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Contents
Introduction
1. Objectives
2. Forms of Complex Numbers
2.1 Rectangular Coordinates of a Complex Number
2.2 Imaginary Number
2.3 Rectangular Forms of a Complex Number: Cartesian and Goniometric Form
6. Problems
7. Solutions
References
[1]. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, T. Harman, Brooks/Cole 2000, Chapter 2.
[2]. Engineering Mathematics, A. Croft, Pearson/Prentice Hall 2001, Chapter 9.
[3]. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, E. Kreyszig, Johm Wiley 2011, Chapter 13
Introduction
The problem of solving all quadratic equations and equations of higher degree, has led to the
introduction of complex numbers. The general quadratic equation
1. Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to
1. state the rectangular form and goniometric form a complex number and draw its vector diagram
in the complex plane ,
2. to compute the polar coordinates of a complex number from its rectangular form,
3. to compute the principle value of the argument of a complex number using the single
argument arctangens function,
2. state the exponential polar form and the engineering polar form of a complex number using
Eulers'formula,
3. understand the proof of Euler's formula using Taylor-McLaurin Power Series Expansion,
3. reproduce special points on the unit circle in the complex plane
4. convert a complex number from rectangular form to either polar form, and vice versa,
5. perform addition / subtraction of complex numbers and show the geometrical interpretations in
the complex plane,
6. compute the distance and angle between two complex numbers and show the result in the
complex plane
5. calculate multiplication / division of complex numbers using either rectangular or polar forms
and show geometrical interpretations in the complex plane,
6. calculate the complex conjugate of a complex number, and the reciprocal of a complex number
and show the result in the complex plane,
7. calculate powers and roots of complex numbers, and show show the result in the complex plane.
imaginary
axes
y
complex plane
x
0
real axes
Im z
complex plane
z = xCj$y
r= z
q = arctan
y
x
x
4
Re z
In (electrical) engineering, vector diagrams to visualize complex numbers are often called phasordiagrams, since complex numbers differ from two-dimensional vectors. However in this chapter, we
will stick to the more common term vector-diagram.
Cartesian or Rectangular Form : Real and Imaginary Part
The cartesian or rectangular form of complex number z is
(2)
As mentioned before, the value x is called the real part of z , and the value y is called the imaginary
part of z. We don't include the j with y when we refer to the imaginary part, that is, the imaginary part is
actually the real number y. Moreover, we will not use boldface for x and y since they are real numbers,
but italic letters.
When it is necessary to identify the real part of complex number z, the notation Re
Similarly Im
is used for the imaginary part of complex number z.
is used.
When a complex number z is represented by a vector, we call r the length of the vector pointing from
angle with respect to the positve x-axis, see Fig. 2.2. Using simple
trigonometry associated with r and we know
(3)
(4)
The basic unit for the angle is radian (rad), which is used mostly in calculations and is measured
positive in counterclockwise direction with respect to the positve x-axis.
Length r and angle
modulus, notation
arg (z), or phase.
Goniometric Form
Taking the formulas for x and y from Eqs. (3) and (4) and substituting in Eq. (2) we have the so-called
goniometric form of a complex number
(5)
It is just another way of writing down a rectangular complex number using its modulus and argument.
We come back to this important gomiometric form in section 2.4.2.
When working with complex numbers we assume that modulus r=| z | is positive and that argument
can be any of the possible (both positive and negative) angles, which are determined up to an
integer value of
hence
where k is an integer and is a particlar angle,
To have an unique representation for
, we introduce the notion principle value of arg z ,
which always must lie between
and in the complex plane, so for the principle value of the
argument of a complex number, the following must hold:
(6)
arg z
(Pythagoras)
(7b)
Remember, represents the modulus ( length or absolute value) of the complex number and
represents the argument (angle or phase) expressed in radians, which is calculated by the single
argument arctan function as shown in Eq.(7b). Remember, the angle is measured as positive from the
positive real axis in a counter clockwise direction. The arctan function is the inverse function of the
tangent, sometimes denoted as
/2 to /2, as can be
Im z
z = K3 C j$2 , q2 = 146 +
complex plane
z = 3 C j$2 , q1 = 34 +
r= z
x
q
-3
Re z
-2
z = K3 K j$2 , q3 = K146 +
3
z = 3 K j$2 , q4 = K34 +
4
, we would have wrong values for the second and third quadrant, see Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Wrong Argument's Principle Value Computation using
Principle
Value
Correction
Quadrant Argument
Remark
Ok
II
Must be
III
Must be
IV
Ok
Correc
tion
Simply adding radians for complex numbers lying in the third quadrant and subtracting radians
for complex numbers lying in the fourth quadrant, so for solves the problem. Hence, to find the
principle value of the argument of a complex number, we can use the rules given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Correct Argument's Principle Value Computation using
Principle value of
don't care
Quadrant
I , IV
II
III
Important Remarks
In engineering the argument always must be in the principle value range
out if we have phase lead or phase lag, see the Introduction Control Systems Course.
to find
Always draw vector diagrams of complex numbers to check argument computations using the single
argument
function.
Pitfalls
The function
(1).
(2).
(3).
Again, to avoid problems, always draw vector diagrams of complex numbers to obtain correct
arguments.
Solution
(a) Complex number
Modulus
Argument
So
And
(b) Vector diagram
since
Im z
complex plane
K 3
0
4 = 30 +
q =K150 +
Re z
r=2
K1
Software help
complex plane
j sin q
, z = cos qCj$sin q
r=1
cos q
1
Re z
and
we have
(10)
=
And using the wellknown goniometric rules
(11a)
(11b)
we find
(12)
This is again a complex number on the unit circle with argument
arguments of and
For the quotient
(13)
Hence,
holds for he argument of the product
complex numbers on the unit circle and is again a complex number on the unit circle
of two
imaginary!
When is replaced by
(15)
since the cosine is an even function and the sine is an odd function.
Exponential Polar Form of a Complex Number using Euler's Formula
By using Euler's formula, the complex number
(16)
Equation (16) is called the exponential polar form of a complex number. It can be expressed in
goniometric form as
(17)
so, it is clear that the modulus of a complex exponential must be one, because
(18)
Also, we observe that the polar coordinates expressed in cartesian coordinates must be
(19)
and
where the double argument arctan function is used to indicate the necessary correct landing quadrant of
the argument. Notice that in this way rectangular form complex numbers easily can be converted to
exponential polar form. We come back to the conversion of complex numbers between various forms
in section 2.5.
Product and Quotient of Complex Numbers using Exponential Polar Form
The exponential form of a complex number is an important step in the development of the theory of
complex numbers. It permits a rigirous approach to the operations of multiplication, division and
exponentiation with complex numbers.
In the previous section, we showed that
(20)
(22)
This is also better visible when using Euler's formula. Strictly speaking, the addition/subtraction of
arguments must be understood modulo 2 since the principle value of the resulting argument must fall
in the range from
to .
When we consider the multiplication of N equal complex numbers
multiplication takes the form
, their
(23)
The following proof may be skipped without loss of continuity.
Proof of Correctness of Euler's Formula
The correctness of Euler's formula can easily be shown by using the Taylor-MacLaurin power series
expansion of
and
about
For more information about the power series expansion,
refer to hidden section 2.4.4. Four terms of the series expansion about
of the cosine and sine are
(24)
(25)
while the eight terms of the series expansion of the exponential about
(26)
are
Now it follows that the sum of Eq. (24) plus times Eq. (25) must be Eq. (26), so
(27)
which is the formula of Euler. Notice also the following extended formula of Euler
(28)
Euler Forms for
and
Adding and subtracting
and
forms for
and
expressed in exponentials:
(29)
(30)
Convert to polar
Hence
So
And
Draw vector diagram to confirm. Using the polar format is much easier then calculating the cartesian
product
Im z
complex plane
j sin q
, z = cos qCj$sin q
r=1
,cos q ,
Re z
Important Comment
Notice that when we multiply the real unit "1" with the imaginary unit "j " , the "vector" 1 is rotated
to the left by an angle of
it coincidences with the "vector" j. Multiplying this j-vector again with
j, we arrive at the " vector" , since
and so on.
Clearly multiplying a complex number by " j " is equivalent to rotating its vector to the left by /2
radians in the complex plane. Likewise multiplying a complex number with or, equivalently
dividing it by is equivalent to rotating its vector to the rihgt by /2 radians.
On the other hand, when we are sitting on the unit circle in the point where the argument
/2, we
must be at the tip of the j-vector, since
Similarly, on the unit circle in the point with
argument
(or
if you want), we are at
since
The table below,
summarizes a number of special points on the unit circle.
Multiplying or dividing two complex numbers on the unit circle is done by adding or subtracting the
angles, since
then
and
Argument
0
Complex Number
= 1
= j
5
=
in radians
in degrees
Remarks
The rectangular or cartesian form (1) is the standard form of a complex number. Many computer
programs that can handle complex numbers, like Matlab and Maple use internally this cartesian
standard form.
The goniometric form uses polar coordinates to give a result in a rectangular form. We therefore
could call it cartesian goniometric form. You could as well name it goniometric polar form as some
authors do.
The two polar forms use the polar coordinates
as such. They are in fact the same, only the notation is different.
Determine the exponential polar form and the engineering polar form. Check the result by using the
goniometric form.
Solution
We first sketch the complex number in the complex plain. Remeber, this is already done in Fig. 2.2,
repeated here for your convenience and named Fig. 2.2bis.
complex plane
z = xCj$y
r=5
Im z
q = 36.87+
0
x
4
Re z
rad =
quadrant.
The exponential polar form with the angle expressed in radians is
Notice that the engineering polar form has a direct realtion with the sketch in Fig. 2.2bis : the length
and the angle of the vector are immediately apparent.
We can check the conversion by substitution of
and
Notice that we did hand calculation with 4 decimals accurary. This number of digits is default in several
computer algebra packages.
Software help
Solution
First, draw the vector diagram of the complex number.
Im z
complex plane
z =K4 Cj 3
r=5
q = 143
K4
K2
x
Re z
rad =
The magnitude is the same as before namely
.
The exponential polar form of the complex number then is
Check:
Observe that we don't have loss of accuracy when converting back the result using only 2 decimals for
the angle in degrees!
Warning
Always be careful, when the real and/or imaginary part signs are negative. If you are using a
calculator with rectangular-to-polar conversion, it may take care of the sign differences, but for
manual computations, the signs of both terms must be carefully noted.
Simple calculators always return the angle in the first or fourth quadrant, that is the principle value
of the arctan function. In any case first draw a vector diagram of the complex number and determine
the quadrant in which it is lying. Next determine the correct angle to be completely sure, see Fig. 2.8
above.
Some computer programs have goniometric functions availabe which accept arguments in degrees,
for instance in Matlab has a sind and cosd function that work this way. In Maple we can simply
write one line functions to do the same.
Software help
or
Solution
The magnitude
rad
The rectangular form follows immediately from the goniometric polar form
as follows:
Observe that we have some loss of accuracy in the radius when converting back the result using only 4
decimals for hand calculation!
Software help
3.1 Addition
The sum
(41)
Im z
zS
complex plane
z2
z1
z2
Re z
3.3. Subtraction
The difference
(42)
and
z1
Im z
complex plane
Kz2
zD
z2
Re z
Kz2
To remind you:
Geometiric representations of complex numbers in the complex plane are called vector diagrams.
Complex numbers are like vectors with respect to addition and subtraction.
Im z
d
z
z1
zD = z1 K z2
q2
,
q1
Kz2
Re z
and
and
then
(43)
where we must take care when using the arctan function for finding the individual arguments (arg) in
the second and third quadrant, when
Like the distance between two complex numbers, the
angle between two complex numbers is also a positive quantity.
Determine the rectangular form of the sum and the difference of the two complex numbers and convert
both to either polar form. Determine also the distance between the two complex numbers.
Solution
The rectangular sum is
Since the real part is positive and the imaginary part is negative, the complex number
fourth quadrant. Hence, we can keep the argument as it is. Check it with Table 2.2!
The two polar forms of the sum are thus
must be in the
Since the real part and the imaginary part are both positive, the complex number z must be in the first
quadrant.
The two polar form of the difference are thus
Software help
Example 3.2 Distance and Angle of Sum and Difference Vectors of Example 3.1
Find the distance and the angle between the sum vector
examples.
in the previous
Solution
The sum vector was
between
and
are
Notice that for complex numbers the modulus/argument of a difference is not equal to the difference
of the moduli/arguments, see Fig. 3.4. The same holds for the sum!
complex plane
Im z
z = 3 C j 10
D
d= z Kz
S
= 14.5602
arg z = 73 +
D
++
Re z
10
|+
arg z = K30
S
z = 7K j 4
S
Software help
Remember that in Eq. (46) the angles must be expressed in radians, while in Eq. (47) degrees must be
used for hand calculation.
Geometric Interpretation
Multiplying complex number
with complex number
means a rotation of about
radians in positive direction and an extension of by a factor , resulting in a complex number
, see Fig. 4.1.
Im z
z = r$r e
2
j$ q C 4
1
r$r
1
j$q
complex plane
z =r e 1
r
q1
Re z
Fig. 4.1 Geometric interpretation of multiplication in polar form
(48)
or, using the engineering polar notation
(49)
Remember (again) that in Eq. (48) the angles must be expressed in radians, while in Eq. (49) degrees
must be used for hand calculation.
Geometric Interpretation
Dividing complex number
by complex number
means a rotation of
about
by a factor
z , see Fig.4.2.
j$q
z =r e 1
1
Im z
complex plane
z =
j$ q K 4
1
q1
r
Re z
Im z
j$z = Ky C j$x
5
z = x C j$y
R
K5
K2
2
2
Re z
C
j2 z =Kx K j$y
j3$z = y K j$x
R K5
Fig. 4.3 Geometric interpretation of multiplying by j
What has happened is that multiplying by has rotated the tip of vector z from point A precisely 90
counterclockwise around the origin to point B . Multiplying again by j rotates the vector further to point
C and so on. Stated more briefly, multiplication by j gives a 90 counterclockwise rotation about the
origin. This makes sense, since the imaginary unit j can be witten in polar form as
Now, according to the geometric interpretation of multiplying two complex number in polar form, we
see that multiplication by must result in a counterclockwise rotation by
( because
),
but no extension is needed ( because
You can analyze what multiplication by
does in the
same way. You will find that multiplication by gives a 90 clockwise rotation about the origin. Now,
since
dividing a complex number by j gives also a 90 clockwise rotation about the origin. See
also subsection "Important Comment "and Table 2.3 : "Special Points on the Unit Circle to Remember"
in section 2.4.2.
When we don't specify counterclockwise or clockwise when referring to rotations or angles, we'll
follow the standard convention that counterclockwise is intended. Then we can say that multiplication
by
we have
(52)
Do not try to memorize the result. Instead, work it out as you need it.
part in the rectangular form or by reversing the sign of the angle in the polar form. The real part and
the modulus of the complex conjugate are thus the same as those of the original. This means that the
length of the original vector and its conjugate are the same, so =
while the sum of the
arguments is zero, so
see Fig. 4.4.
Im z
carrier of vector z
z = x Cj y
r
complex plane
,Kq
x
Re z
r
z = xK j y
Ky
carrier of vector z
Fig. 4.4 Complex conjugate vectors
An important result is obtained by forming the product of a complex number and its conjugate. It can
be shown using either form that this product equals the vector length squared:
(55)
as
(58)
What we are doing here is just rationalizing the denominator to a real posive number
the numerator
by it, hence
(60)
and divide
Again, do not bother memorizing the result; simply work it out when needed!
(a). Determine the quotient in rectangular form of the two complex numbers ( with max 4 decimals)
using their given rectanglar form.
(b). Convert the quotient to exponential polar form and engineering polar form.
(c). Check the result of (a) by first converting the two cartesian numbers to engineering polar form
and then perform the polar division.
Solution
(a). Given :
(a1) Use
Find :
First
=
=
Then
Result
(a2)
Use
(b). Convert
Use
Result
(c). Check the result of (a) by first converting the two cartesian numbers to engineering polar form and
then perform the division polar.
=
Clearly, in this case it was much simpler to use the rectangular forms. However, suppose that the two
complex numbers were given in polar form. In that case, we first must convert them both to rectangular
forms before we can proceed with the rectangular multiplication process. This means that it might have
been just as easy to carry out the multiplication with the polar forms then and convert back to
rectangular form. The choice depends on the form in which the final answer is desired.
Software help
Determine the polar product of the two complex numbers, convert it to rectangular form and denote it
as
Solution
Since both numbers are given in exponential polar form, the product is easily formed as
Solution
The first step is to convert the two values to rectangular forms using the goniometric form
=
Clearly, in this case it was much simpler to use the polar forms. However, suppose that the two
complex numbers were given in rectangular forms. In that case, we first must convert them both to
polar forms before we can proceed with the polar multiplication. This means that it might have been
just as easy to carry out the multiplication with the rectangular forms then.The choice depends on the
form in which the final answer is desired.
Software help
Solution
The quotient is readily determined in polar form as
Software help
Solution
The rectangular forms were determined in Example 4.3, so we can begin with those values.
The next step is to rationalize the denominator. This is achieved by multiplying both the numerator and
the denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator, which is
Here we clearly see that the polar form has much advantage when dividing complex numbers.
Software help
by
(61)
From these results, it can be stated that
(62)
This is the famous formula of de Moivre.
(63)
Considering the exponential polar form of a general complex number z, it is clear that we may always
write it as
(64)
because we may add
written as
( 65)
to the angle
Let us see if we can interpret this result. To take the N-the root of a complex number, its magnitude is
raised to the power 1/N, which seems logical. The first angle, corresponding to
has a value /N.
This is called the principle value. However, there are additional angles of /N +
/
It turns
out that there will be exactly
additional distinct angles. This results in a total of N distinct
roots.
Solution
Well, we could multiply the given number in rectangular form by six times multiplying the complex
number by itself. The result is
But a much easier way is to first convert it to exponential polar form. Doing so we find using 4
decimals
The desired result in exponental polar form can be determined in one step as
=
Converting the result back to rectangular form gives us
z
when rounded to four decimals.
Software help
Solution
We rearranging the equation and write
Now, we take the fourth root of both sides. Of course the fourth root of 1 is 1, and we have
then
z
The other roots are
All of these roots lie on a circle with unit radius in the complex plane and are displaced from each other
by an angle of
see Fig.5.1.
Im z
complex plane
z1
z0
p
4
Re z
, p
K
z2
z3
Software help
So if
is a root then
(68)
In the previous section, the polynomials all had the form
, with indeed n zeros. In the
following we will show how roots can be found of a general n-the degree polynomial. To do so we need
two important theorems of algebra namely the factor theorem and the fundamental theorem of
algebra.
Factor Theorem
Given an n-the degree polynomial
with
If
polynomial
exists with the property
from polynomial
in other words to divide
has a zero at
then a quotient
It is then possible to split of a factor
by
to get
The polynomial
can be obtaines by performing a long division. We will show how it works with
an example. Take for example
Software help
Using it, another real zero at
and a complex conjugated zero pair at
is found. The results are reliable since Maple reports the same aswer.
For n-th degrees polynomials the following theorem, known as the Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra, can be stated
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
With every n-degree polynomial
such that
Important Remarks
(1). In literature, zeros of a polynomila are often called roots.
(2). Every n-degree polynomial
with
6. Problems
1. The rectangular forms of four complex numbers are given by
Determine the polar forms in exponential form and in common engineering form. Round to four
decimals and state the quadrant.
2. The polar form of six complex numbers are given by
Determine the sum and the difference of these two complex numbers and draw the vector diagrams of
the sum and the difference.
4. Two complex numbers are given in their polar forms by
Determine the product of these complex numbers using their polar forms. Give the result in rectangular
form. Determine the product also by first converting to rectangular form and then using the rectangular
multiplication process.
5. Two complex numbers are given in their rectangular forms by
Determine the product of these complex numbers using their rectangular forms and also by first
converting to polar form and then using polar multiplication; convert the result back to rectangular
form.
6. For the two complex numbers of Problem 4 determine their quotient using the polar forms and also
using the rectangular forms.
7. For the two complex numbers of Problem 5 determine their quotient using the rectangular forms and
also using the polar forms.
8. Consider the complex numbers
and
Determine the values of
and
9. Determine the roots of the equation
10. Determine the roots of the equation
7. Solutions
Problem 1. The rectangular forms of four complex numbers is given by
Complex
number
Polar form
Engineering form
Quadrant
Q1
Q1
Q3
Q4
Solution 2
Polar form
Rectangular form
Determine the sum and the difference of these two complex numbers and draw their vector diagrams on
graph paper.
Solution 3
Complex numbers
Sum
Vector diagram
z = 8 Cj 5
Im z
R4
complex plane
R2
K4
K2
R K2
R K4
Re z
z = 5 Kj 4
S
R K6
R K8
z =K3 K j$9
2
Complex number
Difference
Vector diagram
R14
z = 11 Cj$14
D
R 12
Im z
complex plane
R10
Kz = 3 C j$9
R8
R6
z = 8 Cj$5
1
R4
R2
K4
K2
RK2
Re z
11
(a). Determine the product of these complex numbers using their polar forms. Give the result in
rectangular form.
(b). Determine the product also by first converting to rectangular form and then using the
rectangular multiplication process.
Solution 4
(a). Determine the product of these complex numbers using their rectangular forms. Give the result
also in polar form.
(b). Determine the product of these complex numbers by first converting to polar form and then
using polar multiplication. Convert the result back to rectangular form.
Solution 5
Problem 6. For the two complex numbers of Problem 4 determine their quotient using the polar forms
and also using the rectangular forms.
Solution 6
Problem 7. For the two complex numbers of Problem 5 determine their quotient using the rectangular
forms and also using the polar forms.
Solution 7
Rectangular division
Solution 8
Convert
to polar :
Compute power :
Convert to polar :
Compute power :
Solution 9
Vector Diagram
Im z
complex plane
0.5
p/6
1
Re z
Vector Diagram
1.1225$j
complex plane
z
Im z
z
1.1225
Re z