Professional Documents
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Abstract
There are two central questions determining the pedagogy of teacher education: (1) What are the essential qualities of
a good teacher, and (2) How can we help people to become good teachers? Our objective is not to present a denitive
answer to these questions, but to discuss an umbrella model of levels of change that could serve as a framework for
reection and development. The model highlights relatively new areas of research, viz. teachers professional identity
and mission. Appropriate teacher education interventions at the different levels of change are discussed, as well as
implications for new directions in teacher education.
r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Teacher characteristics; Teacher competences; Teacher reection; Pedagogical task; Teacher identity; Mission
1. Introduction
A practical example:
A teacher educator is having a supervisory
session with Judith, a student teacher in
mathematics. Judith is annoyed with a student
named Peter. She has a feeling that Peter is
trying to get away with as little work as
possible. Today was a good example. In the
previous lesson, she had given the class an
*Tel.: +31-30-2531723.
E-mail address: F.A.J.Korthagen@ivlos.uu.nl
(F.A.J. Korthagen).
0742-051X/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2003.10.002
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There are various reasons why such a framework may be important, especially at the present
time. The rst reason has to do with the changes in
the aims and methods of teacher education taking
place worldwide, due in part to the serious
shortages of teachers. In many places, short-track
teacher education programs have been introduced,
and more and more of the actual education of
teachers is taking place inside the schools. This
raises a number of questions about the quality of
these programs, questions that can only be
answered when we have some kind of answer to
the question what is a good teacher? Sometimes,
the complexity of this question seems to be
overlooked by policy-makers.
The second reason why the two questions may
be important is that in teacher education, there is
considerable emphasis on promoting reection in
teachers, but at the same time, it is not always clear
exactly what teachers are supposed to reect on
when wishing to become better teachers. What are
important contents of reection?
Finally, the pedagogy of teacher education
strongly builds on insights from other disciplines,
especially psychology. In that respect, it is important to note that new developments have taken
place within psychology and psychotherapy, developments that have not yet much inuenced mainstream thinking about teacher education. Hence,
one of the objectives of this article is to discuss
these developments, such as transpersonal psychology, positive psychology, the status-dynamic approach in psychotherapy, and to consider their
implications for the work of teacher educators.
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humanistic psychology, a movement whose wellknown representatives were Rogers and Maslow.
It was promoted, amongst others, by Combs et al.
(1974) at the University of Florida in Gainesville,
and by the University of California School of
Education at Santa Barbara, where George Brown
and his colleagues pursued the notion of conuent
education, in which thinking and feeling ow
together in the learning process (see, for example,
Shapiro, 1998). Joyce (1975, p. 130) notes that
HBTE stresses above all the unicity and dignity of
the individual. In this view of education, a central
role is reserved for personal growth (Maslow,
1968, uses the term self-actualization). As Joyce
(1975, p. 132) maintains, the viewpoint of HBTE
cannot be reconciled with the laying down of
standardized teaching competencies.
HBTE failed to obtain broad support. However,
the fact that this movement focused attention on
the person of the teacher was of importance to the
further development of teacher education. For
example, Combs et al. (1974) devote an entire
chapter to the self of the effective teacher.
This classical controversy between a competency-based view of teachers and an emphasis on
the teachers self can still be found in present
discussions on teaching and teacher education.
Where policy-makers generally focus on the
importance of outcomes in terms of competencies,
many researchers emphasize the more personal
characteristics of teachers (e.g., Tickle, 1999), such
as enthusiasm, exibility, or love of children.
However, we may have to guard ourselves against
narrowing down the discussion to this classical
dichotomy. More factors seem to be involved. In
order to broaden the discussion, the model
visualized in Fig. 1 may be helpful. This so-called
onion model is an adaptation of what is known in
the literature as Batesons model (see, for example,
Dilts, 1990).1 It shows that there are various levels
1
In the literature, one often nds references to the Bateson
model, in which the levels are visualized as stacked (see, for
example, Dilts, 1990). However, Gregory Bateson (19041980)
never described such a model, not even in the publications to
which many authors refer. Thus, the form of the model that
appears in Fig. 1 cannot in fact be described as the Bateson
model either. In the present article, we refer to a model of
levels of change, or briey the onion.
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behaviour
competencies
beliefs
identity
mission
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acceptable person which Rogers (1969) emphasized, and which Borich (1999, p. 112113)
translates into the relationship between the teacher
educator and the student teacher. Bergner and
Holmes believe that in the same way other status
types can be created, for example by approaching
the person as being someone important, who has
within him a great potential for change, who has
the capacity to be a change agent, etc. They
describe this approach as: This is who you are,
and I will treat you as such. There are many
educators who have been doing this for years (see,
for example, Korthagen et al., 2001, p. 125), but
recent developments in the eld of psychotherapy
have now provided a theoretical basis for their
practice.
Reection on professional identity is emphasized in many current teacher education programs.
In our own, for example, students are asked to
reect on positive and negative role models from
the time when they themselves were students in
primary or secondary school. This appears to help
them in making implicit inuences explicit, and to
consciously choose what kind of teacher they want
to be. Tripp (1994, p. 74) says this kind of
reection is essential for teachers. In our own
program, we also make use of exercises such as the
life path, in which students draw a time line
indicating important events and persons that
wereor still areinuential in their development
as teachers. A variation on this has been developed
by Pope and Denicolo (2001), and is called the
river of experience, in which a meandering river is
used as a metaphor for teachers personal biographies. Through such techniques, teachers may
chart what Pinar (1986) calls their Architecture
of Self. A well known other method in teacher
education aimed at making teachers aware of their
professional identities, is the exchange of stories
(Clandinin, 1992; McLean, 1999). Related approaches are described by Bullough (1997). Nowadays, many teacher educators use portfolios as a
means to promote student teachers reections on
their professional identities (see Bullough, 1993 for
an exploration of the potential of portfolios for
deepening reection).
Activities such as these are examples of constructing life through language (Van Huizen,
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2000, p. 41), and the co-construction of professional identity that takes place within interpersonal communication (Van Huizen, 2000, p. 62, 65).
It is important to point out that in the absence of
such activities, teachers are usually not very
interested in their professional identity, especially
not during periods of actual teaching (Korthagen
& Lagerwerf, 1996). Professional identity, then,
often takes on the form of a Gestalt: an
unconscious body of needs, images, feelings,
values, role models, previous experiences and
behavioral tendencies, which together create a
sense of identity. This Gestalt inuences the outer
levels of beliefs, competencies and behavior. The
methods described (such as the life path and story
telling) help students to become aware of that
Gestalt. This in turn leads to what Kelchtermans
and Vandenberghe (1994) refer to as self-understanding. On the basis of such self-understanding,
teachers are able to make choices that are more
conscious when compared to their previous, more
unconscious teaching behavior, and that are
related to their own further professional development. Here we see how the biographical perspective in research can be translated into teacher
education practices.
However, as Bullough and Baughman (1997)
show, fundamental changes in teacher identity do
not take place easily: identity change is a difcult
and sometimes painful process, and often there
seems to be little change at all in how teachers view
themselves.
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demand attention, as when through certain circumstances everything in your life grinds to a halt,
for example when faced with the loss of a loved
one.
As we intend to demonstrate below, the level of
mission can be of direct relevance to teachers, and
it may acquire a very concrete signicance in their
professional development. This has previously
been emphasized by Mayes (2001).
and fairness, but also spirituality, and transcendence (strengths that connect us to the larger
universe, Peterson & Seligman, 2000). The latter
examples illustrate the connections made within
positive psychology to transpersonal psychology.
Strengths are fundamental to what Diener
(2000) calls subjective well-being. A central issue
in positive psychology is how a persons values and
goals (ideals) mediate between external events and
the quality of experience, something that is directly
relevant to teacher education. Peterson and Seligman (2000), using their terminology of strengths,
emphasize that although these strengths can and
do produce desirable outcomes, they are morally
valued in their own right, even in the absence of
obvious benecial outcomes: Although strengths
and virtues no doubt determine how an individual
copes with adversity, our focus is on how they
fulll an individual. This illustrates that these
personal strengths are not only related to the level
of identity, but also to the level of mission.
Peterson and Seligman add that when people are
referring to their strengths, this correlates with a
feeling of this is the real me, that they show a
feeling of excitement when displaying a strength,
andvery important to our discussiona rapid
learning curve as themes are attached to the
strength and practiced.
The way Seligman and other psychologists
within this new eld write about strengths, claries
that they are synonymous to what Ofman (2000)
calls core qualities. He states that such core
qualities are always potentially present. He maintains that the distinction between qualities and
competencies lies primarily in the fact that
qualities come from the inside, while competencies
are acquired from the outside. This is in accordance with the model of levels of change:
competencies such as the ability to take into
account different learning styles or to reect
systematically, are located at the level of competencies, while core qualities are found at the deeper
levels of change. Almaas (1987, p. 175) talks about
essential aspects, which he considers absolute in
the sense that they cannot be further reduced, or
dissected into simpler component parts. We prefer
the term core quality, as it stresses the difference
with the concept of core competence (often used
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Levels
1. Environment
2. Behavior
3. Competencies
4. Beliefs
5. Professional identity
6. Mission
Appropriate interventions
Creating a suitable learning environment
Modeling and contingency management
Instruction, training and coaching
Conceptual-change approaches
?
?
Fig. 2. Relation between the levels of change and interventions in teacher education.
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Acknowledgements
The ideas developed in my work on core
reection build on my cooperation with Angelo
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