URBANIZATION

THIS TOPIC COMES IN PAPER 3 OF GROUP 1 MAINS AND

GROUP 2 MAINS EXAM
1.Rural- Urban Census 2011

Nearly 70 per cent of the countrys population lives in rural areas where, for the first
time since independence, the overall growth rate of population has sharply declined,
according to the latest Census. Of the 121 crore Indians, 83.3 crore live in rural areas
while 37.7 crore stay in urban areas.
For the first time since independence, the absolute increase in population is more in
urban areas than in rural areas. The rural-urban distribution is 68.84 per cent and 31.16
per cent respectively,. The level of urbanisation increased from 27.81 per cent in the
2001 Census to 31.16 per cent in the 2011 Census, while the proportion of rural
population declined from 72.19 per cent to 68.84 per cent. The slowing down of the
overall growth rate of population is due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural
areas, while the growth rate in urban areas remains almost the same. However,
according to the report, the number of births in rural areas have increased by nine crore
in the last decade. The statistics reveal that while the maximum number of people living
in rural areas in a particular state is 15.5 crore in Uttar Pradesh, Mumbai tops the list
having the maximum number of people in urban areas at five crore.
The data also reflects that 18.62 per cent of the countrys rural population lives in Uttar
Pradesh and 13.48 per cent urban population lives in Maharashtra. During 2001-11, the
rate of growth of rural population has been 12.18 per cent. The growth of the countrys
rural population is steadily declining since 1991, the report said. Meghalaya (27 per
cent) and Bihar (24 per cent) witnessed the largest growth in population among States in
the past decade. Four States that recorded a decline in the rural population during 200111 are Kerala (by 26 per cent), Goa (19 per cent), Nagaland (15 per cent) and Sikkim (5
per cent). Though the growth rate of population in rural areas of Empowered Action
Group (EAG) States is nearly three times that in rural areas in non EAG states, it is for
the first time that significant fall of growth rate is seen in the rural areas of EAG states.
The EAG states are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa.
According to the report, though the urban child sex ratio is far worse than that
in rural areas, the fall in child sex ratio in rural areas is around four times that
in urban areas. However, the decline in the child sex ratio is more gradual in urban

areas, the report said. There is a decline of 8.9 million children in rural areas while
urban areas have shown increase of 3.9 million children. The data shows there is an
increase in the overall sex ratio in the country from 933 in 2001 to 940 in 2011. However,
the improvement in the overall sex ratio is largely in urban areas. In rural areas in the
country there has been an increase by only 1 point from 946 in 2001 to 947 in 2011. In
urban areas there has been an appreciable gain of 26 points from 900 in 2001 to 926 in
2011. In 10 states and Union Territories, the urban sex ratio is higher than the rural sex
ratio in Census 2011. This includes Tamil Nadu, Kerala and National Capital Territory
of Delhi, the report said.

2.Concepts related to urbanization

2.1: What is an urban area:
The Census of India, 2001 adopted the following definition for urban areas:
1) All statutory places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified
area committee, etc.- are called statutory towns and are so declared by the state.
2) A place satisfying the following three criteria simultaneously are called census towns.
The criteria are:
a minimum population of 5,000;
at least 75 per cent of male working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits;
a density of population of at least 400 per sq. km. (1,000 per sq. mile)
Cities are urban areas with more than 100,000 population. Urban areas below 100,000
are called towns in India
Similarly Census of India defines urban agglomeration
An urban agglomeration can be constituted under the following circumstances:
1) A city or town with a continuous outgrowth;
2) Two or more adjoining towns with or without outgrowths; and
3) A city or one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths all of which together
form a continuous spread.

2.2 Process of Urbanization

The history of urbanization in India reveals, broadly four processes of urbanization at
work throughout the historical period. These are:
a) the emergence of new social relationships among people in cities and between
people in cities and those in villages
through a process of social change;
b) the rise and fall of cities with changes in the political order;

c) the growth of cities based on new productive processes, which alter the economic
base of the city; and
d) the physical spread of cities with the inflow of migrants, who come in search of a
means of livelihood as well as a new way of life.
The above four processes collectively determine the degree of urbanisation. The degree
of urbanization of a nation for statistical purposes is generally defined as the proportion
of population residing in urban places. From demographic point of view, urbanisation is
the proportion of the population living in towns and cities. It is an increase in proportion
of the urban population to the total population over a period of time. There are well
known generalisations concerning the high positive correlation between industrialisation
and urbanisation. The main push-factor causing workers to leave agriculture is the lower
level of incomes. In almost all countries incomes in agriculture are lower than those of
other sectors of the economy. The main factor determining the rate of outward movement
is expansion of employment in other occupations. It is this factor which explains the high
rate of movement in the recently advanced countries and in rapidly developing countries.
Migration is the key process underlying growth of urbanisation; and the process of
urbanization is closely related with rural to urban migration of people. In most
developing countries of the world where rate of urban growth is relatively higher the
urban-ward migration is usually high. Rural to urban migration is by far the major
component of urbanisation and is the chief mechanism by which urbanisation trends
all the world-over has been accomplished.
2.3 Components of Urban Growth
Urban growth (Bhagat, 1992) involves mainly the growth in terms of the following three
components.
1) Natural increase,
ii) Net-migration, and
iii) Areal re-classification.
These components are estimated using residual method. Since separate information in
wake of change in the area and population due to extension of municipal boundaries
during the inter-censual period is not available either for total or for migrant population,
it is difficult to estimate decadal migration to urban areas. In addition, migration data
for new and de-classified towns are not available separately and, thus, there is a
possibility of error in estimating contribution of migration as a share of urban growth. It
is evident that during 2001-11 about 41 % of urban growth could be attributed to natural
increase which reflects the role of demographic momentum, 36% due to net-migration
and municipal boundary changes, and 19% due to re-classification of area. But, urban
growth due to natural increase has increased from 41 % in 1971 -8 1 to about 60% during

2001-1. It is clear that urbanization process in India is not mainly "migration lead but a
product of demographic explosion due to natural increase.
There are other components of urban growth that reflects slightly different results.
Sometimes, migration to cities occurs not due to urban-pull but due to rural-push.
Poverty-led migration (Sen and Ghosh, 1993) has induced very poor quality of
urbanization followed by misery, poverty, unemployment, exploitation, rapid growth of
slum, inequalities, degradation in the quality of urban life. Though the process of
urbanisation is a welcome feature for many developing countries, the process should be
equally distributed among all parts of the country. It can be clearly inferred that there is
uneven distribution in urbanisation and lacks homogeneity in the urbanization process
in different parts of our country.
2.4 Indicators of Urbanisation
Indicators of urbanisation enable us to understand the demographic and geographical
dimensions of urbanisation in the country. Following are the important indicators in this
regard.
1) Percentage of urban population to total population - This shows the level of
urbanisation in an area.
2) Decadal growth rate - This provides the change in urban population in percentage
related to base-year.
3) Number of towns per ten-lakh rural population - This indicator shows the extent
to which rural areas are served by urban centres.
4) Percentage of population in Class-Z cities / towns - This indicates the '
dominance of large towns or big cities in the process of urbanisation compared to that of
medium cities or towns having one or more contiguous outgrowths;
5) Two or more adjoining towns with or without their outgrowths; and
6) Cities with one or more adjoining towns with their out-growths, all of which
form a continuous spread.
Following important points can be noted regarding urban Population.
I.) Top three States in terms of absolute share of population are:
Maharashtra 50.8 million (13.5%).
Uttar Pradesh 44.4 million (11 .2%).
Tamil Nadu 34.9 million (9.3%).
ii) Bottom three States in terms of absolute share of population are:
Sikkim 0.15 million (Negligible).
Arunachal Pradesh 0.3 1 million (0.1 %).
Mizorarn 0.56 million (0.1 %).

2.5 Basic features and pattern of India's urbanization:

The following basic features and pattern can be noticed.
1) Lopsided urbanisation induces growth of Class-I cities.
2) Urbanisation occurs without industrialisation and strong economic base.
3) Urbanisation is mainly a product of demographic explosion and poverty-induced
rural-urban migration.
4) Rapid urbanisation leads to massive growth of slums followed by misery, poverty,
unemployment, exploitation, inequalities, degradation in the quality of urban
5) Urbanisation occurs not due to urban-pull but due to rural-push factors.
6) Poor quality of rural-urban migration leads to poor quality of urbanisation.
7) Distress-migration initiates urban decay.

3. Challenges of Urbanization:
Most of the counties including India is experiencing rapid urbanization. The unplanned
urbanization particularly in developing countries has culminated several problems. This
rapid urbanization envisages that within the next two to three decades, there will be
need for increased demand for basic infrastructure, housing and living facilities in major
urban centres. The demand for clean water sanitation, solid waste disposal, sewage for
liquid waste, health and transport facilities will enhance manifold. Therefore, the
urbanization process and growth will face many challenges. Let us discuss a few
challenges of urban development in India.
3.1) Housing - Housing provision for the growing urban population will be the biggest
challenge before the government. The growing cost of houses comparison to the income of
the urban middle class, has made it impossible for majority of lower income groups and
are residing in congested accommodation and many of those are devoid of proper
ventilation, lighting, water supply, sewage system, etc. For instance in Delhi, the current
estimate is of a shortage of 5,00,000 dwelling units the coming decades. The United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) introduced the concept of "Housing
Poverty" which includes "Individuals and households who lack safe, secure and healthy
shelter, with basic infrastructure such as piped water and adequate provision for
sanitation, drainage and the removal of household waste".
3.2) Safe Drinking Water- Ensuring safe drinking water to urban population is a
problem in most of metropolitan cities of India. The 2001 Census figure shows that still
many households in urban areas consume water from unsafe sources such as tanks, pond
and lake, river and canal and spring, the percentages are 7.7, 03, 02 and 0.2 respectively.
The safe drinking water sources are also found to be contaminated because of water in

the cities are inadequate and in the future, the expected population cannot be
accommodated without a drastic improvement in the availability of water. The expenses
on water treatment and reuse will grow manifold.
3.3) Sanitation- The poor sanitation condition is another gloomy feature in urban areas
and particularly in slums and unauthorized colonies of urban areas. The drainage
system in many unorganized colonies and slums are either not existing and if existing
are in a bad shape and in bits resulting in blockage of waste water. This unsanitary
conditions lead to many sanitation related diseases such as diahorrea and malaria.
Unsafe garbage disposal is one of the critical problem in urban areas and garbage
management always remained a major challenge.
3.4) Poverty- Roughly a third of the urban population today lives below the poverty
line. There are glaring disparities between haves and have-nots in urban areas. The
most demanding of the urban challenges, unquestionably is the challenge posed by
poverty; the challenge of reducing exploitation, relieving misery and creating more
human condition for urban poor. Dandekar and Rath has remarked that "The urban poor
are only an overflow of rural poor into the urban area". They had further opined that
"While the character of rural poverty has remained the same as before the character of
urban poverty has deepened further". S.R.Hasim remarked that cities have been and
still are the engines of growth and yet, they harbour a significant number of people who
are poor and whose living conditions can only be described as miserable. A recent
estimate shows that around 50 million poor people are residing in urban India.
Table 2: Estimates of Incidence of Urban Poverty in India
Year
Poverty Ratio
Number of Poor (Million)
1977-78
45.2
64.6
1983
40.8
70.9
1987-88
38.2
75.2
1993-94
32.4
76.3 .
1999-2000
23.6
67.1
2007
15.1
49.6
3.5) Health conditions- The important indicators of human development are
education and health. The health condition of urban poor in some areas are even more
adverse compared to rural areas. As many as 20 million children in the developing
countries are dieing consequent to drinking water. About 6,00,000 persons are loosing
their lives on account of indoor air pollution (Jagmohan,2005). The National Family
Health Survey, 2006-07 has envisaged that a lot of women and children are suffering
from nutritional anaemia and diseases like tuberculosis and asthama are occurring in

good number. Providing health care services to the growing urban population is major
challenge before the government health care delivery system.
3.6) Provision of Employment- Providing gainful employment to the growing urban
population is a major challenge before the government. It is generally observed that the
literate and semi-literate migrants are absorbed with minimal works, carrying lower
wage and more hour of work. The Un Habitat Report (2003) has rightly remarked "The
cities have become a dumping ground for surplus population working in unskilled,
unprotected and low wage informal service industries and trade". The urban workers are
increasingly being pushed into the informal sector and without any adequate activities
in the cities were carried on in public places like footpaths, open empty spaces, parks or
just in the streets. The plight of rickshaw pullers and street vendor is widely noted and
commented upon. As the rural agriculture sectors is shrinking day by day the challenges
before the urban sector to
provide viable employment to migrating population will be a daunting task in the coming
year.
3.7) Urban Transport and traffic management- One of the most challenging
problem facing the urban areas is urban transport. The challenge is to provide a well
integrated and environmental friendly transport facility. Trafic congestation and
environmental pollution has reached unprecedented level in many metropolitan cities.
The sustainable urban transport system should ensure safe and pollution free transport
system. The increasing urban population has made the transport system like public bus
facilities and metros extremely crowded and unpleasant. The traffic management need
not only to control traffic but also check accidents occurring in urban areas. Some of the
other challenges are road pricing, licensing system, user taxes on fuel, parking of
vehicles, etc.
3.8) Urban Crime- prevention of urban crime is another challenge before the
government of States having more number of urban areas and particularly metropolitan
cities. The mega cities are facing increased criminal activities on account of unchecked
migration, illegal settlements and diverse socio-cultural disparities, organized groups,
gangsters, professional criminals for wishing a lavish life in metropolis. According to IPC
(Indian Penal Code) data, a total of 3,23,363 cognizable crimes under the IPC were
reported in 35 mega cities during 2006 as compared to 3,14,708 crimes during 2005,
thereby reporting an increase of 3.70 percent. The cities of Delhi, Mumbai and
Bengaluru have accounted for 16.2 percent, 9.5 percent and 8.1 percent respectively of
the total crime reported from 35 mega cities. Prevention of crime in mega cities is a
challenge before the city government in India.

4. Social implications of urbanization

Impacts of urbanization on social life- Poverty , and Family Structure and culture

4.1) Poverty: Have's and have's not

Urbanisation is the result of a large number of people residing in a limited area. When a
' large number of people get concentrated in an urban area, the demands on resources
increase. More houses have to be built. More electricity, more water and more sewage
disposal facilities have to be developed. Health, education, recreation and entertainment
of the population has to be looked after. In some urban areas it may be possible to
increase facilities to satisfy the demands completely. But in most urban areas this is not
the case. Not only do demand outstrip the existing facilities, the facilities grow much
more slowly than the population. The result is that everyone in the urban centre does
not get all the facilities and a large number do not get even the minimum. This becomes
obvious from the existence of rich and poor residential areas in most of the urban centres
all over the world. In developing countries this problem is even more acute on account of
the fact that the financial conditions of the governments are not very satisfactory and
the demands are much more than can be met easily.
Most of the Third World cities are really two cities within one. There is one part which
may be considered the city of the rich inhabitants, the other part is the portion meant for
the poor. These two areas can be differentiated very easily because they differ in so many
ways. The areas occupied by rich people have low population density, better planning for
houses, roads, parks, etc. These have assured water supply and sewage collection
facilities. Power supply is more regular and communication facilities are amply
available. Whereas the areas occupied by poor people in any urban centre have high
population density and illegal shocks built of low grade building materials or even with
scrap materials. Drinking water, sewage, garbage collection and disposal facilities are
nominal. Health and educational facilities are almost non-existent. Even where efforts
are made to provide these facilities, they generally remain inadequate. Even in terms of
site selection, the poor residential areas are generally unfit for human settlement. The
better areas always have high price tag attached to them. So, the poor people have no
option but to live in degraded areas. These may be the banks of rivers, land left by the
side of railway tracks, near factories, drains, highways, etc. Most of these areas have
problems of flooding, poor drainage, pollution, accidents, etc. But there is no choice. One
third or even more of the inhabitants of most of the Third World cities live in these
localities. Even if we take the example of Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, all these
cities have a very large number of people llving in residential areas which are slums and
are commonly called 'Jhuggis' or 'Chawls'.

4.2) Ghettos and Suburban Living

As the urban centres become more and more crowded and the facilities in urban areas
become expensive, most people of average income find it difficult to live in urban areas.
Urban centres accommodate very large number of people Only a very small percentage of
these can afford comfortable and healthy living and the rest have only two options: 1) to
live in the substandard houses and shacks, 2) to live away from the urban centres,
travelling long distances to reach their places of work. Both of these trends are seen in
the cities today, especially in the poor countries. In India and its neighbouring countries,
cities have a large number of dwelling units which are not fit for healthy living. Some of
these units, which were fit for human living few decades earlier, have now become
dilapidated. Therefore, people who could afford better living have left these units and
those who cannot afford a better place, have moved into such places. Further, these
occupants consider that these houses have become more or less their property.

4.3) URBANISATION AND FAMILY STRUCTURE

Urbanisation has its impact on all aspects of day-to-day life. Family structure has also
been influenced by urbanisation. In the rural society the concept of family living is
different from that in the urban society. In the urban society usually the families are
nuclear, a very small percentage of households' have joint families, whereas in rural
society most of the households have joint families. This change in family structure is a
direct result of urbanisation. Now we will study the factors responsible for the break up
of the large joint
families into small nuclear families.
a) Living Space and Family Break-up
Living space is the main area of concern in the urban society. As urbanisation increases
and population in the urban centres grows, the per capita space available decreases.
Therefore, traditional joint families breakup and each sub-family lives independently.
However,
availability of living space is not the only factor responsible for breaking up of the
families in the urban centres. If a joint family breaks into four smaller families, each one
of them will need more space than if all the four families lived together. The igmediate
factor
governing the family break up is the changed pattern of living and disparity in income.
In the cities, life is fast and self-centred. Every one is concerned about himself or his
immediate dependants, and as the dependants become independent, concern for them
decreases. In this environment everyone struggles for himself. In the process, if one
component of the larger family is able to afford better life, they would not like to suffer
on account of the failures of others. So they prefer to separate from the family and live

independently. This is how most of the families are broken up. If there are three brothers
in a family and all of them are not equal in terms of income, etc., then the one who is
better placed will always like to separate and live a better life than to suffer for the
failures of his other brothers. This kind of break up is often seen in the families living in
urban areas. There is another category of urban population, the migrants. A joint family
from a non-urban area when it migrates to an urban area, finds it difficult to live
together because of the non-availability of large living space at reasonable price. In this
situation, only a few members of the family move to urban areas while the rest are left
back at their original place. So, there is a split in the family. It is not unusual to find
only the men living in urban areas while the women and children are left behind in the
rural areas. This is to economise on urban living. One person alone, especially a male
member, can live in the urban centre by spending very little. Thus, the male members
are able to support themselves as well as those who are left behind and whom they
periodically visit. So, in the metropolitan cities one can find two types of break-up in
families; one in which a portion of the family lives in the high income area while the
others in the substandard areas where life is not so good, and the second in which one or
more members of the family are left behind in the rural areas.
b) Occupational Mobility and Family Movements
Urbanisation has resulted in varied types of occupations and there are a large number
of occupations where working people have to keep on moving at intervals. For
example,'the urban centres have a large number of people who are transferred from one
place to another. Some times they are transferred from one end of the country to
another. There are other people such as travelling salesmen whose nature of job is such
that they have to keep moving constantly. Such a kind of occupational mobility involves
the family too. When people are transferred from one city or one urban centre to
another, the family has to bear lots of stress; not only it has to move its household but
also it has to adapt to new living conditions. new neighbours, new house, etc. The
children have to adjust with their new schools, new teachers, new schoolmates, new
playmates and so many other new things.
Some limes the change is quite severe and puts lots of pressure on the family in various
ways. As far as the working member is concerned, he adapts to the new place much more
easily than other members of the family as he is mentally prepared for the change. But
the other members of the family have to struggle hard to adapt to new place,
environment and neighbours. This is an indirect outcome of the urban life, which
demands occupational.
mobility
4.4) Cultural Hybridisation
In urban areas, especially in the metropolitan cities, people of extremely divergent
cultures live together. This has a positive impact. People come to know about each
other's culture and they exchange their ideas, breaking the barriers which earlier used

to exist between them. This results in cultural hybridisation. For example, in any large
city, we find that'people take interest in festivals like Holi, Diwali, Id, Guru Parb,
Christmas, Kali Puja, Ganesh Puja and similar other festivals, whereas in rural areas,
many of these occasions remain unknown to a large number of people as those are not
considered to be their festivals. Every region of the country has specific cultural
programmes, like music, dance, folk songs, etc. performed specially in the rural areas. In
urban areas, specially the metropolis, where people from different parts of the country
live, one can find such cultural programmes organised very often. Government of India is
also organising such cultural programmes (Apna Ustav, Melas, etc.) both at national and
international levels there is a certainly positive trends of urbanisation as these bring
people closer. However, some people are of the opinion that mixing of various cultures
may dilute the cultural heritage in its pure form. But one must take into consideration
the fact that for maintaining the purity of cultures, distances between people need not be
maintained. In urban areas, inter-caste and inter-religion marriages do take place some
time and people do 'not consider it an offence any more. This is also a form of cultural
hybridisation
5. Other dimensions of Urbanization
5.1Migration and Occupational structure in Urbanization process
One thing needs to be mentioned here that modest urbanisation of India has not been
accompanied with a shift in the occupational structure. The proportion of urban
population to total population has increased over the decades since Independence. But
the percentages of total workers engaged in the primary sector have remained far above
those engaged in secondary and tertiary sector^.^ Thus large cities, especially the
metropolitan cities with the tertiary sector as economic base have become the centres of
concentration of urban population. These large urban centres are based on tertiary
sector and cannot provide adequate India employment to these migrants in the
organised sector and as such they get absorbed in the urban informal sector (Mukherji,
1996). The peripheral areas around the large metropolitan cities have shown a high
growth rate in the last decade confirming the fact that the poor urban population is
living in the less costly peripheral rural areas from where they commute to the city to
work. This is clearly visible in the growth rate of rural areas around Delhi, which have
shown around 100 per cent higher growth rate than that of the metropolis of Delhi
during 198 1-9 1. Cities such as Hyderabad, Jaipur, Chandigarh, Bhopal, Pune have also
seen large in-migration in their peripheral areas. The smaller urban centres do not
provide the migrants the opportunity to get absorbed even in the informal sector; as such
the migrants approach the large cities in search of a livelihood. It must be emphasised
here that ruralurban migration in India is not associated with any vertical shift in the
labour force from the agricultural sector to the urbanised industrial sector as in western
countries. Poverty stricken rural-urban migrants, both men and women migrate to join

the urban informal sector as porters, hawkers, domestic servants, construction workers
and so on (Mukherji, 1981). Some of them add to urban poverty.
5.2PROBLEMS OF BASIC AMENITIES IN URBAN INDIA
The provision of basic amnesties to urban population in general and to the urban poor in
particular has always remained a problem. A few important basic amnesties are
drinking water, sanitation and electricity facilities. In urban India in 2011, 64 per cent of
the households had taps as source of drinking water, 61 per cent of the households had
their latrine facilities within their houses and only 35 per cent of the households had
closed drainage facilities

Basic Amenities % of Households having the facility in 2011

Tap as source of drinking water
69
Latrine facility within the house
61
Closed drainage facility
35
Electricity
88

5.3 Concept of Urban Poverty

Urban poverty manifests itself in various forms, viz, (a) proliferation of slums and
squatters; (b) fast growth of the informal sector; (c) increasing casualisation of labour; (d)
increasing pressure on civic services; (e) increasing educational deprivation and health
contingencies. The Working Group on Urban Poverty appointed by the National
Commission on Urbanization observed that the most pressing of the urban challenges is
that posed by urban poverty. The problem of urban poverty is a manifestation of the
higher incidence of marginal and low income employment in the informal sector.
The vulnerability of a household to be poor may be of the following types. One or
multiple type of vulnerability may be found to occur in any poor household.
a) Housing Vulnerability: Lack of tenure, poor quality shelter without ownership
rights, no access to individual water connection/toilets, unhealthy and insanitary
living conditions. The fact that household size affects the poverty status of a
household is well known. Larger households tend to have a higher probability of being
poor.
b) Economic Vulnerability: Irregular/casual employment, low paid work, lack of
access to credit on reasonable terms, lack of access to formal safety net
programmes, low ownership of productive assets, poor net worth, legal constraints
to self-employment.

c) Social Vulnerability: Low education, lack of skills, low social capitaVcaste

status, inadequate access to food security programmes, lack of access to health
services, exclusion from local institutions.
d) Personal Vulnerability: Proneness to violence or intimidation, especially
women, children, the elderly, disabled and destitute, belonging to low castes and
minority groups, lack of information, lack of access to justice. In addition to the
generic aspects of poverty there are certain characteristics of poverty, which are
particular to circumstances within which poor people live. At the city level the
urban poor live unhygienic and overcrowded condition. Some occupy precarious
sites vulnerable to fire in the dry season and flooding during monsoon. The risk of
outbreak of disease and epidemics is also high in these areas. Further, poor urban
households are heavily dependent on informal labor market. Their vulnerability is
related to insecurity of highly segmented labor market. Access to jobs and training
is determined to a high degree by gender, caste and neighborhood. Vulnerability
relates to type of work, regularity of wage labour and availability of capital among
the self employed. A study has shown that 53 percent of household dependent on
unprotected and irregular employment are below the poverty line. The increasing
casualisation of labor markets for both men and women is an important feature of
urban poverty. High percentage of male migrants making their entry in the
informal labor market is common in India. In the context of limited asset base
where livelihood security is dependent on income and employment, the issue of
tenure is very important. Most of the vulnerable households live in slums or squat
on public land and their fear of eviction is a constant source of insecurity. Further
the urban poor are highly dependent on public agencies for their daily basic needs.
Support from family and community based network is limited among the urban poor.
Although slum residents live in clearly defined occupational or caste based grouping,
they necessarily do not trust each other. Many studies had shown that the threat of
violence is a constant feature of urban life. This is exacerbated by youth underemployment, alcoholism and drug abuse, especially among men. Finally vulnerability is
more pronounced for the women folk. 'Feminisation of poverty' is a term used to describe
the overwhelming representation of women among the poor. Women tend to be
disproportionately represented among the poor (World Bank). Poverty studies from both
developed and developing
countries show that women are more subjected to poverty and vulnerability than men.
Beyond these structural features, there are specific groups of the urban poor who face
the additional vulnerability, like the elderly, disabled, young children and women.
Individuals disassociated from household are also prone to increased vulnerability, as for
example, street children beggars, sex workers and abandoned women. Vulnerability as
discussed in the previous section is a chronic set of structural condition which maintains
people in a constant precarious state. It is not necessarily equated with shocks as for
example, a disaster but rather with the structure at household level and within

communities around where people live. It is deeply embedded within the structure of the
state and society which reproduce inequality, exclusion and exploitation and therefore
limit the poor people choices

6.Urban Planning and Governance

Introduction:
Our cities are now caught in an eternal dichotomy - catering to the increasing population
of affluent while struggling to provide the bare minimum to the average Indian. The
increasing number of slums in the country is a direct consequence of lack of planning,
leading to ad-hoc distribution of land area, in turn causing a high-real estate value
which
makes housing a very costly affair. Similar is the case of basicc services such as sewage
treatment. storm-water disposal, solid-waste management and drinking water supply.
The lack of vision in the transportation sector has created gross shortage in public
&insportation and lack of infrastructure facilities to accommodate the huge increase in
the number of private vehicles. The abysmal social planning has led to congested cities
with little or no open spaces, parks and green pockets which are necessary for the city
to breathe. Planning is necessary to provide a clear link between the demographic
pattern and the urban infrastructure to ensure that the city functions effectively for all
its citizens.
Urban planning is a task that requires vision coupled with research activities to
effectively
predict the socio-economic factors such as population and GDP. Land-use planning zoning and the laws that dictate the development of the city - need to be revised to
reflect the changing social and economic climate. The infrastructure and service
development plans need to be made with broad framework and achievable goals - all
that require effective governance, both at the micro and macro level.
However, our country is one of great diversity and our cities have developed in a fairly
organic manner, as a living organism which embodies life. This sensitivity to our cultural
heritage is of utmost importance while creating a vision of our cities. A sustainable
development involving the preservation of our identity and the character of our cities
Urban Planning,

Urban Development should be of prime importance in today's world of faceless

globalization. Urban design is hence a collective activity - involving planners, architects,
administration.economists and most importantly - the community. A collective effort can
turn around our cities and create safe havens for us. as our country begins to gain
prominence
Role of urban planning and management is, thus, becoming more and more significant
due to the increase in urban population and consequent problems. It is extremely
important
in the current scenario when it is being projected that in the coming decade more than
half of the world's population will live in urban centers. Thus, quality of life cannot be
achieved without appropriate spatial information and planning. Urban problems like
affordable housing, traffic congestion, livelihood, crime, poor living-conditions, etc., need
to be addressed appropriately
Modes of Urban Planning
various modes of urban planning that are followed in our country are .
Master Plan or Perspective Plan: A master plan is prepared for a time period of ten
to twenty years keeping in view the future growth of population. Economic development,
potential and ecological improvements likely to come up during the plan period. The plan
should keep in consideration regional and national factors, which have bearing on the
development of different areas. Master plan, therefore, is a statutory instrument for
controlling, directing the rational development and/or redevelopment of an urban area
with a view to achieving maximum economic, social and aesthetic benefits.
Development Plan: The objective of a development plan is to provide further necessary
details and intended actions in the form of' strategies and physical proposals for various
policies given in the perspective plan depending upon the economic and social needs and
aspirations of the people, available resources and priorities. A development plan is a
statutory plan, approved and adopted by the local authority for implementation with the
help of schemes and prospects.
City Development Plan underJNNURM:
A City Development Plan (CDP) is a comprehensive document outlining the vision and
development strategy for future development of the city, prepared in consultation with a
wide range of stakeholders.
It helps in identifying the thrust areas to be addressed on priority basis to achieve the
objectives and the visions. It, thus, provides an overall framework within which projects
are identified and put forward in a City Investment Plan. The Comprehensive
Development Plan (CDP) or Master Plans prepared by cities in the earlier context were

largely land-use regulation and monitoring document. While the CDP under the
JNNURM programme has wider objectives that emphasize the following:
a) Guided growth of the city,
b) citizen's participation,
c) reform in governance leading to a well-managed society, and
d) clear estimates of financial investment and sustainability.

Criteria of Good Urban Governance

1. Participation
2. Transparency
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency
4. Responsiveness
5. Accountability
6. Consensus-oriented
7. Equality and Inclusiveness
8. Rule of Law
9. Predictability
10. Centralization and Decentralization
11. Absence of Corruption
Urban Planning and Governance may aim for following objectives
a) Focussed attention to integrated development of infrastructure services in cities
covered under the Mission;
b) Establishment of linkages between asset-creation and asset-management through
a slew of
reforms for long-term project sustainability ;
c) Ensuring adequate funds to meet the deficiencies in urban infrastructural services.
d) Planned development of identified cities including peri-urban areas, outgrowths
and urban corridors leading to dispersed urbanisation;.
e) Scale-up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on
universal access to the urban poor;.
f) Special focus on urban renewal programme for the old-city areas to reduce
congestion; and
g) Provision of basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at affordable
prices, improved housing, water supply and sanitation, and ensuring delivery of other
existing universal services of the government for education, health and social security.

Few more things that can be covered under urbanization are :

1) Urbanization and growing menace of slums, their problems and challenges
2) Various Urban policy programmes such as Rajiv Awas Yojana and
JNNURM,AMRUT,
3) Concepts of sustainable urbanization
4) Evaluation of Municipal Institutions (74th amendment), their greater participation
and issues of further devolution to these institutions
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