CHAPTER XVII

Sewage Collection and Disposal, Excreta Disposal and Drainage

SECTION 71. Definition of Terms. As used in this Chapter, the following terms
shall mean:
a. Public sewerage system A system serving twenty-five persons or more.
b. Septic tank A water tight receptacle which receives the discharge of a
plumbing system or part thereof, and is designed to accomplish the partial
removal and digestion of the suspended solid matter in the sewage through a
period of detention. Its construction shall be in accordance with specifications
prescribed in this Chapter.
c. House sewer The pipe line conveying sewage from the house or building to
the septic tank or to any point of discharge.
d. Septic tank absorption bed or drain field An underground system of pipes
leading from the outlet of the septic tank, consisting of open-jointed or perforated
pipes so distributed that the effluent from a septic tank is oxidized and absorbed
by the soil.
e. Effective capacity of a septic tank The actual liquid capacity of a septic tank
as contained below the liquid level line of the tank.
f. Effective depth of a septic tank The actual liquid depth of a septic tank as
measured from the inside bottom of the septic tank to the liquid level line.
g. Freeboard or air space of a septic tank The distance as measured from the
liquid level line to the inside top of the septic tank.
h. Distribution box A small concrete receptacle between the septic tank and the
drain field from which lines of drain tile extends and which acts as surge tank to
distribute the flow of sewage equally to each line of drain tile.
i. Approved excreta disposal facilities shall mean any of the following:
1. Flush toilets properly connected to a community sewer;
2. Flush toilets connected to a septic tank constructed in accordance with this
Chapter;
3. Any approved type pit privy built in accordance with this Chapter; and

4. Any disposal device approved by the Secretary or his duly authorized

representative.
j. Privy A structure which is not connected to a sewerage system and is used
for the reception, disposition and storage of feces or other excreta from the
human body.
k. Septic privy where the fecal matter is placed in a septic tank containing water
and connected to a drain field but which is not served by a water supply under
pressure.
l. Box and can privy A privy where fecal matter is deposited in a can bucket
which is removed for emptying and cleaning.
m. Concrete vault privy A pity privy with the pit line with concrete in such
manner as to make it water tight.
n. Chemical privy A privy where fecal matter is deposited into a tank containing
a caustic chemical solution to prevent septic action while the organic matter is
decomposed.
SECTION 72. Scope of Supervision of the Department. The approval of the
Secretary or his duly authorized representative is required in the following
matters:
a.Construction of any approved type of toilet for every house including
community toilet which may be allowed for a group of small houses of light
materials or temporary in nature;
b. Plans of individual sewage disposal system and the sub-surface absorption
system, or other treatment device;
c. Location of any toilet or sewage disposal system in relation to a source of
water supply;
d. Plans, design data and specifications of a new or existing sewerage system or
sewage treatment plant;
e. The discharge of untreated effluent of septic tanks and/or sewage treatment
plants to bodies of water;
f. Manufacture of septic tanks; and
g. Method of disposal of sludge from septic tanks or other treatment plants.

SECTION 73. Operation of Sewage Treatment Works. Private or public

sewerage systems shall:
a. Provide laboratory facilities for control tests and other examinations needed;
b. Forward to the local health authority operating data, control tests and such
other records and information as may be required;
c. Inform the local health authority in case of break-down or improper functioning
of the sewage treatment works; and
d. Provide for the treatment of all sewage entering the treatment plant.
SECTION 74. Requirements in the Operation of Sewerage Works and Sewage
Treatment Plants. The following are required for sewerage works and sewage
treatment plants.
a. All houses covered by the system shall be connected to the sewer in areas
where a sewerage system is available.
b. Outfalls discharging effluent from a treatment plant shall be carried to the
channel of the stream or to deep water where the outlet is discharged.
c.Storm water shall be discharged to a storm sewer, sanitary sewage shall be
discharged to a sewerage system carrying sanitary sewage only; but this should
not prevent the installation of a combined system.
d. Properly designed grease traps shall be provided for sewers from restaurants
or other establishments where the sewage carries a large amount of grease.
SECTION 75. Septic tanks. Where a public sewerage system is not available,
sewer outfalls from residences, schools, and other buildings shall be discharged
into a septic tank to be constructed in accordance with the following minimum
requirements:
a. It shall be generally rectangular in shape. When a number of compartments
are used, the first compartment shall have the capacity from one-half to twothirds of the total volume of the tank.
b. It shall be built of concrete, whether pre-cast or poured in place. Brick,
concrete blocks or adobe may be used.
c. It shall not be constructed under any building and within 25 meters from any
source of water supply.

SECTION 76. Disposal of Septic Tank Effluent. The effluent from septic tanks
shall be discharged into a sub-surface soil, absorption field where applicable or
shall be treated with some type of a purification device. The treated effluent may
be discharged into a stream or body of water if it conforms to the quality
standards prescribe by the National Water and Air Pollution Control Commission.
SECTION 77. Determination of Septic Tank Capacity. The septic tank capacity
may be determined from the estimated unit flow contained in Table I Quantities
of Sewage Flow, based on adequate detention time interval resulting in efficient
sedimentation. Daily flow from mattered results, may be used as estimated flow
when available. For edifices with occupants, the number of persons to be served
shall be computed on the number of rooms with each room considered as
occupied by two persons or on the basis of the actual number of persons served
by the tank, whichever is greater.
SECTION 78. Sanitary Privies. The privy recommended for use is the sanitary
privy. It shall conform with the following minimum requirements:
a. It shall consist of an earthen pit, a floor covering the pit, and a water-sealed
bowl. It shall be so constructed in order that fecal matter and urine will be
deposited into the earthen pit which shall be completely fly-proof.
b. The pit shall be at least one meter square.
c. The floor should cover the pit tightly to prevent the entrance of flies. It shall be
constructed of concrete or other impervious material.
d. The water-sealed bowl shall be joined to the floor so as to form a water-tight
and insect proof joint.
e. A suitable building, shall be constructed to provide comfort and privacy for the
users of the privy.
f. Wooden floors and seat risers shall not be used.
SECTION 79. Drainage.
a. Responsibility of cities and municipalities It shall be the responsibility of all
cities and municipalities to provide and maintain in a sanitary state and in good
repair a satisfactory system of drainage in all inhabited areas where waste water
from buildings and premises could empty without causing nuisance to the
community and danger to public health.
b. Connection to the municipal drainage system Buildings or premises
producing waste water shall be connected to the municipal drainage system in all
areas where it exists.

SECTION 80. Special Precaution for Radioactive Excreta and Urine of

Hospitalized Patient.
a. Patients given high doses of radioactive isotope for therapy should be given
toilet facilities separate from those used by non-radioactive patients.
b. Radioactive patients should be instructed to use the same toilet bowl at all
times and to flush it at least 3 times after its use.

Code of Sanitation
CHAPTER XVII SEWAGE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL, EXCRETA DISPOSAL
AND DRAINAGE
SECTION 72. Scope of Supervision of the Department.
The approval of the Secretary or his duly authorized representative is
required in the following matters:
a. Construction of any approved type of toilet for every house including
community toilet which may be allowed for a group of small houses of
light materials or temporary in nature;
b. Plans of individual sewage disposal system and the
absorption system, or other treatment device;

sub-surface

c. Location of any toilet or sewage disposal system in relation to a source

of water supply ; treatment plants.
d. Plans, design data and specifications of a new or existing sewerage
system or sewage treatment plant;
e. The discharge of untreated effluent of septic tanks and/or sewage
treatment plants to bodies of water;
f. Manufacture of septic tanks; and
g. Method of disposal of sludge from septic tanks or other

Introduction

Human excreta is a source of infection.

Improper excreta disposal has various health hazards.
-Soil pollution, water pollution, diseases spread by fecal oral
route
Disposal of human excreta assumes greater importance.
Transmission of Diseases

Ways on how fecal borne diseases are transmitted

Man is the reservoir of the most diseases that destroy or incapacitate him.
In the transmission of these diseases from the infected person or carriers of
disease to the healthy person the chain of events usually involved the
following:
1. A causative or etiologic agent;
2. A reservoir or source of infection of the causative agents
3. A mode of escape from the reservoir;
4. A mode of transmission from the reservoir to the potential new host;
5. A mode of entry into the new host;
6. A susceptible host

Excreta Related Diseases

Category

Examples

Fecal oral
(non
bacterial)

Hepatitis A
Amoebic
dysentery
rotavirus
giardiasis
Cholera
Salmonellosis
shigellosis
many forms of
diarrhea

Fecal oral
( bacterial)

Dominant transmission
mechanism

Soil
transmitted
helminths

Hookworm
Roundworm
whipworm

Tapeworms

person to person
contact,
domestic
contamination
person to person
contact,
domestic
contamination
water
contamination
crop contamination
compound
contamination,
communal
deification areas
crop contamination

Beef tapeworm
Port tapeworm

compound
contamination
field
contamination
fodder
contamination

Water-based helminthes

Schistosomiasis

water
contamination

Excreta related insect vectors

Filariasis
some fecal oral diseases

insects breed or
feed in sites of
poor sanitation

2002 by Kebede Faris, Tadese Alemayehu, Mamo Wubshet, and Dejene Hailu

Requirements for Excreta Disposal

From a purely technical point it has been agreed that an excreta

disposal or management system should satisfy the following seven

requirement as adapted from Ehlers and Steel.
1. The surface soil should not be contaminated because of the
technology used
2. There should be no contamination of ground water that may enter
springs or wells
3. There should be no contamination of surface water
4. Excreta should not be accessible to flies or animals
5. There should be no handling of fresh excreta; or, when this is
indispensable, it should be kept to a strict minimum.
6. There should be freedom from odors or unsightly conditions
7. The method used should be simple and inexpensive in construction and
operation.
8. Should serve at least 4 to five years to be cost effective

Barriers for the Development of the Sanitation Sector

1.) Lack of Sanitation Policy and Government Commitment.
Government or other agencies strive for short -run outputs such as
constructing water supply in spite of that many prominent researchers
indicated that water in quality or quantity is not enough to improve health
unless sanitation and hygiene behavior change is also included in the
program.
2.) Lack of Proper, Coordinated Hygiene and Sanitation Messages
Hygiene or health education messages in the form of posters, charts,
leaflets, or dramas have not been designed, issued and used by health
workers.
3.) Lack of organized program for sanitation

Lack of organized, sanitation and hygiene promotion in the country

is one factor for its low development.
4.) Level of poverty
Poverty have major share in that, people concentrate more on
finding food, water or firewood during the day than engaging themselves
on latrine construction and /or attending health forums.

5.) Lack of Demand

There is virtually no demand for sanitation especially by the rural
people and the urban poor.
Principles for Breaking the Barriers
1.) Sanitation is the First Barrier
Many researchers conducted in many developing countries has
proved that sanitation is the first barrier to many feacaly transmitted
diseases, and its effectiveness improves when integrated with improved
water supply and behavior change
2.) Promote Behavior and Facilities Together
Sanitation combines behavior and facilities, which should be
promoted together to maximize health and socioeconomic benefits.
3.) Give Sanitation its Own Priority
Sanitation requires its own resources and its own time-frame to
achieve optimal results.
4.) Create Demand
Sanitation program should be based on generation of demand,
with all its implications for education and participation, rather than
providing free or subsidized infrastructure.
5.) Government Role

Government should be responsible to protect public health.

Methods of Excreta Disposal

1. Service type latrines (Conservancy System)
2. Nonservice type (Sanitary latrines)
a) Aqua privy
b) Bore hole latrine
c) Dug well or Pit latrine
d) Overhung latrine
e) V.I.P(Ventilated Improved Pit) Latrine
f) PourFlush Latrines
g) Septic tank
h) Cesspools
3. Latrine suitable for camps and temporary use
a) Shallow trench latrine
b) Deep trench latrine
c) Pit latrine
d) Bore hole latrine
Service Type Latrines (Conservancy System)
Night soil (human and animal waste) is removed by a human
agency using a bucket.
Night soil is transported in buckets on the head or in night
soil carts manually to a disposal site.
Disposal may be done through dumping, composting or
burial by shallow trenching.

 Filthy and insanitary.

Night soil lying at home awaiting disposal stinks and attracts
flies.
The collection, transport and disposal of night soil, all perpetuate
the infection cycle.
It was recommended by the Environmental Hygiene Committee, in
1949, that service areas must be replaced by sanitary latrines.

Non- service type latrines (Sanitary Latrines)

A sanitary latrines is the one who fulfills the requirements for excreta
disposal.
A.) AQUA PRIVY
An aquaprivy is a latrine constructed directly above a septic tank.

Aquaprivies are appropriate where pit latrines are unacceptable.

The amount of water required for flushing is much smaller than for a
septictank due to the location of the tank.
It helps to exclude odours from the superstructure.
Advantages :
Reduced odour; ideal where water is used for anal cleansing; easy
to clean.
Constraints :
Increased quantity of water required; solid anal cleansing materials
may cause blockages; more expensive and difficult to construct
than simple pit latrines.

B.) BOREHOLE LATRINES

Borehole latrines are most appropriate in situations where
pits are difficult to excavate, either because of ground
conditions or the lack of a labour force.
Deep hole bored into the earth with mechanical or manual earthboring equipment.
The borehole has a typical diameter of 400mm
and a depth of 510m.
Last for (a family of) 5 people for 2 years
Advantages :
The borehole can be excavated quickly;
Suitable in hard ground conditions and appropriate where only
a small workforce is available.
Constraints :
Drilling equipment is required;
There is a greater risk of groundwater
greater depth than pit latrines;

pollution due to

 Lifespan is short; sides are liable to be fouled, causingodour

and attracting flies; and there is a high likelihood of
blockages.
This option should only be considered in extreme conditions
when pit excavation is not possible.

C.) DUG WELL OR PIT LATRINE

This system is known as traditional pit latrine, pit privy or out-house.

 It is also considered the most common sanitation system in the

world. It is based on containment and indefinite storage of human
excreta.
It is now given another name based on its function- DROP-AND
STORE. Drop and store requires for a hole to be dug in the ground.
As its name indicates the excreta is deposited in this hole for until it is
full after which the content will be pumped out or filled up by soil to
remain underground forever.
The pit should be as deep as possible (at least 2m in depth)
A squat or drophole is provided in the slab which allows excreta to
fall directly into the pit.
Firmly supported on all sides and raised above the surrounding
ground level to prevent surface water entering the pit.
As a general rule, pits should be at least 1530 m from sources of
drinking-water.
Advantages :
It is cheap;
Quick to construct;
No water needed for operation.
Constraints:
Urine is impregnated in the soil and it smells badly after few weeks
of use.
Flies are attracted and start to breed in it.
Often odour problems
Depending on the type of soil it sometimes collapse

D.) OVERHUNG LATRINE

An overhung latrine consists of a superstructure and floor built over
water. A squat hole in the floor allows excrete to fall into the water.
A chute is sometimes provided from the floor to the water (WHO
1992).
Overhung latrines are rarely appropriate (due to the direct pollution
of water) and should only be considered if other options are not
possible.
Advantages :
There is no daily maintenance. It is easy to operate and compared
to a simple pit latrine there are no emptying activities since
the river carries the excreta away.
Can be built using locally available material

 Cost of construction is minimal

Easy construction, operation and maintenance

Constraints:
Serious health risks, if the water body is small and if it is also used as a
clean consumption source (WHO 1992)
Supporting wooden parts of superstructure need to be replaced
regularly
The water body cannot decompose all the faecal waste thus
leading to heavy contamination of the surface water sources (such
as lakes, rivers or the coastal zones of the sea)

An overhung latrine in Port Haitien

(Haiti). It is hard and unsafe to
enter, especially for elder people
and children. The contamination of
the water body is obvious.

Overhung latrine in Bangladesh

Overhung latrine in Ethiopia

E.) V.I.P (Ventilated Improved

Pit) Latrine
Ventilated Improved Pit
(VIP) latrines are designed to
reduce two problems frequently
encountered with traditional latrine
systems: bad odours and insect proliferation.
A VIP latrine differs from a traditional latrine by
having a vent pipe that is covered with a fly screen.
Wind blowing across the top of the vent pipe
creates a flow of air which draws odours out from
the pit

As a result, fresh air is drawn into the pit through the drop hole and
the superstructure is kept free of smells.

The vent pipe also plays an important role in fly control. Flies are
attracted by light and if the latrine is suitably dark inside, they will fly
up the vent pipe towards the outside light, where they are trapped
by the fly screen and die of dehydration.

A vent pipe covered with a gauze mesh or fly proof netting

extending at least 0.5m above the superstructure roof is
incorporated.
Advantages:

Reduced odor & flies and good results.

Constraints:
Difficult and expensive and time consuming to construct properly;

 Dark interior may deter young children from use; does not deter
mosquitoes.

V.I.P latrine in Nigeria

F.) POUR-FLUSH LATRINE

Pourflush (hand flush or water seal) latrine is a very hygienic mode
of excreta disposal.
Pour-flush leaching pit latrines overcome the problems of flies,
mosquitoes and odor by having a pan with a water seal (a Ushaped conduit partly filled with water) in the defecation hole from
coming back up the pipe.
Pour-flush latrines are most suitable where people use water for anal
cleansing and squat to defecate, but they are also popular in
countries where other cleansing materials are common.
Advantages :
Lack of odor;
Low water consumption 2-3 liters of water for each flush . It is ideal
where water is used for analcleansing;
Easy to clean;
There are no fly or smell problem, making these latrines hygienic
and pleasant to use
Constraints :
Solid analcleansing materials may cause blockage;
More expensive than simple pit latrines.

G.)SEPTIC TANK
An ideal system for hygienic final disposal of excreta in the absence
of a central sewerage system
It is designed to contain and treat all the sewage or wastewater
generated in the household.
The tank is designed in such a way that it will be able to hold or
retain the waste until anaerobic decomposition is established. After
anaerobic action and in the process some of the suspended
organic matter is changed into liquid and gaseous substances.
Such process and action will reduce the quantity of sludge to be
disposed of.
Particularly suited to systems involving high water use, especially
where water is used for flushing and analcleansing.
Best suited to single households or a group of households or
institutions such as hospitals or schools.

Advantages :
It needs little maintenance
The bacteria are aerobic, so the speed of the bacteria breaking
down the waste increases immensely
An aerobic system will break down solids faster so less solids will
reach the draining field and groundwater
For cement septic tanks, they last much longer and will not rise out
of the ground as time passes.
They can hold a lot of septic effluent because of the size and
weight,
Constraints :
There is a risk in rainy seasons that the septic system overflows
bringing sewage to the surface
Clogged drains by oil, grease, fats, and other materials that may be
thrown into toilets, sinks, and showers causing obstruction

H.) CESSPOOL
A large, cylindrical container which is dug deep inside the land
surface.
It is usually a meter in diameter and four to five meters deep. It is
covered with a hatch, and the sewer is kept in it till it is
automatically biodegraded.
The solids are settled deep inside the base of the cesspool while the
liquid percolates into the soil through the concrete. The solid matter
is called sludge and the liquid above is called scum.
Advantages :
it is extremely inexpensive to dig and take care of.
Constraints :
Cesspools must be treated to avoid harmful chemicals from forming and
also to empty the pool which is done once in a month. This is the reason
which makes a cesspool require a high cost of maintenance.

Latrine suitable for camps and temporary use

A.) SHALLOW TRENCH LATRINE
Shallow trench latrines are those latrines that are constructed
usually for emergencies such as natural disasters and wars. It is a
temporary installation which is a long and shallow pit.
The whole concept is that a number of people will use it for a short
period of time after which the content of the pit will be filled with
earth and left to decompose.
2030 cm (about a foot) wide
1530 cm (about 1 foot) deep.
The trench field can be divided into strips 1.5m wide with access
paths.
Advantages :
It is rapid to implement.
Faeces can be covered easily with soil.
Constraints :
Limited privacy, short life and requirement of considerable space
are some of the constraints.
Fly breeding occurs if excreta is not covered with earth.

B.) DEEP TRENCH LATRINE

Deep trench latrines are often constructed in the immediate stage
of an emergency and will be appropriate if there are sufficient
tools, materials and human resources available.
These involve the siting of several cubicles above a single trench
which is used to collect excreta.
Deep trenches should be 800mm wide and up to 2000mm deep. A
typical deep trench latrine is 6.0 m long.
Provide hand-washing facilities and backfill the trench with
compacted soil when it is full within 500mm of the ground surface
Advantages :
It is cheap and quick to construct;
No water is needed for operation.
It is easily understood by the community.
Constraints :
Unsuitable where watertable is high, soil is too unstable to dig or
ground is very rocky;
Often odour problems;
Cleaning and maintenance of communal trench latrines are often
poorly done by user

REMOVAL OF EXCRETA

PURE MANUAL
MANUAL DESLUDGING
Manual emptying occurs most frequently where large vacuum tankers
are not available, or unable to access sanitation facilities. It is also
generally the cheapest way of removing enough waste to keep a pit
operational. Workers use rope and bucket, if the waste becomes too
solidified at the bottom of the pit a worker will have to climb in to remove
the waste by hand. If there is no other realistic option than to empty
manually it is important to remember that fresh excreta will contain
pathogens that could cause worms or diarrhea. Furthermore, flies
attracted to this may spread such diseases to local communities.

SEMI MECHANIZE
(LABOR AND MACHINE)
MANUAL PIT EMPTYING TECHNOLOGY (MAPET)
This MAPET system comprises a hand-pump connected to a vacuum tank
mounted on a pushcart. A hose connected to the tank is used to suck
sludge from a pit or a septic tank. When the hand pump is turned, air is
sucked out of the vacuum tank and sludge is sucked up into the tank.
Depending on sludge consistency, this product can pump the sludge
from a maximal depth of 3 m.

THE GULPER
The Gulper is a sewage sludge pump based on an existing
simple hand pump design. It was developed by Steve Sugden of the
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Health, who was looking for
technology that was very inexpensive and highly portable. The Gulper is
basically a hand pump that fits on top of a permanent pipe rising out of a
latrine pit. Two men operate the sludge pump by moving a handle on the
top of the machine up and down, with the help of valves in the pipe, the
waste is lifted out of the nozzle and into a container.

FULLY MECHANIZE EMPTYING

VACUUM TANKER
The conventional method for pit emptying. This a truckmounted tank with a vacuum pump connected to the tank to suck out
the sludge commonly used in industrialized country. Vacuum tankers are
mostly used for services in planned settlements where the septic tanks and
pit latrines are easily accessible and waste is fairly liquid and not mixed
with solid waste.

eVAC
eVAC is a light vacuum reservoir system that is power-operated and
designed for pits with liquid sludge. The eVAC is portable system to be
used when vacuum tankers cant be, either because of access or cost. A
small vacuum pump is used to generate a vacuum in one of several small
containers, and this vacuum causes the sludge to be pulled up from the
pit and gather in the container.

Review Questions :
1. What do you understand about the problems and needs of human
waste disposal?
2. What are the ways fecal borne diseases are transmitted?
3. Differentiate between fecal oral, non bacterial and fecal oral bacterial
diseases.
4. Mention at least three barriers you consider are important for the
development of the sector and explain why you consider them to be so
important.
5. Among several principles of breaking the barrier which one do you
think are important? Why?
6. Give two examples the following:
a. Non-service type latrines
b. Latrine suitable for camps and temporary use.

Summary:
Human excreta are source of infection. Improper excreta disposal
may cause soil pollution, water pollution, diseases spread by fecal oral
route. Man is the reservoir of the most diseases that destroy or
incapacitate him. In the transmission of these diseases from the infected
person or carriers of disease to the healthy person the chain of events
usually involved the following: a causative or etiologic agent; a reservoir
or source of infection of the causative agents; a mode of escape from
the reservoir; a mode of transmission from the reservoir to the potential
new host; a mode of entry into the new host; a susceptible host.
The barriers for the development of the Sanitation Sector are as
follows: lack of sanitation policy and government commitment; lack of
proper, coordinated hygiene and sanitation messages; lack of organized
program for sanitation; level of poverty; lack of demand. Sanitation is the
first barrier, promote behavior and facilities together, give sanitation its
own priority, create demand, government role; these are the five
principles in breaking the barriers.
Three methods of excreta disposal are service type latrines
(conservancy system), nonservice type (sanitary latrines), and latrine
suitable for camps and temporary use. Removal of excreta can be pure
manual, semi-mechanize, or purely mechanize.

Conclusion
Improper disposal of excreta is a big hindrance to achieve a
healthy community. It is a problem that needs to be solved in order to
prevent pollutions and different kinds of diseases of diseases. Knowledge
about improper disposal of excreta is necessary to achieve hygienic
community.

COMMUNAL LATRINE
Also called public latrine and it is located in the village centre or in
places of business (market, bus station, etc.)

Communal Latrine: Pit latrine

Communal Latrine: VIP latrine

FAMILY LATRINE
Involve up to 4 families sharing one latrine. It provides a minimum
coverage of 20 people to one latrine.
Camps/crowded situations probably need communal latrine.
Family latrine: VIP latrine

Family latrine: Pour-flush toilet

Advantages and disadvantages of communal and family latrines (adapted

from Adams, 1999)

OPEN FIELD DEFECATION

Open defecation refers to the practice whereby people go out in fields,
bushes, forests, open bodies of water, or other open spaces rather than
using the toilet
to
defecate.

Clearing of scattered excreta

Where indiscriminate open defecation is practiced the first step in excreta
disposal is to provide designated defecation sites and clear existing
scattered faeces. This is an unpleasant task and in some cultures it may be
especially difficult to find willing and suitable personnel, but it is essential to
minimise the spread of faecal-oral disease. Faeces can be covered with
lime and should be removed to a safe disposal site such as a pit.
Controlled open field
These should be located where exreta cannot contaminate the water
sources. Open areas or fields surrounded by screening may be set up, with
segregated sites for each sex. People should be encourage to use one
strip of land at a time and used areas must be clearly marked. It is also
possible to use internal partitions to provide more privacy.
It is essential that defecation areas are:

far from water storage

at least 50m from water sources;and
far from publi buildings or roads

Open defecation field

Advantages:
it is rapid to implement;
minimal resources are required; and
it minimizes indiscriminate open defecation.
Constraints:

there is a lack of privacy for users;

considerable space is required;
it is difficult to manage; and
it is better suited to hot dry climates