Science

Science
Chapter 1: NUTRITION
Introduction
Components of food necessary for the body are called Nutrients. Organisms that prepare food
themselves from simple substances are called Autotrophs and animals take in ready-made food
made by plants are called Heterotrophs.
Herbivores: Animals that eat only Plants.
Carnivores: Animals that eat other animals.
Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animals.
Types of nutrients:
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Dietary Fibers and Water
Carbohydrates and Fats

Carbohydrate and fats are the energy giving food. Carbohydrate give less energy than fats.
Animal fats are saturated fatty acids, which are harmful for health. We should
choose unsaturated fatty acids for cooking. Trans fats are unsaturated fats that damage the
heart.
Proteins
Proteins are body building foods. Proteins are polypeptides i.e. linear chains of amino acids
linked by peptide bonds. Enzymes are proteins which perform role of biological catalysts.
Receptors are proteins which perform function related to communication systems in the body.
Collagen is
the
most
abundant
protein
in
animal
world
and
Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in

the whole of the biosphere. Protein deficiency causeskwashiorkor and Maerasmus.
Vitamin and Minerals

Vitamin A,E,C are anti-oxidants that absorb free radicals. The vitamins and minerals deficiency
can cause the diseases mentioned in the table.
Table:Deficiency diseases
Vitamins or minirals
Disease
Vitamin A
Night blindness / Xeropthalmia
Vitamin B1
Beri beri
Vitamin C
Scurvy
Vitamin D
Rickets
Vitamin E
Anemia / Loss of fertility
Vitamin K
Bleeding
Calcium
Bone and tooth decay
Iron
Anemia
Iodine
Goiter
Note: Mercury poisoning causes mina mata disease and cadmium poisoning causes itai-itai.
Test to Detect Iodine, Proteins and Fats

1.
Test for starch: IODINE TEST

Take small food quantity and add dilute iodine solution if it turns blue
black then it has starch
2.
Test for proteins: COPPER SULPHATE + CAUSTIC SODA TEST
Take small food quantity and add copper sulphate and caustic soda
solution if it turns violet then it has proteins
3.
Test for fats: PAPER TEST
Take small food quantity and wrap it in paper and crush it. Observe oil
patch in light
Dietary Fibers and Water

Roughage or dietary fibers are present in plant products like whole grains, pulses, potatoes,
fresh fruits, vegetables. Dont have nutrients but helps to get rid of undigested food.
Human body and nutrients

Digestion is a process in which complex components of food are broken into simpler substances.
Saliva breaks down starch into sugars. Stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and
digestive juices. The mucous protects the lining of the stomach, acid kills the bacteria and
digestive
juices
break
proteins
into
simpler
substances.
Liver is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile stored in the gall bladder, bile is
important
Low
in
density
digestion
cholesterol
of
is
fats.
bad
and
It
produces cholesterol
high
density
cholesterol
[lipoprotein].
is
good.
Humans cant digest cellulose. The temperature of a human body is 35-42 Celsius.
Miscellaneous
Starfish feeds on animals that are covered by a calcium carbonate shell. The shell is popped
open and then the starfish puts its stomach out of its mouth to eat the soft animal inside. The
stomach then goes back inside and then the food is slowly digested.
Small intestine is lined with villi which help in absorption of food. Small intestine
is 7.5m and large intestine is 1.5m.
In herbivores, small intestine is longer to
digest cellulose. In carnivores, small intestine is smaller as meat is easily digested.
Quiz
Q1: Transfats are

Saturated fats
Good for heart
Obtained from animals
Unsaturated fats
Q2: Roughage is used for

Energy generation
Muscles repair
Protein synthesis
Excrete undigested food.
Q3: Select Option that is false

Digestion is a process in which complex components of food are broken into
simpler substances.
Saliva breaks down sugar into starch.
Liver is the largest gland in the body.
Low density cholesterol is bad and high density cholesterol is good.
Q4: Select Option that is True
Small intestine is smaller.
Large intestine is larger.
In carnivores, Small intestine is larger to digest meat.
In herbivores, Small intestine is larger to digest cellulose.
Q5: Which is false

Test for starch: IODINE TEST
Test for proteins: COPPER SULPHATE + CAUSTIC SODA TEST
Mercury poisoning causes mina mata
Iron deficiency is Goitre
Chapter 2: Blood and Constituents
Choose your language /

English
Hindi
Introduction
Blood contains fluid part called plasma. Red blood cells [erythrocytes] have red
pigment hemoglobin which binds oxygen and transports it to all cells. They are formed in the red
bone marrow and have a lifetime of 120 days. They are destroyed in the spleen. White blood cells
[leucocytes] fight against germs that enter the body. White blood cells is neutrophiles [destroy
foreign
bodies]; basophiles [inflammatory
response], lymphocytes [immune
response]
response], eosinophiles [allergic

and monocytes [destroy
foreign
bodies]. Platelets[thrombocytes] in blood are responsible for clotting
Types of Blood Group

Blood cells can have two antigens A, B, AB [both] or O [none]. O blood group is universal
donor and AB is universal recipient.
Blood's Flow
Blood vessels are arteries that carry oxygen rich blood to different body parts.
The walls are thick, elastic as blood flow is rapid and high pressure. Veins carry
carbon dioxide rich blood to the heart. They have thin walls and valves that allow
blood flow in one direction only.
Our muscles release lactic acid during anaerobic respiration. This lactic acid
causes cramps. When we are drowsy, we slow down breathing and body doesnt
get sufficient oxygen so we yawn to take excess air.
Blood
Oxidation
and
Purification
During respiration ribs move up and diaphragm moves down, this increases
size of chest cavity and air comes in. During exhaling, ribs move down and in and
diaphragm moves back to position and this reduces chest cavity so air is released.
Respiration
is
an exothermic reaction
i.e.
heat
is
evolved.
Reactions
of
decomposition of wastes into compost are also exothermic.Blood capillaries in the

kidneys filter waste material as urine. This is passed into the urinary bladder
through the ureters. The urethra is connected to the urinary opening through which
urine is passed. In dialysis, blood is filtered by an artificial kidney, when the
natural
kidneys
fail.
Pulmonary artery carries CO2 rich blood from heart to lungs, Pulmonary vein
carries oxygen rich blood to heart from lungs. Arteries divide to form capillaries to
reachtissues, capillaries rejoin to form veins to take blood from tissues to heart.
Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood. It combines with
hemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin and this reduces the oxygen carrying
capacity of blood.
Human Heart
Fig. Human Heart
Heart has four chambers, two atria and two ventricles. The right atria and
ventricle have deoxygenated blood. The left atria and ventricle have oxygenated
blood. Ventricles have thick walls as they have to pump blood to different organs.
Miscellaneous
Organisms that need energy to regulate body temperature need separate
oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood. Others who regulate temperature of body
based on temperature of surroundings can tolerate mixing of blood.
Hydra and sponges dont have a circulatory system or blood. Water that flows
through their body carries food and oxygen to different parts and waste material
from parts is thrown out by it too.
Birds, insects excrete uric acid [least toxic so doesnt need water for excretion].
Fishes excrete ammonia [highly toxic so needs lots of water]. Mode of excretion
depends on availability of water.
Quiz
Q1: Which is false

Blood contains fluid part called plasma.
Blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow and have a lifetime of 120 days.
Blood cells are destroyed in the spleen.
Platelets [thrombocytes] in blood are responsible for killings pathogens
Q2: Which is false

AB is universal donor.
O blood group is universal donor
Blood cells can have two antigens A, B, AB [both] or O [none].
White blood cells [leucocytes] fight against germs that enter the body.
Q3: Which is false

arteries carry oxygen rich blood to different body parts.
Arterial walls are thick, elastic
Veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood to the heart.
They have thin walls and valves that allow blood flow in both directions.
Q4: Our muscles release ______ during anaerobic respiration.

acetic acid
carboxylic acid
lactic acid
Oxalic acid
Q5: Which is false

Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
Pulmonary artery carries CO2 rich blood from heart to lungs
Pulmonary vein carries oxygen rich blood from heart to lungs.
Respiration is an exothermic reaction
Chapter 3: MICRO-ORGANISMS
Introduction
Micro organisms are of four types: bacteria [TB, typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, and plague], algae,
protozoa [dysentery, malaria] and fungi. Virus [jaundice] reproduces only inside host organisms.
Lactobacillus multiplies in milk and turns it into curds.
Amoeba is a single celled organism. It has pseudopodia which are finger like projections. These
capture the food particle and put it in the food vacuole. After digestion the leftover matter is expelled
by the vacuole. Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission.
Hen egg is also single cell.
Bacteria living in our mouth break food and leave acid that causes tooth decay. Tooth decay is
caused when the pH of mouth goes below 5.5. Calcium phosphate, insoluble in water and is the
hardest substance in the body but at pH 5.5 it starts dissolving.
Female Anopheles mosquito carries malaria parasite and female aedes mosquito carries dengue
virus.
Quiz
Q1: Who carrier malaria parasite

Aedes Mosquito
Male Anopheles mosquito
Female Anopheles mosquito
Female Culex mosquito
Q2: Hardest substance in the body is enamel of teeth which is made of

Iron
Calcium Phosphate
Polymer
Calcium Fluoride
Q3: Vacoule is for

Digestion
Motion
Excretion
Reproduction
Q4: Bacteria that turns milk into curds
Lactobacillus
Cyanobacteria
Ribosome
Mitochondria
Q5: Reproduction in amoeba is through

sexual mode
Spores
Binary fission
Mutation
Chapter 4: CELLS
Introduction
Bodies of organisms are made of tiny units called Cells. Cell have outer boundary called cell
membrane [made up of lipids and proteins], most cells have a nucleus and inside the cell
membrane or plasma membrane is present cytoplasm.
Nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane are basic components of cell.
Types of cell components:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi body
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Vacuole
Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types Rough ER it has ribosome attached to it. Ribosome
manufactures proteins. Smooth ER has a role in manufacturing lipids. ER also serves as a transport
channel between various regions of cytoplasm or cytoplasm and nucleus.
In vertebrates, SER detoxifies poisons and drugs.
Golgi body
Golgi body helps in formation of lysosomes [contain digestive enzymes which digest wastes,
foreign bodies or even damaged cell organelles and the cell itself hence called suicide bags].
It helps in making complex sugars from simple sugars and stores, packages products in vesicles.
Nucleus
Nucleus contains chromatin material, during division of cell it gets organized into chromosomes.
These contain information to be inherited by the next generation in form of DNA.
Functional units of DNA are genes. DNA contains information necessary for organizing and
constructing cells.
Vacuole
A single large Vacuole is present in plant cells and multiple small vacuoles in animal cells. Vacuoles
store liquids or solid contents.
Centrioles are seen only in animal cells. Plastids are found only in plant cell.
Green plastids called chloroplasts carry chlorophyll. White plastids are called leucoplasts; they store
starch, oil and proteins. They have their own DNA and ribosome.
Membranes
Membranes are porous and allow nutrients and substances to move in or out. Hence its selectively
permeable. Diffusion plays an important role in exchange of gases. Water is moved by osmosis
[Solvent moves from dilute to concentrated solution]. Food is taken in by endocytosis. Cytoplasm and
nucleus are called protoplasm.
Plant and Animal Cells:

Plant cells and bacterial cells have cell wall [made of cellulose] outside the
membrane. No cell wall in animal cells. Because of cell walls plant cells can
withstand much greater variations in surrounding medium than animal cells.
Viruses:
Viruses lack membranes and hence do not show any characteristics of life till they
enter a host and use its cell machinery to multiply. They have few biochemical
mechanisms on their own; they enter the host and use his processes for their work.
They have either DNA or RNA not both. RNA acts genetic material only in viruses.
Facts of Cellular Respiration:

Cellular respiration involves using oxygen [aerobic] to break down food [glucose]
into energy; carbon dioxide and water are released.
If this process takes place in absence of oxygen [in yeast] then alcohol, carbon
dioxide
and
energy
are
formed.
This
is anaerobic
respiration.
Hence Yeast [single celled organisms] is used in making wine and beer. They
convert sugar to alcohol; this process is called fermentation [discovered by Louis
Pasteur].
Lactobacillus helps in conversion of milk into curd. Bio fertilizers are organisms
that enrich the quality of soil.
Yeast multiplies rapidly and produces carbon dioxide by respiration this causes
bubbles of gas that fill the dough and increase its volume. So its used in making
bread, pastries and cakes.
Miscellaneous:
1.
Some Antibiotics are made from fungi and bacteria. However antibiotics
dont work against viral infections. Antibiotic like penicillin stops creation of a
cell wall in bacteria but as humans dont create a cell wall it has no effect on
humans. Viruses dont follow these pathways and hence viral infections dont have
antibiotics.
2.
3.
Analgesics relieve pain, antihistamines relieve inflammation.

Sodium benzoate [can be metabolized by body], sodium metabisulphide,
salts of propanoic, sorbic acid and edible oils are some common preservatives.
Sugar reduces moisture content and so microbes cant grow.
4.
Aspartame [100x sweeter than sugar; used in cold drinks, cold
foods], sucralose [600x],saccharin [550x; used by diabetic patients to sweeten
food; is excreted in urine],alitame are artificial sweeteners.
5.
Evolution isnt progress from lower to higher forms. But evolution seems to
have given birth to complex designs even when simpler designs continue to
flourish.
Quiz
Q1: Basic components of cell are

Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Membrane
Nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane
Q2: Ribosome manufacturers

Proteins
Vitamins
Carbohydrates
Energy
Q3: Lysosomes are used for

Digestion
Reproduction
Motion
Absorption
Q4: Which is false

A single large Vacuole is present in plant cells and multiple small vacuoles in animal cells.
Centrioles are seen only in animal cells.
Plastids are found only in plant cell.
Green plastids called chloroplasts carry food.
Q5: Which is false

Antibiotics dont work against viral infections.
Evolution isnt progress from lower to higher forms. But evolution seems to have given birth to
complex designs even when simpler designs continue to flourish.
Yeast [single celled organisms] is used in making wine and beer.
Cell wall in animal cells helps withstand variations in surrounding medium.
Chapter 5: FABRICS
Introduction
Fabrics like cotton, silk are made of yarns and yarns are made of fibers.
Types of Fibers:
Natural Fibers: Cotton, jute [plant], silk [cocoon of silkworm], wool [sheep, goats,
rabbits, yak, camels hair] are made of fibers of plants and animals.
Cotton:
Cotton is a polymer of cellulose, which is made up of large number of glucose units.

Wool:
Angora wool is obtained from angora goats of J&K. Wool of Kashmiri goat is used to
make pashmina shawls. Llama and alpaca of South America also yield wool.
Silk:
Sericulture Rearing of silkworms to obtain silk.

Properties of Natural fibers:
1. Cotton: Obtained from fruits [bolls] of the plant. Grown in black soil and
warm places.
2. Jute:
Obtained from stem.

Harvested during flowering stage.
Grown during rainy season.
Stem are immersed in water and they rot. Then fibers are separated.
3. Flax: A natural fiber from plants.
Artificial Fibers: Synthetic fibers burn easily and stick to the body of person.
Synthetic fibers are all made from petrochemicals.
Rayon:
Rayon
is
artificial
silk
its
made
by
chemical
treatment
of
wood
pulp.
Nylon:
Nylon is a fully synthetic fiber made up of coal, water and air. A string of nylon is
stronger than string of steel so its used in making parachutes and ropes.
Polyester:
Polyester
is
used
for
wrinkle
free
clothes.
Terelyne:
Terelyne is polyester. PET is polyester used for making bottles, utensils, wires etc
Acrylic:
Acrylic
is
artificial
wool.
Plastics
Plastics are Polymers. Some bend on heating and are called thermoplastics [PVC,
Polythene].
Some
molded
once
dont
change
their
shape
called thermosetting plastics. [Bakelite, melamine]

Teflon is used in non stick cookware. Melamine is used on coat of firemen so it
makes them flame resistant.
Rubber
Rubber is manufactured from rubber latex which is a colloidal dispersion of
rubber in water. Its a linear polymer of isoprene called cis 1, 4 isoprene. Since
natural rubber is brittle at low temperatures and soft at high temperatures it is
treated with Sulfur in a process calledVulcanization.
SHEEP BREEDS
Lohi Raj, Punjab
Rampur bushair UP, HP
Nali- Raj, Punjab, Haryana
Bakharwal J&K
Marwadi, pathanwadi Gujarat
Table 1: Sheep breeds of India
Note: Anthrax is a blood disease common among wool sorters.
Quiz
Score more than 80% marks and move ahead else stay back and read again!
Q1:find the false statement

Synthetic fibers burn easily and stick to the body of person.
Synthetic fibers are all made from petrochemicals.
Natural Fibers are made of fibers of plants and animals.
Sericulture Rearing of butterflies to obtain silk.
Q2: Rayon is
Natural fiber
Obtained from hemp
Has long flowering season
made by chemical treatment of wood pulp.
Q3:Vulcanization uses
Suphur
Benzene
Terylene
Neo-isoprene
Q4:Which is false
Plastics are Polymers
Plastics that bend on heating and are called thermosetting
Teflon is used in non stick cookware.
Bakelite is used on coat of firemen so it makes them flame resistant.
Q5:Which is false
PET is polyester used for making bottles, utensils, wires etc
Acrylic is artificial wool.
Polyester is used for wrinkle free clothes.
A string of rayon is stronger than string of steel so its used in making parachutes and ropes.
Chapter 6:ELEMENTS
Introduction
Metals are malleable [can be beaten into sheets], ductile [pulled into wires] and
conductors of heat and electricity, sonorous [produce ringing sounds when struck].
Exceptions:
1.
lithium, sodium, potassium [alkali metals] are soft and can be cut;
2.
mercury
3.
Iodine
4.
is
is
liquid
a
at
non
room
metal
temperature.
but
lustrous.
Carbon exits as different allotropes like diamond [hardest substance,

sharpening tools, manufacturing tungsten filaments for light bulbs, cutting,
grinding], and graphite [conductor of electricity, lubricant in machines where oil
cant be used due to high temperature].
Facts of Metals
Generally, oxides of metals are basic and non metals are acidic.
Sodium is very reactive with oxygen and hence stored in kerosene. Phosphorous
reacts with oxygen so kept in water.
Brass [copper+zinc], bronze [copper+tin], solder [lead+tin] welding electrical wires
together.
Metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas. Non metals dont react.
More
reactive
metals
can
replace
less
reactive
metals
in
reactions.
Out of 98 naturally occurring elements, 20 are non metals. Most are metals.
Bromine is non metal, which is liquid at room temperature. Metalloids have property
of both metals and non metals. e.g.: boron, silicon, and germanium.
Coke is a pure form of carbon, used in manufacture of steel.
Coal tar is starting material for synthetic fibers, drugs, naphthalene balls are made
from coal tar.
Chemical Properties of Match-stick:
Matchstick has antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing surface
has powdered glass and red phosphorous. On striking the surface, red phosphorous
get converted to white phosphorous which reacts with potassium chlorate to create
enough heat to ignite the antimony trisulphide.
Carbon
dioxide
as
an
extinguisher:
CO2 is a good fire extinguisher if petrol or oil is burning. Even electrical fires are
extinguished by using CO2 as it cuts off oxygen supply to fire by making a
protective
blanket
as
its
heavier
than
Heat
O2.
Energy:
The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is

called its calorific value. The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called
kilo-Joules per kg (kJ/kg).
A paper cup filled with water doesnt burn as heat is transferred to the water and it
doesnt
reach
its
ignition
Ethylene Glycol [antifreeze] reduces freezing point of water to -17.2C.

Lavoisiers laws of chemical compositions:
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
temperature.
In chemical substances, the elements are always present in definite proportion by

mass.
1 atomic mass unit was equal to exactly one twelfth the weight of one atom of
carbon-12.
Ions are charged particles, positively charged are cat ions and negatively charged
are anions.
The number of particles present in 1 mole of any substance is fixed as
6.022*10^23. 1 mole of a substance is its relative atomic or molecular mass in
grams.
e.g.: 1 mole of carbon atoms = 12 g of carbon atoms.
Atoms
and
Properties:
Sub atomic particles, electrons were discovered by J.J.Thomson by the cathode ray
experiment and protons were discovered by Goldstein. Chadwick discovered
neutrons.
Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. Mass number is the sum of
protons and neutrons.
Isotopes have same atomic number [due to same number of protons but different
number of neutrons] but different mass numbers. e.g.: isotopes of hydrogen are
protium, deuterium and tritium. Chemical properties of isotopes are same [as they
depend on electronic structure] but their physical properties are different.
Special isotopes: isotope of cobalt is used to treat cancer. Isotope of iodine is used
to treat goiter.
Isobars: atoms of different elements with same mass number but different atomic
number.
Isotones have same number of neutrons but different number of protons [and
electrons].
Becquerel discovered radioactivity. In this an unstable nucleus undergoes decay.
Types of decay are

1.
Decay: helium nucleus is emitted. Heavy, slow, least penetrating, easily

blocked, positive charged.
2.
B-decay: electrons or positrons are emitted. Less Heavy, fast, more
penetrating [100 times more than alpha], tough to block, negatively / positively
[positron] charged.
3.
-decay: high energy photons are emitted. Lightest, fastest, highly
penetrating [1000 times more than alpha], toughest to block, no charge.
Miscellaneous:
Dihydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe [70% of total mass of
the universe]. Oxygen is the most abundant element [up to 47%] on earth.
The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas or synthetic gas. Its used in the
synthesis
of
hydrocarbons
and
methanol.
Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using nickel as catalyst gives edible oils.

Aqua regia is mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acid in ratio of 3:1 it can dissolve
even gold and platinum.
Anaesthesia is oxygen and nitrous oxide. Carbogen is 95% oxygen and 5% CO2,
it stimulates natural breathing.
Zones of candle flame: Outer zone [blue] hottest, middle zone [yellow] less
hot, inner zone [black] least hot.
Quiz
Q1:Metals are not

Sonorous
Ductile
Malleable
Brittle
Q2:Sodium is stored in
Water
Kerosene
Benzene
Toluene
Q3:Carbon dioxide is a good extinguisher of fires as

It is lighter than air
It has high latent heat of fusion
It is stable compound
It is heavier than oxygen
Q4:Which is false
electrons were discovered by J.J.Thomson
protons were discovered by Goldstein
Isobars have same atomic number [due to same number of protons but different number of
neutrons] but different mass numbers.
Chadwick discovered neutrons.
Q5:Which is false
Decay: helium nucleus is emitted. Heavy, slow, least penetrating, easily blocked, positive
charged.
B-decay: electrons or positrons are emitted. Less Heavy, fast, more penetrating [100 times more
than alpha], tough to block, negatively / positively [positron] charged.
-decay: high energy photons are emitted. Lightest, fastest, highly penetrating [1000 times more
than alpha], toughest to block, no charge.
Isotopes have same number of neutrons but different number of protons [and electrons].
Chapter 7:MIXTURES
Choose your language /
English
Hindi
Introduction
Homogenous mixtures have a uniform composition throughout e.g. salt water and
sugar water, tincture alcohol [iodine+alcohol]. Solid solutions like alloys [brass =
zinc + copper] and gaseous solutions like air are possible too.
Heterogeneous mixtures have non uniform composition and physically distinct
parts. e.g.: salt and iron fillings, salt and sulfur.
Suspensions are solutions in which solutes dont dissolve in the solvents but
remain in suspension. e.g.: chalk powder in water.
Colloids: these are heterogeneous mixtures but the solutes are small in size they
cant be visible to naked eye and so the mixture appears homogenous. Colloids can
scatter beam of light passing through it i.e. tydall effect. Also the particles of a
colloid dont settle if left undisturbed. e.g.: milk
Components of a colloid are:
Dispersed phase [solute-like] and Dispersing medium [solvent like].
These can be separated by Centrifugation.
Dispersed Phase
Dispersing Medium
Type
Example
Liquid
Gas
Aerosol
Fog, clouds, mist
Solid
Gas
Aerosol
Smoke, automobile exaust
Gas
Liquid
Foam
Shaving cream
Liquid
Liquid
Emulsion
Milk, face cream
Solid
Liquid
Sol
Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas
Solid
Foam
Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid
Solid
Gel
Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid
Solid
Solid Sol
Coloured gemstone, milky glass
Table 1: Examples of colloids

Ref: N.C.E.R.T. Textbook Class VI
Chromatography is the process of separating of solutes that dissolve in the same

solvent. Its also used for separating colors in dye, pigments from natural colors and
drugs from blood.
Separation of two miscible liquids that have sufficient difference in their boiling
points can be done by distillation. If difference is less than 25k then fractional
distillation is done.
Miscellaneous facts:
Important Alloys:
a.
Brass [copper + zinc]
b.
Bronze [copper + tin],
c.
Solder [lead + tin] welding electrical wires together.
Quiz
Q1:Which is false
Homogenous mixtures have a uniform composition throughout
Heterogeneous mixtures have non uniform composition
Suspensions are solutions in which solutes dont dissolve in the solvents but remain in
suspension
Colloids: These are homogeneous mixtures
Q2:Centrifugation is
Used for scattering light
Separate components of colloid
Has 3 components
process of separating of solutes that dissolve in the same solvent
Q3:Separation of two miscible liquids that have sufficient difference in their boiling points can be
done by
Chromatography
Centrifugation
Distillation
None
Q4:Chromatography is
process of separating of solutes that dissolve in the same solvent.
Separation of two miscible liquids that have sufficient difference in their boiling points
Separation of two miscible liquids that have small difference in their boiling points
None
Q5:Tydall effect is
Scattering beam of light passing through solution
Process of separating of solutes that dissolve in the same solvent.
Separation of two miscible liquids that have sufficient difference in their boiling points
Make homogenous mixtures
Chapter 8:WATER
Introduction
22 March is World water day. UN recommends 50 liters of water per person per day.
2003 was the international year of freshwater observed by the UN. 2005-2015 was
the international decade for action on WATER FOR LIFE.71 % of earth is covered with
water.
Properties of Water
1.
Water has high boiling point, high freezing point, high heat of vaporization
2.
high
heat
3.
specific
heat
4.
thermal
5.
dipole
6.
excellent
7.
of
fusion
[leads
to
[controls
moderation
of
body
temperature],
temperature
of
climate],
conductivity,
movement,
solvent
[helps
in
transportation
of
ions
in
plants],
Amphoteric [acts as acid and base] and high dielectric constant. This is due
to extensive presence of strong bond between hydrogen.
Hardness of Water
Temporary hardness of water is due to calcium and magnesium hydrogen
carbonates. It can be removed by boiling and addition of lime. This converts them to
carbonates and hydroxide which are soluble.
Permanent hardness is due to presence of Magnesium and calcium chlorides and
sulphates it is treated using washing soda.
Aquifers
Aquifers are underground water resources where water is stored between rock
layers.
Earths Water Composition:
Oceans
97%
Polar ice caps
2%
Ground water
0.61%
Lakes
- 0.009%
Saline lakes and inland sea
0.008%
soil moisture
0.005%
Water vapor
0.001%
rivers
0.0001%
TABLE 1: WATER SUPPLY
Miscellaneous
During rains, the canopy of trees allows water to trickle down slowly via stems and
roots to theground. This ensures that water doesnt hit ground directly as it could
lead to damage to the soil by erosion.
During fires we must wrap a woolen blanket over a burning object to cut off the
supply
of
air
to
it
During heavy rains, water flows into soil and covers all air pockets so earthworms
rise to the surface to breathe.
Hydrogen peroxide is used as a bleaching agent, treating industrial effluents and
pollution control.
Eucalyptus trees should be planted along sewage lines as these absorb wastewater
and release water vapor into the atmosphere.
Quiz
Q1: When is World water day

March 20
March 21
March 22
March 23
Q2:Properties of water isn't

Water has high boiling point
high heat of fusion
Amphoteric
low dielectric constant
Q3:Temporary hardness is due to

calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates.
Magnesium and calcium chlorides
Magnesium and calcium sulphates
treatment using washing soda.
Q4:Hydrogen peroxide isn't used as a

bleaching agent
treating industrial effluents
pollution control.
building material
Q5: ___% of earth is covered with water.

50
75
70
71
Chapter 09:ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
Herbs Plants with green and tender stems almost no branches. E.g: Tomato
Herb
Shrubs Branches near the base, thin but hard stem. E.g: Lemon- shrub
Tree- Thick, brown stems. Tall with branches near the top. Mango Tree. Branchy
part of the tree above the stem is called crown. Crowns of tall trees form a roof like
structure calledCanopy. Crowns of smaller trees form a lower layer called Understorey.
Creepers-plants with weak stems that spread on ground or take support of other
structures. [Money plants, beanstalk, gourd, grape vines]
Parts of a Plant
Stem conducts water and minerals.
The part of a leaf by which it is attached to the stem - petiole.
The broad, green part of the leaf - lamina
Veins lines present on the leaf. Thick line in middle is midrib.
Design of veins venation is of two types reticulate net like or parallel.
Transpiration Leaves releasing water in the form of water vapor. The evaporation
of water from leaves creates a suction that pulls water from roots to greater height.
It also cools the plant.
Plant Tissues
Xylem is the tissue in plants for transportation of water and minerals. Food is
transported by a second tissue called phloem. Xylem is made of trachids, vessels,
parenchyma and fibers. Unidirectional movement is possible.
Phloem is also a complex permanent tissue like xylem and consists of sieve tubes,
companion cells, parenchyma and fibers. Transport food in both directions.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis Leaves prepare food using carbon dioxide and water and food
produced is stored in form of starch. Oxygen is released in this process. Amount of
oxygen released during photosynthesis is much higher than the CO2 that is released
during
night
time.
The following things occur in photosynthesis, absorption of light energy by

chlorophyll, conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates. These
steps need not occur immediately.
Leaves
take
in
CO2 from
atmosphere
through
pores
present
on
surface
called stomata; these are surrounded by guard cells. Leaves have a green pigment
called chlorophyll that captures energy from the sun and uses it to synthesize food
using water and CO2. Roots also take in air from the soil.
Types of food production in Plants

Cuscuta is a parasitic plant that takes nutrition from other host plants. Pitcher
plant isinsectivorous plant but it also carries out photosynthesis. These plant
doesnt get sufficient nutrition from the soil.
Fungi like yeast, Mushrooms are saprotrophs that feed on decaying matter.
Symbiotic relationship: Some organisms live together and share food and nutrients.
[Lichens Algae and fungus live together. Algae provide food by photosynthesis and
fungi provide water, nutrients and shelter. They are good indicators of pollution
as they dont grow in polluted areas. ]
[Rhizobium a bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soluble form; this is
absorbed by the leguminous plants that in turn provide it shelter and food. Thus
nitrogenous
fertilizers
are
not
needed
for
leguminous
plants.
Mycorrhizal fungi Phosphorous fixing fungi lives in the roots of higher plants.
Frankia nitrogen fixer bacteria for non leguminous plants.

Blue green algae, nostoc, azotobacter and Lightning are also nitrogen fixers.
Ammonia is converted to nitrites by nitro somas and nitrococcus. This is
converted to nitrate bynitrobacteria.
Nitrate
poisoning
of
ground
water
causes methaemoglobina [blue
baby
syndrome].
Roots and their features

Roots- absorb water and nutrients from soil by a process called osmosis. They
anchor the plant to the soil. Root hairs increase surface area for absorption.
Root types are tapped root [a main root and lateral root] or fibrous roots [hair like
roots]. Some plants like banyan, grass roots arise from parts other than radicle
called adventitiousroots.
Plants with tap roots have reticulate venation and with fibrous roots have parallel
venation system.
Edible roots - carrot, radish, sweet potato, turnip and tapioca.
Roots, stems, leaves are vegetative parts of plants and flowers are reproductive
parts of plants.
Plant Tissues
Two
types
of
tissues
and meristematic [growing].
in
Depending
plants
permanent [non-growing]
on
location
their
they
are
apical,
intercalary or lateral. Initially meristems grow cells same as themselves but as

these cells grow and mature they get differentiated into components of other
tissues. Meristem cells have dense cytoplasm, no vacuoles, thin cell walls and large
nuclei.
Permanent tissue is of multiple types like
Parenchyma these are living tissues which store food and provide support to
plants. They may contain chlorophyll and then its called chlorenchyma. In floating
plants it has air in the intercellular space and is responsible for buoyancy and called
aerenchyma.
Collenchymas are living tissue which provides mechanical support to plant and
also flexibility without breaking.
Sclerenchyma is dead tissue but hard and no intercellular space. It provides
mechanical support to plant. Cell walls are thick due to lignin. Epidermis is the
single, continuous layer of cells that covers entire plant body. It has pores called
stomata at certain in points that allow gaseous exchange. Epidermis is thicker in
plants in deserts to prevent water loss.
Plant Nutrients:
Macronutrients: These are present in plant tissue in large number; some are
obtained from water [H, O], from air [C] and rest from soil [N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S].
Useful as components of biomolecules, activate/inhibit enzymes, components of
energy related substance, affect osmotic potential of cell,
Micronutrients: Needed in small amounts. These include iron, manganese, copper,
molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine and nickel.
Deficiency of N, K, and Mg are visible in senescent leaves as biomolecules with
these elements are broken down to mobilize younger leaves. Boron and calcium
deficiency leads to death of meristem, buds and tips. Phosphorous deficiency [blue
leaves] and Fe, Mn, Mg, N deficiency [yellow leaves].
Miscellaneous
Green manures cover crop that is planted on the field and ploughed under while
its green. This is done to improve nutrients in the soil.
Legumes [N2 fixers] cowpea, soybean,
Non legumes [add biomass, suppress weeds] sorghum, millets, sudan grass,
buckwheat
Cocaine is obtained from coca plant. Charas, ganja, hashish, and marijuana are
obtained fromcannabis. Opium, morphine, thebaine and heroin are obtained
from poppy plant.
Quiz
Q1:Transpiration isn't
Leaves releasing water in the form of water vapor.
creates a suction that pulls water from roots to greater height.
cools the plant.
reproductive technique
Q2:False statement is
Xylem is the tissue in plants for transportation of water and minerals
Food is transported by a second tissue called phloem
Unidirectional movement is possible in xylem.
Unidirectional movement is possible in phloem.
Q3:Photosynthesis isn't
Leaves prepare food using carbon dioxide and water
food produced is stored in form of starch
Oxygen is released in this process.
Amount of oxygen released during photosynthesis is much lower than the CO2 that is released
during night time.
Q4: Bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soluble form which is absorbed by the leguminous
plants that in turn provide it shelter and food
Red bacteria
Blue green algae
Nitrosomas
Rhizobium
Q5:Which is false
Cocaine is obtained from coca plant.
Charas, ganja, hashish, and marijuana are obtained from cannabis.
Opium, morphine, thebaine and heroin are obtained from poppy plant.
Iron deficiency leads to death of meristem, buds and tips.
Chapter 10:FLOWERS
Introduction
Flowers can be Unisexual [male or female reproductive parts] or Bisexual [both
reproductive organs]. Male / Female unisexual and bisexual flowers can be on same
plant or different plants.
Parts of a Flower
Petals Prominent parts of an open flower.
Sepals Small leaf like structures enclosing petals
Stamens [male reproductive part] Inner parts of the flower are made of
anthers [pollen grains or male gametes present here] and filaments.
Pistil [female reproductive part] Inner parts of the flower contains ovary, style,
stigma. Ovary has ovules [egg or female gametes here].
Process of Reproduction in Plants

Transfer of pollen to stigma is called pollination. It can happen by agents like wind,
water or insects. It can be self pollination [if pollen falls on stigma of same flower] or
cross pollination [if it falls on stigma of different flower of same plant or different
plant of same kind]
The male and female gamete fuse to form zygote [fertilization], zygote becomes an
embryo.
After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules become seeds. Seeds contain the
embryo. Other parts fall off.
Quiz
Q1: Male reproductive part of flower is

Petals
Sepals
stamen
Pistil
Q2: Female reproductive part of flower

Pistil
Stamen
Sepals
Petals
Q3: After fertilization ovary becomes

seed
fruit
flower
leaf
Q4: Transfer of pollen to stigma

pollination
fertilization
synthesis
reproduction
Q5: The male and female gamete fuse to form

embryo
zygote
fruit
seed
Chapter 11:SOIL
Introduction
Soil has the following layers:
Topsoil or A-Horizon: Humus, top most layer, retains water, provides shelter to
organisms
B-Horizon: Middle layer, harder and more compact
C-Horizon: Rocky
Bedrock: last layer.

Soil is clayey if proportion of fine particles is more, sandy if proportion of big
particles is more and loamy if equal proportion of fine and big particles. Loamy soil
is best for plants, sandy soil is well drained and clayey soil retains water.
Clayey soil used for making pots, toys and statues.
Types of Crops:
Kharif crops: Grown in rainy season from June to September.
Rabi crops: Grown from October to march during winter season. e.g.: wheat,
rapeseed, mustard, linseed, gram and pea.
Quiz
Q1: Which soil layer provides humus and shelter to organisms

A horizon
B horizon
C horizon
bedrock
Q2: If proportion of fine particles is more then soil is
clayey
sandy
loamy
fine
Q3: If proportion of big particles is more then soil is

fine
sandy
loamy
clayey
Q4: If proportion of fine and big particles is same then soil is

loamy
clayey
sandy
fine
Q5: Find false statement

Loamy soil is best for plants
sandy soil is well drained
clayey soil retains water.
Wheat is kharif
Chapter 12:BODY JOINTS

Introduction
Ball and Socket joint - The rounded end of one bone fits into the cavity of the
other bone. Such a joint allows movement in all directions. [Shoulder and arm]
Pivot head joins our neck at a pivot joint.
Hinge Joint only allows back and forth movements. [Elbow]
Fixed joints immovable joint [upper jaw and head]
Cartilage Additional parts of skeleton but not hard as bones. [Ear]
Muscles Required to make movement. Two muscles are needed to move a bone.
While one contracts the other expands. Contracting bone moves a muscle in its
direction and then its paired muscle expands. When the other muscle contracts the
bone moves in the second direction.This causes movement.
Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are of multiple types like:
Epithelial tissue: it is a protective tissue that covers all parts of the body. It has no
intercellular space. It allows material to pass through it but only selective materials.
It has many types like squamous, ciliated, columnar, tall etc depending on structure.
Connective tissue: Blood, bones [made of calcium and phosphorous compounds]
and ligaments [join bones together], cartilage [smoothens bone surfaces at joints],
tendons [connect muscles and bones] are types. Adipose connective tissue stores
fats between internal organs to act as insulator.
Muscular [striated, unstriated and cardiac] and nervous tissues [made of neurons
that receive and conduct impulses] are other types.
Miscellaneous
Muscles
can
only pull not
push.
Fine hair and mucus in our nose prevents dust from entering the human body.
Earthworm eats its way through the soil. Its body throws undigested material that it
eats;this makes the soil more fertile. It breathes through its skin. Air present inside
the
water
and
soil
is
used
for
breathing
by
the
earthworms.
Insects
have tracheas to breathe.

Birds
have
Snails move with the help of a muscular foot.
hollow
bones.
Quiz

shoulder and arm is ball and socket joint
head joins neck is pivot
upper jaw and head are fixxed joint
elbow is a pivot and fixed joint
Q2:Ear is a
skeleton
cartilage
muscle
tendon

Muscles can only pull not push.
Fine hair and mucus in our nose prevents dust from entering the human body.
Earthworm eats its way through the soil. Its body throws undigested material that it eats;this
makes the soil more fertile
Snails move with the help of a muscular back.
Q4: Bones are made of

Calcium
Phosphorous
Iron
Calcium and Phosphorous
Q5: A- Birds have hollow bones. B- Insects have tracheas to breathe

A true
B true
Both true
None true
Chapter 13:ORGANISMS AND

ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
Ecology study of relationship between organisms and environment
Ecosystems functional unit of nature encompassing interaction between its biotic
and abiotic components.
Habitat surrounding where organisms live. It has abiotic components like rocks,
soil, air, water and light. It also has biotic components like plants, micro organisms,
animals. 70% of all species are animals [out of 10 animals 7 are insects] and 22%
are plants.
Food chain - a series of organisms feeding on each other taking part at various
biotic levels. Each step of the food chain is called trophic level. At each trophic
level, 10% of the energy present is passed on to the higher trophic level. [ 10% law]
i.e.
from
plants
to
herbivores
to
carnivores.
Transfer of energy in trophic levels is unidirectional. The pyramid of trophic levels

shows
sharp
decline
from
bottom
to
top.
Living organisms are classified into 5 broad kingdoms: Monera, Protista, fungi,
plantae, and animalia.
Fig 1: Biomass Pyramid
However the aquatic biomass pyramid is inverted. A small mass of phytoplankton

support a large mass of zooplanktons.
Since at each level organisms are eaten by several other organisms at higher level,
we use food webs to depict these.
Bio-magnification is phenomenon when harmful substances absorbed by lower
level are passed on to higher trophic levels. However at higher trophic levels, the
concentration of these substances increases [magnifies] as these feed on large
number
of
organisms
from
lower
trophic
levels.
Eutrophication is the natural aging of the river or water body due to nutrient
enrichment. Acceleration of this happens when manmade activities release
pollutants in the lakes. This affects aquatic life and increases growth of water
hyacinth [most problematic weed]. The lake literally chokes to death.
Bio fortification is breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals.
Bio remediation is use of microbes to make toxic waste harmless.
Mega biodiversity regions

Mega biodiversity region is the region between tropic of cancer and Capricorn. This
is since the tropical areas have been undisturbed for a long time enough for species
diversification also more solar energy is available and temperature is constant and
predictable. Half the worlds biodiversity is located in few countries like Brazil, India,
Columbia, equator, Peru, Indonesia, Zaire, Madagascar, China and Malaysia.
Acclimatization
Acclimatization: Small but rapid changes taking place in a single organism to
overcome changes in thesurrounding. When we reach high altitudes, due to low
pressure body doesnt get enough oxygen and this is countered by increasing
breathing rate, RBC count inblood and reducing binding affinity of hemoglobin.
e.g.: when we move from plains to mountains we breathe faster.
Camels have long legs to keep body away from the heat of the ground. They dont
sweat, their dung is dry and urine is very less.
Fishes have streamlined body and fins to help move and change direction in water.
They have scales on skin to protect the body and help in easy movement. Gills help
them
use
oxygen
dissolved
in
water.
Aquatic animals use the carbonates dissolved in sea water to make their shells.
This
is
another
reason
why
CO2
is
less
in
the
atmosphere.
As oxygen dissolved in water is less, aquatic animals breathe faster than terrestrial.
However as temperature decreases oxygen solubility in water increases, thus
aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold waters than warm.
Scuba divers have a lower concentration of nitrogen and higher conc. of oxygen
and helium in the breathing tank as under pressure of sea the other atmospheric
gases dissolve more in blood. When the diver comes to shore, this pressure
decreases and dissolved gases are released. This would create bubbles in blood
vessels.
Polar bears have two thick fur layers under their skin and a layer of fat that
insulates
them
from
cold.
Small animals are rarely found in cold areas as they might lose body heat quickly
due
to
the
larger
surface
area
relative
to
the
volume.
In deep oceans we find brown algae as only certain components of visible light can
penetrate depth of sea.
Desert plants like cactus dont have leaves but spines. They loose very little water
by transpiration. Photosynthesis is carried out in the stems. CAM pathway is a
special photosynthesis mechanism which keeps stomata closed during it. They have
very long roots.
Mountain plants might have cone shaped structure with sloping branches or needle
like leaves. The rainwater or snow slides off easily. Animals in such areas have thick
skins or fur.
Some birds, fish even insects migrate seasonally to more hospitable regions.
Animals
in
tropical
rainforests
see intense competition
over
food.
Plants lack nervous system or muscles.

Photochemical smog is formed due to peroxyacetyl nitrate, hydrocarbons, ozone,
nitric oxide, formaldehyde and sunlight. It is called oxidizing smog. To solve this we
could plant pinus, junipirus, and pyrus as they metabolize NO2.
To increase CO2 solubility in soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
Quiz
Q1: Ecology is
study of relationship between organisms and environment
functional unit of nature encompassing interaction between its biotic and abiotic components.
a series of organisms feeding on each other taking part at various biotic levels.
surrounding where organisms live.
Q2: Each step of the food chain is called

trophic level
Habitat
Food chain
food webs

Bio-magnification is phenomenon when harmful substances absorbed by lower level are passed
on to higher trophic levels.
Eutrophication is the natural aging of the river or water body due to nutrient enrichment.
Bio fortification is breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals.
Bio remediation is use of microbes to make medicines.
Q4: Acclimatization doesn't account for
when we move from plains to mountains we breathe faster.
Camels have long legs to keep body away from the heat of the ground. They dont sweat, their
dung is dry and urine is very less.
Fishes have streamlined body and fins to help move and change direction in water.
Winter is longer in polar regions
Q5: Which is not essential for formation of Photochemical smog

peroxyacetyl nitrate
hydrocarbons
nitric oxide
Cold
Chapter 14:REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS
Introduction
It can be asexual or sexual. In asexual, new plants are obtained without seeds and
in sexual they are obtained from seeds.
Vegetative propagation is a part of asexual reproduction where new plant is grown
from
vegetative
parts
of
plant.
Plants obtained from vegetative propagation grow faster, bear fruits, flowers fast
and are exact copies of the parent.
e.g.: Rose stems, potato, ginger, turmeric buds, bryophyllum leaves, sweet
potato, dahlia roots.
Yeast reproduces by budding, algae by fragmentation, fungi, moss, ferns by spore
formation.
External fertilization i.e. fusion of male and female gametes outside the body is
common
in
aquatic
animals.
Viviparous animals give birth to young ones, oviparous animals lay eggs.
Adolescence may begin earlier in girls. They may grow faster than boys too.
Quiz

In asexual, new plants are obtained without seeds and in sexual they are obtained from seeds.
Vegetative propagation is a part of asexual reproduction where new plant is grown from
vegetative parts of plant.
Plants obtained from vegetative propagation grow faster, bear fruits, flowers fast and are exact
copies of the parent.
Viviparous animals lay eggs.
Q2: Adolescence in girls

Is sooner than boys
Is slower than boys
Is stronger than boys
Is weaker than boys

Yeast reproduces by budding
algae by fragmentation
fungi, moss, ferns by spore formation.
Oviparous animals give birth to young ones
Q4: External fertilization

is common in mammals
is common in aquatic animals
none of above
both of above
Q5:Reproduction in plants is
sexual
asexual
both
none
Chapter 15:CHROMOSOMES
Introduction
The male has two chromosomes X and Y, the female has only X chromosomes.
During reproduction if X and X chromosome come together than the zygote shall
develop into female if X and Y chromosome fuse, then zygote shall develop into
male.
Gender Determination
The sex of the offspring depends on whether he inherits X chromosome from father
making it XX pair [female child] or Y chromosome from father making it XY pair
[male child].
Facts about Blood Group

Also if one parent has blood group A and second B, then offspring may get AB.
If
one
parent
A,
second
parent
=O,
then
A;
If one parent = B, second parent =O, then offspring may get B;

If
one
parent
O,
second
parent
=O,
then
offspring
may
get
O.
If one parent = AB, second parent =A/B/O, then offspring may get AB;
Chromosomal disorders
There are 23 chromosomes, 22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
Genetic disorders are Hemophilia [sex chromosome linked passed from mother to
son], Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-cell anemia [autosomal can be passed from any
parent to offspring], Color blindness [sex chromosome linked passed from mother
to son, in rare cases to daughters if father is color blind and mother is a
carrier], Phenylketonuria [autosomal], Thalassemia [
defective genes.
autosomal
due
to
Miscellaneous
Allergic person release IgE antibody and the blood cells release histamines these
cause allergic reactions.
Quiz
Q1: Male has chromosmes

X
X,Y
Q2: If X and Y chromosome fuse then zygote is

male
female
CANT BE DETERMINED
none
Q3: Find false

if one parent has blood group A and second B, then offspring may get AB.
If one parent = A, second parent =O, then A;
If one parent = B, second parent =O, then offspring may get B;span id="sp10" class="glyphicon
glyphicon-remove">
If one parent = AB, second parent =A/B/O, then offspring may get A;
Q4: Find false fact

There are 23 chromosomes, 22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
Hemophilia [sex chromosome linked passed from mother to son]
Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-cell anemia [autosomal can be passed from any parent to offspring]
Phenylketonuria [passed from mother to son]
Q5: Allergic person release ___ antibody and the blood cells release histamines these cause allergic
reactions.
IgE
IgA
IgB
IgAB
Chapter 16: HORMONES

Human Hormones
Pituitary gland is an endocrine [ductless] gland. The hormones of pituitary gland
stimulate testes and ovaries to produce their hormones. It also stimulates thyroid
and adrenals to secrete their hormones. Pituitary gland produces growth hormone
necessary for normal growth of a person.
Other endocrine glands are thyroid [secretes thyroxin controls metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats lack of which causes goiter]; pancreas [produce
insulin lack of which causes diabetes] and adrenals [produce adrenalin which helps
adjust to stress].
Fig 1: Glands of the body
Plant Hormones
Auxins: These are indole compounds. Helps the cells grow longer, rooting of stems,
promote flowering, prevent early dropping of fruits and leaves but enhance
dropping of old leaves. It is also used as weed killer of dicots.
Gibberellins: helps in the growth of stems, elongation of fruits. All are acidic.
Cytokinins: Promote cell division.
Ethylene: Hastens ripening of fruits by increasing their respiration rate.
Abscisic acid: inhibits growth, leads to wilting of leaves.
Miscellenous
Thyroxin causes morphosis of tadpoles into frogs. Thyroxin needs iodine, so if the water in
which tadpoles swims dont have iodine. The tadpoles cant become frogs.
Quiz
Q1:Endocrine glands are not

Ductless
Pituary
Thyroid
Pancreas
Q2: Adrenalin is for

Pleasure
Tension
Anxiety
Adjust to stress
Q3: Ethylene is for

inhibits growth
leads to wilting of leaves.
Promote cell division
Hastens ripening of fruits by increasing their respiration rate.
Q4:Thyroxin synthesis needs

iodine
protein
vitamin
carbohydrates
Q5: Auxins don't help in

rooting of stems
cells grow longer
promote flowering, prevent early dropping of fruits and leaves
weed enhancer.
Chapter 17: MOTIONS,

MEASUREMENTS OR DISTANCES
Laws of Motion
Newtons laws of motion
First law [law of inertia]: An object remains in the state of rest or uniform motion
till a force compels it to change that state. Tendency of objects to stay at rest or
keep moving is inertia.
e.g.:
1.
when a bus starts motion our body is pulled backwards as it is at rest and the
feet and bus are in motion.
2.
When a bus applies brakes the body moves forward as its in motion but the
feet and the bus are in rest.
3.
When a car takes a turn our body swings as it was in a straight line motion.
4.
When we make a heap of carom coins and take a striker and hit them then
the lowermost coin moves, but the remaining heap falls in place due to inertia.
Inertia is present in all objects; more the mass more is the inertia. Hence mass is a
measure of inertia.
Second law: The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the
applied unbalanced force which is in the direction of the force.
e.g.:
1.
A cricketer catching a ball pulls his hand back to increase the time his hand
takes to reduce the speed of ball to zero.
2.
An athlete also jumps on a cushion to increase the time his body would take
to reduce its speed to zero.
3.
A karate artist breaks a slab of ice with a single blow using same principle.
4.
A small bullet can kill a man if its momentum is great, a heavy truck
moving a small speed can kill a man easily sue to it momentum.
Third law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

e.g.: when a bullet is fired, the force by which it moves forward causes recoil of the
gun. When the sailor jumps forward, his boat moves backwards.
Energy and types of Energy

Kinetic
energy is
possessed
by
an
object
by
virtue
of
its
motion.
Potential energy is possessed by an object by virtue of its position or

configuration.
Sum of potential and kinetic energy is called Mechanical energy.

Power is the rate at which work is done. [Unit = watt] Commercial unit of energy is
kilowatt hour, thus electrical energy used by an appliance in a month is in kilowatt
hour
this
is
also
expressed
in
terms
of
unit.
e.g.: when we stretch a bow the potential energy that is stored in it gets transferred
into kinetic when the bow is released. When an object is raised it has gravitational
potential energy due to the work done in raising it.
Fig 1: Types of energy
Miscellaneous
In 1790 French came up with a standard system of measurements. High speed
winds are accompanied by reduced air pressure.
Time period [time to complete one oscillation] of a pendulum of a given length is
constant. Pendulum were discovered by Galileo Galilee
Speedometer measures vehicle speed.
Odometer- measures distance traveled.

Galileo Galilee: proposed a new design to the telescope. Designed barometer and
pendulum. Discovered moons of Jupiter and the sunspots. He said all planets
revolve around the sun not earth.
Quiz
Q1:An object remains in the state of rest or uniform motion till a force compels it to change that state.
is seen in
when a bus starts motion our body is pulled backwards as it is at rest and the feet and bus are in
motion.
When a bus applies brakes the body moves forward as its in motion but the feet and the bus are
in rest.
When a car takes a turn our body swings as it was in a straight line motion.
all
Q2:The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied unbalanced force
which is in the direction of the force. is seen in
A cricketer catching a ball pulls his hand back to increase the time his hand takes to reduce the
speed of ball to zero.
An athlete also jumps on a cushion to increase the time his body would take to reduce its speed
to zero.
A karate artist breaks a slab of ice with a single blow using same principle.
all
Q3: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. is seen in

when a bullet is fired, the force by which it moves forward causes recoil of the gun.
When the sailor jumps forward, his boat moves backwards.
both A and B
A small bullet can kill a man if its momentum is great, a heavy truck moving a small speed can
kill a man easily sue to it momentum.
Q4:Galileo Galilee work includes

proposed a new design to the telescope.
Designed barometer and pendulum.
Discovered moons of Jupiter and the sunspots.
all
Q5:types of Energy are not

Kinetic energy
Potential energy
watt
heat
Chapter 18: CLIMATE

Climate
Air moves from region of high air pressure to low air pressure. Air when heated rises
as it becomes lighter. Air expands on heating.
Thunderstorms develop in hot, humid tropical areas like India very frequently. The
rising temperatures produce strong upward rising winds. These winds carry water
droplets upwards, where they freeze, and fall down again. The swift movement of
the falling water droplets along with the rising air creates lightning and sound. It is
this event that we call a thunderstorm.
Cyclone names
Typhoons Philippines, Japan
Hurricane American continents
Quiz
Q1: Air moves from region of

high air pressure to low air pressure
low air pressure to high air pressure
both
none
Q2:Air when heated rises as it becomes

lighter
heavy
expansive
contracted
Q3: cyclones are called typhoons in
Philippines
india
pakistan
sri lanka
Q4: cyclones are called hurricanes in

americas
europe
asia
australia
Q5:Thunderstorms develop in
hot and humid regions
cold regions
deserts
none
Chapter 19: LIGHT, SHADOWS,

REFLECTIONS
Introduction
Light is made of seven colors. Violet [lowest wavelength] bends most when passing
through a prism and red [highest wavelength] least. This phenomenon is
called dispersion. It is a transverse wave not a mechanical wave.
Law of reflection says that Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Also the angle of incidence, angle of reflection and normal lie on the same plane.
Diffusion is caused when the reflection surface is irregular so reflected rays are not
parallel.
Human Eye and its Constituents

The white part of the eye is tough to protect interior from accidents.
The transparent coating is called cornea. Behind the cornea is the iris, which gives
color
to
the
eye.
The iris has an opening called pupil. Iris controls the amount of light entering
the eye. Behind the pupil is a convex lens which focuses light on the retina.
The retina has two cells: rod shaped for dim light and cone shaped for bright
light
and
colors.
Sensations
of
these
cells
go
to
the
brain
via
the
optic
nerve.
Sight Disorders
Sometimes the crystalline lens of eye becomes milky or translucent, this is
called cataract.
In myopia, shortsightedness the person cant see far away objects. This is
corrected by using a concave lens.
Hyper metropia or farsightedness is corrected using convex lens.

Presbyopia affects accommodation of eye i.e. ability to adjust its focal length to
see objects nearby or far. Such a person uses bi-focal i.e. upper part concave for far
sight and lower part convex for near sight.
Astigmatism: This occurs when the cornea is not spherical in shape. For example, the cornea
could have a larger curvature in the vertical plane than in the horizontal plane or vice-versa. If a
person with such a defect in eye-lens looks at a wire mesh or a grid of lines, focusing in either
the vertical or the horizontal plane may not be as sharp as in the other plane. Astigmatism results
in lines in one direction being well focused while those in a perpendicular direction may appear
distorted. Astigmatism can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens of desired radius of curvature
with an appropriately directed axis. This defect can occur along with myopia or hypermetropia.
Fig 2: Eye defects
Mirrors
Image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, laterally inverted.
Spherical mirrors are concave or convex.
Concave
Mirrors
Concave mirrors are used in dental equipment's, by doctors to check ear, nose, and
throats. Reflectors of torches, headlights of vehicles, shaving mirrors to get enlarged
image
of
face.
Image of concave mirrors can be real or virtual, inverted or erect and same size,
larger or smaller, depending on position of object with respect to mirror.
Fig
Ref: N.C.E.R.T
Class
1:
Concave
XI
mirror
Science
P = center of the reflecting surface. Pole

C= Center of curvature. Lies outside in case of concave, inside in case of convex.
F= Principal focus. Distance between P and F is focal length f.
Convex
Mirror
Convex mirror form image of objects spread over a large area. They are used in rear
view or side mirrors of vehicles. Images are virtual, erect and diminished.
Fig
2:
Convex
Mirror
Ref: N.C.E.R.T Class XI Science
Lenses
Lenses
are
transparent.
They
form
images
by
refraction
of
Convex
light.
lens
Convex lenses [magnifying glass] are thicker at middle and thinner at edges.
Image of convex lens can be real or virtual, inverted or erect and same size, larger
or smaller, depending on position of object with respect to mirror [same as concave
mirrors].
Concave
lens
Image of concave lens is always virtual, erect and diminished [same as convex
mirror].
Convex lens is used in microscope, refracting telescopes, reflecting telescopes [also
have concave lens].
Concave lenses are other way round. Convex lens are converging and concave
lenses are diverging. Power of convexlens is positive and concave lens is negative.
Miscelleneous
Refraction of light: Bending of light when it enters a medium is called refraction.
Due to refraction pencil appears to bend in water, coin in water appears raised. The
object inside water appears enlarged. Twinkling of stars, advanced sunrise or
delayed sunset and apparent flattening of sun at sunrise and sunset into oval shape
is also caused due to atmospheric refraction.
Dawn and twilight are also due to refraction. they are maximum at the poles and
decrease towards the equator.
Total internal reflection occurs when a ray of light traveling from denser to rarer
medium is incident at an angle more than the critical angle, it is reflected inside and
no refraction takes place.
e.g.: Mirage, diamonds can be cut in such a manner to facilitate total internal
reflections to make it shiny, Optical fibers, prisms.
When light ray entered from rarer [optically rarer] to denser [optically denser]
medium it bends towards the normal [also speed decreases] and when it enters
rarer medium from denser it bends away from the normal [speed increases]. Optical
density is different from mass density.
Light travels fastest in vacuum, then air, then liquids and finally solids.
Tydall effect - Scattering of light causes blue sky phenomenon and reddening of
sun at sunrise and sunset. Blue wavelength is easily scattered by dust particles,
hence sky appears blue. Violet is scattered more easily than blue but our eyes are
more sensitive to blue color. However at a great height effect of scattering are
negligible
so
sky
appears
dark.
Alert lights are Red as it has higher wavelength and wont be scattered by dust or
fog or smoke.
Similarly at sunrise or sunset, the sunlight travels greater distance to reach us; the
smaller wavelengths are already scattered so only longer wavelength i.e.
Red reaches us.
Day birds have more cones than rod cells and in night birds reverse is the case.
Braille pattern founded in 1821 has 63 characters.

Persistence of vision: Image on the retina persists for one sixteenth of a
second after its removed. Hence in cinemas the images are flashed at a rate faster
than 16 per second.
Objects that give out light are luminous objects.

Shadows need a source of light and an opaque object.
Quiz
Q1:which is true
Light is made of seven colors.
Violet [lowest wavelength] bends most when passing through a prism and red [highest
wavelength] least.
light is a transverse wave not a mechanical wave.
all
Q2:___ is caused when the reflection surface is irregular so reflected rays are not parallel.
reflection
refraction
diffusion
dispersion
Q3:__ controls the amount of light entering the eye.

pupil
cornea
iris
retina
Q4:Sometimes the crystalline lens of eye becomes milky or translucent, this is called
cataract
myopia
hypermetropia
asytmatism
Q5:Concave mirrors are used in
dental equipment's, by doctors to check ear, nose, and throats. Reflectors of torches, headlights
of vehicles, shaving mirrors to get enlarged image of face.
rear view or side mirrors of vehicles.
both
none
Chapter 20: ELECTRICITY AND

CIRCUITS
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors Allow electricity to pass through them. Due to free electrons present
on their surface. [Metals, Human body]
Insulators Dont allow electricity to pass through them. [Air]
Pure water doesnt conduct electricity. Most of the acids, bases and salts are
conductors. When electrodes are dipped in water and an electric current is passed
through it, Oxygen bubbles formed on the electrode connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and hydrogen bubbles formed on the other electrode.
Effects of Electric current

Heating effect of electric current is used in geysers, heaters, irons etc. The
heating produced in a wire depends on its material, thickness, length. Bulbs have
filament of tungsten that emits light when heated at high temperatures, it is also
filled with inert gas like nitrogen or argon.
Magnetic effect of current was discovered by Hans Oersted. This principle is

used in electromagnets, electric bells.
Uses of Electric current

Electroplating is a common application of chemical effects of electric current.
e.g.: Chromium doesnt rust or scratch so a metal is coated with chromium for
utensils, tin is coated on iron in tin cans so food doesnt come in contact with iron.
Iron objects are coated with zinc to prevent corrosion "Galvanization" .
Corrosion
is
an oxidation reaction.
Oily foods get oxidized if kept in the open and their taste changes [rancidity], due to
this they are kept in air tight containers. Hence, Chips bags are flushed
with nitrogen to prevent oxidation.
AC current can be transmitted farther than DC without much loss of electrical
energy.
Household devices are connected in parallel.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells use reaction of oxygen and hydrogen, porous carbon electrodes and
aqueous solution of NaOH. Platinum or palladium electrodes are used as catalysts.
Fig 1: Fuel cell
Quiz
Q1:Conductors Allow electricity to pass through them. Due to

free electrons present on their surface.
as they are metallic
due to EM waves
due to high boiling point
Q2:Heating effect of electric current is used in

electromagnets
electric bells.
geysers, heaters, irons
none
Q3:metal is coated with chromium for utensils as

it is less reactive
food retains nutrients
it doesnt rust or stratch
none
Q4:Chips bags are flushed with nitrogen to prevent oxidation as

Oily foods get oxidized if kept in the open and their taste changes [rancidity]
nitrogen maintains nutrition
both
none
Q5:Fuel cells use

Platinum or palladium electrodes are used as catalysts.
reaction of oxygen and hydrogen, porous carbon electrodes and aqueous solution of NaOH.
both
none
Chapter 21: MAGNETISM

Introduction
All magnets have two poles, north seeking end or North Pole and south seeking end
or
South
Magnetic Materials attracted towards a magnet [iron, nickel, cobalt]

Non magnetic Materials that are not attracted towards a magnet.
Pole.
A freely suspended bar magnet always rests in the North South direction.
Take a rectangular piece of iron. Place it on the table. Now take a bar magnet and
place one ofits poles near one edge of the bar of iron. Without lifting the bar
magnet, move it along the length of the iron bar till you reach the other end.
Now,lift the magnet and bring the pole (the same pole you started with) to the same
point of the iron bar from which you began. Move the magnet again along theiron
bar in the same direction as you did before. Repeating these several caused the
iron bar to become a magnet.
In magnetism, similar poles repel and opposite poles attract each other.
Magnetism can be lost by heating, hammering or dropping magnet from a
height.
Electro-Magnetic Forces
Electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive but gravitational force is always
attractive.
EM
force
Nuclear
force
is
is
100
stronger
times
stronger
than
than
EM
gravitational
force
but
range
force.
is
less.
Gravitational force doesnt need an intervening medium.

Magnetic field produced by a current in a conductor decreases as the distance from
it increases.
Right hand thumb rule gives the direction of magnetic field due to current in a
conductor. Thumb points in the direction of current and curled fingers point in
direction of magnetic field.
Miscellaneous
Magnetic field is produced even by the weak electrical impulses of our nerve cells.
Significant magnetic field is present in brain and heart. The magnetic field produced
by the body is the basis of MRI scans that get images of body parts.
Quiz
Q1:Electromagnetic force can be

attractive
repulsive
both
none
Q2:which is true
Gravitational force doesnt need an intervening medium.
Nuclear force is 100 times stronger than EM force but range is less.
EM force is stronger than gravitational force.
all
Q3:which is true
Magnetic field is produced even by the weak electrical impulses of our nerve cells.
Significant magnetic field is present in brain and heart.
The magnetic field produced by the body is the basis of MRI scans that get images of body
parts.
all
Q4:Right hand thumb rule gives the

direction of magnetic field
direction of current
direction of force vector
both A and B
Q5:which is true
A freely suspended bar magnet always rests in the North South direction.
Magnetism can be lost by heating, hammering or dropping magnet from a height.
In magnetism, similar poles repel and opposite poles attract each other.
all
Chapter 22: ACID, BASES and SALTS

Introduction
Acid [pH <7] Sour, Base [14 > pH > 7] bitter and soapy to touch. Water soluble
base alkali.
Turmeric, litmus [obtained from lichens], China rose are some natural indicators of
acid, base. Vanilla, onions and clove are olfactory indicators.
ACID
OCCURS IN
acetic acid
vinegar
formic acid
ants sting
citric acid
citrus fruits like lemon, orange
lactic acid
curds
oxalic acid
spinach, tomato
ascorbic acid [vit c]
amla
Table
1:
Acids
and
their
natural
occurances
OCCUR IN
BASES
Calcium hydroxide
lime water
ammonium hydroxide
window cleaner
sodium
or
potassium soap
hydroxide
magnesium hydroxide
Table
milk of magnesia
2:
Bases
and
their
natural
occurrences
Acid Base tests

Turmeric turns red with soap as soap is basic. Soap is sodium or potassium salt of
long chain carboxylic acids, this forms scum with hard water. However detergents
are salts of ammonium or sulphonate salts, these dont form scum with hard water
and remain effective. China rose turns dark pink for acidic and green for
basic. Phenolphthalein turns colorless with acid and pink with base.
Acid - Base Reactions

Acid reacts with base to get salt and water; heat is always evolved [exothermic].
Salt can be basic, acidic or neutral. This is called neutralization. Salts of strong base
and strong acid are neutral. Those of strong acid and weak base are acidic and
strong base, weak acid are basic.Blood is basic in nature.
Carbon dioxide turns lime water [calcium hydroxide] into milky [calcium carbonate]
Galvanization is depositing zinc on iron objects to prevent rusting as it cuts off

contact of water vapor and oxygen with iron. Stainless steel doesnt rust, its iron
and chromium, nickel, manganese and carbon
Miscellaneous
We take milk of magnesia [base] when we get indigestion due to excess
hydrochloric acid in stomach.
To remove effect of ant bite [formic acid] we put moist baking soda [sodium
bicarbonate] or calamine solution [zinc carbonate]. Nettle sting releases methanoic
acid.
By adding excess fertilizers soil becomes acidic so we put quick lime [calcium oxide]
or slaked lime [calcium hydroxide] to it. To make it less basic we add organic matter
to it.
Acid rain is caused by carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide which mix
with water to become nitric acid, carbonic acid and sulphuric acid. Sulphur dioxide is
emitted by coal based power plants.
Bleaching powder [calcium oxychloride] is used for bleaching clothes and
disinfecting water. Washing soda is used for removing permanent hardness of water
and
as
cleaning
agent.
Plaster of Paris or calcium hemihydrates [CaSO4, H2O] is used as a plaster to

support fractured bones in the right position. On mixing with water it becomes
gypsum [CaSO4, 2H2O] which is hard.
Quiz
Q1: natural indicators of acid, base are

Turmeric
litmus [obtained from lichens],
China rose
All
Q2: Acid <-> occurance pair is correct

acetic acid <-> vinegar
formic acid - ants sting
oxalic acid - spinach, tomato
All
Q3: base -> occurance, pair is correct

Calcium hydroxide - lime water
ammonium hydroxide - window cleaner
sodium or potassium hydroxide - soap
all
Q4: Turmeric turns red with soap as

soap is basic
soap is acid
soap is neutral
none
Q5: Acid reacts with base to get salt and water such reaction is ;
exothermic
endothermic
cant say
none
Chapter 23: HEAT

Introduction
When a solid is heated the kinetic energy of the molecules is increased and it
overcomes the force of attraction of molecules and the solid melts. When a solid
melts the temperature doesnt increase, the heat energy is used up and is hidden
inside the solid and is used for changing its state so its called latent heat of fusion.
Open system is where there is an exchange of matter and energy between system
and surroundings. Closed system has only exchange of energy. In isolated systems
both are absent.
Law of Thermodynamics
First
law
of
thermodynamics
is
the
law
of
conservation
of
energy
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat absorbed or reject by unit mass of a
substance to raiseits temperature by 1C. Water has higher specific heat than land
and so it heats and cools slower. Skating is possible on snow as water is formed
belowthe skates due to low temperature. This acts as a lubricant.
F = 9C/5 + 32; F= temp in Fahrenheit, C= temp in Celsius
Effect of Heat on substances

Solids like camphor, ammonium chloride, naphthalene, anthracene turn from solid
to gas on heating. This is called sublimation.
Even on application of pressure the state of matter changes. Pressure exerted by

gases is measures using unit atmosphere. 1 atm is pressure at sea level.It
decreases
with
height.
Evaporation occurs as a few particles of a liquid on its surface have higher kinetic
energy and they break away from the rest and turn into vapor.
In solids, heat is transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature by
process calledconduction [Copper is coated on the bottom of the utensils as its a
good
conductor
and
helps
in
spreading
out
the
heat
evenly].
Water and air are poor conductors of heat. In water, when its heated hot water at
the bottom rises up and cold water moves down. This continues till the whole water
is heated. This process is called convection.
Radiation is the process by which suns heat reaches us. Radiation doesnt need a
medium. All objects emit radiation when heated; the frequency of radiation goes
from lower to higher as the temperature increases.
States of Matters
Plasma fourth state of matter. This consists of super energized and excited
ionized gaseous matter. The neon bulb has neon gas and CFL has argon or helium,
this gets energized when electricity is passed through them. This creates plasma
that glows depending on the nature of the gas. In sun and stars plasma is created
due to high temperatures and produces light.
Bose-Einstein condensate fifth state of matter. BEC is formed when a gas
at very low density is cooled to super low temperatures.
Density measured as kilogram per meter cube.
Natural gas contains methane [50-90%], ethane, propane, butane and hydrogen
sulphide [waste]. LPG uses propane and butane. when natural gas is heated we get
carbon black used in tyre industries.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear reactors work on nuclear fission [fission was discovered by Fermi]. Atom
bombs also work on the same principle. In reactors, neutrons need to be slowed to
ensure interaction with the uranium isotope this is done using heavy water [D 2O] or
graphite.
Cadmium rods are used to control the reaction. Energy produced by the sun and the
working of the hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion.
India
has
three
stage
nuclear
program.
In first stage, the natural uranium is used as fuel, heavy water as moderator
[pressurized
heavy
water
reactors]
and
we
get
plutonium.
In second stage, plutonium and uranium oxide is used to give uranium -233 in fast
breeder
reactors
where
no
moderator
is
needed.
In final stage, thorium and uranium-233 is used to get energy [thorium based
reactors].
Heavy water reactors need frequent refueling and produce less energy compared to
light water reactors that use distilled water as coolant and fissile uranium -235 as
fuel.
Miscellaneous
Anomalous
behavior
of
water
Water exhibits anomalous behavior below 4C, its volume increases and density decreases. Due
to this the ponds and lakes freeze at the top during winters as at 4C water becomes less dense
and remains on top and solidifies. This leaves animal and plant life intact at bottom.
Effect
of
Wool
and
Cotton
on
Heat
Dark clothes or surfaces absorb more heat and hence dark clothes are preferred in winter. Light
clothes reflect more heat and so such clothes are preferred in summer.
Wool is a bad conductor of heat, woolen fibers trap air and this prevents body heat
from escaping. So woolen clothes are preferred in winters. We should use two
blankets instead of one in winters as the trapped layer of air between the blankets
prevents heat from escaping.
Cotton clothes are sweat absorbent, they expose the sweat to the atmosphere and
when it evaporates it absorbs latent heat from the body, this heat is removed and
the body cools down.
Effect
of
Air
parcel
on
heat
Construction of houses is done using hollow bricks that have air trapped in them.
This prevents heating of houses during summer and keeps flats cool. During winter
the heat from flats doesnt escape out keeping them warm.
Quiz
Q1:latent heat of fusion is

When a solid melts the temperature doesnt increase, the heat energy is used up and is hidden
inside the solid and is used for changing its state
temperature needed to heat a solid
heat retaining capacity of solid
none
Q2:First law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy that says

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
every action has equal and opposite reaction
both
none
Q3:Skating is possible on snow as

water is formed below the skates due to low temperature. This acts as a lubricant.
Water has higher specific heat
both
none
Q4:Solids like camphor, ammonium chloride, naphthalene, anthracene turn from solid to gas on
heating. This is called
sublimation
evaporation
oxidation
reduction
Q5:Evaporation occurs as a
few particles of a liquid on its surface have higher kinetic energy and they break away from the
rest and turn into vapor.
water is highly unstable
both
none
Chapter 24: FORCE

Introduction
This is either contact [friction, muscular] or non contact [magnetic, electrostatic,

gravitational, pressure]
Pressure
Pressure is inversely related to area. So smaller the area, larger the pressure for the
same
force.
Pressure and its real applications

E.g. Nail is easily pushed into wood from its pointed end than its head, tools for
cutting have a sharp edge, shoulder bags have broad straps, and porters carrying
heavy
loads
wrap
cloth
on
their
head.
A large wooden plank placed on top of the circus performer keeps his ribs from
breaking
when
an
elephant
steps
on
him.
All above activities regulate pressure by changing the surface area.
Suits of astronauts are filed with air to counter the pressure exerted by the body
otherwise their blood vessels would burst as there no pressure on the moon.
At high altitudes, pressure is low so liquids boil at low temperature. Hence we
use
pressure
cookers
to
cook.
In autoclaves to sterilize medical instruments, waters boiling point is increased by

putting higher pressure on it.
Pressure by liquids
Liquids also exert equal pressure at the same depth. Air also exerts a great pressure
on organisms but our body counters the pressure so we dont feel anything.
Liquids are treated as in-compressible, whenever pressure is applied on any part

of a liquid it is transmitted in all directions equally and undiminished. This principle
is used in hydraulic lifts and brakes.
Quiz
Q1:Pressure is ___ area.

inversely related
directly related
both
none
Q2:Suits of astronauts are filed with air to counter the pressure exerted by the body otherwise
their blood vessels would burst as there no pressure on the moon.
they might not stand moons gravity
both
none
Q3:we use pressure cookers to cook at high altitudes as

pressure is low so liquids boil at low temperature.
nutritive value is maintained
both
none
Q4:principle is used in hydraulic lifts and brakes is

whenever pressure is applied on any part of a liquid it is transmitted in all directions equally and
undiminished.
surface tension
gravity
viscosity
Q5:Pressure and its real applications include

Nail is easily pushed into wood from its pointed end than its head
porters carrying heavy loads wrap a cloth on their head.
A large wooden plank placed on top of the circus performer keeps his ribs from breaking when
an elephant steps on him.
all
Chapter 25: SOUND

Introduction
What is Sound?
Sound is produced by vibrating objects. Vibrations cause compressions [high pressure] and
rarefactions [low pressure].
Sound waves travel through a medium like this. Sound waves are longitudinal i.e. individual particles
of a medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation of the disturbance. The
particles dont move physically but oscillate back and forth.
In humans, the voice box or larynx has two vocal cords that produce sound through vibration when
lungs force air through them.
Vocal
cords
in
males
are
20mm,
women
15mm
and
children
even
shorter.
Fig
1:
Larynx
and
Physiology
of
ear
Eardrum vibrates when sound waves hit it; these vibrations are sent to the brain
from
the
inner
ear.
The sound waves are collected by the pinna [outer ear] these then pass through
the auditory canal to the ear drum which amplifies it. The middle ear [hammer,
anvil, and stirrup] then amplifies it and sends it to the inner ear. In the inner
ear [the cochlea] converts it to electrical signals which are taken to the brain by the
auditory
nerve.
The
brain
interprets
them
as
sound.
Properties of Sound
Loudness of sound is proportional to square of its amplitude.
Loudness is measured in decibels.
Amplitude decides the loudness of the sound.
Higher sound has higher energy so travels a longer distance.
However as it moves away from the source its amplitude keeps on decreasing.
Pitch or shrillness is determined by its frequency.
Quality or timber of sound decides the pleasantness of sound.
Sound of single frequency is a tone; sound which is a mixture of multiple frequencies is anote.
Speed of Sound
Speed of sound remains almost same for all frequencies in a given medium under
same physical conditions. Intensity is the amount of sound energy passing through
a unit area its different than loudness. Two sounds of equal intensity can be of
different loudness.
Speed
of
sounds
is highest
in
solids and
least
in
gases.
It increases with temperature of the medium. Sound travels through solids, liquids,
gases
but
not
through
vacuum.
Sonic Boom
When a sound producing object moves faster than sound, it creates shock waves
that have high energy. Air pressure variations due to these shockwaves produce a
large, sharp sound calledsonic boom.
Sound obeys the laws of reflection same as light waves. The sensation of
sound persists in our brain for 0.1s. If the obstacle from which sound is reflected is
at distance more than 17.2m then we hear echo. Sound absorbent materials absorb
sound and prevent multiple reflections.
Stethoscope, horns, trumpets, shehenais, auditoriums are designed to take
advantage of multiple reflections of sound.
Human Ear
Human ear can hear sounds only between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz i.e. 20 -20000
oscillations per second. Children below 5 can hear infrasonic sounds i.e. below
20Hz. During earthquakes infrasonic sound are produced which are heard by birds
and animals and they are disturbed earlier.
Applications of Sound
Ultrasonic sounds above 20 kHz. They have many applications like in cleaning of
instruments, detecting cracks in building, machines, ultrasound machines and echo
cardiograph, SONAR. All depend on detection of reflected ultrasonic waves from

obstacles, body parts etc.
Doppler Effect is observed when a moving object causes change in frequency of
EM waves. In military its used to detect enemy aircrafts.
Fig
2:
Doppler
effect
In astronomy its used to find speed of moving stars and in sonography its used to
study heart beats and blood flow. In echocardiography it used to study heart
beats.
Quiz
Q1: Which is true

Sound waves are longitudinal
Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
Vocal cords in males are 20mm, women 15mm and children even shorter.
All
Q2: Properties of Sound are

Loudness of sound is proportional to square of its amplitude.
Higher sound has higher energy so travels a longer distance.
Quality or timber of sound decides the pleasantness of sound.
All
Q3: Speed of Sound is

highest in gases
highest in liquids
highest in solids
highest in vacuum
Q4:Sonic Boom happens when
When a sound producing object moves faster than sound, it creates shock waves that have high
energy.
lighting happens
cyclones are seen
all the above
Q5: Applications of Sound dont include

cleaning of instruments, detecting cracks in building, machines, ultrasound machines and echo
cardiograph, SONAR.
In military its used to detect enemy aircrafts.
In astronomy its used to find speed of moving stars and in sonography its used to study heart
beats and blood flow. In echocardiography it used to study heart beats
xrays
Chapter 26 :METHODS OF
SEPARATION
Introduction
1.
2.
Threshing: Beating stalks to free grains

Winnowing: Separate lighter and heavier components of a mixture by blowing
air.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Sieving: Separate components of different sizes by filter.

Sedimentation: Heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added.
Decantation: When water is removed along with lighter component.
Filtration: Pass mixture through a filter paper.
Evaporation: Water is vaporized by sunlight.
Condensation: Water vapor cools down to water.
Quiz
Q1:Beating stalks to free grains is

winnowing
threshing
sieving
filtration
Q2: Separate lighter and heavier components of a mixture by blowing air.

winnowing
threshing
filtration
none
Q3:When water is removed along with lighter component. it is

blowing
filtration
decantation
all
Q4: Heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added. is called

decantation
filtration
Sedimentation:
none
Q5:which is true
Water dissolves different amounts of soluble substances in it.
Water dissolves more of a substance by heating it.
both
none
Chapter 27: SURFACE TENSION

Introduction
Surface
Water
Oil
Hairs
tension
doesnt
explains
spread
on
why
some
and
water
dont
mix;
of
brush
stick
together
Bubbles
surfaces
water
wets
when
but
us
removed
are
spherical.
forms
but
out
droplets.
not
ducks.
of
water.
Raindrops are spherical. oil rises in wick; sap and water rise in plants.
Particles of soil remain separated under water but stick together when taken out.
When glass pieces are melted the edges take rounded shape and become smooth,
this
is
called
fire
polishing.
Properties of Surface Tension

Surface tension decreases with temperature.
Angle of contact determines if liquid shall spread or form droplets. It is reduced by
wetting agents so they can penetrate well; whereas it is increased by waterproofing
agents so water doesnt stick. Detergents molecules attract water on one side and
grease-dirt on other so they help in washing by reducing surface tension of wateroil.
Fig
1:
Angle
of
Contact
Viscosity is due to the friction between different liquid layers as they slip past each
other
when
the
liquid
flows.
Properties of Viscosity
Higher viscosity means slower is the flow. Increasing the temperature decreases the
viscosity.
E.g.: Glass is an extremely viscous liquid; its so viscous that it resembles solids. The
windowpanes of old buildings are thicker at the bottom as glass flows down due to
gravity.
Friction
Rolling friction [rolling a body on ground] is less than sliding friction [pushing a
body already in motion] is less than static friction [pushing a static object].
e.g.: Use of ball bearings in hubs and axels of ceiling fans and bikes to reduce
contact surface between two solid parts. Thin cushion of air is maintained between
solids in relative motion for same purpose. Lubricants too reduce friction.
Earthquakes occur when continental plates brush past each other or collide.
Earthquakes are measured in Richters scale. An earthquake of intensity 6 is 1000
times more destructible than earthquake of intensity 2, so Richter scale is not linear.
Satellites
The escape velocity on moon is lower so gas molecules if formed escape as they
can easily overcome the gravitational pull of the moon. Thus the moon has no
atmosphere.
Geostationary satellites appear to be appearing fixed from any point on the
earth. To do this the satellite must be at a height of 35800km from the earths
surface and in the equatorial plane. Since EM waves beyond a certain frequency
cant be reflected by the ionosphere [TV], for reflecting such waves we use
geostationary
satellites.
Polar satellites go around earth in north south direction, their time period is 100
mins approx and their altitude is 500-800km. The satellites at a higher height have
a lower speed of revolution to stay in orbit as gravitational pull is lesser but this is
independent of their weights. They dont fall as earths gravitation provides
necessary acceleration to it.
Fig
2:
Types
of
Satellite
Satellites are launched preferably from equator and eastwards as it aids the speed
due to lower acceleration due to gravity g. Speed of rotation of satellites is
independent of its size and mass.
Note: centrifugal force is more at equator than poles. Gravity is higher at poles than
equator.
Electromagnetic Waves
EM waves in decreasing order of wavelength
Long Radio wave AM radio > TV and FM waves > short radio > microwave >
infrared > visible > UV > X-ray > gamma
In satellites, the acceleration towards the center of the earth is equal to earths
acceleration due to gravity at that point. Thus the objects inside the satellite
experience weightlessness. A body in free fall experiences no upward force on him
and so feels weightless.
Quiz
Q1: Surface tension doesnt explains why

Bubbles are spherical. Water doesnt spread on some surfaces but forms droplets.
Oil and water dont mix; water wets us but not ducks. Hairs of brush stick together when
removed out of water.
Raindrops are spherical. oil rises in wick; sap and water rise in plants. Particles of soil remain
separated under water but stick together when taken out.
CO2 is a good fire extinguisher
Q2: Properties of Surface Tension is not true

Surface tension decreases with temperature.
Angle of contact determines if liquid shall spread or form droplets. It is reduced by wetting
agents so they can penetrate well; whereas it is increased by waterproofing agents so water doesnt
stick.
Detergents molecules attract water on one side and grease-dirt on other so they help in washing
by reducing surface tension of water-oil.
Surface os liquids is smooth
Q3: Properties of Viscosity includes

Higher viscosity means slower is the flow.
Increasing the temperature decreases the viscosity.
both
neither
Q4: Use of ball bearings in hubs and axels of ceiling fans and bikes is to
reduce contact surface between two solid parts.
increase contact surface between two solid parts.
both
neither
Q5: the objects inside the satellite experience weightlessness because.

In satellites, the acceleration towards the center of the earth is equal to earths acceleration due
to gravity at that point.
there is no gravity above earth
moons gravity matches earths gavity so net is zero
none
Chapter 28: STARS

Introduction
The moon completes one rotation around its axis in 29 days and same time it take
to complete one revolution around the earth. Hence, we never see the other side of
the moon. Pole star doesnt move from its position as its located on earths axis.
Mercury is smallest planet and closest to the sun. It has no satellites. Venus [Earths
twin] is closest to the earth and rotates east to west. Saturn is less dense than
water. Uranus has a highly tilted axis; it appears to be rolling on its side. It also
rotates from east to west. First four planets are rocky with few satellites or no. But
outer planets are gaseous and with many satellites.
Asteroids are found between mars and jupiter.largest asteroid is cerus. Comets have
an elliptical orbit around the sun and have a long period of revolution. Their tail is
always away from the sun. Meteors are objects that enter the earths atmosphere,
usually they burn in the atmosphere but sometimes they fall on the earth. This
fallen body is called meteorite. Atmosphere regulates temperature of the planet by
allowing it to cool slowly in day time and during night time trapping the heat and
preventing it from escaping.
Ozone layer absorbs the harmful UV-B radiations of the sun. But due to CFCs it is
thinning and this leads to a hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica. Ozone [O3] is
the product of UV radiations. UV rays split the O2 molecule into free atoms which
combine with the O2 molecule to form ozone molecule. Depletion of ozone layer
above Antarctica is seen and is called ozone hole. This is due to formation of polar
stratospheric clouds in summer which cause depletion. In winter chlorine sinks are
present which prevent ozone depletion.
Greenhouse effect is seen when the long wave radiation of the earth is absorbed by
the greenhouse gases causing heating of the atmosphere.
Quiz
Q1: we never see the other side of the moon as.

both sides of moon are same
moon doesnt rotate
The moon completes one rotation around its axis in 29 days and same time it take to complete
one revolution around the earth.
none
Q2: Which is true

Mercury is smallest planet and closest to the sun. It has no satellites.
Venus [Earths twin] is closest to the earth and rotates east to west.
Uranus has a highly tilted axis; it appears to be rolling on its side.
All
Q3: Which is true

Atmosphere regulates temperature of the planet by allowing it to cool slowly in day time and
during night time trapping the heat and preventing it from escaping.
Ozone layer absorbs the harmful UV-B radiations of the sun. But due to CFCs it is thinning and
this leads to a hole in the ozone layer above Antarctica.
Depletion of ozone layer above Antarctica is seen and is called ozone hole. This is due to
formation of polar stratospheric clouds in summer which cause depletion.
all
Q4: Greenhouse effect is seen when the

long wave radiation of the earth is absorbed by the greenhouse gases causing heating of the
atmosphere.
short wave radiation of the earth is absorbed by the greenhouse gases causing heating of the
atmosphere.
both
none
Q5: Which is true

Asteroids are found between mars and jupiter.
largest asteroid is cerus.
Comets have an elliptical orbit around the sun and have a long period of revolution. Their tail is
always away from the sun.
All

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Carbohydrates and Fats

Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in

Vitamin and Minerals

Night blindness / Xeropthalmia

Anemia / Loss of fertility

Bone and tooth decay

Test to Detect Iodine, Proteins and Fats

Test for starch: IODINE TEST

Dietary Fibers and Water

Human body and nutrients

Q1: Transfats are

Good for heart

Obtained from animals

Q2: Roughage is used for

Excrete undigested food.

Q3: Select Option that is false

Liver is the largest gland in the body.

Low density cholesterol is bad and high density cholesterol is good.

Q4: Select Option that is True

Small intestine is smaller.

Large intestine is larger.

In carnivores, Small intestine is larger to digest meat.

In herbivores, Small intestine is larger to digest cellulose.

Q5: Which is false

Test for proteins: COPPER SULPHATE + CAUSTIC SODA TEST

Mercury poisoning causes mina mata

Iron deficiency is Goitre

Chapter 2: Blood and Constituents

Choose your language /

bodies]; basophiles [inflammatory

response], lymphocytes [immune

response], eosinophiles [allergic

bodies]. Platelets[thrombocytes] in blood are responsible for clotting

Types of Blood Group

decomposition of wastes into compost are also exothermic.Blood capillaries in the

Fig. Human Heart

Q1: Which is false

Blood cells are destroyed in the spleen.

Platelets [thrombocytes] in blood are responsible for killings pathogens

Q2: Which is false

O blood group is universal donor

Blood cells can have two antigens A, B, AB [both] or O [none].

Q3: Which is false

Arterial walls are thick, elastic

Veins carry carbon dioxide rich blood to the heart.

Q4: Our muscles release ______ during anaerobic respiration.

Q5: Which is false

Pulmonary artery carries CO2 rich blood from heart to lungs

Pulmonary vein carries oxygen rich blood from heart to lungs.

Respiration is an exothermic reaction

Lactobacillus multiplies in milk and turns it into curds.

Hen egg is also single cell.

Q1: Who carrier malaria parasite

Male Anopheles mosquito

Female Anopheles mosquito

Female Culex mosquito

Q2: Hardest substance in the body is enamel of teeth which is made of

Q3: Vacoule is for

Q4: Bacteria that turns milk into curds

Q5: Reproduction in amoeba is through

Nucleus, cytoplasm and membrane are basic components of cell.

Types of cell components:

Plant and Animal Cells: