos t, sin t, ln(cos t)) at r(0) =
(1, 0, 0).
(97 )
Solution. We compute
sin t
T(t) =
r (t)
= ( sin t cos t, cos2 t, sin t)
|r (t)|
Since
T (t) = ( cos2 t + sin2 t, 2 cos t sin t, cos t),
7
we have
(1, 0, 1)
T (0)
=
=p
N(0) =
|T (0)|
(1)2 + 02 + (1)2
1
1
B(0) = T(0) N(0) = , 0, ,
2
2
1
1
, 0, ,
2
2
and
(0) =
|T (0)|
= 2.
|r (0)|
Homework 10. Find the curvature of the graph of the function y = ln(cos x) at
(95 )
x = 4 .
2
2
|r (x)| = 1 + ( tan x) + 0 = sec x r
= 2,
4
r (x) = (0, sec2 x, 0),
and
So the curvature at x =
is
14.1
4
(r r )
1
4
=
= .
3
r
2
4
Homework 11. Find and sketch the domain of the function f (x, y) = sin1 (x2 +
y 2 2).
Solution. Domain of the function is
{(x, y)| 1 x2 + y 2 2 1} = {(x, y)|1 x2 + y 2 3},
which is an annulus. See Figure 2.
x
3
60
40
20
0
-20
-4
(b) g(x, y) =
xy
1 + x2 + y 2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-2
-2
y0
0
2
-4
-4
-2
44
0
2
-4
(B)
-2
-2
-2
(I)
-4
-4
-2
(C)
4
0
2
44
-2
-2
y0
-4
-4
-2
44
(A)
-4
0.5
0
-0.5
-2
y0
(II)
-4
-4
-2
(III)
(b) We know the symmetry g(y, x) = g(x, y) and the function is not periodic
function, so the graph of g(x, y) is (C) and the contour map is (I).
(c) For cos y > 0 (cos y < 0), f (x, 0) = ex is exponentially increasing (decreasing),
so the graph of h(x, y) is (A) and the contour map is (II).
14.2
Homework 13 (page 899900). Find the limit, if it exists, or show that the limit
does not exist.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
lim
xy
x2 +y 2
(x,y)(0,0)
(94 )
x2 y ey
4 +4y 2 .
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
x2 +y 2
lim
lim
(x2 + y 2 ) ln(x2 + y 2 ).
(x,y)(0,0)
(x,y)(0,0)
x2 +y 2 +11
Solution.
(a) Let x = r cos and y = r sin , then for r 6= 0, we have
r 2 cos sin
xy
= r 0 as r 0+ .
=
p
2
2
x +y
r
By the Squeeze Theorem, we get
xy
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
x2 +y 2
= 0.
(b) We take a path C1 (x) = (x, 0) for x 6= 0, then f (x, y)|C1 (x) 0. We take
another path C2 (x) = (x, x2 ) for x 6= 0, then
2
f (x, y)|C2(x)
so the limit
x2 y ey
4 +4y 2
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
x2 x2 ex
ex
1
= 4
=
as x 0,
2
2
x + 4(x )
5
5
does not exist.
r2 + 1 + 1
r2
= lim+ ( r 2 + 1 + 1) = 2.
= lim+
r0
r2 + 1 1
r 2 + 1 + 1 r0
lim
10
(x,y)(0,0)
= lim+
2 ln r
r0
1
r2
,L )
(
lim+
r0
2 1r
r23
r0
= lim+ r 2 = 0.
r0
Homework 14 (page 900). Determine the set of points at which the function is
continuous.
( 2 3
x y
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
2x2 +y 2
f (x, y) =
.
1
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
1
2
Solution. Let x =
x2 y 3 12 r 2 cos2 r 3 sin3 1 3
= r cos2 sin3 1 r 3 0 as r 0+ ,
=
2x2 + y 2 2 1 r 2 cos2 + r 2 sin2 2
2
2
so
x2 y 3
= 0 6= f (0, 0),
(x,y)(0,0) 2x2 + y 2
lim
and the function is not continuous at (0, 0). For (x, y) 6= (0, 0), the function is a
rational function, so it is continuous. Hence the function is continuous on R2
{(0, 0)}.
Homework 15. Let
f (x, y, z) =
xy+yz 3
x2 +z 6
if (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0)
(92 )
Solution. We take a path C1 (x) = (x, 0, x) for x 6= 0, then f (x, y, z)|C1 (x) 0. We
take another path C2 (z) = (z 3 , z 3 , z) for z 6= 0, then
f (x, y, z)|C2 (z) =
so the limit
lim
(x,y,z)(0,0,0)
z3 z3 + z3 z3
1,
(z 3 )2 + z 6
f (x, y, z) does not exist and hence the function is not con-
x esin(x
2 y)
3
(x2 + y 2 ) 2
(1+h)esin((1+h)
2 0)
2 0)
esin(1
3
f (1 + h, 0) f (1, 0)
(12 +02 ) 2
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
1
2
1
1 (1 + h)
2h h2
2 h
(1+h)2
= lim
= lim
=
lim
=
lim
= 2.
h0
h0 h(1 + h)2
h0 h(1 + h)2
h0 (1 + h)2
h
3
((1+h)2 +02 ) 2
fx (1, 0) = lim
(1,0)
3
2
1 2
= 2.
1
x3 xy 2
.
x2 + y 2
(a) Determine the value f (0, 0) such that f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
(89 )
(b) Find fx (x, y), fy (x, y), fx (0, 0) and fy (0, 0).
(c) Compute fxy (0, 0) and fyx (0, 0).
Solution.
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) = 0.
fx (x, y) =
By definition, we know
f (h, 0) f (0, 0)
fx (0, 0) = lim
= lim
h0
h0
h
f (h, 0) f (0, 0)
fy (0, 0) = lim
= lim
h0
h0
h
h3
h2
0
= lim 1 = 1
h0
h
0
0
h2
= lim 0 = 0.
h0
h
h
2
fx (0, h) fx (0, 0)
4 1
= lim h
= lim
does not exist,
fxy (0, 0) = lim
h0
h0 h
h0
h
h
fy (h, 0) fy (0, 0)
00
0
fyx (0, 0) = lim
= lim
= lim = 0.
h0
h0
h0 h
h
h
14.4
=
=
= 1.
x (1,1,1)
z 3xy (1,1,1)
(1) 3 (1) 1
z
z
Fy (x, y, z(x, y)) = 0 2y + 2z
6xz 6xy
=0
y
y
z
y + 3xz
1 + 3 (1) (1)
= 1.
=
=
y (1,1,1)
z 3xy (1,1,1)
(1) 3 (1) 1
Homework 5. Let z = y ex + cos xy . Find the equation of the tangent plane and
the normal line equation to the surface at (x, y, z) = (1, 2 , e
).
2
(96 )
x (x,y)=(1, )
x
x (x,y)=(1, 2 )
2
2
2
z
y 1
x
=
e
sin
= e 1.
y (x,y)=(1, )
x x (x,y)=(1, )
2
e
(x 1) + (e 1) y
(z ) = 0.
+
2
2
2
2
e
14.5
wuu + wvv = 0.
Solution. We compute
xu xv
u v
xuu xuv
1 0
yuu yuv
0 1
=
,
=
,
=
.
yu yv
v u
xvu xvv
0 1
yvu yvv
1 0
By the Chain Rule, we have
wu = wx xu + wy yu
wv = wx xv + wy yv
wuu = (wx xu + wy yu )u = (wxx xu + wxy yu )xu + wx xuu + (wyx xu + wyy yu )yu + wy yuu
= x2u wxx + 2xu yu wxy + yu2 wyy + xuu wx + yuu wy
= u2 wxx + 2uvwxy + v 2 wyy + wx ,
wvv = (wx xv + wy yv )v = (wxx xv + wxy yv )xv + wx xvv + (wyx xv + wyy yv )yv + wy yvv
= x2v wxx + 2xv yv wxy + yv2 wyy + xvv wx + yvv wy
= v 2 wxx 2uvwxy + u2 wyy wx .
Hence
wuu + wvv = (u2 + v 2 )wxx + (u2 + v 2 )wyy = (u2 + v 2 )(wxx + wyy ) = 0.
(96 )
x x
r r
1 0
cos r sin
r r
1 0
r x y =
x y =
,
yt y
x y
0 1
sin r cos
x y
0 1
we have
r r
cos r sin
r cos r sin
cos sin
.
x y =
= 1
=
r sin cos
x y
sin r cos
sinr cosr
z r z
r
z z r
+
+
=
=
+2
x
r x x
x
r
r x x
x
2
2
2
z
2 sin cos r sin z
+ 2
= cos2
r
r
x x
r
2 2 2
2 2
2
z
z
z r z
r
z z r
z
=
=
+2
+
+
y
r y y
y
r
r y y
y
2
2
z
2 sin cos r cos2 z
= sin2
+
+
.
r
r
y y
r2
So we get
z
x
2
z
y
2
1
.
r2
z
r
2
1
+ 2
r
2
fy2
y =
(1)
(101 )
Solution.
(a) The direction in which f (x, y) increases most rapidly is parallel to the gradient
vector:
f (2, 0) = (fx (2, 0), fy (2, 0)) = (ey sin(xy)y, x ey sin(xy)x)|(2,0) = (1, 2).
1 2
, 5 .
Since we require the vector to be unit length, we get u =
5
(b) The direction in which f (x, y) decreases most rapidly at (2, 0) is parallel to
f and opposite direction, so the direction is u = 15 , 25 .
(c) The direction of zero change in f (x, y) at (2, 0) is orthogonal to u, so we get
15 , 25 or 15 , 25 .
z2
xy
change at the point (1, 2, 4)? What is this maximum rate of change? (99 )
Solution. We compute
f (1, 2, 4) =
z2
z 2 2z
2 , 2,
= (8, 4, 4).
x y xy xy (1,2,4)
The direction in which f (x, y) attains the maximum rate of change is parallel to the
gradient vector, and we require the vector to be unit length, so it will be
1
(8, 4, 4)
= (2, 1, 1).
u= p
2
2
2
6
(8) + (4) + 4
p
Homework 3 (page 945). Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line
at P (0, 0, 1) to the surface x + y + z = exyz .
Solution. Let F (x, y, z) = x + y + z exyz = 0. We compute
F (0, 0, 1) = (1 yz exyz , 1 xz exyz , 1 xy exyz )|(0,0,1) = (1, 1, 1).
So the tangent plane equation is x + y + (z 1) = 0. The normal line equation is
x = y = z 1.
Homework 4. Two surfaces x3 + 3x2 y 2 + y 3 + 4xy z 2 = 0 and x2 + y 2 + z 2 11 = 0
intersect a curve. Find the parametric equation for the tangent line to the curve at
(95 )
x=1+t
y = 1 t , t R.
z=3
14.7
2 y 2
(97 )
Solution. We first solve
2
.
2
2
,
2
2
.
2
2
,
2
2
x2 y 2
2
2 x2 y 2
fxx fxy
2xy(2x 3)e
(1 2x )(1 2y )e
=
Hess(f ) =
2
2
2
2
fyx fyy
(1 2x2 )(1 2y 2)ex y
2xy(2y 2 3)ex y
If p1 = (x, y) = (0, 0), D = 1 < 0 so (0, 0) is a saddle point.
If p2 = (x, y) = 22 , 22 , D = 4e2 > 0 fxx (p2 ) = 2e1 < 0, so 22 , 22 is
a local maximum.
If p3 = (x, y) = 22 , 22 , D = 4e2 and fxx (p3 ) = 2e1 > 0, so 22 , 22
is a local minimum.
If p4 = (x, y) = 22 , 22 , D = 4e2 and fxx (p4 ) = 2e1 > 0, so 22 , 22
is a local minimum.
If p5 = (x, y) = 22 , 22 , D = 4e2 and fxx (p5 ) = 2e1 < 0, so
22 , 22 is a local maximum.
Homework 6. Find the local maximum, and local minimum values and saddle
point(s) of f (x, y) = y 3 + 3x2 y 3x2 3y 2 + 3.
(102 )
f = 6xy 6x = 6x(y 1) = 0
x
fy = 3y 2 + 3x2 6y = 0
fxx fxy
6y 6
6x
=
Hess(f ) =
fyx fyy
6x
6y 6
3
If (x, y) = (0, 0), D = 36 > 0 and fxx (0, 0) = 6 < 0, so (0, 0) is a local
maximum, and f (0, 0) = 3.
If (x, y) = (0, 2), D = 36 > 0 and fxx (0, 2) = 6 < 0, so (0, 2) is a local
maximum, and f (0, 2) = 1.
If (x, y) = (1, 1), D = 36 < 0, so (1, 1) is a saddle point.
If (x, y) = (1, 1), D = 36 < 0, so (1, 1) is a saddle point.
Homework 7 (page 955). Find the maximum volume of a rectangular box that is
inscribed in a sphere of radius r.
Solution. First we set Cartesian coordinates that the center of the sphere is at the
origin, so we can write the equation of the sphere is x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 . Furthermore,
we can orient the inscribed rectangular box so that its edges are parallel to the
coordinate axes. So we can assume that the box has length 2x, width 2y, height
p
2z = r 2 x2 y 2 , and volume
p
p
V (x, y) = (2x)(2y) 2 r 2 x2 y 2 = 8xy r 2 x2 y 2 , 0 x2 + y 2 r 2 .
We compute
p
2x
8y(r 2 2x2 y 2)
+ r 2 x2 y 2 8y = p
Vx = 8xy p
2 r 2 x2 y 2
r 2 x2 y 2
p
8x(r 2 2x2 y 2 )
2y
Vy = 8xy p
+ r 2 x2 y 2 8x = p
.
2 r 2 x2 y 2
r 2 x2 y 2
r
3
= y.
r
3
r
r
,
3 3
=8
s
2
2
8
r
r
= r3,
r2
3
3
3 3
r3.
3 3
14.8
(94 )
2xy
y2
=
y 2(7x + 2y) = 2xy(2x + 7y) y(x + 2y)(4x y) = 0.
2x + 7y
7x + 2y
(1)
Fy = 2y 2 + 8y = 2(y(1 + 4) ) = 0
(2)
Fz = 2z 4 2z = 2(z(1 ) 2) = 0
(3)
F = (2y + 4z 5) = 0
(4)
F = (z 2 4x2 4y 2) = 0
(5)
(a) If x = 0, from (5) we get z = 2y. Putting into (4) and get 2y 8y 5 = 0, so
y=
1
2
5 5
5 5
=
d 0, ,
.
6 3
6
x2
4
y2
4
z2
2
= 1
intersect an ellipse.
(a) Find the farthest distance and the closest distance from the point on the ellipse
to the origin.
(96 )
(a) Instead of finding the maximum or minimum values of the function d(x, y, z) =
p
x2 + y 2 + z 2 on the ellipse, we consider its square function d2 (x, y, z) =
x2 + y 2 + z 2 because they both attain maximum or minimum at the same
places.
Consider Lagrange function
2
F (x, y, z, , ) = x + y + z (x + y +
2z)
x2 y 2 z 2
+
+
1 .
4
4
2
Fz = 2z 2 z = 0
F = (x + y + 2z) = 0
2
y2 z2
x
+
+
1 = 0.
F =
4
4
2
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
36 . So
d = 236.
we get (
2 3
6
6
,
,
)
3
3
3
or (
6
6 2 3
,
,
),
3
3
3
2
3
x=
2
(10), we get x2 = 1 x = 2 y = 2. So we get ( 2, 2, 0) or
( 2, 2, 0), and the distance is d = 2.
The farthest distance is 2 and the closest distance is
2 6
.
3
2 6
,
3
4 6
.
3
(92 )
(11)
Fy = + 2y = ( 2y) = 0
(12)
Fz = 1 = 0
(13)
F = (2x + y + z 10) = 0
(14)
F = (z x2 y 2) = 0.
(15)
y = h(u, v).
x
x
(x, y)
v
= det u
.
y
y
(u, v)
u
y = h(r, ) = r sin .
Compute (x,y)
(in terms of r, ).
(r,)
Solution.
(x, y) cos r sin
(r, ) =
sin r cos
= r.
Homework 2 (page 1044). The transformation T from the uv-plane to the xy-plane
is given by
x = g(u, v) = u2 v 2 ,
y = h(u, v) = 2uv.
Compute (x,y)
(in terms of u, v).
(u,v)
Solution.
(x, y) 2u 2v
= 4(u2 + v 2 ).
(u, v) =
2v 2u
Homework 3 (page 1044). The transformation T from the xy-plane to the uv-plane
is given by
u = g(x, y) = x + y,
v = h(x, y) = x y.
(x,y)
(u,v)
Compute (u,v) (in terms of u, v) and (x,y) (in terms of x, y).
1
and y = uv
.
Solution. We solve x = u+v
2
2
(x, y) 21 21 1
= ,
(u, v) = 1
2 12 2
So
(u, v) 1 1
(x, y) =
1 1
= 2.
y = h(u, v, w),
z = k(u, v, w).
(x, y, z)
= det
(u, v, w)
x
u
y
u
z
u
x
v
y
v
z
v
x
w
y
w
z
w
z=z
Solution.
cos r sin 0
(x, y, z)
= sin r cos 0 = r.
(u, v, w)
0
0
1
z = cos .
Solution.
sin cos sin sin cos cos
(x, y, z)
(u, v, w) = sin sin sin cos cos sin
cos
0
sin
= |2 cos sin cos ( sin2 cos2 ) 2 sin sin sin (cos2 + sin2 )|
= | 2 sin (cos2 + sin2 )| = 2 sin .
1
dA, R = [1, 3] [1, 2].
(1)
x + y dx dy.
(2)
R 1+x+y
0
0
Solution.
(1) We compute
Z 1 Z
Z 1 Z 1
1
(x + y) 2 d(x + y) dy
x + y dx dy =
0
0
0
0
x=1
Z
Z 1
3
3
3
2 1
2
dy =
(x + y) 2
(y + 1) 2 y 2 dy
=
3
3 0
0
x=0
y=1
5
4 5
2 5
8 3
2 2
2 2 1 1 + 0 = (2 2 1).
=
(y + 1) 2 y 2
=
3 5
5
15
15
1
y=0
(2) We compute
ZZ
Z 3Z 2
Z 3h
iy=2
1
1
dx
dA =
dy dx =
ln(1 + x + y)
1
+
x
+
y
1
+
x
+
y
y=1
R
1 1
1
Z 3
=
ln(x + 3) ln(x + 2) dx.
1
Since
Z
ln x dx = (ln x)x
we have
ZZ
1
dA =
1+x+y
x d ln x = (ln x)x
1 dx = (ln x)x x + C,
ln(x + 3) d(x + 3)
ln(x + 2) d(x + 2)
1
1
R
h
ix=3 h
ix=3
= ln(x + 3)x (x + 3)
ln(x + 2)x (x + 2)
x=1
x=1
= 6 ln 6 4 ln 4 6 + 4 (5 ln 5 3 ln 3 5 + 3)
= 6 ln 6 5 ln 5 4 ln 4 + 3 ln 3.
Homework 2 (page 988). Find the volume of the solid in the first octant bounded
by the cylinder z = 16 x2 and the plane y = 5.
Solution. The volume is
x=4
Z 4Z 5
Z 4
640
1 3
2
2
=
.
V =
(16 x ) dy dx = 5
(16 x ) dx = 5 16x x
3
3
0
0
0
x=0
1
15.3
(95 )
1 + x4 dx dy.
3y
x3 1 + x4 dx
i
3 x=2
1
3
1
1h
1
= (17 2 1).
=
(1 + x4 ) 2
(1 + x4 ) 2 d(x4 + 1) =
x=0
4 0
6
6
ZZ
Homework 4. Find the integral
|y x2 | dA, R = [1, 1] [0, 2].
Z
Since
Z 1Z
1
y=2
(96 )
(y x ) dy dx +
y=x2
and
Z 1Z
1
y=x2
(y x ) dy dx =
y=0
1
1
we have
ZZ
1 2
y x2 y
(y x ) dy dx =
y=x2
1 2
Z 1
=
2 2x2 +
Z
y=2
y=x2
(y x2 ) dy dx.
y=0
y=2
Z 1
1
dx
=
(4 x4 ) x2 (2 x2 ) dx
2
1 2
y=x
1
43
1 4
2 3
1 5
x dx = 2x x + x =
2
3
10
15
1
y=x2
Z 1
1
1 2
2
dx =
x4 + x2 (x2 ) dx
y +x y
2
2
1
y=0
1
1
1 4
1 5
x dx =
x = ,
2
10
5
1
|y x2 | dA =
43 1
46
+ = .
15 5
15
sin(y 2 ) dy dx.
x
2
2y sin(y 2 ) dy
x=0
(97 )
x
2
sin(y 2 ) dy 2 =
i 2
2
+ 1.
cos(y 2)
=
2
y=0
Homework 6 (page 996). Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinder
y 2 + z 2 = 4 and the planes x = 2y, x = 0, z = 0 in the first octant.
Solution. The volume is
Z 2
Z 2 Z x=2y p
Z 2 p
1
4 y 2 dx dy =
(4 y 2) 2 d(4 y 2)
V =
2y 4 y 2 dy =
0
0
x=0
0
2
3
2
2 3
16
= (4 y 2) 2 = 4 2 = .
3
3
3
0
RR
We compute
Z Z
2Z r=4+3 cos
r sin r dr d.
r=4+3 cos
1 3
d
r sin dr d =
sin
r
3 r=0
0 0
0
Z
Z
1
1
3
=
sin (4 + 3 cos ) d =
(4 + 3 cos )3 d(4 + 3 cos )
3 0
9 0
i=
1
1
1 h
(4 + 3 cos )4
= (1 74 ) = (74 1).
=
36
36
36
=0
r=4+3 cos
Similarly, we have
Z 2Z r=4+3 cos
i=2
1
1 h
4
2
= (74 1).
(4 + 3 cos )
r sin dr d =
36
36
=
0
RR
1
Hence R |y| dA = 18
(74 1).
ZZ
1
dA, where R is the region
Homework 2. Find the integral
2
2 2
R (1 + x + y )
bounded by the Lemniscate r 2 = cos 2.
(95 )
Solution. Using the polar coordinates x = r cos , y = r sin and we get
1
cos 2
1
r dr d
+
(1 + r 2 )2
R (1 +
4 0
r=cos 2
Z Z cos 2
Z
4
4
1
1
=
d(1 + r 2 ) d =
d
2
2
2
(1
+
r
)
1
+
r
4 0
4
r=0
Z
Z
Z
4
4
4 2 cos2 1
cos 2
1
1 d =
d =
d
=
1 + cos 2
2 cos2
4
4 1 + cos 2
4
4
Z
4
1
1
1 sec2 d = tan = 1.
=
2
2
2
4
ZZ
x2
y 2 )2
dA = 2
(95 )
2
3
3
4
4 2
2 23
2
2
2
(4 r )
(4 4 cos ) 4 d
=
d =
3 0
3 0
r=0
Z
32 2
sin3 1 d.
=
3 0
Since
sin d =
0
2
3
we get V = 32
3
Z
(cos 1) d cos =
16
64
.
9
Z 2Z
4x2
= 2
2
1
3
= ,
cos cos
3
3
=0
e(x
2 +y 2 )
dy dx.
(99 )
2 0
Solution. The region is an half disk, so we use the polar coordinates x = r cos , r =
sin and get
Z 2Z
2
15.6
1
2
4x2
Z 0
0
h 2 ir=2
er
r=0
Z Z
1 2 r2 2
e dr d
e r dr d =
2 0 0
0
e4 1 d = (1 e4 ).
2
Z Z
(x2 +y 2 )
dy dx =
Z 0
1
d =
2 0
r 2
Homework 5 (page 1016). Find the area of the surface created by the cylinder
y 2 + z 2 = r 2 that lies within another cylinder x2 + z 2 = r 2 .
(91 )
Solution. By symmetry, we first compute the area of the surface which is a graph
p
p
, fz = 0, and 1 + fy2 + fz2 = 2r 2 , we
of f (x, y) = r 2 y 2 . Since fy = y
2
2
r y
r y
have
#x=y
Z r
2ry
p
p
p
A=
dy =
dx dy =
dy
r2 y 2
r 2 y 2 x=y
r2 y 2
0
y
0
0
Z r
h
ir
2
2
2
2 12
2
2 21
= r
(r y ) d(r y ) = 2r(r y ) = 2r 2 .
Z rZ
"
rx
1
1
Solution. First, we compute zx = x 2 , zy = y 2 , and 1 + zx2 + zy2 = 1 + x + y.
p
4 x2 y 2 in the
region 1 x2 + y 2 3. We compute
q
y
x
2
, zy = p
, and
.
1 + zx2 + zy2 = p
zx = p
4 x2 y 2
4 x2 y 2
4 x2 y 2
We use the polar coordinate x = r cos , y = r sin to compute the surface area
Z 2Z 3
Z 2Z 3
1
2
A=
(4 r 2 ) 2 d(4 r 2 ) d
r dr d =
2
4r
0
1
1
0
Z 2 h
i
r=
3
1
d = 2( 3 1) 2 = 4( 3 1).
=
2(4 r 2 ) 2
r=1
15.7
Homework 8 (page 1026). Write five other iterated integrals that are equal to the
Z 1Z 1Z y
iterated integral
f (x, y, z) dz dx dy.
0
f (x, y, z) dz dy dx.
f (x, y, z) dx dy dz.
f (x, y, z) dy dx dz.
Z 2Z
4x2Z x
0
sin 2z
dy dz dx.
4z
Solution. We compute
Z 2Z 4x2Z x
Z 2Z 4x2
Z 4Z 4z
x sin 2z
sin 2z
dy dz dx =
dz dx =
4z
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 4z
x=4z
Z 4
Z 4
h
iz=4
1
sin 2z 2
1
cos 2z
sin 2z dz =
x
=
=
dz =
2(4 z)
2
4
z=0
0
x=0
(96 )
x sin 2z
dx dz
4z
1
(1 cos 8).
4
Homework 10 (page 1025). Use a triple integral to find the volume of the solid
enclosed by the cylinder y = x2 and the planes z = 0 and y + z = 1.
Solution. The volume of the solid is
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1y
Z 1Z 1
Z
V =
dz dy dx =
(1 y) dy dx =
1
x2 0
1
x2
y=1
Z
1 1
1
2
dx =
(1 y)
(1 x2 )2 dx =
=
2
2
2
1
1
y=x
x=1
2 1
2
1
8
=1 + = .
= x x3 + x5
3
5
3 5
15
x=0
Z
1
Z 1
(1 y) d(1 y) dx
x2
(1 2x2 + x4 ) dx
mass (
x, y, z).
Solution. The solid projecting to the xy-plane is a disk with center (0, 0) and radius
3, so we use the polar coordinate x = r cos , y = r sin . We first compute the mass:
ZZZ
Z 2Z 3Z x2 +y2
z r dz dr d
m=
(x, y, z) dV =
E
0
0 0
z=x2 +y2
Z 2Z 3
Z 2Z 3
1
1 2
dr d =
=
rz
r(x2 + y 2) dr d
2
2
0
0
0
0
z=0
r=3
Z 2Z 3
Z 2
1 3
81
1 4
=
r dr d =
r d =
.
2
8
4
0
r=0
The symmetry of E and about xz-plane and yz-plane implies the moments Mxz = 0
and Myz = 0. So we still need to compute
ZZZ
Z 2Z 3Z x2 +y2
z 2 r dz dr d
Mxy =
z(x, y, z) dV =
E
0
0 0
z=x2 +y2
Z 2Z 3
Z 2Z 3
3
1
1 2
dr d =
rz
r(x2 + y 2) 2 dr d
=
3
0
0 3
0
0
z=0
r=3
Z 2
Z 2Z 3
162
1 5
1 4
r dr d =
r d =
.
=
3
15
5
0
r=0
= (0, 0, 85 ).
Z 4y2 Z
4y 2
xz dz dx dy.
x2 +y 2
=
=
2
0
2Z
4y 2
x2 +y 2
z=2
Z 2Z 2
2
1 2
1
2
r cos
dr d =
z
cos (4r 2 r 4 ) dr d
2
2
0
0
0
z=r
r=2
Z 2
i=2
32
4 3 1 5
32 h
1
d =
= 0.
sin
cos
r r
cos d =
=0
2
3
5
15 0
15
r=0
Homework 2 (page 1032). Find the volume of the solid enclosed by the three
cylinders x2 + y 2 = 1, x2 + z 2 = 1, and y 2 + z 2 = 1.
Solution. We use the cylindrical coordinates x = r cos , y = r sin , z = z and get
Z Z 1
Z Z 1Z 1x2
4
4
r 1 r 2 cos2 dr d
r dz dr d = 16
V = 16
0 0
0
0
0
Z
Z 1
4
1
1
= 8
(1 r 2 cos2 ) 2 d(1 r 2 cos2 ) d
2
0 cos 0
Z
Z
i
3 r=1
16 4 1 h
16 4 1
2
2
=
(1 r cos ) 2
(sin3 1) d
d =
3 0 cos2
3 0 cos2
r=0
Z
16 4
=
(sec2 1) sin sec2 d
3 0
Z
16 4
sec2 (sin 1) sin d
=
3 0
!
Z
i 4 Z 4
4
16 h
=
(sin 1) tan
tan cos d
sin d
3
0
0
0
!
!
Z
h
i 4
4
16
2
2
16
sin d =
12
1 + 2 cos
=
0
3
2
3
2
0
!
2
= 16
1 = 16 8 2.
2
1
15.9
4x2
16x2 y 2
3(x2 +y 2 )
x2 + y 2 + z 2 dz dy dx.
(94 )
2
2 4x
3(x +y )
=4
Z Z 2Z 4
Z Z 2
6
6
1 4
3
=
sin d d
sin d d d =
4
0
0
0
0
0
=0
!
Z
h
i= 6
6
1 4
3
.
= 4 2
sin d = 128 cos
= 128 1
4
2
=0
0
Homework 4. Evaluate the integral
ZZZ
z3
x2 + y 2 + z 2 dV , where E is the
solid that lies above the xy-plane and below the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1.
(92 )
Solution. We use the spherical coordinates x = sin cos , y = sin sin , z =
cos and get
ZZZ
Z Z
2
2Z 1
6 cos3 sin d d d
+ + dV =
0
0
0
E
=1
Z
Z Z 2
2
2 2
1 7
3
cos sin d d d =
=
cos4 d cos
7
7
0
0
0
=0
h 4 i 2
cos = .
=
0
14
14
z
x2
y2
z2
Homework 5. Find the volume of the solid bounded below by the cone z 2 =
4(x2 + y 2) and above by the ellipsoid 4(x2 + y 2 ) + z 2 = 8.
(101 )
Then the volume element is 2 2 2 2 2 sin d d d = 4 22 sin d d d.
2
So the volume is
Z Z 2Z
4
V =
0
15.10
Z 4Z
4 2 sin d d d = 4 2
4 2
2
3
i= 4
8 2 h
cos
sin d =
3
=0
=1
1 3
sin d d
3
=0
8
=
( 2 1).
3
RR
u u
2 1
x y =
.
vx vy
1 1
(u,v)
(x,y) 1
Since (x,y) = 3, we have (u,v) = 3 . After the transformation, the region becomes
1 x 2, 0 xy 2, and 0 z 1.
1 0 0
ux uy uz
vx vy vz = y x 0
0 0 1
wx wy wz
(x,y,z)
Since (u,v,w)
=
x,
we
have
=
(x,y,z)
(u,v,w)
1
x
1
(x y + 3xyz) dV =
(uv + 3vw) du dv dw
u
E
0 0 1
Z 1Z 2
Z 1Z 2Z 2
3vw
du dv dw =
=
(v + 3 ln 2 vw) dv dw
v+
u
0 0
0 0 1
v=2
Z 1
Z 1
h
iw=1
1 2 3 ln 2 2
dw =
(2 + 6 ln 2w)dw = 2w + 3 ln 2w 2
v +
v w
=
w=0
2
2
0
0
v=0
ZZZ
= 2 + 3 ln 2.
RR
ex
2 xy+y 2
3
y.
2
Then
(u,v)
Since (x,y)
=
3
,
2
ux uy
vx vy
=
we have (x,y)
(u,v)
2 .
3
becomes u2 + v 2 a2 . So we get
ZZ
ZZ
Z
x2 xy+y 2
u2 +v2
e
dA =
e
dA =
1 21
0
3
2
y 2
2
2
3y
2
, we let u = x
y
2
Z Z
1 2 a r2 2
e dr d
e r dr d =
2 0 0
R
u2 +v2 a2
0
0
Z
2
1 2 h r2 ia
=
e d = ea 1 .
2 0
0
RRR
Homework 9. Evaluate the integral
(x+y+z)2 dV , where E = {(x, y, z)|2x2 +
E
2Z a
r2
(96 )
1 1 1
ux uy uz
vx vy vz = 1 1 0 .
0 1 2
wx wy wz
4
(x,y,z) 1
=
3,
we
get
Since (u,v,w)
(u,v,w) = 3 . So
(x,y,z)
ZZZ
(x + y + z) dV =
ZZZ
u2 dV
u2 +v2 +w 2 1
Homework 1 (page 1062). Match the functions f1 , f2 , f3 , and f4 with the plots of
their gradient vector fields labeled I - IV. Give reasons for your choices.
(a) f1 (x, y) = x2 + y 2 .
(b) f2 (x, y) = x(x + y).
(c) f3 (x, y) = (x + y)2 .
(d) f4 (x, y) = sin
x2 + y 2 .
1
1
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
II
-1.5
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
III
-1
-0.5
0.5
IV
-1
-1
-0.5
-0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
(b) Since f2 (x, y) = (2x + y) i + x j, the vectors point upward in quadrants I and
IV and downward in quadrants II and III. The gradient vector fields of f2 is
II.
(c) Since f3 (x, y) = 2(x + y) i + 2(x + y) j, two components are the same, so each
vector is parallel to i + j, and hence the gradient vector fields of f3 is I.
y cos x2 +y 2
x cos x2 +y 2
(d) Since f4 (x, y) = 2 2 i + 2 2 j, which is parallel to the position
x +y
x +y
vector. When x and y large, two components tend to zero, so the gradient
vector fields of f3 is III.
16.2
Homework 2. Evaluate
segment C1 from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 0) followed by another line segment C2 from (1, 1, 0)
(90 )
to (1, 1, 1).
Solution. Let
C1 : r1 (t) = t i + t j + 0 k, 0 t 1 r1 (t) = 1 i + 1 j + 0 k
C2 : r2 (t) = 1 i + 1 j + t k, 0 t 1 r2 (t) = 0 i + 0 j + 1 k.
Then
Z
C
Z 1
0
xy dx + yz dy + zx dz
xy dx + yz dy + zx dz =
C1 C2
Z 1
5
1 1
2
t dt +
t dt = + = .
3 2
6
0
1
2
2
8 0
0
2
Homework 4. Evaluate
(0, 1).
cos2 t + sin2 t dt =
dt. So
Z
x ds =
cos t dt =
i 2
2
sin t = 1 +
.
2
4
sin t, z(t) = t, 0 t 2.
Solution. The circular helix is
We compute
Z 2
h
it=2 Z 2
t sin t dt =
cos t dt = 2,
t d cos t = t cos t
t=0
0
0
0
t=2
Z 2
Z 2
1 2
= 0,
sin t cos t dt =
sin t d sin t =
sin t
2
0
0
t=0
Z 2
it=2
h
= 0.
cos t dt = sint
2
t=0
So W = 2.
(99 )
1
2 2
(6(1 t ) 8t ) dt =
(6 12t2 2t4 ) dt
t=1
4
16
2 5
3
= 12 8
= .
= 6t 4t t
5
5
5
t=1
Homework 1. Let
F(x, y, z) =
y
i+
1 + x2 y 2
z
x
+p
2
2
1+x y
1 y 2z 2
j+
y
p
+z
1 y 2z 2
k.
counterclockwise.
Solution.
f
x
z
=
+p
,
2
2
y
1+x y
1 y2z2
y
f
=p
+ z.
z
1 y2z2
f
x
g
x
z
tan1 (xy) + g(y, z) =
=
+
=
+p
,
2
2
2
2
y
y
1+x y
y
1+x y
1 y 2z 2
so it implies
g(y, z) =
g
y
z
1y 2 z 2
and
p
dy =
1 y 2z 2
Finally, we calculate
1
p
1 (yz)2
g
f
y
y
tan1 (xy) + g(y, z) =
=
=p
+ h (z) = p
+z
2
2
z
z
z
1y z
1 y 2z 2
Homework 2. Let
F = yz i + (xz + ze ) j + 2xyz + p(y, z) +
2
yz
1
1+z
k,
F dr.
(96 )
Solution.
(a) Since F is a conservative field, there exists a smooth function f (x, y, z) satisfying the following equations:
f
= yz 2 ,
x
f
= xz 2 + zeyz ,
y
f
1
= 2xyz + p(y, z) +
.
x
1+z
Next, we compute
g
g
f
xyz 2 + g(y, z) = xz 2 +
=
= xz 2 + zeyz
= zeyz ,
y
y
y
y
so we get
g(y, z) =
Finally, we calculate
g
f
xyz 2 + g(y, z) = 2xyz +
=
= 2xyz + yeyz + h (z)
z
z
z
1
= p(y, z) +
,
1+z
Since h (z) is independent of y, we get p(y, z) = y eyz .
2
1
1+z
F dr = f (1 i + 1 j + 1 k) f (0 i + 0 j + 0 k)
= (1 + e + ln 2) (0 + e0 + ln 1) = e + ln 2.
Solution.
(a) The potential function f (x, y, z) of F satisfies the following equations:
f
= y2,
x
f
= 2xy + e3z ,
y
f
= 3y e3z .
z
y 2 dx = xy 2 + g(y, z)
Next, we compute
and it implies
f
g
xy 2 + g(y, z) = 2xy +
=
= 2xy + e3z ,
y
y
y
g
= e3z g(y, z) =
y
Finally, we calculate
g
f
xy 2 + g(y, z) =
= 3y e3 z + h (z) = 3y e3z
z z
z
(b) For the curve C, the initial point is r(0) = 0 i + 3 j + 0 k, and the terminal
point is r( 2 ) = 2 i + 0 j + 3 k By the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integral,
we get
Z
F dr = f (2 i + 0 j + 3 k) f (0 i + 3 j + 0 k) = (0 + 0) (0 + 3e0 ) = 3.
C
1 + x2 , y = x, 0 x 1}.
(101 )
Solution. Let
F(x, y, z) = P i + Q j + R k = (2x sin(y) ez ) i + (x2 cos(y) 3ez ) j xez k.
We compute
Q
R
Q
R
=0
= 3ez
6=
y
z
y
z
P
R
R
P
= ez
= ez
=
z
x
z
x
Q
P
Q
P
= 2x cos(y)
= 2x cos(y)
=
,
x
y
x
y
so F is not a conservative field. However, we consider another vector field
y, z) = P i + Q
j+R
k
F(x,
= (2x sin(y) ez ) i + (x2 cos(y) 3ez ) j + (xez 3yez ) k.
is a conservative field, and F(x, y, z) = F(x,
y, z) + 3yez k.
Then F
then it satisfies the
Next, we want to find the potential function f(x, y, z) of F,
following equations:
f
= 2x sin(y) ez
x
f
= x2 cos(y) 3ez
y
f
= xez 3yez .
z
We compute
f
x2 sin(y) xez + g(y, z) = x2 cos(y) +
=
= x2 cos(y) 3ez .
y
y
y
So we have
g
= 3ez g(y, z) =
y
Finally, we calculate
f
z
z
(z) = xe 3ye .
= xe 3ye + h
(z) = 0 h(z) = C. The potential function of F
is
So we solve h
f(x, y, z) = x2 sin(y) xez 3yez + C.
The line integral is
Z
Z
Z
Z
z
F dr =
F + 3ye k dr =
F dr +
3yez k dr
C
C
C
C
Z 1
t
2
dt
= f(1, 1, ln 2) f(0, 0, 0) +
3teln 1+t
1 + t2
0
Z 1
1
1
3t2
ln 2
ln 2
2
2
= (e
31e
)+
dt = 4 2 + I.
1 + t2
0
For the integral I, we let t = tan , then dt = sec2 d and the upper limit is =
0
0
0
Since
Z
i= 4 Z
sec tan
sec x dx =
sec d tan =
tan d sec
=0
0
0
Z
Z
4
4
2
= 2
tan sec d = 2
(sec2 1) sec d
0
0
Z
Z
h
i= 4
4
4
3
= 2
sec d +
sec d = 2 II + ln | sec + tan |
II =
2 II + ln | 2 + 1|.
=0
R
we get II = 21 2 + 12 ln | 2 + 1|. Hence I = 32 2 32 ln | 2 + 1| and C F dr =
52 2 32 ln | 2 + 1|.
5
16.4
Homework 5. Find the positive-oriented simple closed curve C such that the inR
tegral C (y 3 y) dx x3 dy is maximum. Find the maximum value.
(93 )
3x2 3y 2 + 1 dA.
We want to maximize the line integral, and it is equivalent to maximize the right
hand side double integral. Notice that the function f (x, y) = 3x2 3y 2 + 1 is
nonnegative in the region 3x2 + 3y 2 1, and this region will maximize the double
integral. Hence the boundary of the region will maximize the line integral, and the
curve is 3x2 + 3y 2 = 1.
We use the polar coordinates x = r cos and y = r sin to compute the double
integral:
Z
=2
=2
=0
r= 1
(3r + 1)r dr d =
r=0
=2
=0
r= 1
(3r 3 + r) dr d
r=0
r= 1
Z 2
1
3 4 1 2 3
d =
d = .
=
r + r
4
2
12 0
6
=0
r=0
H
Homework 6. Evaluate the line integral C F dr counterclockwise around the
region bounded by 0 x 1 and x2 y 1, where F(x, y) = sin(x3 ) i +
x2
1+y 2
j.
(100 )
Solution. Let P = sin(x3 ) and Q =
x2
,
1+y 2
then Qx =
2x
1+y 2
and Py = 0. By Greens
Theorem, we have
Z y=1 Z x=y
I
ZZ
2x
2x
dA =
dx dy
F dr =
2
1+y
1 + y2
y=0
C
R
x=0
Z y=1 2 x=y
Z
Z 1
x
1 1 1
y
=
dy =
d(1 + y 2 )
dy =
2
1 + y 2 x=0
2 0 1 + y2
y=0
0 1+y
y=1 1
1
2
= ln 2.
ln 1 + y
=
2
2
y=0
Homework 7. Evaluate
counterclockwise.
r=1cos
r=1cos
=2 Z r=1cos
=2
y 2 x2 dA
r=1cos
1 4
d
r
4
r=0
r r dr d =
=0
Z 2
Z 2
1
1
=
(1 cos )4 d =
(1 + 6 cos2 + cos4 ) d
4 0
4 0
2 !
Z
1 2
1 + cos2
1 + cos 2
=
+
d
1+6
4 0
2
2
Z
1 + cos 4
1 2
1
1 + 2 cos 2 +
d
=
1 + 3(1 + cos 2) +
4 0
4
2
Z
1 2 35 7
1
35
=
+ cos 2 + cos 4 d = .
4 0
8
2
8
16
=0
r=0
3
1
P
= 9x2 (x3 + 1) 2 2xy(x3 + 1) 2 .
y
=
x
y
y=0
x=0
R
Z 1
Z x=1 h
i
y=
x
3
3
2
3
2
dx =
x2 (x3 + 1) 2 dx
=
x(x + 1) y
y=0
0
x=0
x=1
Z 1
5
3
2 5
1
1
2
3
3
3
=
=
22 1 .
(x + 1) 2
(x + 1) 2 d(x + 1) =
3 0
3 5
15
x=0
7
Homework 1 (page 1097). Let f be a scalar field and F a vector field. State
whether each expression is meaningful. If not, explain why. If so, state whether it is
a scalar field or a vector field. (a) curl f . (b) grad f . (c) div F. (d) curl(grad f ). (e)
grad F (f) grad(div F) (g) div(grad f ) (h) grad(div f ) (i) curl(curl F) (j) div(div F)
(k) (grad f ) (div F) (l) div(curl(grad f )).
Solution.
(a) curl f is meaningless because f is a scalar field.
(b) grad f is a vector field.
(c) div F is a scalar field.
(d) curl(grad f ) is a vector field.
(e) grad F is meaningless because F is not a scalar field.
(f) grad(div F) is a vector field.
(g) div(grad f ) is a scalar field.
(h) grad(div f ) is meaningless because f is a scalar field.
(i) curl(curl F) is a vector field.
(j) div(div F) is meaningless because div F is a scalar field.
(k) (grad f ) (div F) is meaningless because div F is a scalar field.
(l) div(curl(grad f )) is a scalar field.
Homework 2. Let F =
p
x2 + y 2
x
1+y 2
F n ds,
1
Q
=
y
1 + y2
P
Q
x
+
=p
.
x
y
x2 + y 2
x+2y tan1 x
1+y 2
and Q =
yln(1+y 2 )
,
1+x2
1
2y
P
=
+
2
2
x
1+y
(1 + y )(1 + x2 )
then
1
2y
Q
=
,
2
2
y
1+x
(1 + x )(1 + y 2)
and we get
P
Q
1
1
+
=
+
.
2
x
y
1+x
1 + y2
So
I
F n ds =
x= 3
ZZ
R
Q
P
+
x
y
dA =
x= 3
x=1
y=1
y= 1
1
1
+
2
1+x
1 + y2
dy dx
h
iy=1
1 h iy=1
1
y 1 + tan y 1 dx
=
2
1+x
y=
y=
x=1
3
3
h
Z 3
ix=3
1
h ix= 3
1
1
1
1
+
dx = 1
x
+
tan x
=
x=1
x=1
12
3 1 + x2 12
3
1
1
3
= 1
+ ( 3 1) =
.
18
3 12 12
Z
16.6
(a) r(u, v) = (b cos u + a cos v cos u)i + (b sin u + a cos v sin u)j + a sin v k, where
0 2, 0 v 2.
(b) We compute
ru (u, v) = (b sin u a cos v sin u)i + (b cos u + a cos v cos u)j + 0 k
rv (u, v) = (a sin v cos u)i + (a sin v sin u)j + a cos v k
ru rv (u, v) = a cos v(b cos u + a cos v cos u) i
+ a cos v(b sin u a cos v sin u) j
+ (b sin u a cos v sin u)(a sin v sin u)
(a sin v cos u)(b cos u + a cos v cos u) k
= a(b + a cos v) ((cos u cos v) i + (sin u cos v) j + (sin v) k)
Then
p
|ru rv | = a(b + a cos v) cos2 u cos2 v + sin2 u cos2 u + sin2 v = a(b + a cos v).
Hence
A(S) =
u=2
u=0
v=2
v=0
h
iv=2
= 4 2 ab.
a(b + a cos v) dv du = 2 abv + a2 sin v
v=0
16.7
Solution. The surface is r(u, v) = 2 sin u cos v i + 2 sin u sin v j + 2 cos u k, where
y z dS =
u= 4
u=0
v=2
v=0
u= 4 Z v=2
2
4
u=0
v=0
u=
Z
4
1 4 4
3
= 2.
sin u d sin u = 32
= 32
sin u
4
= 32
u=0
RR
x2 +y 2 +z 2 =R2
z 4 dS.
(91 )
Solution. The surface is r(u, v) = R sin u cos v i + R sin u sin v j + R cos u k, where
0 u , 0 v 2, then we have
ru (u, v) = R cos u cos v i + R cos u sin v j R sin u k
rv (u, v) = R sin u sin v i + R sin u cos v j + 0 k
ru rv (u, v) = R2 sin2 u cos v i + R2 sin2 u sin v j + R2 sin u cos u k
p
|ru rv | = R2 sin4 u cos2 v + sin4 u sin2 v + sin2 u cos2 u = R2 sin u.
u=0
v=2
R4 cos4 u R2 sin u dv du
v=0
= 2 R
u=
4
cos u d cos u = 2 R
u=0
u=
1
5
cos u
5
u=0
4 6
R .
5
RR
Homework 7. Evaluate S (x2 + y 2 )z dS, where S is the upper hemisphere x2 +
=
y 2 + z 2 = 1, z 0.
(93 )
Solution. The surface is r(u, v) = sin u cos v i + sin u sin v j + cos u k, where 0 u
,0
2
v 2, then we have
ru (u, v) = cos u cos v i + cos u sin v j sin u k
rv (u, v) = sin u sin v i + sin u cos v j + 0 k
ru rv (u, v) = sin2 u cos v i + sin2 u sin v j + sin u cos u k
p
|ru rv | = sin4 u cos2 v + sin4 u sin2 v + sin2 u cos2 u = sin u.
(x + y )z dS =
S
u= 2
u=0
= 2
v=2
v=0
u= 2
u=0
u=
1 4 2
sin u d sin u = 2
= .
sin u
4
2
u=0
3
RR
Homework 1. Evaluate S F dS, where F = xz i + yz j + z 2 k, and S is the part
of sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z 12 with upward orientation.
(91 )
Solution. We parameterize the surface S by
r(u, v) = sin u cos v i + sin u sin v j + cos u k, 0 u
, 0 v 2,
4
then we have
ru (u, v) = cos u cos v i + cos u sin v j sin u k
rv (u, v) = sin u sin v i + sin u cos v j + 0 k
ru rv = sin2 u cos v i + sin2 u sin v j + sin u cos u k
F(u, v) = sin u cos u cos v i + sin u cos u sin v j + cos2 u k.
So we get
ZZ
F dS =
v=2
u= 4
v=0
v=2
v=0
u=0
v=0
u=0
u=
1
1 2 4
dv = 2 = .
sin u
2
4
2
u=0
S1
1 }.
2
First we compute
div F = z + z + 2z = 4z,
then we use the spherical coordinates x = sin cos , y = sin sin , z = cos
to get
ZZZ
Z = Z =2 Z =1
4
div F dV =
4 cos 2 sin d d d
=0
=0
= 4
=0
=2
=0
1
2 cos
h i=1
4
1
2 cos
cos sin d d
1
cos +
d cos
= 2
4 cos3
0
= 4
1 1
1
1
2
= 2
= .
= 2 cos
2
2
8 cos =0
4 8
4
Z
1
F dS =
u du dv =
2
S1
v=0
u=0
1
= .
= 2
8
4
Z
ZZ
v=2
v=2
v=0
u= 1
2
1 2
u
dv
4
u=0
So
ZZ
F dS =
ZZZ
div F dV
E
ZZ
F dS =
= .
4
4
2
S1
S1
=0
=0
=0
u , 0 v < 2.
4
Then
ru (u, v) = cos u cos v i + cos u sin v j sin u k
rv (u, v) = sin u sin v i + sin u cos v j + 0 k
ru rv = sin2 u cos v i + sin2 u sin v j + sin u cos u k
F(u, v) = sin u cos u cos v i + sin u cos u sin v j + cos2 u k
2
So we get
ZZ
F dS =
v=2
v=2
v=2
v=0
u=
So
ZZ
F dS =
u= 4
v=0
u=
u= 4
v=0
v=2
v=0
u=
sin u d sin u dv
u= 4
u=
1
1 2
sin u
dv = 2 = .
2
4
2
u=
4
ZZZ
div F dV
E
RR
ZZ
= .
F dS = 0
2
2
S1
v=2
v=0
v=2
u=1
u=0
u=1
1 6 1 4 2
=
u u sin v
dv
3
2
v=0
u=0
Z 2
Z 2
1
7
1 1 2
=
cos 2v dv
sin v dv =
3 2
12 4
0
0
v=2
7
7
1
7
= v sin 2v
= 2 = .
12
8
12
6
Z
v=0
So we compute
Z
ZZ
F dS =
S2
v=2
v=0
Hence we get
ZZ
u=1
2u du dv =
u=0
F dS =
v=2
v=0
ZZ
F dS +
S1
Z
h iu=1
2
u
dv =
u=0
v=2
1 dv = 2.
v=0
5
7
F dS = + 2 = .
6
6
S2
ZZ
=
=
E
=2Z r=1
=0
r=0
=2Z r=1
=0
16.8
r=0
x2 +z 2 1
y=x2 +z 2
Z
iy=1
r dr d =
2y y
2
2
=2Z r=1
1 2r 4 + r 2 r dr d
y=r
=0
r=0
r=1
5
1 6 1 4
1
2
5
3
= .
r r + r
r 2r + r dr d = 2
2
3
4
6
r=0
2 0
2
2 0
2
2
t=2
sin 4t
1 1
= .
t
=
2 2
8
2
t=0
4
Solution 2. Let C is the boundary curve of S and let S1 is the part of plane
x2 + y 2 1, z = 1. By Stokes Theorem twice, we get
ZZ
I
ZZ
F n dS.
F n dS =
F dr =
S
S1
curl F = x
y
z
x2 y xy 2 zex
So
ZZ
ZZ
= 0 i zex j + (y 2 x2 ) k = eu cos v j u2 k.
F n dS =
1
= 2
= .
4
2
F n dS =
S1
v=2Z u=1
v=0
u=0
u=1
1 4
u du dv = 2 u
4
u=0
3
curl F = x
y
z
x2 y xy 2 zex
= 0 i zex j + (y 2 x2 ) k = u2 eu cos v j u2 k.
5
So
ZZ
u=1Z v=2
1 4
= 2 = .
u
= 2
4
4
2
u=0
RR
Homework 4. Evaluate S curl F n dS, where F = yz 5 i + sin(xyz) j + x k and
S is the part of paraboloid y = 1 x2 z 2 that lies to the right of the xz-plane,
F n dS =
(93 )
S1
curl F = x
y
yz 5 sin(xyz)
k
= xy cos(xyz) i (1 5yz 4 ) j + (yz cos(xyz) z 5 ) k
z
x
= j u5 sin5 v k.
So
ZZ
curl F n dS =
=
Homework 5. Evaluate
ZZ
Z
curl F n dS =
S1
v=2
v=0
v=2
v=0
u=1
u du dv
u=0
u=1
1
1 2
dv = 2 = .
u
2
2
u=0
0 t 2,
(100 )
curl F =
x
y
z
ex y 3 ey + x3 ez + x + y
= i j + (3x2 + 3y 2) k = i j + 3u2 k.
So we get
u=1
I
ZZ
Z v=2 Z u=1
Z v=2
3 4
2
F dr =
curl F dS =
u 3u du dv =
dv
u
4
C
S
v=0
u=0
v=0
u=0
Z 2
3
3
3
dv = 2 = .
=
4
4
2
0
7
Solution 2. We compute
r (t) = sin t i + cos t j + (cos t sin t) k,
F(t) = (ecos t sin3 t) i + esin t + cos3 t j + esin t+cos t (cos t + sin t) k,
and get
I
F dr = I + II + III + IV + V + VI,
where
Z 2
Z 2
it=2
h
cos t
=0
e ( sin t) dt =
ecos t d cos t = ecos t
t=0
0
0
Z 2
Z 2
1 3
3
cos 4t
4
sin t dt =
dt =
2 cos 2t +
4 2
2
4
0
0
Z 2
Z 2
it=2
h
=0
cos tesin t dt =
esin t d sin t = esin t
t=0
0
0
Z 2
Z 2
3
cos 4t
1 3
4
dt =
+ 2 cos 2t +
cos t dt =
4 2
2
4
0
0
Z 2
Z 2
i=2
h
sin t+cos t
sin t+cos t
sin t+cos t
=0
e
(cos t sin t) dt =
e
d(sin t + cos t) = e
=0
0
0
Z 2
Z 2
1 cos 2t
1 + cos 2t
2
2
dt = 0.
(cos t sin t) dt =
2
2
0
0
Hence
3
F dr = .
2
C
16.9
RR
Homework 6. Evaluate the surface integral S F n dS, where F = 2y 2 i + xez j +
3 k, S is the upper hemisphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, z 0, and n is the unit normal
(91 )
pointing upward.
Solution. Since div F = 0, by the Divergence Theorem, we have
ZZZ
ZZ
ZZ
F n dS,
0=
div F dV =
F n dS +
E
S1
where S1 is the part of the plane {x2 + y 2 1, z = 0}. We parameterize the surface
S1 by
r(u, v) = u cos v i + u sin v j + 0 k, 0 u 1, 0 v < 2.
8
Then we have
ru (u, v) = cos v i + sin v j + 0 k
rv (u, v) = u sin v i + u cos v j + 0 k
ru rv = 0 i + 0 j + u k // 0 i + 0 j u k
F(u, v) = 2u2 sin2 v i + u cos v j + 3 k.
So
ZZ
ZZ
v=2
F ndS =
F ndS =
S1
v=0
Z v=2
3
3
=
dv = 2 = 3.
2
2
v=0
u=1
3u du dv =
u=0
v=2
v=0
u=1
3 2
dv
u
2
u=0
, 0 v < 2.
2
Then we have
ru (u, v) = cos u cos v i + cos u sin v j sin u k
rv (u, v) = sin u sin v i + sin u cos v j sin u k
ru rv = sin2 u cos v i + sin2 u sin v j + sin u cos u k
F(u, v) = 2 sin2 u sin2 v i + sin u cos vecos u j + 3 k.
So the surface integral is
ZZ
F n dS
S
Z v=2 Z u=
2
(2 sin4 u sin2 v cos v + sin3 u sin v cos vecos u + 3 sin u cos u) du dv
=
v=0
v=2
v=0
u=0
u= 2
u=0
Homework 7.
u=
3 2 2
3
3 sin u cos u du dv = 2
= 2 = 3.
sin u
2
2
u=0
(a) Find the flux integral of the vector field F = (x2 4xy) i 6yz j + 12z k on
the surface of the box 0 x a, 0 y b, 0 z 1.
(b) Find a, b such that the flux integral attains maximum.
Solution.
(91 )
=
=
B
x=a Z y=b
x=0
x=a
Zx=0
x=a
y=0
y=b
x=0
y=0
z=0
iz=1
dy dx
2xz 4yz 3z + 12z
2
z=0
(2x 4y + 9) dy dx
y=0
Z x=a
iy=b
dx =
(2xb 2b2 + 9b) dx
=
2xy 2y + 9y
y=0
x=0
hx=0
ix=a
= a2 b 2ab2 + 9ab.
= bx2 2b2 x + 9bx
h
x=0
(b) Let f (a, b) = a2 b 2ab2 + 9ab. We will first find all critical points of f (a, b)
for a 0 and b 0:
fa = 2ab 2b2 + 9b = b(2a 2b + 9)
fb = a2 4ab + 9a = a(a 4b + 9).
Solutions of fa = 0 and fb = 0 are (a, b) = (0, 0), (0, 29 ), (3, 32 ), and (9, 0).
, and f (9, 0) = 0, we know that
Since f (0, 0) = 0, f (0, 92 ) = 0, f (3, 23 ) = 27
2
(a, b) = (3, 32 ) attains the maximum of the flux integral.
Solution 2. For the part (a), we can integrate the surface integral directly:
Back: Since
r(u, v) = 0 i + u j + v k, 0 u b, 0 v 1
n(u, v) = 1 i + 0 j + 0 k
F(u, v) = 0 i 6uv j + 12v k,
we have
RR
S1
F dS = 0.
Front: Since
r(u, v) = a i + u j + v k, 0 u b, 0 v 1
n(u, v) = 1 i + 0 j + 0 k
F(u, v) = (a2 4au) i 6uv j + 12v k,
we have
Z
ZZ
F dS =
S2
v=1
v=0
u=b
2
a 4au du dv =
u=0
v=1
v=0
= a2 b 2ab2 .
10
iu=b
dv
a2 u 2au2
u=0
Left: Since
r(u, v) = u i + 0 j + v k, 0 u a, 0 v 1
n(u, v) = 0 i 1 j + 0 k
F(u, v) = u2 i + 0 j + 12v k,
we have
RR
S3
F dS = 0.
Right: Since
r(u, v) = u i + b j + v k, 0 u a, 0 v 1
n(u, v) = 0 i + 1 j + 0 k
F(u, v) = u2 i 6bv j + 12v k,
we have
ZZ
F dS =
S4
v=1
v=0
v=1
u=a
6bv du dv =
u=0
v=1
v=0
(6abv) dv =
v=0
Bottom: Since
iu=a
6bvu
dv
u=0
iv=1
= 3ab.
3abv 2
v=0
r(u, v) = u i + v j + 0 k, 0 u a, 0 v b
n(u, v) = 0 i + 1 j 1 k
F(u, v) = (u2 4uv) i + 0 j + 0 k,
we have
RR
S5
F dS = 0.
Top: Since
r(u, v) = u i + v j + 1 k, 0 u a, 0 v b
n(u, v) = 0 i + 1 j + 1 k
F(u, v) = (u2 4uv) i 6v j + 12 k,
we have
ZZ
F dS =
S6
v=b
v=0
u=a
12 du dv = 12ab.
u=0
11
RR
Homework 8. Evaluate
y2
2
j + z k, and S =
The solid consists of the part of rigid paraboloid E1 and part of rigid cylinder E2 ,
so we compute
Volume(E1 ) =
ZZ
x2 +y 2 1
=2
=0
z=43x2 3y 2
dz dx dy =
z=1
r=1
2
(3 3r )r dr d =
r=0
3
3
= 2 = ,
4
2
=2
=2
=0
=2
r=1
(3r 3r 3 ) dr d
r=0
r=1
3 2 3 4
d
r r
2
4
r=0
=0
and
Volume(E2 ) =
=
Hence
ZZ
ZZ
Z
x2 +y 2 1
=2
=0
z=1
dz dx dy =
z=0
r=1
2
1
d =
r
2 r=0
=0
r=1
r dr d
r=0
1
1
d = 2 = .
2
2
3
5
F dS = Volume(E) = Volume(E1 ) + Volume(E2 ) = + = .
2
2
S
12
.
2
So we have
Z
ZZ
F dS =
v=2
v=0
v=2
S1
v=0
u=1
u=0
u=1
(4u 3u ) du dv =
u=0
5
5
2 = .
4
2
v=2
v=0
u=1
3 4
dv
2u u
4
u=0
2
Next, we parameterize S2 by
r(u, v) = cos u i + sin u j + v k, 0 u < 2, 0 v 1.
Then
ru (u, v) = sin u i + cos u j + 0 k
rv (u, v) = 0 i + 0 j + 1 k
ru rv = sin u i + cos u j + 0 k
1
F(u, v) = sin v cos u i sin2 u j + v k.
2
So we have
ZZ
F dS =
S2
v=1
v=0
u=2
u=0
1 3
2
sin u cos u sin u du dv = 0.
2
RR
S3
ZZ
F dS = 0. Hence
F dS =
ZZ
F dS +
S1
ZZ
F dS +
S2
13
5
F dS = .
2
S3
ZZ
ANSWER
Department:
Name:
I.D.:
1
.
f (x)
2
.
3
sin1 x
.
cos1 x
f (x)
xa g(x)
xa
xa
(F) 12. If neither lim f (x) nor lim g(x) exists, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) does not exist.
xa
xa
xa
(T) 13. If lim f (x) exists but lim g(x) does not exist, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) does not
xa
xa
xa
exist.
(F) 14. If lim f (x)g(x) exists, then the limit must be f (a)g(a).
xa
1
n2
2
n2
++
n
n2
Since for every k = 1, . . . , n, each term has lim nk2 = 0, by the Limit Sum
n
1
2
n
Law, we have lim n2 + n2 + + n2 = lim n12 + lim n22 + + lim nn2 =
n
(F) 16. If f (x) > 1 for all x and lim f (x) exists, then lim f (x) > 1.
x0
x0
(F) 17. If f (1) > 0 and f (3) < 0, then there exists a number c between 1 and 3 such
that f (c) = 0.
3
1+cx1
,
x
x0
2
2
where c is a constant.
(Hint: a3 b3 = (a b)(a + ab + b ))
Solution.
3
lim
x0
1 + cx 1
(1 + cx) 3 1 (1 + cx) 3 + (1 + cx) 3 + 1
= lim
1
2
x0
x
x
(1 + cx) 3 + (1 + cx) 3 + 1
1 + cx 1
= lim
1
2
x0 x((1 + cx) 3 + (1 + cx) 3 + 1)
c
= lim
2
1
x0 (1 + cx) 3 + (1 + cx) 3 + 1
lim c
c
x0
=
= .
2
1
3
lim (1 + cx) 3 + lim (1 + cx) 3 + lim 1
x0
x0
1
2
x2
2
x0
0.4
0.3
g(x)
f (x)
0.2
0.1
h(x)
-4
-2
Figure 1: f (x) =
1
2
x2
e 2 .
(x+1)
1 e 2
2
1 x 2
1 e 2 ( 2 )
2
1 x 2
1 e 2 ( 2 )
2 2
2
x 2+1
1
e
2
1 x 2
2 e 2 ( 2 )
2
1 x2
1 e 2 2
2 2
(x1)
1 e 2
2
1
2
1 e 2 (2x)
2
1
2
1 e 2 (2x)
2 2
2
x 21
1
e
2
1
2
2 e 2 (2x)
2
1
2
1 e 2 2x
2 2
Solution.
1 x 2
1
h(x) = e 2 ( 2 ) .
2 2
(x1)2
1
g(x) = e 2 ,
2
I.D.:
ANSWER
Name:
sin x
x
sin x
x x
= 1.
(T) 4. lim
= 1.
(T) 5. lim
f (x)f (xh)
h
h0
(F) 6.
d
dx
(F) 7.
d
(ln 10)
dx
= f (x).
ex = x ex1 .
=
1
.
10
f (x)
g(x)
d
dx
d
f (g(x))
dx
(T) 10.
d
d
tan2 =
d
d
f (x)
.
g (x)
= f (g(x))g (x).
sec2 .
d
d
cos
sin1 = (1) sin
2 .
x2 if x < 1
(F) 12. Let f (x) =
. Find f (x).
2x if x 1
(F) 11.
2x if x < 1
Hence f (x) =
. Is this argument correct?
2 if x 1
1
2
(x1)2
2
Problem 14 (10pts). Find the tangent line and normal line of the rotated ellipse
x2 xy + y 2 = 3 at the point (1, 1).
Solution. We differentiate x2 xy + y 2 = 3 with respect to x and get
dy
dy
y 2x
dy
dy
+ 2y
=0
=
= 1.
2x y x
dx
dx
dx
2y x
dx (x,y)=(1,1)
cos x1
.
x2
Solution.
2 sin2
cos x 1
lim
= lim
x0
x0
x2
x2
x
2
sin x2 2
1
1
= lim
= .
x
2 x0
2
2
1
(b) Find the limit lim+ (cos x) x .
x0
Solution. Let y =
x, then y 0+ as x 0+ . Thus
1
1
1
cos y1
lim+ (cos x) x = lim+ (cos y) y2 = lim+ (1 + (cos y 1)) cos y1 y2
y0
y0
x0
y0
1
cos y1
lim
y0+
cos y1
y2
= e 2 .
Problem 16 (10pts). Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [0, 1] with f (0) = f (1).
Show that there exists c (0, 12 ] such that f (c + 21 ) = f (c).
(If you want to quote some Theorem, you should explain that the following F (x)
satisfies all assumptions of the theorem and write down the name of the theorem.)
Proof. Without loss of generality, we assume f (0) = f (1) = 0. Consider the function
F (x) = f (x + 21 ) f (x) for x [0, 21 ]. Since f (x + 21 ) and f (x) are continuous
functions, so is F (x). Furthermore, we have F (0) = f ( 21 ) f (0) = f ( 12 ) and
F ( 12 ) = f (1) f ( 21 ) = f ( 21 ). If f ( 12 ) = 0, then we choose c =
1
2
and get f ( 21 + 21 ) =
I.D.:
Name:
(T) 2.
(ax2 + bx + c) dx = 2
(ax2 + c) dx.
(T) 7. If f (x) g (x) on [a, b] and f (a) = g(a), then f (x) g(x) for all x [a, b].
(T) 8. If f, g are continuous on [0, 1], then
Z 1
Z
f (x)g(1 x) dx =
0
(F) 9.
f (1 x)g(x) dx.
x=
= tan tan 0 = 0 0 = 0.
sec2 x dx = tan x
x=0
Thus
sin2 d = . Is this argument correct?
4
0
1
=
ba
Problem 12 (17pts). Write down the integral formula for the area of enclosed
region. No absolute value in your formula.
(a) The region bounded by the curves y = sin x, y = cos x, x = 0, and x = 2 .
(2pts) Two curves y = sin x and y = cos x intersect at (x, y) = 4 , 22 .
Z
Z
4
2
(cos x sin x) dx +
(sin x cos x) dx.
(7pts) Area =
Problem 13 (14pts). Write down the formula for the volume of solids of revolution:
(a) (7pts) The region bounded by f (x) and g(x) (f (x) > g(x) 0), x = a, x = b
about the x-axis.
Z b
Volume =
((f (x))2 (g(x))2 ) dx.
a
1
2
Solution.
Z 1
Z
x= 1
2
2
1
1
sin x dx = x sin x
=
4 2
=
4 2
Z 1
2
1
x d sin x =
x d sin1 x
4
x=0
2
0
0
Z 1
Z 1
2
2
1
x
1
dx = +
d(1 x2 )
2
2
2
1
x
1
x
4 2
0
0
1
1 x= 2
1
= + 1.
+ (1 x2 ) 2
x=0
4 2
2
1
2
Quiz 3
1.
,
, f (x) = 1, g(x) = 1,
b a, (b a)2
:
(Cauchy inequality) ,
: ~u, ~v R3 , |h~u, ~v i| k~ukk~v k
11 29 , C[a, b],
R3 , C[a, b]
, , ,
h~u, ~ui 0, ~u = 0, ha~u + b~v , wi
~ = ah~u, wi
~ + bh~v , wi
~
, C[a, b] ,
, C[a, b] ? :
Z b
Z b
12 Z b
21
2
2
f (x)g(x) dx
(f (x)) dx
(g(x)) dx .
a
2. , ,
, () ,
(, ,
); () ,
, ,
, ,
, x = 0 (
)
, ,
,
3. 3 , (..:P) 3
5 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus),
3
, ,
f (t) dt =
0
[[x]]1 Z k+1
X
k=0
[[t]] dt +
[[t]] dt =
[[x]]
[[x]]1 Z k+1
X
k=0
k dt +
[[x]] dt
[[x]]
[[x]]1
X
X t=k+1 t=x
k + [[x]](x [[x]])
=
+ t
kt
=
[[x]]1
t=k
t=[[x]]
k=0
k=0
([[x]] 1)[[x]]
[[x]]
1
+ +[[x]](x [[x]]) =
+ x[[x]] ([[x]])2 .
2
2
2
F (x) ()
F (x) , ,
4. , ,
x, x,
x , x
, sense
R x2
, F (x) = 0 (x2 t) dt 0, F (x) C,
C , F (0) = 0 ( ), F (x) 0,
F (x) , 0,
0,
5.
:
t=x
d 1 2
d 1 2
=
sin t d sin t =
sin t
sin x = sin x cos x.
dx 2
dx 2
0
t=0
Z x
Z x
d
d
sin t d sin t =
sin t cos t dt = sin x cos x.
(b)
dx 0
dx 0
d
(a)
dx
(c) sense , , ,
differential,
6. Net Change Theorem,
7. , f (x), g(x) ,
; : x [a, b],
Z x
Z x
Z x
g(x) f (x) =
g (t) dt
f (t) dt =
(g (t) f (t)) dt 0,
a
dy = dx, y = 0 y = 1,
Z 1
Z 0
Z 1
f (x)g(1 x) dx =
f (1 y)g(y) dy =
f (1 y)g(y) dy
0
1
0
Z 1
=
f (1 x)g(x) dx.
0
:
(a) : f (x) F (x), g(x) G(x),
f (x)g(x) F (x)G(x),
( (F (x)G(x)) = F (x)G(x) + F (x)G (x) = f (x)G(x) + F (x)g(x))
(b) (convolution) : f (x), g(x)
Z
(f g)(t) =
f (x)g(t x) dx ( 7-8 )
Z
Z
(f g)(t) =
f (x)g(t x) dx =
f (t x)g(x) dx = (g f )(t),
9. sec2 x x =
(infinity discontinuity),
R
x1 dx ?
5
R
ln |x| + C, : x > 0 , x1 dx = ln |x| + C1 , x < 0
R
, x1 dx = ln |x| + C2 , C1 C2
() 7-8
1
tan2 x + C.
2
Z
Z
1
(b)
tan x sec2 x dx = sec x d sec x = sec2 x + C.
2
(a)
tan x sec x dx =
tan x d tan x =
? , , (a) (b)
C C sec2 x = tan2 x + 1, C 12
sense ( sense
, , ,
, )
, , sec2 x > 0, () ,
0
10. ...XD Student A
( sense) (),
R
R
: 02 sin2 , d 02 cos2 , d
, (), ,
: , :
r
r 2 x2 dx, ,
, 12 r2
11. (),
12, 13. , :
(a) , 12 , sin x cos x
x ,
(b) , x y , (x = c y = c
) 8
6
(c) , x y ; ,
,
(d) !
,
; , ,
1 2 ()
!
8 10 ,
, , ,
, ,
14. integration by parts ;
, ( 1 x2 x = sin )
: x = sin , dx = cos d, =
Z
1
2
dx =
1 x2
sin
= 0,
Z
cos d =
1 sin2
= 4
1
= + 1.
= cos
=0
2
0
, !
sin d
I.D.:
Name:
f (x) dx is
(F) 3. If f is a continuous and decreasing function on [0, ) and lim f (x) = 0, then
x
R
f
(x)
dx
is
convergent.
0
(T) 4. If f (x) is continuous on [0, ) and lim f (x) = 0, then
x
(F) 5.
(F) 6.
(T) 7.
R
0
sin x
x
R
1
dx is not integrable.
x dx = lim
t t
1
x
Rt
x dx = lim
t
dx is convergent.
1
2
x=t
x2 x=t =
tan sec2 d =
tan sec2 d =
1
lim (t2
2 t
R
0
f (x) dx = f (0).
(t)2 ) = 0.
1
2
sec2 + C.
(c) Both Students are correct. (d) Both Students are incorrect.
(a) 10. Consider a curve of the form (x(t), y(t)), Student A said
Student B generalized Student As idea and get
d2 y
dx2
dy
dx
d2 y
dt2
d2 x
dt2
dy
dt
dx
dt
Problem 13 (4pts+6pts). Write down the integral formula for the enclosed area.
The region lies inside r = 3 sin (circle) and outside r = 1 + sin (cardioid).
Two curves intersect at (0, 0), 23 , 6 , and 23 , 65 .
Enclosed area =
1
1
(3 sin )2 (1 + sin )2
2
2
d.
2x 1 + 4x2 dx =
2 y
1+
1
dy.
4y
Problem 15 (10pts). Write down the integral formula for the centroid of the
x x) dx
x(
x = R0 1
,
( x x) dx
0
R1
R1
1
x
2
12 x2 dx
y = 0R 1
.
( x x) dx
0
2
I.D.:
19 True-False (T)-(F).
Name:
P
P
(T) 4. A series
an is convergent if and only if
an is convergent.
n=1
n=100
an is divergent.
n=1
(F) 6. If {an }
n=1 and {bn }n=1 are divergent, then {an + bn }n=1 is divergent.
P
n
P
P
P
P
P
(T) 7. If
an and
bn are absolutely convergent,
ak bnk =
an
bn .
n=0
n=0
n=0 k=0
n=0
n=0
1
n
{an }
n=1
1
n2
ln
n=2
1
n2
1
.
n2
Because
1
n2
is convergent, by
n=1
P
ln n12 is also convergent. Is this argument correct?
the Comparison Test,
n=2
P
(d) 10. If a series
an is convergent, then
n=1
(a)
(c)
n=1
|an | is convergent
(b)
(1)n an is convergent.
n=1
an an+1 is convergent
(d)
n=1
an +an+1
2
is convergent.
n=1
an with an > 0.
n=1
(a) If
(b) If
an+1
an
an+1
an
< 1, then
> 1, then
n=1
an is convergent.
an is divergent.
n=1
(c) If
an+1
an
n=1
an is inconclusive.
Blank filling. ()
Problem 12 (5pts+5pts).
P
1
is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p 1.
(1) p-series
np
n=1
P
(2) Geometric series
r n1 is convergent if |r| < 1 and divergent if |r| 1.
n=1
{n2 }
n=1
{n!}
n=1
ln n
{1}
n=1
n2
{ln n}
n=1
2n
{2n }
n=1
n!
{nn }
n=1
nn
The Integral Test (5pts). Suppose that f (x) is a continuous, positive, decreasing
P
function on [1, ) and let an = f (n). Then the series
an is convergent if and
n=1
R
only if the improper integral 1 f (x) dx is convergent.
P
P
The Comparison Test (5pts). Suppose that
an and
bn are series with
n=1
n=1
P
P
an is also convergent.
bn is convergent, then
(a) If
(b) If
n=1
n=1
an is divergent, then
bn is also divergent.
n=1
n=1
an and
n=1
an
n bn
bn are series
n=1
n=1
P
an+1
an is (absolutely) convergent.
(a) If lim an = L < 1, then the series
n
n=1
P
an+1
or
lim
then
the
series
an is divergent.
=
L
>
1
=
,
(b) If lim an+1
n an
n an
n=1
(c) If lim an+1
= 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive.
an
n
p
P
(a) If lim n |an | = L < 1, then the series
an is (absolutely) convergent.
n
n=1
p
p
P
an is divergent.
(b) If lim n |an | = L > 1 or lim n |an | = , then the series
n
n
n=1
p
(c) If lim n |an | = 1, the Root Test is inconclusive.
n
Quiz 1
1. : f (x) = |x| , lim an =
n
0, lim |an | = lim an = |0| = 0 , |an | an |an |,
n
lim an = 0 , an ,
n
, ,
lim |an | = 0 lim an = 0, f (x)
n
n
(n)
P
f (a)
n
n=1
0, |Rn (x)| ,
11.10 ex sin x
,
bn = lim Sn = lim
n
n=1
n=1
n
X
k=1
n
X
bk
|bk |,
k=1
n
X
bk ,
|Sn | =
Sn =
k=1
n
X
|bk |
k=1
2. ? ? ?
, ,
n
1 n
9
X
1
9
10
0.9 = 0.9(9 ) = lim
= lim 10
1
k
n
n
10
1
10
k=1
n
n
1
1
= lim 1
= lim 1 lim
= 1 0 = 1
n
n
n 10
10
, :
;
3
{an }
n=1 , a1 , a1
{an }
n=1 ,
4. {an }
n=1
an , : an ,
n=1
P
P
, sn =
ak ,
an lim sn ;
n
n=1
k=1
n=100
()
5.
an : lim an = 0, L =
n
n=1
an = lim sn ,
n=1
, ,
(Test of Divergence)
6. , ; ,
P
P
1
n1 ,
n
n=1
n=1
0 = 0
n=1
7. , ,
,
, ,
,
? 11.10
2
1 + x + x2! + x3! + 1 x
ex 1 x
= lim
lim
n
n
x2
x2
2
3
1 1 + x x + x2! + x3! +
= lim
n
x2
1
x
1
= lim
+ + = ,
n 2
3!
2
(1)
(1) , 1 x ,
, ex , (1)
4
8. ,
,
, , ,
( a2n+1 1 a2n 1), A
, L,
9. , :
P
B ,
ln n12
n=1
, , lim ln n12 = ,
n
P
(Test of Divergence)
ln n12
n=1
10. , : p-
() , :
(A)
(B)
n=1
(1)n
n
(1)n
n2
:
:
n=1
n=1
(1)n
n
(1)n
n2
,
,
n=1
n=1
1
n
1
n2
n=1
(a) (b) (,
(Ratio Test) (Root Test) 1
)
(d) ,
an ,
n=1
an+1 , :
n=1
X
an + an+1
n=1
1X
1X
an +
an+1
2 n=1
2 n=1
(c) , , ,
, , n1p , p 1
P
P
(1)n
, , 1
an =
n
n
n=1
n=1
0,
an
n=1
an an+1
n=1
n=2
1
n
X
X
X
(1)n (1)n+1 X
1
1
1
p
=
=
,
=
n
+
1
n
n
n
+
1
n(n
+
1)
n=1
n=2
n=1
n=1
an an+1
n=1
, , lim
n
,
lim
n
an+1
an
, (), ,
P
(common ratio) (c) , 1 ,
an = lim n a1
n=1
an = lim
n
n=1
n
X
ak > lim
n
n
X
an+1
an
> 1,
a1 = lim n a1
n
k=1
k=1
(b)
(a) , :
1
n
n=1
an+1
an
n
n+1
< 1
, ,
, ,
,
, (Ratio Test)
p
an+1
(Root Test) (b), lim an lim n |an |
n
? : ,
, , ,
P
(2+(1)n )n
, :
4n
n=1
(2 + 1)n
(2 + (1)n )n
=
an =
4n
4n
bn
3
4
n
3
= bn
4
, (
n=1
(Comparison Test)
an
n=1
3
4
1 34
= 3)
, (Ratio Test)
an ,
n=1
an+1
(2 + (1)n+1 )n+1
1 (2 + (1)n+1 )n+1
4n
=
lim
=
lim
lim
n
n an
4n+1
(2 + (1)n )n n 4 (2 + (1)n )n
lim 1 3n+1 n
n 4
=
,
lim 1 1n
n
4 3
n
lim an+1
( )
an
n
lim an = lim bn = c , ,
n
lim an = lim bn = 0, ,
n
I.D.:
Name:
17 True-False (T)-(F).
(T) 1.
(F) 2.
n=0
(1)n
n!
= 1e .
(1)n1 2n
n
= ln(1 + 2) = ln 3.
n=1
f (n) (0) n
x
n!
in the
n=0
interval of convergence.
(F) 4. If |r(t)| = 1 for all t, then |r (t)| is a constant.
(T) 5. If |r(t)| = 1 for all t, then r (t) is orthogonal to r(t) for all t.
(F) 6. If T(t) is the unit tangent vector of a smooth curve, then the curvature is
.
(t) = dT
dt
(F) 7. Consider the limit
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f (x, y) =
xy 2
2 +y 4 .
x
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
x(mx)2
m2 x3
m2 x
=
=
0 as x 0.
x2 + (mx)4
x2 + m4 x4
1 + m4 x2
We take vertical path C (y) = (x = 0, y), y 6= 0, then f (x, y)|C (y) 0. Since
2
the limit tends to 0 along each direction, we get
lim x2xy+y4 = 0. Is this
(x,y)(0,0)
argument correct?
r (t) = 1 i + 2t j + t2 k
|r (t)| = t2 + 1
r (t) = 0 i + 2 j + 2t k
2t
1
t2
r (t)
= 2
i+ 2
j+ 2
k
T(t) =
|r (t)|
t +1
t +1
t +1
2t
2(1 t2 )
2t
i
+
j+ 2
k
T (t) = 2
2
2
2
(t + 1)
(t + 1)
(t + 1)2
So the curvature (t) =
(t2 +1)2
T(1) =
1
2
N(1) =
B(1) =
1
i+
1
2
2
2
2
2
j+
j+
i+
i+
2
2
j+
1
2
k,
2
2
k,
1
2
k.
Problem 9 ((4 + 1) 6 = 30 pts). Write down the Maclaurin series and the radius
of convergence of the following functions.
X
1
=
xn
(1)
1 x n=0
(2) ln(1 + x) =
R=1
X
(1)n1 xn
n=1
(3) tan
x=
(4) e =
R=1
n+1
n=0
X
(1)n x2n+1
R=1
2n + 1
n=0
X
(1)n xn+1
X
xn
n=0
(5) sin x =
X
(1)n x2n+1
n=0
(6) cos x =
R=
n!
R=
(2n + 1)!
X
(1)n x2n
n=0
R=
(2n)!
Define C0
we get
= 1 and Cn 2 =
( 21 )( 32 )( 21 (n1))
n!
X 1
X
1
d
1
sin1 x = (1 + (x2 )) 2 =
(1)n Cn 2 x2n ,
Cn 2 (x2 )n =
dx
n=0
n=0
where the radius of convergence is R = 1. We can integrate the power series terms
by terms to get
1
sin1 x = C +
X
(1)n Cn 2
n=0
2n + 1
x2n+1 ,
Quiz 2
1. f (x) = ex ( Maclaurin series) , 14 (3):
e =
x
X
xn
n=0
n!
R, R = , lim Rn (x) = 0,
n
; x = 1
:
, ,
? ?
(derangement), :
= 1 + 2 3 + 4 5
= C05 5! C15 4! + C25 3! C35 2! + C45 1! C55 0!
= 120 120 + 60 20 + 5 1 = 44,
P5 =
44
11
=
120
30
(inclusion-exclusion principle) m
m , :
m =
m
X
n=0
m
X
X (1)n m!
m!
(m n)! =
,
=
(1)
n!(m
n)!
n!
n=0
n=0
n
m
Pm =
m
P
(1)n m!
n!
n=0
m!
m
X
(1)n
n=0
n!
m , ; lim Pm = 1e
m
1e , , ,
? , ,
:
3
http://pansci.tw/archives/73913
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_problem
, ,
2. f (x) = ln(1 + x) , 14
(2):
ln(1 + x) =
X
(1)n1 xn
n=1
X
(1)n xn+1
n+1
n=0
x (1, 1], R = 1, ,
lim Rn (x) = 0, (1, 1]
n
, x = 2 ( (Ratio Test) ),
ln 3
f (x) = ln(1 + x) x = 1 ,
(1)n1
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ++
+ = ln 2,
1 2 3 4 5 6
n
e x12
f (x) =
0
x 6= 0
x = 0,
P
Cnm xn , 11.10
9 (1 + x)m =
n=0
4. |r(t)| = 1 : r(t) S2
, , (),
()
, ,
:
r(t) = (cos(t3 ), sin(t3 ), 0)
5. , :
|r(t)| = 1 |r(t)|2 = r(t) r(t) = 1
d
(r(t) r(t)) = 2 r(t) r(t) = 0
dt
T, N, B, ,
6. ;
; ,
, , = dT ,
ds
r(t) ,
dT dT dt dT
=
= dt = |T (t)| ,
(t) =
ds
ds dt ds
|r (t)|
dt
|T (t)| |r (t)|
7. ,
, , C(y) =
(y 2 , y), y 6= 0,
f (x, y)|C(y) =
1
y2 y2
,
(y 2)2 + y 4
2
(0, 0) 12
,
;
(Squeeze Theorem), x = r cos , y = r sin ,
r (order), ,
(bounded),
8. (t) T, N, B , ,
( 12.4)
|r (t) r (t)|
|T (t)|
=
,
|r (t)|
|r (t)|3
T (t)
N(t) =
,
B(t) = T(t) N(t)
|T (t)|
(t) =
T(t) =
r (t)
,
|r(t)|
9-10. , (1 + x)m =
Cnm xn , R = 1
n=0
, , 10 sin1 x
cos1 x
, q: sec x ( 4 2 ), tan x (11.10
2
( 3 5 ), tan1 x ( 3 8
), cos 2x ( 3 4,7 ), ln 1+x
1x2
)
:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MaclaurinSeries.html
ZZ
(x y)ex
2 y 2
dA, where
u=1
u=1
v=3
v=1
1 uv
ue dv du.
2
(, , )
Z
z2
p
Problem 2 (6%+6%+6%+2%). Compute the line integral
ds, where
2x2 + y 2
C
C is the intersection of the circular cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1 and the plane z = y.
(a) Write down the parametric equations of C: r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + sin t k.
(, , )
Problem 4 (15%+5%).
(a) Find the potential function of the vector field
F(x, y, z) = (y + z sin(xz)) i + (x + z eyz ) j + (x sin(xz) + y eyz ) k.
()
Z
(b) Compute
F dr, where C is any path from (0, 0, 0) to 1, 2, 2 .
C
Solution.
R
(a) fx = y + z sin(xz) f (x, y, z) = (y + z sin(xz)) dx = xy cos(xz) + g(y, z).
R
Next, fy = x + gy = x + z eyz gy = z eyz g(y, z) = z eyz dy = eyz + h(z).
Finally, fz = x sin(xz) + y eyz + h (z) = x sin(xz) + y eyz h (z) = 0 h(z) =
C. So the potential function of F is f (x, y, z) = xy cos(xz) + eyz + C.
h
i(1,2, 2 )
= (2 0 + e ) (0 1 + 1) = 2 + e .
F dr = f (x, y, z)
(0,0,0)
where C is the triangle region with vertices (0, 0), (1, 1), and (0, 1). It is impossible
to calculate the line integral directly, so we will use Greens Theorem. Greens
Theorem tells us
so we get
ZZ
P
(A)
Z ZD x
(B)
Z ZD x
I
P
(C)
P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy =
Z ZD y
(D)
Z ZD x
(E)
y
D
y=1
y=0
x=y
Q
+
y
Q
y
Q
x
P
y
P
dA
dA
dA ,
dA
dA
ey dx dy.
x=0
(, , , )
ZZ
(x y)ex
2 y 2
u=1
u=1
v=3
v=1
Z
h iv=3
1 u=1 3u
uv
du =
e
(e eu ) du
v=1
2
u=1
u=1
u=1
1 1 3
1 1 3u
u
3
1
=
=
e e
(e e ) (e e ) .
2 3
2 3
u=1
1
1 uv
ue dv du =
2
2
u=1
z2
Solution. We first parameterize the curve C: r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + sin t k, where
0 t < 2. Then we get the arc-length
ds =
=
p
( sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + (cos t)2 dt
ds =
sin2 +2 cos2 t dt
2
2
2
2
2x + y
2 cos t + sin t
C
0
2
Z 2
Z 2
1
sin 2t
1 + cos 2t
2
= .
dt =
t+
=
sin t dt =
2
2
4 0
0
0
Solution.
F dr, where C is any path from (0, 0, 0) to 1, 2, 2 .
(a) We will find the smooth function f (x, y, z) such that f = (fx , fy , fz ) = F.
From the first equation fx = y + z sin(xz), we get
Z
f (x, y, z) = (y + z sin(xz)) dx = xy cos(xz) + g(y, z).
Next, we compute
fy = x + gy = x + z e
yz
gy = z e
yz
g(y, z) =
Finally, we calculate
fz = x sin(xz) + y eyz + h (z) = x sin(xz) + y eyz h (z) = 0 h(z) = C.
So the potential function of F is f (x, y, z) = xy cos(xz) + eyz + C.
2
ey dx dy
P (x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy =
x
y
y=0
x=0
C
D
Z 1
Z y=1 h
i
x=y
2
2
dy =
=
yey dy
xey
x=0
0
y=0
Z 1
1 h y2 iy=1 1
1
y 2
2
=
1 e1 .
e d(y ) = e
=
2 0
2
2
y=0
v=15
v=5
1
dv du =
2v
u=8
u=4
v=15
h iu=8
1
1
du = ln 3 u
= 2 ln 3.
ln |v|
2
2
u=4
v=5
Area =
u=8
u=4
u=8
u=4
v= 15u
Z u=8
1
1
du
dv du =
ln |v|
5
2v
2
5
v= u
u=4
v= u
h iu=8
1
1
= 2 ln 3.
ln 3 du = ln 3 u
u=4
2
2
v= 15
u
Problem 7. Compute
Z p
and
p
p
So we have
Z p
Z
2
2
x + y ds =
r
Z 2
t
t
t
t
2 2 sin t dt = 2
sin2 + cos2 2 sin cos
2
2
2
2
0
0
Z
2
sin t cos t dt
= 2
2
2
0
Z 2
Z 2
t
t
t
t
sin cos
= 2
cos sin
dt + 2
dt
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
t 2
t
t
t
= 2 2 sin + cos + 2 2 cos sin
2
2 0
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0 + 1 1
0
=2 2
2
2
2
2
= 8.
Solution 2. We first use the polar coordinates x = r cos , y = r sin to find the
parametric equation of the circle C:
r 2 cos2 + r 2 sin2 = 2r sin r(r + 2 sin ) = 0 r = 0 or r = 2 sin .
So the parametric equation of C is
y = (2 sin ) sin = 2 sin2 ,
0 .
We compute
p
p
(x ())2 + (y ())2 d = (2 cos 2)2 + (4 sin cos )2 d
p
= 2 cos2 2 + sin2 2 d = 2 d.
ds =
So
Z p
C
x2
y 2 ds
=2
q
( sin 2)2 + (2 sin2 )2 2 d
Z0 p
sin2 cos2 + sin4 d
=4
Z0
h
i=
= 8.
=4
| sin | d = cos
=0
Problem 8. Compute
sin 2t
1
sin t = .
= t
2
4
3
2
0
0
Hence we get
xy dx =
xy dx +
xy dx = 0
C2
C1
= .
2
2
1
1 1
=
cos d = sin = .
2 3
2 3
2
0
0
Solution 3. By Greens Theorem, we have
I
= 2
r=2 cos
r cos r dr d
(x) dA =
=0
r=0
r=2 cos
Z
Z
8 2
1 3
cos d =
=
r
cos4 d
3
3
=0
0
r=0
2
Z
Z
1 + cos 4
2 2
8 2 1 + cos 2
1 + 2 cos 2 +
d
d =
=
3 0
2
3 0
2
2 3
sin 4
= .
=
+ sin 2 +
3 2
8
2
0
xy dx =
C
ZZ
D
= 2
f
= x exy sin(xy) + x exy cos(xy).
y
First, we compute
Z
Z
Z
Z
xy
xy
xy
f (x, y) = y e sin(xy) dx + y e cos(xy) dx = sin(xy) de + cos(xy) dexy
i Z
i Z
h
h
xy
xy
xy
+ y exy sin(xy) dx + g(y)
y e cos(xy) dx + cos(xy)e
= sin(xy)e
i Z
i Z
h
h
xy
xy
xy
+ sin(xy) dexy + g(y)
cos(xy) de + cos(xy)e
= sin(xy)e
h
i h
i Z
xy
xy
= sin(xy)e
cos(xy)e
y exy sin(xy) dx + g(y)
i Z
i h
h
xy
xy
y exy cos(xy) dx + g(y)
+ sin(xy)e
+ cos(xy)e
h
i
= 2 sin(xy)exy f (x, y) + g(y).
f
(x, y) = x cos(xy)exy + x sin(xy)exy + g (y) = x exy sin(xy) + x exy cos(xy).
y
So we get g(y) = 0 g(y) = C. Hence the potential function is f (x, y) =
sin(xy)exy + C.
Z
Problem 10. Compute
F dr, where F = y + x2 + 1 i + (tan1 x) j and C is
C
1
Solution. Let P = y + x2 + 1 and Q = tan1 x, so Qx = 1+x
2 and Py = 1. Notice
that the curve C is oriented clockwise, by Greens Theorem, we have
Z
Z
ZZ
1
1 dA
F dr =
P dx + Q dy =
1 + x2
C
C
D
Z x=1 Z y=1
1
=
1 dy dx
1 + x2
x=0
y=x
Z x=1
x
1
1 + x dx
=
1 + x2 1 + x2
x=0
x=1
1
1
1 2
1
1
2
= + ln 2 + .
= tan x ln |1 + x | x + x
2
2
4 2
2
x=0
6
Solution 2. Let P = y +
x2 + 1 and Q = tan1 x, so Qx =
1
1+x2
and Py = 1.
1
dx
dy
=
tan
x
x
2
x=0
1+x
y=0
y=0
x=0
y=1
Z 1
h
iy=1 Z 1 y
1 2
1
1
dy +
y
+
=
( tan y + y) dy = y tan y
2
2
y=0
0 1+y
0
y=0
Z 1
h
i
y=1
1
1
1
1
1
= +
+
ln(1 + y 2 )
d(1 + y 2) = +
2
y=0
4 2 0 1+y
2
4 2
2
1
1
= + ln 2 + .
4 2
2
Solution 3. Notice that the closed curve is C = C1 C2 C3 , where
r1 (t) = 0 i + t j, 0 t 1,
r2 (t) = t i + 1 j, 0 t 1,
r3 (t) = 0 i + t j, 0 t 1,
0 + 1) i + tan1 0 j
1
2
2
(1 t tan1 t) dt
=
(1 + t + 1 t t + 1 tan t) dt =
0
0
t=1 h
it=1 Z 1 t
1
1
= t t t tan t +
dt
2 t=0
1 + t2
t=0
0
t=1
1 1
1
1
2
ln(1 + t ) = + ln 2.
= +
2 4
2
2 4 2
t=0
1.1
(x, y = f (x))
y = f (x), :
(1) y = f (x) + d : d
d ; d
(2) y = af (x) : y a
|a| > 1 y ; 0 < |a| < 1 y ; a x-
(3) y = f (x + c) : c
c ; c
(4) y = f (bx) : x b
|b| > 1 x ; 0 < |b| < 1 x ; b y-
a, b, c, d , ,
, y = x, y = x + 1, y = 2x;
y = x2 , y = x2 1, y = 2x2 , y = (x 1)2 , y = ( 12 x)2 , ,
,
, , : y = f (x),
(1) a , d , y = af (x) + d
(2) d , a , y = a(f (x) + d)
(3) b , c , y = f (b(x + c))
(4) c , b , y = f (bx + c)
(5) , ,
(6) c b a d a d c b, y = af (bx + c) + d
(7) b c a d a d b c, y = af (b(x + c)) + d
1
, , ,
1.3 , ,
1. sin ?
(a) cos( 2 ) (b) sin( + ) (c) cos( + 2 ) (d) sin( )
. :
cos
= cos cos + sin sin = sin
2
2
2
sin( + ) = (sin cos + cos sin ) = sin
= cos cos sin sin
= sin
cos +
2
2
2
sin( ) = sin() cos cos() sin = sin ,
sin () :
1
-6
-4
-2
-1
1: cos ()
-6
-4
-2
-1
()
2: sin () (), x- (a = 1, )
-6
-4
-2
3: cos ()
-6
-4
-2
-1
(), x- (a = 1, )
-1
4: sin () (), y- (b = 1, )
1.2
F (x, y) = 0
F (x, y) = 0 , :
(1) F (Ax, y) = 0 , 0 < |A| < 1 ; |A| > 1 ; y-
(2) F (x, Cy) = 0 , 0 < |C| < 1 ; |C| > 1 ; x-
(3) F (x + B, y) = 0 , B , B
(4) F (x, y + D) = 0 , D , D
(5) A B , F (A(x + B), y) = 0
(6) B , A , F (Ax + B, y) = 0
(7) , ,
, , ,
, : A, B, C, D
y = af (bx + c) + d b, c ; ,
a, d
2. F (x, y) = x2 + y 2 1 = 0 x- 3 , y-
2 , 1 , 2 ?
. 3 2, (1, 2) , :
1
(x 1)2 (y + 2)2
1
(x 1), (y + 2) =
+
1 = 0
F
3
2
32
22
2
1
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
5: () () () () ()
1.3
() :
,
, () ,
, , ()
e1 = (1, 0) e2 = (0, 1), e1 =
(cos , sin ) e2 = ( sin , cos )
e2 = (0, 1)
e2 = ( sin , cos )
e1 = (cos , sin )
e1 = (1, 0)
6: e1 e1 ; e2 e2
e1 , e2 [
e1 |
e2 ] ,
cos sin
,
R =
sin cos
v = (v1 , v2 ) v :
v1
cos sin
v1
v1 cos v2 sin
= R (v) =
v =
v2
sin cos
v2
v1 sin + v2 cos
, ,
e1 , e2 , ,
, v = v1 e1 + v2 e2 , v1 , v2
4
3.
x2
32
y2
22
= 1
2
2
x(t) 2 y(t)
x(t)
x(t)
cos 4 sin 4
= 2
2
2
sin 4 cos 4
x(t) + 2 y(t)
y(t)
y(t)
2
3 2
cos t 2 sin t
2
3 2
cos
t
+
2
sin
t
2
(
x(t), y(t)) , :
x(t)
x(t)
cos 4 sin 4
sin 4 cos 4
y(t)
y(t)
2
2
x(t) + 2 y(t)
x(t)
cos 4 sin 4
x(t)
=
= 2
,
sin 4 cos 4
2 x(t) + 22 y(t)
y(t)
y(t)
x2
32
y2
22
= 1,
2
x
2
2
2
y
2
32
22 x +
2
2
y
2
22
= 1,
13
x2 10
xy + 13
y 2 72 = 0 ( 13x2 10xy + 13y 2 72 = 0)
2
1
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
7:
x2
32
+ y22 = 1
1.4
(r = f (), )
r = f () , :
(1) r = f () + d : d ; d > 0 , d < 0
(2) r = af () : a
|a| > 1 ; 0 < |a| < 1 ; a < 0
(3) r = f ( + c) : c ; c > 0 , c < 0
(4) r = f (b) : b ()
|b| > 1 ; 0 < |b| < 1 ; b < 0
4. r = sin r = 1 + sin
. 8 (0, 12 )
1
2
r = sin
( y-) ,
: x = r cos , y = r sin ,
2 2
1
1
=
r = sin r = y x + y = y x + y
2
2
2
1.5
0.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
8: r = sin () r = 1 + sin ()
r = 1 + sin r = sin 1 ,
, , 1 () r = 1 + sin
0 , , 2 ,
( r < 0, ),
1 () 2
6
, cos = sin
, 1)
, (
()
()
-2
-1
-1
-2
. 10 , 0 , = 0 = ,
r = sin (); = 0 =
r = sin 2, 0
()
()
. x2 y 2 = 1
xy = 1
. 10.6 r =
ed
,
1+e sin
r=
ed
1e sin
ed
,
1+e cos
r=
ed
,
1e cos
r=
? ?
. , :
(1)
(x1)2
32
(y+2)2
22
= 1 6
. , ?
. r =
1 + sin 2 ,
r=
. r = 1 + 2 cos 2 ,
r = cos 2, r = 1 + 2 cos 2
2.1
, , :
.
(1) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
(6) 0, 9, 5, 2, 3, 2, 7, 9, 5,
1
10, 1024, 10
, 55, ,
21
? , , , ,
, ,
, , 1 9,
10 ? 10 ,
A, , :
, A ! , A ? , 9
A ?
, ,
,
,
, ()
, ()
1
, , ,
, : 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, . . .
, 0, 1, 0 1,
, () , , ,
,
, ,
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , , ,2 :
(1) an = n, {an }
n=1 = {n}n=1
n
(2) bn = 2n , {bn }
n=1 = {2 }n=1
, , ;
, , : {gn }5n=1 = {n}5n=1 ,
() , ?
, , {an }, {bn }, {cn }
, {dn } 0, {en } 1
1 ( 0 ), {fn } ,
0 , ,
( ), ,
2.2
, ,
, ,
, , :
2
0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , , 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
, , , :
1. {an }
n=1 ,
, : ,
(), ,
,
, , ,
, ,
,
,
,
, :
1
(1) {an }
n=1 = { n }n=1 , lim an = 0
n
(2) {bn }
n=1 = {
(3)
{cn }
n=1
(1)n
n
}
n=1 , lim bn = 0
n
{(1)n }
n=1 ,
lim cn ()
n
(4) {dn }
n=1 = {n}n=1 , lim dn = ()
n
(5) {en }
n=1 = {n}n=1 , lim en = ()
n
2. {an }
n=1 = {n}n=1 {bn }n=1 = {2n}n=1
lim
n
2n
bn
= lim
= lim 2 = 2
n
n
an
n
: {n}
n=1 {2n}n=1 ,
, , {2n}
n=1 {n}n=1
2
:
2
3. {an }
n=1 = {n}n=1 {bn }n=1 = {n }n=1
n2
bn
= lim
= lim n =
lim
n n
n
n an
(1)
2
: {n}
n=1 {n }n=1 ,
, {n2 }
n=1 {n}n=1
, (1)
, , ,
, ,
, order, ,
, 3
:
1 log n n n log n n2 n3 2n 3n n!
(2)
(2), :
1 ; 1 ( {1}
n=1 )
{1 + n1 }
n=1 {2 +
(1)n
}n=1
n
{1}
n=1
(2) , 1 , n
, ,
(2) log , :
logn b
loga n
= lim
= lim log b = loga b
n
n logb n
logn a n a
lim
(2) ? ,
: :
(1) lim
n
(2) lim
n
log n
1
n log n
n
n3
2
n
n
(3) lim
3
= lim n = , n2 n3
n
order ,
3n
n
n 2
(4) lim
= lim
n
3 n
2
= , 2n 3n
? :
4. n 2n
. n > 2,
2 = (1 + 1) =
n
n
X
i=0
n(n 1)
,
2
2n
n1
>
n
2
lim
n1
n 2
2n
n n
= , lim
= , n 2n
4 (2) , ,
, , 4
5. nk an , a > 1
. a = 1 + a , a > 0 n > 2 , n 1 > n2 , ,
a = (1 + a ) =
n
n
X
n(n 1) 2 n2 2 n2
a > a = (a 1)2
2
4
4
i=0
:
an
k
n n
(a) k 0, lim
= lim an nk =
n
(b) k = 1,
an
n
an
=
> (a 1)2 ,
k
n
n
4
an
n n
= , n an
(c) k > 0,
1
ak
n
an
=
nk
1
1
k
ak
n
n
n !k
an
k
n n
= , lim
5
= , nk an
6. an n!, a > 0
. k 2a , n > k ,
n n1
k+1 k
2 1
1
2n
n!
nk
=
>
2
=
,
an
a
a
a
a
a a
ak
(2a)k
an
k
(2a)
n
5 lim
= , lim
n!
n
n a
= , an n!
= lim
n
log n
n
= 0 ,
, ,
, , (
),
. {an }
n=1 {bn }n=1 (), c ,
an
n bn
lim an
lim bn
lim an
p
. {an }
n=1 , {bn }n=1 {cn }n=1 , n0 ,
8. lim an = L f (x) x = L ,
n
9. : {an }
n=1
a1 a2 a3 . . . an . . . a1 a2 a3 . . . an . . . ,
M n |an | M, lim an
n
, log n n n log n n2 , :
{ n n}
n=1 :
10. lim
n = 1
. an =
,
n=
ann
= (1 + an, ) =
n
n
X
i=0
2
n(n 1) 2
n2
n2
n2
n
an, > a2n, = (an 1)2 =
n1 ,
2
4
4
4
lim 2n
n
lim n n = 1
2
n1< ,
n
= 0, : lim ( n n 1) = 0,
0<
11. lim
log n
n
= 0 log n n n log n n2
1
. f (x) = log x x = 1 , an = n n = n n, 8 :
1
1
log n
= lim log n n = log lim n n = log 1 = 0
lim
n
n n
n
. 2048 , App ,
, 2048 , :
(1) 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048
(2) ?
(3) ( 2048) ? ?
. lim
n
n!
= 0
. {an }
n=1 , a1 =
2, an+1 =
2 + an
.
(1)
(2) lim
n
1
2
1
2
34
3
4
2n1
2n
2n1
2n
<
2n+1
= 0
. 8 (2)?
3.1
, :
, 1 + 2 + 3 + + 98 + 99 + 100,
, 5050
, () ,
:
S=
1 + 2 + 3 + + 98 + 99 + 100
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + + 3 + 2 +
1,
, , ,
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + + 98 + 99 + 100 1 1
n
P
, ,
ak , ak a1
k=1
d , ak = a1 + (k 1)d,
?
: 12 ( + ) , ( + )
, ,
, , k ak 1,
1 , 1
,
1:
3.2
, , :
, , , ,
, , 1 ,
2 , 4 ,
, ,
,
S = 1 + 2 + 22 + + 261 (
) , ,
:
S = 1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + + 261
2S =
2 + 22 + 23 + + 261 + 262 ,
S = 1 262 ,
S = 262 1
262 1 = 4611686018427387903 62 ,
,
,
3.3
, :
1+
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + + + ++ +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n
, ,
, , ,
, (,
, )
:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
+ + + + + + ++ +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
> 1+ + + + + + + ++ +
2 |4 {z 4} |8 8 {z 8 8}
n
1
1
1
=1+ +
+
+
2
2
2
1
1
1
+
+
>1+ +
2
3
4
1+
(1)
(2)
(3)
1
x2
n
++
1
xn
, + , ,
, ,
, ,
, (1)
:
1+
n
X
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
+ + + + + + + + + = lim
,
n
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n
k
k=1
an ,
n=1
X
n=1
sn =
n
P
def.
an = lim
n
X
ak = lim sn ,
k=1
(4)
ak (4) ,
k=1
,
, (1) (3)
( ), (2) ,
1
2
, , (2)
1
{sn = 1 + 12 (n 1)}
n=1 , (1)
P
,
an ,
n=1
R
1
g(x) dx ,
R
1
f (x) dx
, ,
() :
x , x2 , x2 x, x(x1) 0
0 x 1 x , x = 1
, 2, 3, 4 1, ,
,
( ),
,
, ()
() () ,
,
,
3.4
p-
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
= 1+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 ++ 2 + ,
2
n
2
3
4
5
6
n
n=1
, :
n
o
n
P
1
,
:, sn =
2
k
k=1
n=1
n
n
n
X
X
X
1
1
1
1
1
sn =
= 1 + 1 < 2,
<1+
=1+
2
k
(k 1)k
k1 k
n
k=1
2 ,
k=2
n=1
1
n2
k=2
, (Euler) , ,
, p-:
X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
= p + p + p + p + p + p ++ p + ,
p
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
n
n=1
p p-, 7.8
R
, 1 x1p dx: p > 1 , 0 < p < 1 , p-
3.5
:
m
X
an bn
n=1
an bn ,
n=1
{an }m
n=1 , {an }n=1 , d, {bn }n=1 , {bn }n=1 ,
r
sn =
n
X
an bk = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 + a4 b4 + + an bn
k=1
rsn =
n
X
a1 b2 + a2 b3 + a3 b4 + + an1 bn + an bn+1
an (bk r) =
k=1
r 6= 1,
n
n
X
X
(1 r)sn = a1 b1 +
(ak ak1 )bk an bn+1 = a1 b1 + d
bk an bn+1
k=2
k=2
n1
= a1 b1 + d
b2 (1 r
1r
(a1 + (n 1)d)b1 r n
r(1 r n1 ) (n 1)r n (1 r)
1r
n
r nr + (n 1)r n+1
= a1 b1 (1 r n ) + db1
,
1r
= a1 b1 (1 r n ) + db1
sn = a1 b1
1 rn
r nr n + (n 1)r n+1
+ db1
1r
(1 r)2
r
1 rn
n 1 r
lim
r nr n + (n 1)r n+1
n
(1 r)2
lim
n
a1 b1 + db1 r
X
X
|r| < 1
1 r (1 r)2
ak bk =
an bn = lim
n
n=1
k=1
|r| 1
5
3.6
, , ,
,
, , ,
,
, , , ,
?
, , , ?
, , 10 , , :
, 20 :, 20 , ,
! , 40 , : 40 :? :
, 40 80 :!
, , ,
, 80 , 80
, , , 10
,
? , ,
, 10 , : , , 10 ;
, , ,
, 10 + 20 + 40 = 70 , 80 , 10
?
,
,
1
4
1
2
10 = 5;
10 ( 14 ,
10 ); , n 1 , n ,
1
2n
10,
(, 0 )
, ? ?
: , ,
, (? ?),
3.7
, : , 17
, :, ,
,
, , 8 12 , 5 23 , 1 98 ,
?
, , , 18
, 12 , 9 , 13 , 6 , 19 , 2
17 , 1
, , ,
? ,
,
, 12 , 31 , 91
1 , , ,
1
: ()
18
181 12 , 31 , 19 ,
,
,
:
a1 = 17
a2
a3
..
.
1
2
1
3
1
9
1
18
1
a
2 1
1
a
2 2
1
a
2 3
1
a
3 1
1
a
3 2
1
a
3 3
1
a
9 1
1
a
9 2
1
a
9 3
1
a
18 1
1
a
18 2
1
a
18 3
a2 =
1
a
2 n
1
a
3 n
1
a
9 n
1
a
18 n
an+1 =
..
.
..
.
an
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
a3 =
a4 =
..
.
1
a
18 1
1
a
18 2
1
a
18 3
1
a
18 n
lim
n
X
1
k=1
n
X
1
1
17 X 1
a
=
lim
1
n
n 2
2 18k1
18k1
k=1
k=1
n
1 n
1
17 1 1 18
= lim 9 1
= lim
= 9
1
n
n 2
18
1 18
ak = lim
6 , 2
3.8
0.9 1?
,
:
n
9
1 n
X
1 10
9
10
0.9 = 0.9(9 ) = lim
= lim
1
k
n
n
10
1 10
k=1
n
n
1
1
= lim 1
= lim 1 lim
= 1 0 = 1
n
n
n
10
10
PTT : Math
, 0.9 = 1 ,
0.9 6= 1, ,
,
!
n
X
142857
k=1
1
106
n
X
1
= lim 142857
= lim 142857
n
106k n
k=1
n
1
1
142857
1
= lim
=
n 999999
106
7
3.9
106k
1 1016
1 1016
n
, , ,
11.2 ,
? 11
, :
(1) (11.3 11.6)
(2) ? (11.6)
(3) () (11.8)
(4) ? (11.9 11.11)
n
P
. :
ak =
k=1
X
(1)n
n=1
=1
(2a1 +(n1)d)n
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ,
2 3 4 5 6
:
1 1 1 1 1
+ + +
2 3 4 5 6
1
1 1 1 1
+
S1 = 1 + + + + +
3 5 7 9 11
1
1
1 1 1 1
+
+
S2 = + + + +
2 4 6 8 10 12
1 1 1 1 1
2S2 = 1 + + + + + +
2 3 4 5 6
S =1
S1 + S2 = 2S2 , S1 = S2 , S = S1 S2 = 0
?
. r
r nr n + (n 1)r n+1
n
(1 r)2
lim
. :
X
2n 1
n=1
2n
1
3
5
7
2n 1
+ 2 + 3 + 4 ++
+
2 2
2
2
2n
. ?
. , 6 2
. 0.285714, 0.428571, 0.571428, 0.714285, 0.857142
. 0.123
4
4.1
, , 10.5
y 2 = 4px
x = 4py
F (0, p)
F (p, 0)
x
y = p
x = p
x2
a2
y2
b2
= 1,
F1
x
F2
2:
x2
a2
y2
b2
= 1, a > b > 0
x2
a2
y2
b2
= 1, b > a > 0
(a)
x2
a2
y = ab x
(b)
y2
a2
y = ab x
y
F1
F1
F2
x
F2
3:
4.2
x2
a2
y2
b2
=1
y2
a2
x2
b2
= 1
ax2 + 2bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0,
(1)
, a, b, c, d, e, f ,
,
b = 0, (1) x y
, (x h)2 = 4p(y k), (y k)2 =
2
+
4p(x h), (xh)
a2
(yk)2
b2
= 1, (xh)
a2
(yk)2
b2
= 1,
(yk)2
a2
(xh)2
b2
= 1
b 6= 0, 3, ,
xy ( ); ,
, ,
,
h i
a b
x
d
x
= ,
, X = , B = , C = f , X
A=
b c
y
e
y
(1)
X T AX + B T X + C = 0,
2
(2)
,
3 , P , X = P X,
x
cos sin
x
=
,
y
sin cos
y
(x, y) (
x, y) , (2)
T A(P X)
+ BT P X
+C =X
T P T AP X
+ BT P X
+C
X T AX + B T X + C = (P X)
T (P T AP )X
+ (P T B)T X
+ C = 0,
=X
P T AP ,
D = P T AP =
T DX
+ (P T B)T X
+C
X T AX + B T X + C = X
x + ey + f = 0,
= 1 (
x)2 + 2 (
y )2 + d
PTB =
d
e
x y
P T AP ?
P T AP
cos sin
a b
cos sin
=
sin cos
b c
sin cos
=
b(cos2 sin2 ) (a + c) sin cos
a sin2 2b sin cos + c cos2
2
a+c
2
a cos + b sin 2 + sin
b cos 2 2 sin 2
=
2
2
b cos 2 a+c
sin
2
a
sin
b
sin
2
+
c
cos
P T AP :
b cos 2
= 21 tan1
2b
a+c
sin 2 = 0 tan 2 =
,
2
(a + c)
2b
a+c
4.3
:
Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + 2Dxy + 2Exz + 2F yz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0,
A, B, C, . . . , J , :
x
A
D
E
i x h i h i
h
i
h
x y z
D B F y + G H I y + J = 0
z
z
E F C
D = E = F = 0, x, y, z
D, E, F , , ,
,
:
Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0
Ax2 + By 2 + Iz = 0
, ? ,
, ,
, , ,
, , ,
? , ,
()
, ,
, 12.6
,
(a) (ellipsoid):
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1
(1) z = k ,
x2
a2
y2
b2
=1
k2
,
c2
k 2 < c2 ,
k 2 = c2 , k 2 > c2
(2) y = k x = k ,
(b) (cone):
z2
c2
x2
a2
y2
b2
(1) z = k ,
x2
a2
y2
b2
k2
,
c2
k 6= 0 , k = 0
(2) y = k ,
z2
c2
x2
a2
k2
,
b2
k 6= 0 ,
k = 0 ; x = k
4
y
x
4:
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
z
c
(1) z = k ,
k
c
= 1
x2
a2
z2
c2
x2
a2
y2
b2
y2
b2
x2
a2
y2
b2
= kc ,
z
c
x2
a2
k
c
> 0 , k = 0
< 0
(2) y = k ,
k2
,
b2
k ;
x = k
z
c
x2
a2
y2
b2
x2
a2
y2
b2
= kc , k 6= 0 , k = 0
(2) y = k ,
z
c
x2
a2
k2
,
b2
k ;
x = k
z
y
y
x
5:
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
=
z2
c2
(1) z = k ,
x2
a2
y2
b2
=1+
(2) y = k ,
x2
a2
z2
c2
=1
x2
a2
= 1
k2
,
c2
k2
,
b2
k
k 2 6= b2 ,
k 2 = b2 ; x = k
5
y2
b2
(1) z = k ,
y2
b2
y2
b2
k2
c2
z2
c2
= 1
1, k 2 > c2 ,
k 2 = c2 , k 2 < c2
z2
c2
(2) y = k ,
x2
a2
= 1+
k2
,
b2
; x = k
z
6: :
x2
a2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1 : xa2
y2
b2
z2
c2
= 1
. :
(a) x2 2xy + y 2 5y = 0
(b) 5x2 6xy + 5y 2 4x 4y 4 = 0
(c) x2 + 4xy + y 2 8x + 2y 8 = 0
. (1) , ?
.
x2
a2
. :
(a) (elliptic cylinder):
x2
a2
y2
b2
=1
y2
a2
=1
x2
a2
x2
a2
y2
b2
=1
(linear algebra) ,
, ,
, ; , ,
, , ,
,
, (matrix) n
, 1 4
, ,
, ,
,
, ,
;
, ,
, ,
(tensor)
? , ,
,
, , ,
,
, ,
,
, , ?
? dx (differential)
, ; ,
, ,
,
1
5.1
(vector space)
, ,
, , ?
, ;
,
1. R V
, x, y V , x + y V ; a R x V , ax V ,
:
(1) x, y V , x + y = y + x
()
(2) x, y, z V , (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
()
(3) V , 0, x V , x + 0 = x ()
(4) x V , y V x + y = 0
(5) x V , 1x = x
()
()
()
(7) a R x, y, V , a(x + y) = ax + ay ()
(8) a, b R x V , (a + b)x = ax + bx ()
, R
field, C p- Zp ,
2. Rn n = 3 , R3
~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) , ~0 =
(0, 0, 0), 1, ~v
(v1 , v2 , v3 ), ~v
3. m n Mmn (R), (
) 0 ,
1
, Mmn (R) , Rmn (
)
, ,
,
2
, () ,
, I S, F (S, R)
5. , f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 ,
n , ai , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n , xi (coefficient)
, (P (f ), R),
6. 2 (sequence), ,
,
R , (n) = an , n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., {an } V
() ,
, , ; ,
,
, ,
5.2
R3 ,
i = (1, 0, 0),
j = (0, 1, 0),
k = (0, 0, 1)
? R3 , i, j, k
R3 ; , i, j, k
, {i, j, k} R3
, ,
(a) ,
(b) ,
(c) ,
(d) , ,
5.3
R V W , T : V W x, y V
c R,
(1) T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y),
(2) T (cx) = cT (x),
T V W
(1) , : x, y V ,
x + y, T W , T (x + y); :
x, y T W , T (x) T (y), W ,
T (x) + T (y) (1)
, (2) , : x c ,
T W , T (cx); : x T W
, : T ,
? R3 ; Mmn (R)
Mnm (R) ; , (
)
5.4
, V R
, L(V, R), L(V, R) V
(linear functional)
, :
9. V = Mnn (R), f : V R f (A) = tr(A) A (trace),
f
10. V [0, 2] , f V ,
Z 2
Z 2
1
1
an (f ) =
f (x) sin nx dx, bn (f ) =
f (x) cos nx dx,
2 0
2 0
an bn , n ( ) (n-th Fourier coefficient)
5
i (j) = 0
i (k) = 0
j (i) = 0
j (j) = 1
j (k) = 0
k (i) = 0
k (j) = 0
k (k) = 1,
xi i + xj j + xk k = 0,
, v 0,
(xi i + xj j + xk k )(i) = xi i (i) + xj j (i) + xk k (i) = xi = 0(i) = 0,
(xi i + xj j + xk k )(j) = xi i (j) + xj j (j) + xk k (j) = xj = 0(j) = 0,
(xi i + xj j + xk k )(k) = xi i (k) + xj j (k) + xk k (k) = xk = 0(k) = 0
, L(R3 , R) ,2 {i , j , k },
{i, j, k}
V , L(V, R) , :
12. V , V (dual space) V
V R L(V, R)
, {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } V ,
V = L(V, R) {e1 , e2 , . . . , en },
1 i = j
ei (ej ) = ij =
0 i 6= j
i , j , k , xi i + xj j + xk k = 0, xi = xj = xk = 0,
i , j , k
2
5.5
, V ,
,
13. V R V h, i V V R
, x, y, z V , c R,
(1) hx + z, yi = hx, yi + hz, yi
(2) hcx, yi = chx, yi
(3) hx, yi = hy, xi
(4) hx, xi > 0 x 6= 0
, C ,
14. (V, h, i) (inner product space)
, ,
15. V = Mnn (R), A, B, hA, Bi = tr(B T A), (V, h, i)
,
16. (V, h, i) , x V , x (norm)
p
kxk = hx, xi
:
17. V R , x, y V c R, :
(1) kcxk = |c| kxk
(2) kxk 0, kxk = 0 x = 0
(3) |hx, yi| kxk kyk
()
()
,
7
. R ,
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) (cf )(x) = c(f (x)),
.
. Mnn (R), n 2 ?
. L(V, R)
. V = C([0, 1]) [0, 1] , f, g V ,
hf, gi =
f (x)g(x) dx,
h, i V = C([0, 1])
6.1
3.10 (differential)
1. x > 0 , x + x , ?
. , x + x x
(x + x)2 x2 = x2 + 2xx + (x)2 x = 2xx + (x)2
(1)
, ,
? ,
x
(x)2 x
xx
x2
xx
1: x x + x , 2xx
, (x)2 , ,
2xx (x)2 ,
2 , ,
, x , 2xx (x)2
, (x)2 2xx ( x 0),
(x)2
x
= lim
= 0
x0 2xx
x0 2x
lim
:
x + x x 2xx
1
5 , ,
1
(c) , , :
,
,
, x
, ,
11
(d) , dx = x, y = f (x),
x , dy = df = f (x) dx
1, y = f (x) = x2 , x
dy = df = f (x) dx = 2x dx
,
(V, R) f : V R (V , R), 1
V = R, dx : R R R ,1 dx
R = L(R, R) , f : dy = df
R = L(R, R) , , f (x) dx, f (x)
y
df = f (x) dx
y = f (x)
2: df : R R (x, f (x)) ()
2 : df R R ( R
), (x, f (x)), 2
, df (x, f (x))
1
dx x Tx R Tx R R ,
f
x
f
,
y
,
df =
f
f
dx +
dy
x
x
f
x
dy, , dz = df =
f
x
dx +
f
x
f
x
dx,
dy
y
x
(x, y, 0)
f
x
f
y
14 , :
f
f (x0 + h, y0 ) f (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0) = lim
h0
x
h
f (x0 , y0 + h) f (x0 , y0 )
f
(x0 , y0) = lim
,
h0
y
h
f
(x0 , y0)
x
, R3
f
(x0 , y0 )
y
(x0 , y0 , f
(x0 , y0 ))
x
, 3
3
6.2
, 12
12.1 12.5
2. R3 u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k, u v
u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
:
(1) u u = kuk2 = u21 + u22 + u23
(2) u v = v u
(3) u (v + w) = u v + u w
(4) (c u) u + c (u v) = u (c v)
(5) 0 u = 0
u v = (u2 v3 v2 u3 , u3v1 v3 u1 , u1 v2 v1 u2 )
u2 u3 u3 u1 u1 u2
=
,
,
v2 v3 v3 v1 v1 v2
(1) u v = v u
(2) (c u) v = c (u v) = u (c v)
(3) u (v + w) = u v + u w
(4) (u + v) w = u w + v w
(5) u (v w) = (u v) w
4
v = v1 i + v2 j + v3 k,
w = w1 i + w2 j + w3 k
?
. (u v) w,
(u v) w = ku vk kwk cos = kuk kvk sin kwk cos ,
v
u
4: (u v) w
,
u u u
1
2
3
u2 u3 u3 u1 u1 u2
(w1 , w2, w3 ) = v1 v2 v3 ,
,
,
(u v) w =
v2 v3 v3 v1 v1 v2
w1 w2 w3
, (u v) w ,
, ,
, u, v, w u v w,
u v w = det(u, v, w) i j k
5
6.3
,
Rb
a f (x) dx f (x) x- ,
x-, x-
, f (x, y), R2 D ,
, f (x, y) xy-, dA
, , dA
dx dy
, ,
, ; ,
(polar equation) ,
, ,
, R2 ; R3
,
R2 (x, y) (r, )
y = r sin
x = r cos ,
6.1 , x, y r, :
dx = dr cos r sin d
dx
cos r sin
dr
=
dy = dr sin + r cos d
dy
sin r cos
d
6.2 , 2
cos r sin
= r cos2 + r sin2 = r,
sin r cos
dA = dx dy = r dr d
2
R3 (x, y, z) (r, , z )
x = r cos ,
y = r sin ,
z = z
, 6.1 , x, y, z r, , z
cos r sin
dx
dx
=
dr
cos
r
sin
d
dy = dr sin + r cos d
dy = sin r cos
0
0
dz
dz = dz
6.2 ,
cos r sin 0
sin r cos 0 = r,
0
0
1
dr
0
0
d
dz
1
dV = dx dy dz = r dr d dz
R3 (x, y, z) (r, , )
x = r sin cos ,
y = r sin sin ,
z = r cos
6.1 , x, y, z r, , :
dz = dr cos r sin d
dr
sin cos r cos cos r sin sin
dx
6.2 ,
sin cos r cos cos r sin sin
sin sin r cos sin r sin cos
cos
r sin
0
= r 2 sin ,
dV = dx dy dz = r 2 sin dr d d
7
R2 (x, y) u, v
x = x(u, v),
y = y(u, v),
6.1 , x, y u, v :
dx = x du + x dv
x
x
du
dx
u
v
= u v
y
y
y
y
dy = du + dv,
dv
dy
u
v
u
v
x, y u, v (Jacobian) :
x
(x, y) u
=
(u, v) y
u
dA = dx dy =
6.4
x
v
y
v
(x, y)
du dv
(u, v)
,
, , ,
, (
, ),
,
. R2 x = u2 v 2 , y = uv, dx dy du dv
. R3 x = x(u, v, w), y = y(u, v, w), z = z(u, v, w), dxdy dz
du dv dw ?