WW1; August 1914 - November 1918.

Schlieffen Plan proposed Germany knock out France quickly then deal with the longer
Russian campaign after.
Pass through Belgium and France quickly, swing round to the west and capture Paris.
Right wing of German army; strongest, attack France by travelling through Belgium and
capture Paris; ensure quick surrender.
Treaty of London ensured Belgian neutrality.
Moltke altered right wing to strengthen the left wing, which made it very difficult for the
Germans to reach the west of Paris.
Delays allowed Belgians and French time to mobilise. Moltke further weakened right
wing as Russian mobilisation was occurring quickly. Belgian resistance slowed the
German force down.
Schlieffen plan intended to hold-off Russia with a small German force and with the
support of Austria.
The smaller left wing would hold French army, Alsace and Lorraine, French plan 17.
Plan 17 was useful to Germany as France would fail to protect their border with Belgium
in the north.
WAR ON THE WESTERN FRONT
THE REASONS FOR THE STALEMATE ON THE WESTERN FRONT
FAILURE OF THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN
The right wing of the German army was weakened by Moltke (German commander)
Austria failed to provide Germany with support from the Russian invasion.
Russia mobilised quickly caused German forces directed out of invasion France, defend
against Russia.
Belgians; fierce resistance; slowed German momentum and speed was lost.
Invasion of neutral Belgium Britain outraged and entered the war in support of France.
The delay of German armies provided France with time to regroup and plan a more
effective solution.
The Germans dug in as winter was approaching, and to defend in what they have
already took over.
OTHER REASONS FOR THE STALEMATE
The trenches were meant to be temporary to allow both sides to regroup.
Germany advantaged of occupying land and defending as allies were on the offensive
side pressuring to push Germany out.
New technology; machine gun; firepower of 40-50 riflemen. Ammunition last 4-5 hours
constant fire.
Technological advances; shrapnel delivered shower of shrapnel on advancing troops,
either kill or severely injure enemy.
British Navys control of high seas and English Channel; caused supply trade problems
for Germany.
Both sides reserve system gave all the powers to a virtually inexhaustible supply of
troops.
Conventional war methods heavily used by Allies, involved mass frontal assaults,
continued use of mass frontal assault for remainder of war. Due to nature of the officer
class; all come from the same education system- some military education.

Officer class was based on social class rather than skill or experience; incompetent;
lacked experience.
NATURE OF TRENCH WARFARE
Occupation Of The Trenches
Trenches ran from the English channel to the Swiss border.(780 kilometres)
Belgians occupied 25 kilometres. From beaches of Belgium to Ypres. Ypres to Somme
defended by British (140 kilometres) French occupied trenches from Somme to Swiss
border.
Germany occupied the entire length of the trenches.
The Trench System

Usually 3 lines trenches Allied side. Germans concentrated on defence up to 10 lines of

trenches.
Germans chose best defensive positions; built more permanent defences.
No mans land; disputed area between front line trenches; horrendous condition;
weather, constants artillery attacks.

Types Of Trenches And There Use

Frontline trench first trench fronting No mans land. Attacks were launched and attackers
took cover.
Command trench parallel to frontline trench; 20 metres behind. Access to dug out
shelters and latrines.
Support trenches 200 metres behind frontline, soldiers ready to move up; medical
stations, supply depots; command posts.
Reserve trench up to 600 metres behind frontline; had dugouts for reserves waiting to go
to the front.
Strong points scattered in back areas were slit trenches; specialist weapons, mortars,
machine guns.
Communication trenches ran between each line of trenches, allowing movement of men,
equipment to the front and back.
Saps and listening posts extended into No mans land, allowed listening and observation
for early warning of an attack.
Barbed wire erected in front of trenches. Soldiers knew how to go through own wire,
however enemy wire was complex barrier. Prevent enemy getting close enough to throw
bombs into trenches.
Salient; area of front line jutting into enemy side; very vulnerable; could be attacked
from multiple directions.
Features Of The Trenches
In normal conditions, 450 men protected by rifle fire could dig 230 metres of trench in 6
hours.
The ideal trench was 2.4 metres deep and 2 metres wide.
Sandbags filled with earth; were used to reinforce trenches in many places.
Parapet; front of a trench heightened to about 50 cm using sandbags; used for soldiers to
fire from.
Parados; back of trench, which was also heightened to protect soldiers from enemy fire
and explosions behind the trench.
Firing Step built along the front wall to allow soldiers to fire through loop holes at
advancing enemy.
Loopholes are space in the parapet in which soldiers fired through.
Revetment was the reinforced trench wall with materials from iron to wooden planks.
Duck boards; couple of inches of the ground to keep soldiers feet out of the mud and
water.
Dugouts shelters dug into the ground, mostly provided cover during an artillery
bombardment.
Funk holes; holes in the side of the trench that allowed the soldiers some shelter and a
place to sleep.
Breastworks; Ground was unsuitable for excavation, constructed above the ground using
sand bags.
Life In The Trenches
Officers And Men
At first; soldiers made up of peasants; working class little or no education. As war
progressed; men of all classes and backgrounds volunteered or conscripted.
Officers came from upper class. All received education intended to train them to lead
men; make decision on the battlefield.
Officers received better rations, better accommodation in dug outs, entitled to more
frequent leave.
The more senior an officer the further away they were from the frontline.

Training

Work

Rest

The generals were away from the fighting officers, distance wise and social class; this
may be a reason that they were not influenced by the horrendous casualties their
decisions created.
Rotations keep men fresh as possible. in a month involve men 4 days in frontline, 12
days reserve or support, 14 days away from frontline performing other duties or on
leave.
Once in France, soldiers would mostly be training well behind the frontline.
Training emphasised discipline, marching, bayonet practice; no relevance to frontline
dominated by machine guns; artillery.
Soldiers; hard work; latrine duty, unloading and delivery of food and ammunition to the
front.
Transportation of food to the frontline; major problem; affect freshness nutritional value.
8 days for food to reach frontline.
If a battalion captured a section of enemy trenches, food will have to be transported.

Troops who came out of the frontline were given a rest period; received access to better
food, showers and entertainment. Rest meant manual labour as supplies had to be
unloaded.
A soldier could have been given a short leave to go home.
Hospitalisation
Wounded soldiers; fortunate enough to be rescued would be taken to the hospital.
If a soldier was seriously wounded he would be sent back home; recovered sent back to
the front.
Trench fever: caused by unsanitary conditions.
Trench foot: an affliction caused by constantly immersed in water, poor circulation; no supply of dry
footwear.
Mental illness: strain of constant fear; lack of sleep, unpredictability of destruction in a technological
war.
Shell shock: psychological; emotional condition caused by prolonged experience of artillery
barrages.
Lice: small insects lived in soldiers clothing; eggs hatched by body heat. Bites; red marks on skin;
contributed to trench fever.
Rats: thrived on plentiful supplies of decomposing flesh available on battlefields; numbered in the
millions.
Latrines: either 15 metre deep holes or were buckets. Some Latrines were dug between the frontline
and the barbed wire to encourage fast return to fighting. Latrines were popular targets by enemy
snipers.
Food: typical frontline rations were tinned beef, biscuits and tins of jam.
Frontline duty
(1) Stand to: an hour before dawn (sunrise), soldiers stood on firing shelf, weapons
loaded in anticipation of enemy attack.
(2) Stand down: After sunrise there was an issue of black rum. The days activities
consisted of cleaning weapons, trench repairs and letter writing.
(3) Stand to: An hour before sundown, soldiers stood on the alert on the firing step.
(4) Stand down: After sundown there was another issue of rum, the nights activities
were; repairing barbed wire, patrolling no mans land, raiding enemy trenches or
bringing up supplies.
Life in the Trenches
The Germans and the British used a system of right angled bays. French used zigzag
patterns. Angles; lessen effect of shell, grenade explosions; allowed parts of trench to be
defended even if enemy had occupied parts of it.
EXPERIENCES OF ALL SOLDIERS WERE NOT THE SAME
Fighting was not continuous along the frontline; Timing; location; vastly different
experiences. Somme was quiet in 1915 but deadly from July 1916 November 1916.
Anywhere near Ypres was always vicious fighting.

Allied soldiers experience; directly influenced origin of German enemy (Prussians;

aggressive)(Saxons; less aggressive)
Briefing: usually before an attack, soldiers were briefed by their commanders.
Moving up: Before major offensives, men would be given the opportunity to write to their
loved ones.
Going Over The Top: soldiers would wait for the final order to go over the top and into no
mans land.
Average weight a soldier carrying; 30 kg. Overtime, trenches became well-constructed.
Officers trenches and conditions were always better than those of an ordinary soldier.
STRATEGIES AND TACTICS TO BREAK THE STALEMATE
Mass frontal assaults, War of Attrition
New destructive equipment and weapons, Tanks
Gas and Chemical warfare, Gas masks
Naval blockade starve the home front, Submarine blockade - starve the home front
Major Offensives
The obligation was on Allies to break the stalemate; required large frontal attacks.
An artillery bombardment used to destroy the enemy trenches; would last for hours,
even days. Infantry advance would deal with any of surviving enemy, take over their
trenches and break through.
A cavalry charge would complete the breakthrough and wipe out enemy trench lines.
The aim; to destroy everyone in the enemy frontline trench.
Also to destroy the barbed wire to allow soldiers to advance through and wipe out enemy
artillery.
Zero hour: a whistle signalled the time to climb up the ladders and out of the trench to
fight.
The factors that affected the attacking infantry across no mans land: weight, mud and
shell holes, attacking enemy machine guns, artillery shells burst among soldiers.
Major offensives; mostly unsuccessful as: did not destroy enemy defences, especially
barbed wire, Germans could survive; dugouts beneath trenches, attacking infantry would
face barbed wire and deadly machine gun fire.
The cavalry attacks rarely occurred as the terrain was never suitable.
Advantage always with Germany; already on French soil; attacks by enemy were easily
taken care of.
New Weapons
Rifle: accurate up to 1 km, 15 shots a minute, some soldiers used bayonets.
Machine gun = 40-50 riflemen, difficult to maintain, major factor in sustaining stalemate
on the Western Front.
Artillery: Shrapnel shells and explosive shells; aimed to destroy enemy trenches, barbed
wire and enemy weapons. Accounted for 66% of deaths, caused shell shock and mental
illness.
Flame thrower: used by Germans; 40 second life, could also kill the operators as of oil
leaks.
Stokes Mortar: shells of 9 kg fired at a range of 900m, 22 shells a minute, could fire high
explosives, shrapnel and smoke.
Grenades: used as an infantry weapon, extremely effective.
Gas: caused hideous deaths; injuries and element of psychological strain until gas masks
produced.
Tanks: first at the Somme, 30 tonnes; 8 km/h; 4 men to steer, armed; cannons; machine
guns, lightly armoured, were used effectively in late 1918 became major factor in helping
allies break stalemate.
Gas
The Germans were the first to use the gas effectively; it was first used in 1916.
Chlorine: difficulty in breathing, a burning sensation in the throat and caused chest
pains.
Phosgene: no early symptoms, therefore more inhalation and the victim does not
realise it.

Mustard: blistering of the skin, airways and lungs.

Originally released from cylinders, carried up to the frontline and put in position; the
problem was the direction the wind; By 1916 gas released using gas shells, fired onto
the enemy.
Gas was not effective in breaking the stalemate as the gas masks provided protection
against gas.

Tanks
Developed by Britain, had potential in breaking stalemate
Unreliable, the ground uneven, slow, it became stuck in the terrain and it overheated.
Tank became effective in July 1918 as technical improvements better tactical use
become a weapon replace the cavalry.
Attrition

Battle of

Battle of

WW1; war of attrition, both sides wear down other side, until it had run out of men,
resources and the will to keep fighting.
Maintaining your own home front, attacking enemys by economic blockade. (British
naval blockade)
On western front attrition meant killing as many of the enemys men as possible.
Attrition evident in von Falkenhayns aim at Verdun kill as many French men to bleed
France white.
Attrition also Haigs justification at Somme. He said; allied offensives were wearing down
Germans.
While wearing down the enemy, attrition also resulted in wearing down your own side.
Verdun
21.2.1916 15.12.1916 German offensive. General von Falkenhayns strategy was of
attrition.
Verdun; great significance to French; strategic position and historic status as a great
French fortress. Falkenhayn knew French would defend Verdun to the end, aim was to
annihilate France.
Battle of Verdun caused land to become like a lunar landscape.
French forces were led by General Petain. Verdun became a symbol of French resistance.
Referred to as meat grinder; men slaughtered continuously. Germans fired 24 million
shells. French 500,000+ casualties, Germany 400,000+ casualties, clear example of
attrition.
Germans; unsuccessful in Verdun and Falkenhayn replaced by Hindenburg and
Ludendorff
Somme
1 July 1916 18 November 1916 British offensive, General Haig, holds record of battle
with greatest number of casualties in history. Allied: 1 million+, German: 400,000+,
Britain 58000 casualties on first day.
Initial aim was to achieve a break through the German lines (break the stalemate).
Haig claimed it a success; relieved pressure from Verdun preventing Germany
transporting troops to fight Russia and attrition.
Began with artillery barrage; thought would be so effective they would be able to walk
through.
1.6 million+ shells fired; last day of June 400,000 shells dropped. Most shells failed to
explode.
The Germans survived the bombardment in trench dugouts that withstand all explosions.
When artillery barrage ended; German soldiers; positions behind machine guns await the
enemy.
British advance began 7:30 a.m. 1 July. First day; 58000 British casualties. German
casualties also high.
In September, tanks deployed in British advance; unreliable, not effective; broke down;
too slow.
As a result of the Somme, the Allies gained 8 km of territory.

General Hindenburg withdrew to the Hindenburg line for better defence. Haig claimed
this a success.
Real reason why Germany withdrew; reduce the defended line by 50 km in width.
There was no breakthrough. The Somme had majorly wounded the German army. Both
sides suffered tremendous losses.
Battle of Passchendaele
31 July 12 November 1917 British offensive; began with huge bombardment;
combined with torrential rain created mud. Horses, men, equipment; stuck in mud.
Soldiers struggled knee deep in mud.
Casualties British: 400,000 , German: 380,000, German strength now worn down
beyond repair.
Changing Attitudes Timeline
1914
August
Mass enthusiasm across Britain and Germany in favour to the war
1915
Recruitment numbers in Britain began to drop
1916
July
The shock of battle of Somme and Verdun causes a significant drop in
recruitment and morale.
December Conscription introduced in Britain
1917
Througho
Growing feeling of war-weariness and disillusionment among both
ut
armies
Disillusionment leads to mutiny in French army
Russian army faces mutiny and withdraws from the war
America enters the war (majorly boosts allied morale, decreases
German morale.)
August
Brief naval mutiny by German sailors at Wilhelmshaven
1918
Novembe
Naval mutiny at Kiel
r
Revolution sees the end of the Kaisers regime and the declaration of a
republic
Armistice was signed on 11 November
Germany always had conscription
Attitudes of allied soldiers
Before war; outspread view that war was acceptable and necessary.
British men overwhelmingly supportive. Hundreds of thousands of men rushed to enlist.
Men could not get into uniform quick enough. Desire to volunteer affected all classes.
Teens added years to their ages older men took years off their ages to be accepted.
When war begun, crowds cheered, sang their national anthem and waved flags.
Men thought it was noble to fight for their country; the war was called the great
adventure.
Reasons for this response in Britain
In August 1914; real fear war be over by Christmas, not want to miss opportunity.
Destructive war never before experienced.
Propaganda presented the war as good (Britain) vs evil (Germany), created atrocity
stories.
In 1914; sincere acceptance of patriotism, love of the empire, king and belief in God and
honour; chance for employment; unemployment was high. Peer pressure. Desire to
impress women.
Discontent among Allied Soldiers
By 1916 enthusiasm had disappeared. Reality of trenches; greatly changed attitudes of
men at front.
2 years of futility and senselessness, massive slaughter; major effect on troop morale
causing war weariness and disillusionment. The turning point of attitudes was the battle
of the Somme.
Enormous loss of life and list of the wounded at Somme could not be kept from the public
at home.

Recruitment figures dropped so low that end of 1916 the government introduces
conscription.
Instead of killing the enemy, life became more about staying alive, getting home and
looking after your mates.
The Allied soldiers no longer trusted their generals after the slaughter at Verdun and the
Somme.
Soldiers believed their generals did not care how many lives were wasted.
Instead of hating the Germans they realised that the Germans were going through the
same as them.
By late 1916; Russian army experiencing mass desertions, mutiny, frequent incidents of
soldiers murdering their officers.
Soldiers baa-ed like sheep to show how they were like lambs being driven to slaughter.
Disillusionment is seen in poetry made by war poets, Siegfried Sassoon.
Discontent and disillusionment was evident amongst soldiers in the increase in selfinflicted. The end of the war was greeted with relief and resignation rather than
exhilaration.
Early responses to the war in Germany
Mirrored response in Britain. Expected the war to be short and exciting adventure.
Voluntary recruitment was not needed as Germany had conscription.
Propaganda convince people Germany was encircled by the entente powers, and the
British were guilty of atrocity stories.
Discontent among German Soldiers
Germans suffered heavily at Somme. Ludendorff Somme was the muddy grave of the
German army.
German soldiers developed the same disillusionment as the British, but were bitterer.
By 1917 parts of Germany was facing starvation. All over Germany, soviet councils were
formed.
German soldiers were hungry, tired, and sick of war. German troops discovered that
British troops were not starving, as the German propaganda said, but were well clothed
and fed.
Desertion rates rose alarmingly. The spring offensive had cost million German
casualties.
Replacements lacked quality, quantity. Young recruits, ill-clothed, hungry. Lacked the
patriotic feeling.
Replacements brought in from eastern front; disillusioned, brought idea of communism
into the army.
By late 1918 Germany faced a revolutionary situation.
German army; suffering from vicious flu epidemic. Strength, morale of German army was
exhausted.
Total War
Total war: the whole population became involved in the war effort.
Home-Front: heavily impacted by war; was needed to provide soldiers and resources to
continue the war.
The British naval blockade and German submarine campaign were significant in terms of
war as they were strategies to starve the home-front this would directly affect the
strength of the western front.
Affected rights, freedoms of those on home front; in the interests of the nation and
victory to do so.
Government regulations in Britain
DORA: Defence Of the Realm Act, introduced on 27th of November 1914 by the British
government.
It gave the government: nationalised coal mines, control of railways, introduces
censorship in newspapers, books and letters, introduced daylight savings, introduced
restrictions on alcohol consumption, the anthem god save the king be played after
theatre and cinema performances.

The govt. regulations in Britain: no loitering near railway bridges and tunnels, no flying
kites, no homing pigeons, no whistling for taxis, no owning or using binoculars, a curfew
of lights out at 10 pm.
Government Regulations in Germany
Already regulated to some degree before war; had more control over military-aged
population and already had conscription.
1916, National Service Law gave power to control all adult males, direct them into any
part of the economy or military.
The Economy
In Britain and Germany, economic control was centralised under the national govt.
Shortages in economies; production was directed towards war effort; governments
control prices, wages and trade unions.
British Economy
The Ministry of Munitions established 1915; Lloyd George; gave power requisition of raw
materials; control of key factories.
The War Munitions Volunteer Scheme gave the government power to direct workers.
The five new departments of states were: Shipping, Labour, Food, National Service and
Food Production. Established to distribute areas of the economy.
Food shortages led to: government appointing Food Controller, appealed for people to
eat less meat.
Rationing early 1918. Everyone over age of six entitled to four meat coupons/week.
Butter, Sugar and milk were restricted.
The Civilian population bore the financial cost of the war by increasing the tax from 2.5%
to 12.5%.
German Economy
War Raw Materials Department aimed to control of all raw materials so that they could
be used for war production.
It also organised the production of synthetic materials to replace imported resources
such as rubber.
The government was given increased control of labour, this came into effect in 1916.
The winter of 1916 was known as turnip winter, as it was one of the few items readily
available.
Germanys economy had suffered so much that it was going through starvation in 1918.
Propaganda
British
B; advantage over G in propaganda; sinking of Lusitania; Zimmerman telegram, ruthless
behaviour of G armies in Belgium.
Germany, Kaiser presented in an evil manner, Kaiser described as lunatic, a monster and
a criminal. The aim of using atrocity stories to cause hatred towards Germany. Messages
presented in posters and cartoons; great hatred towards enemy.
The external aim of B propaganda was to convince men to volunteer and enter the war.
Aims: inspire patriotism, hatred towards enemy, self-sacrifice, acceptance of losses and
encourage service and recruitment.
Presented Germany as savage barbarians; raped women, murdered priests and
bayoneted babies.
Newspapers were one of the main means of spreading propaganda.
They targeted eligible young men and those who would influence them (young women).
By September 1915, 54 million recruitment posters had been printed.
Civilians were encouraged to contribute to the war effort by investing in government war
bonds.
German
The German propaganda lacked coordination and was undertaken by private groups.
The German war news; Sought to justify the war by using two features: encirclement and
atrocity stories.
Encirclement: Germany claimed encircled by France and Russia used as an excuse to
civilians for war.

Britain

Censorship: presenting good news from battlefield, casualty numbers falsified, possible
US intervention was not said to public, extent of G resources was exaggerated and the G
public was told that the war had begun with a F invasion on G soil.
A national hate campaign was launched God punish England stamped in jewellery, pots,
pocketknives and soldiers braces.
Both sides imposed censorship to ensure that only information helpful to their war effort
was spread.
Defence of the Realm Consolidation Act gave the govt. the right to regulate. (Censor
every aspect).
Historians and photographers reconstructed the war that they were not allowed to get
too close to.
All mail was censored. On the battlefield, B soldiers were not allowed to keep diaries.
Documentary scenes showing soldiers going over the top were staged well behind the
lines.
Images of dead or severely wounded excluded. First day of the Somme read A very
satisfactory first day. By 1918 casualty figures were no longer published.

Germany
The high command controlled information and censorship in German.
Good news; Russian withdrawal highlighted. Bad news not allowed. Cynism was formed.
The goal was to promote patriotism, strong government, national unity and morale.
Recruitment And Conscription
Britain
Most of Britains army was overseas defending the empire. Britain has no historical
tradition of a large standing army.
In August 1914 it was assumed that voluntary enlistment would ensure enlistment rate
of 100,000 a month. During the early months, recruitment committees had no trouble
encouraging men to join up.
5th August 1914 Lord Kitchener launched campaign your king and country need you by
September 1914 750,000 men enlisted in Kitcheners new army, by December 1 million+
men enlisted.
Reasons for enlisting: chance of adventure and excitement, acceptance of duty to defend
the king, country and empire, an escape from their dreary existence, full time job, peer
pressure, desire to impress women. All shared the belief war would be over by Christmas
and did not want to miss out.
In early months was great competition to join up and the army had set high physical
standards so that entry implied that one was part of an elite group. As losses at front
increased, enlistment declined.
Women were encouraged to pressure their male/s to enlist. Failure to enlist seen as
coward and no patriotism. Posters attempted to shame men into enlisting. Sport clubs
used to promote recruitment.
Conscription in Britain
Despite all efforts, the volunteer system was failing to recruit enough men.
Desperate need for men led to the First Military Act 1916 which called up all single men
and childless widows aged 18-40.
May 1916; conscription introduced; Second Military Act; all men liable for military service
regardless of marital status.
Conscientious objectors
16000 men registered as conscientious objectors; reasons of conscience, strong moral
reasons, religious beliefs, moral revulsion at taking another life, not be conscripted.
Referred to as cronchies.
Were treated severely, if their claim failed they would be court marshalled.
Some were willing to take on non-combatant roles within the army.
Germany - Conscription had been accepted as a way of life for decades and there was no need for
recruitment. Germany had a large standing army and a large number of reserves when war broke
out. 31st July 1914 Martial law declared in Germany, gave the govt. increased control over the
population.


Reaction

Changing Attitudes
Prior to war; widespread view that war acceptable and even necessary. By the end of the
war there was a surge in support for pacifism and internationalism.
to the outbreak of war
Throughout Europe; outbreak of war greeted with enthusiasm. Men rushed to enlist.
In Germany there was incredible excitement, wildly enthusiastic.
They felt that they had been attacked and they had needed to defend their fatherland.
Military Law Proclamation 31 July 1914 called up all men for military service, 10 million
men in camp.
Crowds cheering soldiers off to war. Was a widespread view that war would end by
Christmas 1914.
When war broke out, all parties united in a political truce burgfrieden; allowed Kaiser to
proclaim that there was no parties anymore, only Germans.

Christmas Truce
Christmas day 1914 unofficial truce operated on parts of the frontline. Carols were sung,
men met in no mans land. Cigarettes, chocolate and alcohol were exchanged and
photographs were shared.
Such fraternization; banned; not allow friendly relations with enemy soldiers (maintain
the aggressive attitude)
For that day; no aggressive attitude towards each other; they were all going through
same situations.
After the Somme 1916-1918
The carnage of the Somme battle brought home to everyone the realities of mechanized
warfare.
The soldiers who died were volunteers, (Kitcheners army); regarded as innocent people
by civilians. Ludendorff claimed in 1918 The Somme was the muddy grave of the
German field army.
Soldiers on leave felt that civilian complaints about shortages were irrelevant.
Sassoons war poems were a savage indictment of the war.
1917 French troops baa-ed like sheep as they went to frontline, some troops killed their
officers.
Most soldiers remained committed to the fighting, but by 1918, enthusiasm for war had
disappeared.
War Weariness
Civilians faced; increasing economic hardship; long casualty lists that affected many
families.
In Britain burden of sacrifice was carried by the working class as costs of things had risen
but wages had remained the same.
August 1916, the German government introduced the Hindenburg program, which placed
much tighter controls on society and on the economy. Created resentment and
worsening food situations.
The winter of 1916 was known as turnip winter because turnips were substituted for
potatoes.
The political truce Burgfrieden began to break down. Socialists re-emerged and gained
support.
1916; anti-war groups grew immensely. Germany was facing major strikes in 1917 in
metal working and munitions centres.
19/7/1917 Reichstag passed peace resolution, calling for peace without annexations;
ignored by G govt.
Late 1918 mutinies broke out in German navy. Rebels began to control cities such as Kiel
and Hamburg and a socialist republic was declared in Bavaria.
In these circumstances the Kaiser abdicated and High command advised the new govt.
to end the war.
Peace Movements

The international womens movement consistently called for peace.

January 1915 the womens peace party called for peace based on self-determination, no
indemnities, disarmament and the creation of international courts.
In 1915 international socialist conference held at, Switzerland, called peace without
annexations or indemnities.
Pope Benedict in August 1917, called for peace seven points: moral righteousness, no
force of arms, mutual disarmament, international arbitration, common rights over the
seas, no indemnities and the evacuation of all occupied territories.
President Wilson of the USA called for peace without victory in 1917, based on fourteen
points: no secret agreements between nations, freedom of the seas, removal of
economic barriers, disarmament, an impartial adjustment of colonial claims, the
evacuation of all Russian territory, the evacuation of all Belgian territory, the evacuation
of French territory and the restoration of Alsace and Lorraine, the adjustment of Italys
borders an opportunity for the various people of Austria-Hungary to seek autonomy, the
evacuation of Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro; Serbia given access to the sea and
issues in the Balkans resolved, autonomy for different nationalities within the Ottoman
Turkish Empire, an independent Poland, the formation of a general association of
nations to ensure that all nations had protection against aggression.
September 1917 an international socialist conference calling for peace.
Germany under Ludendorff, from March to July 1918 wanted peace on their terms.
By October 1918 German High Command requested politicians seek peace based
Wilsons proposal.

Pacifism and Internationalism

Strong anti-war sentiment developed pacifism. This became apparent in the work of
poets that war was no longer glorified.
Support for disarmament and internationalist approach to solving disputes rather than
war.
Women
The war was a time of great opportunity and freedom for women. It took them out of the
confines of domesticity, made higher pay possible and finally the government was
convinced to give them the right to vote.
Women; recognized as essential part of nations economy. The perception of women had
changed and there was a view that they were now moving towards gender equality.
Women were used in recruiting propaganda. The images used presented women in a
traditional role.
Women urged men to go off and fight to protect them while they looked after the home
and family.
New Roles For Women
Absence of men; impact on various industries; demanded women to take their roles. By
May 1915 women employed as nurses, ambulance drivers, bus conductors, police
women and fire fighters.
In June 1915 women employed; tram conductors, drivers, milk deliverers, shell makers,
shop floor workers, railway cleaners. Munitions Workers
Women were now employed in the ministry of munitions, which made shells, guns and
aircrafts.
Under DORA women were ensured equal pay and conditions. Women worked 12 hours
per day, sometimes overtime. Munitions workers earn from 1 to 5 pounds per week, this
compared to 0.5 pounds a week women got paid before the war.
Women in Uniform
During the war more than 25,000 British women served at front in Europe, Africa and
Asia. Served as nurses, were subject to same dangers as soldiers. Women were in the
voluntary aid detachments to provide help for the sick and wounded.
The Womens Land Army formed in 1916 to attract women to work on the land for food
production. Worked 10-12 hours a day, 6 days week and by 1917 were 260,000 women
serving on land.

Women were allowed to serve in uniform in the Womens auxiliary army corps, they
worked on the front as cooks, nurses, drivers and mechanics. By 1918 women were
included in the air force.
The impact on Womens lives
Young working class women were largely the ones who moved into traditional male
working class jobs. This had a significant impact on their social and economic
independence.
Middle and upper class women; more volunteer work or join one of the uniformed
services. Less of impact on their place in society, might be relatively comfortable,
independent. Wages were good.
Women had the independence and money to make choices about their social activities.
No longer needed escorts to maintain their reputations. Now smoked in public. War
encouraged romance; leisure activities; dance halls and night clubs catering for soldiers
in transit or on leave. There was a new sexual freedom.
Between 1914 and 1918 there was a 30% increase in illegitimate births.
After the War
Women retained some of the social independence they had acquired during the war.
The change in womens fashion became permanent. In employment, there were
guarantees that men would return to their jobs once the war was over. Secretarial work
was area women retained.
In 1918 women were given the right to vote.

Impacts of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawal

Reasons for the entry of the USA into the war
US tried avoid being in European conflicts. Wilson wanted remain neutral.
Both allied and German propaganda; tried to convince America to join. British
propaganda more effective, German sub warfare was bad for America and America had
long had hostility towards Central Powers.
Lusitania was attacked on 7th May 1915 by a G sub, 124 American lives lost and USA was
outraged.
1st May, an American tanker in the Scilly Isles was sunk by a G submarine. 3 Americans
died.
A wasnt ready for war yet, cabinet was divided. G said they would stop attacking nonenemy vessels. But, in 1916, G began to attack armed merchant vessels again. USA
threatened to break off diplomatic relations, so G backed down again.
But in 1917, G resorted to passport frauds etc in the USA.
In February 1917, G announced recommencing unrestricted submarine warfare. 26 th
February Laconia was sunk eight America lives lost. Late March three more ships
sunk; loss of 35 Americans.
Zimmermann Telegram G Foreign Minister sent note to G Minister in Mexico suggesting
if Mexico declared war on A, then G would aid Mexico. This intercepted by B intelligence
and passed to A.
Combination of unrestricted sub warfare and the Zimmermann telegram led Wilson to
enter the war.
Reasons for the withdrawal of Russia from the war
Lack of supplies, food, ammunition, and boots led to indiscipline and mutiny in Russia in
1917.
Complete social, economic and political breakdown and the Tsar abdicated.
Lenins Bolsheviks tried to seize power July 1917 failed. August, government faced with
a right-wing coup. To stop this, Kerensky (PM) had had to use Bolsheviks to help
increasing their popularity.
Thus, the Bolsheviks decided to overthrow, took control of power on 7th November.
Lenin realised that for the Bolsheviks to control they would have to end the war with
Germany. Trotsky negotiated with the Germans at Brest Litovsk, eventually agreed on
peace terms on March 3rd 1918. Severe treaty that was very harsh on Russia this is

how Germany wouldve treated others if it had won. Russia had to give up a lot of its
land to Germany.
Lenin only accepted these terms as he knew that if socialism prevailed in Russia, it would
lead to revolutions all across Europe including Germany.
Russian Withdrawal March 1918
R had a massive army but it desperately lacked supplies and equipment.
The allies desperate to keep R in the war; did not want G forces released from the
Eastern Front.
By 1917 R suffered approximately 7 000 000 casualties in the form of killed, wounded or
prisoners of war. Russia was out of the war in March 1918 and the war on the Eastern
Front was over.
The Treaty Of Brest Litovsk, March 1918
Trotsky was sent to Brest Litovsk to negotiate with the Germans.
Germany and Bolshevik regime agreed to peace terms in Treaty of Brest Litovsk 3 rd
March 1918. The terms were severe.
Germany now had control of 32% of the arable land, 26% of the railways, 33% of the
factories, 75% of the iron and coal mines and 62 million citizens of the Old Russian
Empire.
The message was clear lose the war and this will be the fate of England.
The impact of the Russian withdrawal
The withdrawal of R gave G a window of opportunity to strike before A gained much of a
presence. Ludendorff was able to transfer troops from the east to the west.
Ludendorff thus planned the Spring Offensive aiming to try and win the war with one
final push.
Harsh nature of treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant Germany to keep troops in the East to
maintain control.
The battle weary Germans sent to the Western front were given no leave before being
sent into battle. Their poor morale further damaged the German armies in the west.
The withdrawal of Russia from the war was therefore not as damaging to the Allies as
first expected.
This had meant that Germany now was fighting a war only on the Western Front.
Impact of the entry of the US into the war
It took over 12 months for the US to have any real impact on the situation on the
Western Front.
It had an immediate impact in boosting Allied morale and in turn lowering G morale.
The US entry and the R withdrawal encouraged G to launch its offensive in March 1918.
American troops able to provide relief for B, F troops. Allies had inexhaustible endless
supply of men.
The US presence was a key factor in the success of the Allied counteroffensive in late
1918.
Wilsons fourteen points speech in January 1918 laid out possible basis for the post-war
peace settlement. America helped to break the Hindenburg line.
The 1918 Spring Offensive (Ludendorff Offensive)
Three factors which led to the decision for the final German offensive
Entry of US, provided Ludendorff with 12 months; great timing to defeat allies before US
had entered.
The withdrawal of R provided G army with a large number of men to be taken from
Eastern Front to Western Front. G was now fighting a war only on western front, more
troops, easier to transport food and resources. Needed all of strength to win.
Germany had needed to win the war before the home-front had collapsed. Allied naval
blockade provided the home front with mass shortages and needed to win the war to
avoid starvation.
German Spring Offensive March to July 1918
The German attack
Began 21st of March 1918, against the B, launching more than 3 million rounds that day.
B suffered 38 000 casualties including 21 000 prisoners on that first day.

General Petain informed Haig he could not send assistance as French army preparing to
fall back defend Paris if necessary.
Haig wrote that the British were holding off the German army single-handedly.
French General Foch was given authority to co-ordinate all Allied forces; under a united
command.
Many Allied leaders believed they faced the real possibility of defeat.
On 11th April Haig stated: With our backs to the wall, each one of us must fight on to the
end
By late April, Ludendorffs offensive captured 1000 guns, almost 100 000 prisoners. The
Germans had captured more land than all the Allied attacks of the war had managed.
The final phase of the German offensive came in mid-July when the second battle of
Marne began.
By late July it was clear that German advance was petering out.
Lacking reserves and supplies, facing ever-growing, fresh American forces, he now had to
face an Allied counteroffensive.
Late July, Allied forces recaptured Chateau Thierry just 70 kilometres northeast of Paris;
and in early August the Allies crossed the Somme.
Paris had been saved, and in just a few weeks the Allies had taken 130 000 German
prisoners, 2000 heavy guns and 14 000 machine guns. These were losses that
Ludendorff could not replace.
Holmes: The Americans were like a transfusion of blood arriving to reanimate the pallid
body of France.

The Allied counteroffensive

8 August, Allies launched a massive counterattack. Allied tanks and infantry swept
forward.
British losses were high, with more than 180 000 casualties between 8 August and 26
September.
Ludendorff: 8 August was black day of the German army, the morale of the German
army was no longer what it had been.
General Foch realised Germans were fully stretched. His tactics now were to hit the
enemy at different points on the front, one after the other, never giving the Germans a
chance to recover.
American forces were of great help in the counteroffensives.
From 27 September to 17 October Haig followed this up on the Hindenburg Lines
strongest points.
Foch concentrated use tanks, strategically, coordinated, simultaneous attacks against
exhausted, retreating German forces.
Thomson: this brilliant plan of grand strategy of offence, took full advantage of
Germanys lack of reserves, there was tactical advantage by the use of tanks.
11th November only a small area of France remained in G hands. 11th November G asked
for an armistice, which was signed. The G army was not defeated; they still had troops in
France.

Events leading to the Armistice

The British by the time of the Armistice had a far better equipped army than ever before.
The spring offensive initially very successful. G troops advanced 65 km. were closer to
Paris than in August 1914. The offensive grinded to a halt because G had run out of
reserves. The Germans found out that the British were far better supplied than their
propaganda told them, led to mass desertions.
There was an influenza epidemic spreading through the army and their eastern
reinforcements talked of socialism and peace. The German Army was in tatters by
August 1918.
18 July 1918 Allied Counter Offensive allies forced the Germans back to the Hindenburg
Line.
Presence of US troops. In Sep the Allies broke through the Hindenburg Line.

Turkey surrendered in October 1918. Austria/Hungary Empire collapses by November

1918.
29 September Ludendorff demanded that the German Chancellor ask for an armistice.
4 October G govt. asks for an armistice and for peace negotiations based on Wilsons
fourteen points.
By end of October Hindenburg Line has been breached in many places and Germans
were retreating.
The Kaiser was forced to abdicate on 9 November. G govt. had no choice but to accept
the terms of the armistice. 11 November 1918 the armistice was signed and at 11 a.m.
the guns fell silent and the war came to an end.

Allied victory: The Roles and Differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in
Creating the Treaty of Versailles
Background to the Peace Conference
The world that faced the peacemakers was one of death, destruction, chaos, hatred and
fear.
More than 10 million had died on the battlefield, 6 million from Spanish Influenza,
millions were wounded/gassed/amputees, millions were psychologically affected.
Europe was starving and this was especially felt in Germany.
Hatred of G was strong on the home fronts, Clemenceau and Lloyd George had to satisfy
an angry public, G asked for an armistice and peace settlement in October 1918 they
based it on Wilsons 14 points.
The world had never before seen death and destruction on such a massive scale.
The peace delegates at Paris endeavoured to produce an outcome that satisfies both
their rival aims and their restive people at home. The Paris Peace Settlement proved to
be compromise that satisfied no one.
President Wilson:
Had little understanding of the nature of European politics.
Saw himself as an idealist and wanted a fair peace settlement.
He proposed the idea of the League of Nations to guarantee world peace and supported
democracy in all nations.
He also disapproved of Frances hard stand against G and wanted to limit the reparations on
G.
Wilsons Fourteen Points:
1) There should be no secret treaties. 2. There should be freedom of the seas in peacetime or
wartime. 3. There should be free trade between countries. 4. There should be international
disarmament. 5. Colonies should have a say in their own future. 6. German troops leave
Russia. 7. There should be independence for Belgium.8.France should regain Alsace-Lorraine.
9. The frontier between Italy and Austria to be adjusted. 10. There should be selfdetermination for the peoples of Eastern Europe. 11. Serbia should have access to the sea.
12. There should be self-determination for the peoples of Turkish Empire. 13. Poland should
become an independent state with access to the sea. 14. A League of Nations should be
established.
Wilsons objectives:
Wilsons Fourteen Points intended to preserving the peace and current situation in
Europe.
He thought that G should keep most of its pre-war territory, the exception of AlsaceLorraine be seceded to France.
Reparations G should pay little or no reparations. Carry some degree of
responsibility for the outbreak of war.
Form a League of Nations, to preserve peace. Wilson thought that G eventually be
allowed into League.
Lloyd George:
Seen as a councillor between Wilson and Clemenceau. Also wanted protect British interests
had to balancing act.
He wanted G economy to be repaired as Bs economy was closely linked with the
International economy and G had been the powerhouse before the war. Promised the British

electorate revenge. He also saw the dangers in the territory provisions, seeing that a new
war could be fought over them. He tried to moderate them with limited success. Wanted a
balance of power in Western Europe so neither G nor F could dominate.
Lloyd Georges objectives:
Keeping faith with the British public which wanted to see G punished. The desire to soften
harsh French demands.
Re-establishment of European trade disrupted by the war.
Destruction of G fleet. Prevention of any country, including France, from dominating Europe.
Georges Clemenceau:
F suffered the most in WWI at the hands of G wanted extreme reparations. Clemenceaus
aim was to do this.
He clashed with Wilson many times. Also wanted security by breaking G army, limiting
number of troops they had.
Determined to make G pay for destruction of the war. Severely Hated G.
Saw G invade F twice in his lifetime. Known as the tiger because of his determination.
Clemenceaus objectives:
As president of the conference proceedings Clemenceau was in a position to pursue his objectives:
The disarmament of G. Guarantees for F security. The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine.
Reparations.
The creation of a separate buffer state to the west of Rhine to protect its border
free of G control.
The fear of communism
The threat of communism loomed from the Russian Bolsheviks in the east. B, F and the US were
backing the anti-communists in Russia in the hope that they would defeat the Bolsheviks. Fear that
communism would appeal to all those who were suffering and starving across Europe. Communist
states appeared briefly in areas of Eastern and Central Europe, whilst parties sprung up across the
whole continent.
The Paris Peace Settlement
It was comprised of five treaties with each of the nations the Allies were at war with.
G (Versailles). Austria (St Germaine). Bulgaria (Neuilly). Hungary (Trianon). Turkey
(Sevres, then Lausanne).
The Treaty of Versailles
G was forced to sign or face immediate invasion.
Treaty aimed to weaken G territorially, economically and militarily.
The territorial provisions
G lost 13% of its European territory, Inc. 103600sq km and 7 million people.
Germans were forced to live under Czech, Polish, French and Lithuanian rule.
The military provisions
Army reduced to 100 000 people. No tanks, heavy artillery or air force. Navy greatly
reduced no submarines, limits placed on battleships, cruisers, destroyers, torpedo
boats. Naval bases destroyed.
The economic provisions
Reparations had to be paid by G to the Allies for the damage inflicted.
B and F were to receive large amounts of German machinery, locomotives and rolling
stock.
G had to supply the allies with large amounts of coal to F, to B for ten years and to Italy
for ten years.
The colonial provisions
Deemed unworthy of having colonial possessions, Australia, South Africa, Britain and
Japan received them.
War guilt
Clause 231 Angered G most, had to accept all responsibility for the war and damage,
very humiliating.
Reparations
The total of the reparations payments was to be calculated by a Reparations
Commission. The final amount was calculated at US$40 billion, and G was informed of
this on the 28th April 1921.

F was to receive 52%, B 22%, Italy 10%, B 8% and other participants 8%.
G accepted the bill on the 11th May 1921, fearing invasion of the Ruhr area.
G had no way to pay this, no chance of borrowing from overseas, gold reserves were
draining and private capital was leaving the country. The G economy was also still
ravaged from the war.
The payments were scaled down throughout the 20s, and were removed in 1932 at
height of Depression.
Reparation payments served a way of keeping the war alive; creating resentment,
suspicion and hostility.
None of the big three achieved all they aimed for. The peace settlement was a compromise and all
three leaders were disappointed. The settlement was not harsh enough to cripple Germany, but was
severe enough to cause economic problems and resentment. It was not a foundation for lasting
peace.
Wilson was disappointed; many of his idealistic aims had given way to Clemenceaus harsh
demands. He did manage to have a League of Nations created, but the USA never joined.
Clemenceau ensured that G was blamed for the war and had an enormous reparations bill. But this
did not make F safe and the reparations were never fully paid.
Lloyd George felt G was treated too harshly, he wanted an economically strong G but this was not
achieved.
Outcome of the War:
More than 10 Million had died on the battlefields. Spanish influenza took another 6
million in Europe alone. Countless millions of me had been wounded, gassed or ended
the war as amputees. Millions suffered the psychological effects of time in trenches for
the rest of their lives. Europe was a starving continent. Nowhere was this felt more than
in G, Allied blockade maintained in case G resumes fighting. End of World War 1 saw the
collapse of the G, R, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires.