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LowFrequencyInductionCalculationOpenElectrical

LowFrequencyInductionCalculation
FromOpenElectrical

Contents
1Introduction
1.1Whydothecalculation?
1.2Whentodothecalculation?
2CalculationMethodology
2.1Step1:DataGathering
2.2Step2:DefinetheZoneofInfluence
2.3Step3:DefinePipelineSections
2.4Step4:CalculateEffectiveDistances
2.4.1TransmissionLineGeometry
2.4.2EffectiveDistances
2.5Step5:CalculatePipelineImpedances
2.6Step6:CalculateMutualCouplingImpedances
2.7Step7:ComputeLoadLFI
2.7.1AllowableLoadLFILimits
2.7.2EffectofOverheadEarthWiresandCounterpoiseEarths
2.8Step8:ComputeFaultLFI
2.8.1ShieldingFactor
2.8.2ConsiderationsforCalculatingMutualCouplingImpedances
2.8.3AllowableFaultLFILimits
2.9Step9:AnalysisofPipelinetoEarthTouchVoltages(ifnecessary)
2.10Step10:ApplyMitigationWorks(ifnecessary)
3InternationalStandards
4ComputerSoftware
5WhatNext?
6SelectedReferences

Introduction
Lowfrequencyinduction(LFI)inmetalpipelinesisaformofelectromagneticinterferencethatoccurswhenhighvoltagetransmissionlinesareruninparallel
withmetallicpipelines.
Theloadedphasesonatransmissionlineandthepipelineactlikesingleturnwindingsonalargeaircoretransformer.Currentflowingthroughthe
transmissionlineinducesavoltageatthepipeline.
Duringnormaloperation,eachloadedphaseofthetransmissionlineinducesavoltageonthepipeline.Ifthethreephasesarebalanced,thenmostofthe
inducedvoltagewillcanceleachotherout,butthespatialassymetryofthephasesonthetransmissionlinewillpreventtheinducedvoltagesfromfully
cancellingout.Thusanonzeroinducedvoltageresultsonthepipeline.Thisconditionisusuallycalled"LoadLFI".
Duringanearthfaultcondition,thephasesofthetransmissionlinearenolongerbalancedandasaresult,amoresignificantvoltageisinducedonthepipeline.
Thisconditionisusuallycalled"FaultLFI".

Whydothecalculation?
LFIcalculationsaretypicallydoneforpersonnelsafetyreasons,inordertoensurethatinducedvoltagesarenothazardoustosomeoneincontactwiththe
pipeline.
Incaseswheresuchasituationisnotpossible,thenanapproachminimisingtheriskofelectricshockcouldbefollowed.Thiscouldinvolverestrictingaccess
tothepipelineorusingaprobabilitybasedmethodologytoestimatetheriskofexposure,etc.

Whentodothecalculation?
ThecalculationshouldbedonewheneverHVtransmissionlinesareinstalledinthevicinityofpipelines,andviceversa.Ofparticularconcerniswhenthe
pipelineisrunnearbyandparalleltothetransmissionlineforlongdistances.Ontheotherhand,ifapipelinecrossesthetransmissionlineperpendicularly,
thenthemagnitudeofLFIwouldbelow.

CalculationMethodology
TheLFIcalculationhasninegeneralsteps:
Step1:DataGathering
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Step2:DefinetheZoneofInfluence
Step3:DefinePipelineSections
Step4:CalculateEffectiveDistances
Step5:CalculatePipelineImpedances
Step6:CalculateMutualCouplingImpedances
Step7:ComputeLoadLFI
Step8:ComputeFaultLFI
Step9:CalculatePipelinetoEarthTouchVoltages(ifnecessary)
Step10:ApplyMitigationWorks(ifnecessary)

Step1:DataGathering
Beforebeginningthecalculation,thefollowingdataneedstobegathered:
Planlayoutsofpipeline(s)andtransmissionline(s),toscalewithenoughresolutiontomeasurehorizontaldistancesbetweenpipelineand
transmissionline
Generalarrangementoftransmissionlinetowerorundergroundspatialarrangement
Pipelinedata,e.g.diameter,metalresistivity,coatingdetails,etc
Soilresistivitydataaroundpipeline
Forecast(oractual)loadcurrentsintransmissionline
Worstcaseprospectivefaultcurrentsontransmissionline

Step2:DefinetheZoneofInfluence
Basedontheplanlayoutsofthepipelineandtransmissionlineroutes,thefirststepistodefinethezone(s)ofinfluenceinwhichyouwillperformtheLFI
study.Thiszoneistypicallyacorridorwherethepipelineandtransmissionlinearerunclosetogetherinparallel.
Asageneralruleofthumb,thezoneextendsalongthiscorridoruntilthehorizontalseparationbetweenthepipelineandtransmissionlineexceeds1km.Itis
deemedthatthereisminimalLFIeffectonthepipelinebeyonda1kmpipelinetransmissionlineseparation.

Step3:DefinePipelineSections
Oncethezoneofinfluencehasbeendefined,thetransmissionlineorpipelineshouldbebrokenupintosmallsectionsandthehorizontalseparationscalculated
foreachsection.Thelengthoftheindivudalsectionsdonothavetobeconstantandcanvaryalongthetheroute,dependingontherateofchangeofthe
horizontalseparation.
Forexample,longsectionlengthscanbeappliedwhenthepipelineandtransmissionlineareroughlyparallel.However,wherethetwolinesconverge,diverge
orcross,smallersectionallengthsshouldbeused(typically,amaximumratioof3:1betweenthestartofsectionandendofsectionseparationsisusedto
determinesectionallength).
Atableshowingthesectionallengthsandhorizontaldistancescanthenbedeveloped,forexample:
Distancealong
pipeline(km)

SectionLength
(m)

0.0

0.3

Section

Horizontaldistancefrom
phaseAtopipeline(m)
Start

End

300

140

190

200

190

200

Step4:CalculateEffectiveDistances
ThetablewedevelopedinStep2showsthehorizontalseparationsbetweenphaseAandthepipelineatthestartandendofeachpipelinesection.However,the
transmissionlinewillhavethreephases(andpossiblytwosetsofconductorsperphase)andthehorizontaldistancesalsodonottakeintoaccountthegeometry
ofthetransmissiontower.
Therefore,we'dliketofurtherrefinethesedistances.Ideally,wewantasingleeffectivedistancebetweenthepipelineandeachphase(andifapplicable,the
earthwire).Byusinganeffectivedistance,thismakesitmoreconvenientforustocalculatetheinducedvoltagesonapipelinesection.
Thiseffectivedistanceshouldincorporatethefollowing:
Theaveragehorizontaldistancealongthepipelinesection
Thegeometryofthetransmissionlinetowers(andthespatialgeometryoftheindividualconductorsonthetower)
Anequivalentdistanceforparallelconductorsofthesamephase
TransmissionLineGeometry
Inordertoconstructtheeffectivedistances,wefirstneedtodefinethespatialgeometryofthetransmissionlinewithrespecttothepipeline.Thiscouldbethe
geometryoftransmissionlinetowersorthespatialarrangementofundergroundconductors.
Thefiguretotheright,showingadoubleconductortowerwithtwoearthwires,givesanexampleofthekindofdatathatisrequired:
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L1=Distancefrompipelinetophasea
Lb=Distancefromphaseatophaseb
Lc=Distancefromphaseatophasec
Lw=Distancefromphaseatotheearthwire
Laa=Distancebetweenphaseadoubleconductors
Lbb=Distancebetweenphasebdoubleconductors
Lcc=Distancebetweenphasecdoubleconductors
Ha=Heightfrompipelinetophasea
Hb=Heightfrompipelinetophaseb
Hc=Heightfrompipelinetophasec
Hw=Heightfrompipelinetoearthwire
Ofcourseyourdatarequirementsmayvarydependingonthetransmissionlinetype,butyouneedenough
datatofullydescribethespatialrelationshipsbetweenthephaseconductorsandthepipelinegeometrically.
EffectiveDistances
Asthehorizontaldistancebetweenthetransmissionlineandthepipelineisnotnecessarlyconstantalong
eachsection,wewanttocalculateanaveragehorizontaldistanceforeachlinesection.Typically,the
geometricmeandistanceisused:

Where

Figure1.Doubleconductortowerexample

istheeffectivehorizontaldistancebetweenphaseaandthepipeline
isthehorizontaldistance(betweenphaseaandthepipeline)atthestartofthesection(m)
isthehorizontaldistance(betweenphaseaandthepipeline)attheendofthesection(m)

Similarlyfordoubleconductorsarrangedhorizontally,weusethegeomtricmeandistancetoobtainaneffectivedistancebetweendoubleconductorsandthe
pipeline:

Where

istheeffectivehorizontaldistancebetweendoubleconductors(ofphasea)andthepipeline(m)
istheeffectivehorizontaldistancecalculatedabove(m)
isthehorizontaldistancebetweenthetwoconductorsofphasea(m)

Notethattheaboveshowonlyhorizontaldistances.WecanusesimplePythagorastocalculatetheoveralleffectivedistancebetweenphaseaandthepipeline,
takingintoaccounttheverticalarrangementoftheconductors(relativetothepipeline).Below,wedothisforatowerline:

Where

istheoveralleffectivedistancebetweenthephaseaandthepipeline
istheeffectivehorizontaldistancebetweendoubleconductors(ofphasea)andthepipeline(m)
istheheightfromthepipelinetophasea(m)

Thesameprocessaboveisrepeatedtocalculatetheeffectivedistancesfortheotherphasesandtheearthwire(ifapplicable).
Theeffectivedistancescanbecalculatedalsoforotherspatialconductorarrangements,usingthegeometricmeanasabasis.Ultimatelyforeachlinesection,
we'dliketoendupwithonlyasingleeffectivedistancebetweenthepipelineandaphaseofthetowerline.

Step5:CalculatePipelineImpedances
Toassessthesafetyofajointrightofwayinstallation,wewanttocalculatepipelinetoearthtouchvoltages.Howeveraburiedpipelinecannotbetreatedlike
anotheroverheadconductorinairbecauseapipelinehasafiniteimpedancetoearththatisdistributedalongitsentirelength.
Thereforetheopencircuitvoltagesinducedinthepipelinethatwecalculatedearlierarenotequivalenttothepipelinetoearthtouchvoltage.Thereare
continuousleakagestoearthalongthepipelineandtheopencircuitinducedvoltagescanbeupto10timeshigherthanthepipelinetoearthtouchvoltages.
Inordertocalculateamoreaccuratepipelinetoearthtouchvoltage,weneedtoconsidertheelectricalcharacteristicsofthepipeline.
ThepipelineimpedancesdescribedinthissectionaresimplifiedapproximationsofSunde'smethod[5]andarebasedonAppendixGofCIGREGuide95
"GuideontheInfluenceofHighVoltageACPowerSystemsonMetallicPipelines"[2].RefertoSunde'soriginalwork[5]formoredetailsonaccurately
modellingpipelineandotherburiedconductorimpedances.
a)Pipelinelongitudinalimpedance

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Foraburiedandcoatedmetallicpipeline,thelongitudinalimpedancepermetrecanbeapproximatedasfollows:

Where

isthepipelinelongitudinal(orseries)impedance(/m)
isthediamterofthepipeline(m)
istheresistivityofthepipelinemetal(.m)
istheresistivityofthesoil(.m)
isthepermeabilityoffreespace(H/m)
istherelativepermeabilityofthepipelinemetal(H/m)
isthenominalfrequencyofthetransmissionline(Hz)

b)Pipelineshuntadmittance
Foraburiedandcoatedmetallicpipeline,theshutadmittancepermetrecanbeapproximatedasfollows:

Where

isthepipelineshuntadmittance(1/m)
isthediameterofthepipeline(m)
istheresistivityofthepipelinecoating(.m)
isthethicknessofthepipelinecoating(m)
istherelativepermeabilityofthecoating(H/m)
isthepermittivityoffreespace(F/m)

Thepipelineshuntimpedanceissimplythereciprocaloftheadmittance(rememberthatitiscomplexquantity):

c)Pipelinecharacteristicimpedance

Where

isthepipelinecharacteristicimpedance()
isthepipelinelongitudinalimpedance(/m)
isthepipelinelongitudinalconductance(1/m)

d)Pipelineeffectivelength

Where

isthepipelineeffectivelength(m)
isthepipelinelongitudinalimpedance(/m)
isthepipelinelongitudinalconductance(1/m)

Step6:CalculateMutualCouplingImpedances
Themutualcouplingimpedancebetweenalineconductorandthepipeline(withearthreturn)canbegivenbythegeneralformulabelow(basedonCarson's
equations[4]):

Where

isthemutualimpedancebetweenthelineconductor andpipeline (/km)

istheequivalentdistancebetweenthelineconductor andpipeline (m)
isthenominalsystemfrequency(Hz)
isthedepthofequivalentearthreturngivenby:

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Where istheresistivityofthesoil(.m)
Usingtheformulaabove,youcancalculatethemutualimpedances
,
and
,betweenthepipelineandphasea,bandcofthetransmissionline
respectively.TocalculatetheimpedancesinOhms,multiplythemutualimpedancesbythesectionallengthofthepipeline.

Step7:ComputeLoadLFI
LoadLFIresultsfromeitherunbalancedloadcurrentsorspatialdifferencesbetweenthephaseconductorsrelativetothepipeline.Giventheloadcurrent
phasorsforthetransmissionline,thetotalopencircuitinducedLFIvoltageonthepipelineissimplythevectorsum:

Where

istheoverallinducedloadLFIvoltage(V)
,
,

and aretheloadcurrentforphasea,bandcrespectively(A).Notethatthesequantitiesarecomplexphasors
and
arethemutualcouplingimpedancesbetweenthepipelineandphasea,bandcrespectivelyforasectionofthepipeline()

AllowableLoadLFILimits
Inducedvoltagesonpipelinesrepresentareelectricshockhazards.BecauseloadLFIcanberegardedasacontinuoushazard(i.e.thehazardisalwayspresent),
thentheallowablepipelinetoearthtouchvoltagelimitsarelowerthaninthefaultLFIcase.Limitsaretypicallyintherangeof32Vto64V(seethesectionon
internationalstandardsbelowformoreguidanceonallowablelimits).
NotethattheopencircuitLFIvoltagecalculatedearlierishigherthanthepipelinetoearthtouchvoltageasitdoesn'ttakeintoaccountanyvoltageleakages
toearthalongthepipeline.Therefore,iftheloadLFIvoltageyouhavecalculatedislowerthantheallowablelimits,thennofurtheranalysisisnecessary.
EffectofOverheadEarthWiresandCounterpoiseEarths
Overheadearthwiresandcounterpoiseearthconductorsprovideashieldingeffect(sinceavoltageisinducedinthemandtheyinturninduceanopposing
voltageinthepipeline).Theinteractionoftheoverheadearthwiresorcounterpoiseearthconductorswiththepipelinecanbemodelledandashieldingfactor
computed(moreonthislater).

Step8:ComputeFaultLFI
Duringabalancedthreephasefault,thefaultcurrentwillstillbebalancedacrossallthreephases(i.e.vectorsumofthefaultedphasecurrentsisclosetozero).
Thereforeanyinducedvoltageinthepipelinewillbedueprimarilytothespatialassymetryofthetransmissionlinerelativetothepipeline,andthiswill
generallybesmall.
However,anunbalancedfaultsuchasalinetoearthorlinetolinefaultwillproduceafaultcurrentthatisunbalancedandcaninducemuchhigherLFI
voltagesonthepipeline(untilthefaultiscleared).ThecaseofalinetoearthfaultwillinducethehighestLFIvoltageandisthetypeoffaultthatwillbe
examinedhereafter.
ThegeneralformulaforfaultLFIisasfollows:

Where

istheoverallinducedfaultLFIvoltage(V)
istheearthfaultcurrent,expressedasacomplexphasor(A)
istheshieldingfactorfromearthwires,counterpoiseearthconductors,etc
isthemutualcouplingimpedancesbetweenthepipelineandthefaultedlineforasectionofthepipeline()

ShieldingFactor
Theshieldingfactoristheshieldingeffectcausedbyearthwires,counterpoiseearthsandperhapsothermetallicstructures,whichservestolowertheLFI
voltageinducedonthepipeline.Thereanumberofmechanismsthatbringaboutthisshieldingeffect,forexample:
Ifthereareoverheadearthwires,thennotalloftheearthfaultcurrentwillreturntothesourceviatheearth.Someofthefaultcurrentwillreturn
viatheearthwires.Thecurrentflowingthroughtheearthwirewillinduceavoltageonthepipelineopposedtothevoltageinducedbythefaulted
line.
Thereistheinteractionbetweenthefaultedlineandoverheadearthwires,wherethefaultedlineinducesavoltageontheoverheadearthwires,
whichinturninduceanopposingvoltageonthepipeline.
Therearesimilarinductivecouplinginteractionsbetweenthefaultedline,thepipelineandcounterpoiseearthsorothermetallicstructureslocated
inthevicinity
Foranoverheadearthwire,theshieldingfactorcanbecalculatedasfollows:
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Where

LowFrequencyInductionCalculationOpenElectrical

isthemutualcouplingimpedancesbetweenthefaultedlineandtheearthwire()
istheselfimpedanceoftheearthwire()
isthemutualcouplingimpedancesbetweenthepipelineandtheearthwire()
isthemutualcouplingimpedancesbetweenthepipelineandthefaultedline()

ConsiderationsforCalculatingMutualCouplingImpedances
Calculatingthemutualcouplingimpedancesbetweenthepipelineandthefaultedline,
,dependsonthephaseofthefaultedlineandit'sspatialorientation
relativetothepipeline.Youcouldcalculatethemutualcouplingimpedancebetweentheclosestphaseandthepipeline,whichwouldrepresenttheworstcase
scenario.
Alternatively,youcouldcalculatethemutualcouplingimpedanceforagroupofconductors(e.g.allthreephases)byconsideringthegeometricmean
separationdistancebetweenthepipelineandthegroupofconductors.ThiswillresultinaninducedLFIvoltagethatisanaverageoftheconductorgroup.
Similarlyforgroupsofearthwires(e.g.twooverheadearthwires),ageometricmeancanbeselectedtorepresentthegroupratherthanselectingasinglewire,
ormodellinginteractionsbetweenthewires,faultedlineandthepipeline(whichbecomesincreasinglycomplicated).
AllowableFaultLFILimits
LikethecasewithloadLFI,allowablelimitsforfaultLFIaretypicallystipulatedtopreventelectricshockhazardsfrominjuringorkillingpersonnel.Because
faultLFIistemporary(lastingonlyuntilthefaultiscleared),theallowablelimitsarenormallyhigherthanintheloadLFIcase.Thelimitsaregenerallybased
onsomekindriskanalysisandaretypicallyintheorderof500Vto1000V(seethesectiononinternationalstandardsbelowformoreguidanceonallowable
limits).
NotethattheopencircuitLFIvoltagecalculatedearlierishigherthanthepipelinetoearthtouchvoltageasitdoesn'ttakeintoaccountanyvoltageleakages
toearthalongthepipeline.Therefore,ifthefaultLFIvoltageyouhavecalculatedislowerthantheallowablelimits,thennofurtheranalysisisnecessary.

Step9:AnalysisofPipelinetoEarthTouchVoltages(ifnecessary)
IftheopencircuitloadorfaultLFIvoltageisabovethepermissibletouchvoltage,thenthepipelinetoearthtouchvoltagesalongeachsectionofthepipeline
needtobecalculated.Inordertocalculatethepipelinetoearthtouchvoltages,weneedanequivalentcircuitforthepipeline.
Acommonapproachistomodelthepipelineasalossytransmissionline,withthefollowingequivalentcircuitforeachpipelinesection:

Where

istheinducedLFIvoltageonthepipelinesection(Vac)
isthelongitudinalseriesadmittanceofthepipelinesection(1)
istheshuntadmittanceofthepipelinesection(1)

Forapipelinewith"n"linearsections,theoverallequivalentcircuitmodelistherefore:

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Where istheadmittanceofapipelineshuntearthingconductor(1).Theinverseofthepipelinecharacteristicimpedancecanbeusedifnoshunt
earthingconductorsareinstalledattheendsofthepipeline.Inthemodelabove,shuntearthingconductorscanbeconnectedtoanyofthelinearpipeline
sections,modelledinserieswiththepipelinesectionshuntadmittance.
TheequivalentcircuitcannowbereadilyanalysedusingKirchhoff'slaws(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_circuit_laws)andconvertedintoa
systemoflinearequations.Theunknownpipelinetoearthnodevoltagescanthenbesolvedusingmatrixoperations.Dependingonthenumberofline
sections,youwillprobablyneedtouseacomputerprogramtosolvethislinearalgebraproblem.

Step10:ApplyMitigationWorks(ifnecessary)
Ifthepipelinetoearthtouchvoltagesarestillabovetheallowablelimits,thenthedesignoftherightofwayneedstobemodifiedormitigationworks
installed.Designmodificationsandmitigationworkscaninclude:
Installationofshuntearthingconductorsonthepipelinetoundergroundearthingsystems,toallowLFIvoltagetodraintoearthalongsectionsof
thepipeline
Increasingthedistancebetweenthepipelineandthetransmissionline
Installationofoverheadearthwiresorcounterpoiseearthingconductors
Modifyingthedesignofthepipeline,e.g.coatingspecification,diameter,etc
Installationofgradientcontrolwiresalongsidethepipeline,typicallyofzinc

InternationalStandards
Mostcountrieshavetheirownstandardsforelectromagneticinterferenceonpipelines.
InEurope,EN50443:2011(http://www.cenelec.eu/dyn/www/f?p=104:110:788050941426229)isthestandardforlowfrequencyinduction,conductive
couplingandcapacitivecoupling.ThishasalsobeenadoptedbytheBritishStandardBSEN50443:2011(http://shop.bsigroup.com/ProductDetail/?
pid=000000000030125297).
InAustralia,AS/NZS4853:2000(http://infostore.saiglobal.com/store/details.aspx?ProductID=386659)stipulatesthelimitsonpipelinetoearthtouch
voltages.Therearetwomaincategories:CategoryAforpipelineswithaccesstothepublicorunskilledstaff,andCategoryBforpipelineswithrestricted
accesstoskillpersonnel.ForCategoryA,theloadLFIlimitis32VacandfaultLFIlimitisbetween32and350Vacdependingonthefaultclearingtime.For
CategoryB,theloadLFIlimitisalso32Vac,butthefaultLFIlimitis1000Vac(forfaultsclearedinlessthan1s).

ComputerSoftware
TheLFIcalculationisgreatlysimplifiedbyusingacomputersoftwarepackage,especiallyformorecomplicatedjointrightsofway.Thefollowing
commercialsoftwarepackagesareamongthemostpopular:
SESTechnologiesCDEGS(http://www.sestech.com/Products/SoftPackages/CDEGS.htm)andinparticular,theRightofWaymodule
(http://www.sestech.com/Products/SoftPackages/ROW.htm)
PRCIPipelineA/CInterference&MitigationToolbox(http://www.ttoolboxes.com/products/PRCIACMitigation/)
ElsycaIRIS(http://www.elsyca.com/Home/CathodicProtectionACMitigation/Home/Software/PipelineACMitigation.aspx)
Afreealternativeforsinglepipelineandtowerlinerightsofway:
SigmaPowerLowFi(http://sigmapower.com.au/lowfi.html)

WhatNext?
TheLFIcalculationistypicallydonetoconfirmthepipelineand/ortransmissionlinedesignandtodetermineifmitigationisrequired.Ifmitigationmeasures
arerequired,thenthenextstepwouldbetodesignandspecifythesemitigationworks.

SelectedReferences
[1]AS/NZS4853:2000,"Electricalhazardsonmetallicpipelines"
[2]CIGREGuide95,WG36.02,"GuideontheInfluenceofHighVoltageACPowerSystemsonMetallicPipelines",1995
[3]Schlabbach,J.,"ShortcircuitCurrents(IETPowerandEnergySeries51)",2005,IEE
[4]Tleis,N.D.,"PowerSystemModellingandFaultAnalysis",2008,ElsevierLtd
[5]Sunde,E.D.,"EarthConductionEffectsinTransmissionSystems",1968,DoverPublications
[6]Carson,J.,"WavePropagationinOverheadWireswithGroundReturn",1926,BellSystemTechnologyJournal,Vol5,pp.539554
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