Social Semiotics

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Rules and expectations of jazz gigs

Karen Burland & Stephanie Pitts
To cite this article: Karen Burland & Stephanie Pitts (2012) Rules and expectations of jazz gigs,
Social Semiotics, 22:5, 523-543, DOI: 10.1080/10350330.2012.731895
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2012.731895

Published online: 12 Oct 2012.

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Social Semiotics
Vol. 22, No. 5, November 2012, 523
543

Rules and expectations of jazz gigs

Karen Burlanda* and Stephanie Pittsb
a

School of Music, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK; bDepartment of Music, University of

Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

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(Received 2 January 2012; final version received 30 June 2012)

This paper explores the rules and expectations of jazz gigs using a case study of a
weekly jazz club, The Spin. The paper considers the expectations that audience
members have of live jazz performances in relation to the venues in which they are
performed, the experience of collective listening and the impact of personal
factors and musical identities on motivation and enjoyment. Questionnaires,
diaries, follow-up interviews and observations were used to collect data
concerning the above themes, and thematic analysis offers insight into what the
rules of jazz gigs might be, based on audience members expectations and
experiences of being at a live jazz performance. The rules of these events relate
to quality, skill, other audience members, the venue and its management, the
sense of community and, of course, the music itself.
Keywords: jazz; listening; audience; gigs; venue

Introduction
Recent research by Stephanie Pitts (2005a, 2005b), as well as by Pitts and Spencer
(2008), shows that audience members gain most from attendance at concerts when
they feel committed, involved and loyal to the event and its performers and/or venue.
In research with a chamber music festival audience, social networks and a sense of
belonging were found to be almost as critical to enjoyment as performer reputation
and choice of repertoire. However, jazz audiences are typically younger than those
for classical music, and possibly open to new experiences (Oakes 2003) and therefore
may have different perspectives on the meaning of live performance events.
For example, jazz audiences are described as knowledgeable about jazz repertoire
and performers (MacDonald and Wilson 2005) but are also open-minded about
attending performances of other styles of music (Oakes 2003). Jazz musicians
describe their audiences as being prepared for gigs and having high expectations for
committed and emotional performances (MacDonald and Wilson 2005).
Aspects of venue and atmosphere are also important to audience experience.
In their framework of service experience as drama, Minor et al. (2004) consider the
setting of the performance as the background to three other elements that interact to
explain consumer behaviour in the context of repertory theatre (the other elements
are the performers, the audience and the performance itself). Their attempt to model
the interaction between the four elements is used to explain levels of customer
*Corresponding author. Email: k.burland@leeds.ac.uk
ISSN 1035-0330 print/1470-1219 online
# 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10350330.2012.731895
http://www.tandfonline.com

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

satisfaction, but we believe that an understanding of such aspects may provide

further insight into motivations to attend and become loyal audience members.
The importance of audience members being made to feel at home or
comfortable in performance venues appears frequently in the literature (e.g. Olsen
2002): comfort is related to an individuals likelihood to attend an event (Andreasen
and Belk 1980) and aspects such as brighter lighting increase the perceived sociability
of an event (Skinner et al. 2008)
important if audiences are to share their responses
to a performance and feel a sense of belonging in particular contexts (Minor et al.
2004). For new audiences, a welcoming environment can help to overcome the
negative sensations often associated with ritualised and unfamiliar contexts (Caru`
and Cova 2006). The positive experiences of an audience are also important for the
performers who need to feel a sense of connection with the venue and audience in
order to feel positive about an event and to create an enjoyable performance
(Kubacki 2008). Audiences are perceived by performers to play an active role in live
performance events although their role is not always positive. For example,
performers interviewed by Kubacki (2008) were critical of jazz audiences who were
unwilling to take risks (contradicting findings from elsewhere that they are generally
more open-minded (Oakes 2003)) because it has a detrimental impact on
performance decisions. Some performers of complex musics (e.g. classical/jazz) are
concerned about having to dumb-down performances in the interests of kitsch
entertainment (Kubacki and Croft 2005, 234). In a similar way, concerns about
diminishing audiences mean that theatres often choose more accessible works so as
to attract a large audience (Olsen 2002). Understanding the wider aspects of
performance that appeal to audiences might mean that programming can be bolder:
this kind of insight depends on a qualitative approach capable of going beyond the
demographic information that can be collected by standard surveys (Olsen 2002;
Baxter 2010).
Understanding what makes lives music events special may help explain audience
motivation to attend. Live performances offer much more than listening to
recordings at home and this applies to jazz in particular because spontaneity and
improvisation mean that each performance is unique (Oakes 2003). Live music events
offer a sense of connection with other audience members, either by sharing an
experience or shared enthusiasm for an artist (Packer and Ballantyne 2011) and the
feeling of belonging to a particular group provides an opportunity to express
ourselves and our values to others (Gainer 1995). Feeling surrounded by similar
others can provide us with an identity (Belk 1988) and can offer individuals a sense
of well-being (Packer and Ballantyne 2011). Therefore, expectations of other
audience members can play an important role in decisions to attend a particular
venue (Skinner et al. 2008).
Expectations of performances and venues arise from previous experiences, often
as a child, and we are motivated to attend subsequent events so as to re-experience
similar events and feelings (Andreasen and Belk 1980). In the case of jazz, audiences
develop familiarity with the music, which leads them to expect excitement and the
unknown, because of the spontaneous nature of the music (Earl 2001)
they will
choose to attend performances that are most likely to reinforce their expectations
(Olsen 2002). Such expectations also influence the ways in which they evaluate
particular events; performances that do not meet audience expectations are less likely
to be received positively (Olsen 2002). This perhaps explains the reluctance of

Social Semiotics

525

programmers to pick more challenging repertoire and suggests that there is a need to
educate audiences so that they enjoy more original performances (cf. Oakes 2003).
Olsen (2002) suggests, however, that subverting negative expectations relating to
formal atmosphere, for example, may yield positive results:

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Dario Fo often has a drink with patrons in the foyer and helps usher people to their
seats prior to a show. He has said that during his shows he tries to create an atmosphere
in which the audience feels as if they were guests in his home. (3)

Our previous research, carried out at The Edinburgh Jazz and Blues Festival, suggests
that jazz audiences do indeed develop expectations about ideal jazz gigs based on
prior experiences. There is a sense of community and atmosphere associated with jazz
events, as many participants used the festival as an important opportunity to
socialize with friends and family (see Burland and Pitts 2010). Many of the
participants had a strong sense of identity as a typical audience member, some
describing themselves as professional audience members, which served to enhance
individual musical identity. The jazz festival was enhanced by the city and the context
of the larger Edinburgh Festival, and the size and character of the venues contributed
significantly to the intimacy and success of an event. More generally, the participants
considered music to play a significant role in their lives and described it as an
important part of their well-being, stating that they could not live without it.
Overall, the participants connected strongly with the festival, perhaps because it was
a local event for many, but the elements described above seemed to enhance the
experience of live music and ensured that audience members were loyal supporters of
the event (Burland and Pitts 2010). One possible explanation for such experiences
may be that the festival experience is unique because of its intensity and diversity. It
therefore seemed sensible to compare audience expectations and experiences of more
routine jazz performances.

Investigating jazz events: overview of research techniques

This study aimed to investigate the ways in which audiences experience small-scale
live jazz events, their motivations for belonging to a jazz club (The Spin jazz club in
Oxford) and the impact of venue on the experience of live music. It was hypothesized
that the audience would be committed to supporting The Spin, but the study aimed
to explore what motivated their attendance particularly
possible motivations were
predicted to be related to jazz music generally, the venue, the performers or the
opportunity to socialize. The Spin was selected because it was one of only three UK
venues to be nominated for Jazz Venue of the Year in 2008, the year before the
commencement of this research project. We felt that attending this particular club
would provide an opportunity to explore what is special about venues and their
impact on the experience of live jazz.
Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and diaries to form a rich
qualitative picture of the musical behaviour and attitudes connected with The Spin.
The questionnaire was distributed online using Lime Survey and included questions
about reasons for attendance, criteria for enjoyment, musical behaviour and values,
the impact of venue, self-perceptions, musical experience and listening habits (see
Appendix 1). Audience members were given the opportunity (indicated at the end of

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

the questionnaire) to participate in a follow-up interview which explored their

attitudes and experiences in more detail (see Appendix 2) and some volunteered to
complete an online diary (see Appendix 3) tracking their attendance at The Spin and
other music events fortnightly over a two-month period.
Table 1 summarises each phase of data collection and the codes that will be used
to refer to them:
The majority of participants were between 36 and 65 years of age, with small
numbers of those who were younger and older. Of the 91 respondents, 74% were
male, which reflects the findings of other studies of jazz audiences (e.g. Riley and
Laing 2006). Of those who provided information about their careers, the majority
were professionals, many working at the university or in publishing, for example. A
small number were also students or retired. Some of the participants attended most
weeks, others only a few times a year: therefore, the range of perspectives presented
in the data is likely to be representative of the range of people who attend The Spin.
The interview data were transcribed verbatim and then, along with the diaries
and questionnaires, analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith
1995). Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS. The thematic analysis revealed
four main themes (what makes jazz gigs special, expectations about venues, rules of
collective listening and impact of personal factors), which are considered in detail in
the following section.

Results and discussion

The combination of the research techniques described in the previous section provided
a wealth of rich data highlighting key themes relating to audience members ideals,
expectations and experiences of jazz gigs. These were based primarily on their
attendance at The Spin, but related to their experiences of jazz in other contexts and
venues too. The thematic analysis reveals that the participants perceived jazz events as
special, at least in comparison to listening to jazz recordings and to other types of live
music, and also suggests that there are certain unwritten rules associated with jazz
venues, other audience members and the performers. The experience of being an
audience member was also affected by more personal factors, such as the social life
associated with attending gigs, finding a work
life balance and individual identities. It
is clear that these four themes are interlinked and together influence motivation to
attend gigs in the first place; prior experiences of jazz (and other) gigs appear to set up
expectations for particular events which influence audience members to attend and
can have an impact on their experiences whilst they are there. This section begins by
Table 1.

Summary of the three phases of data collection.

Online questionnaire advertised through flyers at gigs

and on the clubs website 91 responses
Telephone interviews carried out with a representative
sample of those who provided contact details at the
end of the questionnaire 15 interviews
Online diaries completed by six respondents, fortnightly
for two months

SpQ followed by participant

number (SpQ32)
Participant initials followed by
page number (NR3)
SpD followed by participant
and page number (SpD3.2)

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527

considering briefly what makes jazz gigs so special for the participants as a context for
the subsequent thematic discussion relating to the factors described above.

What makes jazz gigs so special?

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There was agreement in the data that jazz performances offered much more than
listening to recordings and that it was the features and qualities of jazz music
particularly that were perceived as being special:
I mean jazz is a completely different experience live than it is on a CD. Just because of
the energy and the improvisation . . . I think to understand jazz youve got to see it live. If
youre new to jazz and you pick a CD you just wont get it, but if you go to a live concert
you might get it, or you might be impressed by one of the musicians or something,
which you wouldnt get from listening to a CD
its a totally different experience. And
one of the best musical ones I think. (PH5)

Spontaneity and uncertainty offer a sense of excitement as does the immediacy of the
event: the sense that the music is being formed in the moment and that the
audience is part of that process resonates with research on jazz musicians and
audiences (MacDonald and Wilson 2005; Oakes 2003). Enjoying the sense of
unpredictability associated with live jazz gigs is perhaps connected to the desire to
experience something new and to take risks (see discussion below). Certainly, being
able to see the dynamic interaction (Packer and Ballantyne 2011) between the
performers and audience members is something that cannot be replicated by
recorded music, even if the sound quality is often better on CD:
Live music is something that is a totally different level of enjoyment
particular jazz
[sic]. Somehow the sound is never the same/as sharp as involving as on the CD. While
the atmosphere, the intensity of a live performance
seeing the interaction of the
players
the reactions of the audience, the discussions afterwards and at the interval
take my enjoyment to a different level. (SpD1.6)

In addition to the excitement of the musical features of jazz performances, the

contexts in which they take place are important to the sense of it being a special
occasion. The diary extract above suggests that a jazz gig is not only about the music,
but about the atmosphere of the event as well; seeing the music being created and the
audiences immediate response to it. The shared experience of the performance unites
the audience such that it leads to discussions and social interactions that are, in
essence, a continuation of the individuals experience of the performance. It is this
experience of feeling part of the performance that makes jazz special for these
participants: jazz gigs offer a sense of belonging and, for many, connect with
personal identities (as we discuss below). The unique attributes of jazz music in
particular seem to connect with its audiences:
. . . its the jazz that makes me feel at home or connected. (SpQ17)

This brief introduction provides a context for a more detailed consideration and
explanation of the interrelated themes that make attending a performance a special
event. Understanding the rules associated with different aspects of live performances

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

offers insight into individuals expectations for jazz gigs and the ideal jazz event.
Therefore, and in order to define what constitutes an ideal jazz performance, the
following sections focus on the rules associated with venues, other audience members,
the performers, alongside social and personal factors.

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Expectations about venues

In the previous section, aspects of atmosphere were shown to contribute to jazz gigs
being perceived as special. Related to the overall atmosphere of an event is the venue
itself and the extent to which it allows the individual to feel a sense of connection
with other audience members and the performers, as well as providing an
opportunity to relax and enjoy the experience. This section examines the ideal
characteristics of jazz venues alongside aspects of locality, venue management and
programming, and loyalty.

Venue characteristics
The Spin takes place in a room above a pub in central Oxford. It is a long, narrow
room, with a bar at the back and a small stage at the front and seats are arranged
around small tables, with standing room at the back near the bar.
Tickets are sold by volunteers
regulars at the club
and unlike many other jazz
clubs, the managers operate a seat reservation system for those who book tickets in
advance. The locality of the venue is important, as it is close enough to London that
the management are able to attract high-profile performers, but its regional setting
gains the loyalty from those wishing to support a local business and ensure that a
local jazz scene persists (SpQ36).
Participants describe The Spin as the perfect jazz venue (SpQ61) and as ideal
for jazz (SpQ29), and this seems to relate to the intimacy of the venue which allows
close proximity to the performer, provides seating around small tables with a drink
(historically
and ideally (for some)
the venue would be smoke-filled) and a
general feeling of friendliness.
So one lovely thing about The Spin is the kind of proximity [to the performers]. And that
you can have a drink and its relaxed . . . you know, some other places theres a whole
performance about taking a drink in . . . and not sitting necessarily in rows, I think is
nice, sitting round a table . . . and I think it being a small venue, the immediacy of it . . . I
really appreciate that. And I know that to see big names youve got to go somewhere big
these days, and thats great, but it doesnt have the same immediacy really. (HW3-4)

The majority of participants felt that jazz venues should be small and intimate as
such environments are seen to offer the ideal context for listening and feeling part of
the performance: being able to relax in a social setting with a drink is important to
these participants, and perhaps means that they are able to immerse themselves in the
experience. Indeed, some participants even suggested that classical music would be
best heard in such an environment. The opportunity to see performers up close and
personal (SpQ70) was essential to their enjoyment of a gig as bigger venues were
perceived as being more sterile (RW3). There was, however, a sense that there
should be some goodness of fit between the status of the performer and the size of

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529

the venue
both in terms of significant acts deserving a large venue and also their
ability to connect with an audience in large venues:

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It depends a lot on the band, as to whether or not a venue can work, I think. But it
doesnt only depend on the band. I mean Ive seen jazz in classical venues and I dont
think its worked at all, because there was something rather too formal about the
environment . . . And Ive seen jazz in enormous venues, which has surprised me by
working really well, but thats down to the energy of the band I think. And the
enthusiasm of the public probably as well. And probably also theres an element of how
good the band is at . . . the energy they create. (LR4)

Rules of informality and intimacy for jazz venues are emphasized here, and the
importance of the performer
audience interaction for making what might be
perceived as an inappropriate venue work is also emphasized. This is not to
undermine the significance and impact of gigs in larger venues, as several
participants were keen to highlight:
Ive been to one or two gigs where Ive felt I do need to be close in, or closer in . . . but I
do like that feeling this is a significant event; people have come here to hear it. . . And
youve got that sense, like going to a cup final
this is significant. You could hear the
emotion in the audience, the tenseness waiting from him to start . . . people are expectant
and waiting for it to begin. Theyre excited. (AJ6-7)

This serves to exemplify the significance of other audience members for creating an
atmosphere; shared excitement, anticipation and expectation for a prolific performer
in a large venue offered many of these participants some of their most memorable
experiences. However, the perceived disadvantages of such venues go some way to
highlight just why The Spin is so highly regarded, and gives an insight into ideal jazz
venues:
RFH [Royal Festival Hall] is generally a horrible venue for jazz (no atmosphere, large,
slightly formal, distance from performers, fairly expensive, crowds, poseurs) (SPD2.4)
[At a gig at Hammersmith Odeon] Idiotic blokes on my left whod had a few too many
talked incessantly. Bloke on my wifes right kept looking at his iPhone and talking to his
friend rather than listening to the music. (SpD3.2)

These are instances where the excitement and sense of occasion associated with larger
venues are not enough to create the ideal jazz gig. The sense of connection (with the
performer and other audience members) is important and it seems that individuals
need to feel surrounded by like-minded and appreciative others (see next section for
more discussion about the rules of collective listening).
As a small venue, then, The Spin seems to achieve the right balance between
artist, venue and music as there are numerous descriptions of it being just right . . .
an unparalleled atmosphere of something special but somewhere where I feel at
home (SpQ17). Its welcoming atmosphere formed the basis of the participants first
impressions of the venue and is one of the reasons for their subsequent loyalty to it
and its managers. Many of the participants describe The Spin as clubby (PH1),
indicating a place in which enthusiasm can be shared with like-minded others. The
clubs website and mailing list keep the audience updated of news and forthcoming

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events and go some way to offering members a sense of community and belonging. It
is clear that the participants have much respect for the clubs managers (who also
play in the house band): this is particularly clear in participants description of the
annual birthday party event as an opportunity to show the managers their
appreciation with the presentation of a gift. Loyalty to the club is important to
these participants, with many of them suggesting that it was high time that it actually
won the Parliamentary Jazz Award for venue of the year for which it had been
nominated in four consecutive years.
Aside from ensuring a committed and regular audience at the club, loyalty to The
Spin, and to jazz music in general, seems to help overcome some of the more general
criticisms of the venue. For example, it is described as being rather shabby
(SpD1.8) and too hot (SpD2.2) at the height of summer, while the landlord has a
reputation for not being the most pleasant of characters (HW3).
I generally really enjoy the atmosphere at The Spin. However, when attention to the
music dips a bit and one starts to look more objectively around the room it is difficult to
escape from the fact that it is basically a tacky dark, seedy room above a run-down pub
that seems to have seen better days, and that the atmosphere is, really, more suited to,
say, goth bands rather than jazz!! Pink Floyd and Jim Hendrix posters???????????
(SpD.4)

Despite these observations, the audience continue to attend every week, some
because they love the music and are prepared to go a long way to forgive the venue
if it does not quite hit the spot (DGW4). What this suggests is that a jazz venue is
much more than its bricks and mortar or its surface aesthetics: the ideal jazz venue,
or its atmosphere at least, is the result of a combination of elements, created
primarily by the people who organize, attend and perform within.

The management and programming

As suggested above, the participants were generally positive and complimentary
about the management of The Spin although they were sometimes critical of its
programming which was often perceived to be middle of the road:
Id like them to be a bit more daring with their programming. Id like them to put on
bands who play a wider range of jazz, particularly up to the sort of contemporary and
free improv . . . they tend to be a little bit more conservative with their programming,
because . . . they need to make sure they get a regular audience. (PM3)

Recognition of management priorities (i.e. building and sustaining a regular

audience) highlights how difficult programming choices can be, and the inclination
towards more middle of the road (PH3) or pedestrian (RW1-2) performances
sits uncomfortably alongside the data that suggest that in actual fact these
participants were looking for new experiences. Perhaps there is a mismatch between
management and audience expectations for gigs at The Spin that might explain the
discrepancy here (cf. Olsen 2002). Comments about seeking out adventurous and
inspiring gigs were important for this audience who used such opportunities for
discovering unexpected treats (HW2). Participants were also critical that The Spin
management had been inviting soloists to perform with the house band, which was

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531

perceived by some as resulting in formulaic jazz and was a reason for them not
attending as frequently as they once did:
Because theyre all playing numbers that they havent played together before they have
to be quite safe. And you end up following this formula. And that can be quite dull
[laughs]. Whereas there are other ways of playing the music which is [sic] much more
exciting. (PM4)

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Whilst the sense of excitement and the anticipation of discovering something new
were essential for some participants, others were simply looking to experience highquality music in a suitable venue
something they had come to expect of The Spin:
The venue stands out because you know you are going to see the connoisseurs side of
jazz, not only because of the quality of guest performers but also the house musicians.
The atmosphere is always good and Pete Oxley is a great host who often makes amusing
comments in between pieces of music. (SpQ70)

This further exemplifies the complexity of the rules and expectations surrounding
jazz gigs, perhaps suggesting that the overall quality of the performance coupled with
an appropriate (and friendly/relaxing) atmosphere is what such audience members
are seeking when they choose to attend an event. So long as these particular elements
are in place, and there are occasional opportunities to hear new and exciting
performers, it seems that audience members will become loyal supporters of a
particular jazz club or venue.

Rules of collective listening

Other audience members
As we discussed in the previous section, ideal jazz venues are created in part by the
people who attend the gigs and contribute to the overall atmosphere of an event. The
data suggest that individuals have certain expectations for other audience members
relating to their knowledge, levels of appreciation and demographics. Feeling part of
a club with the other regular audience members was also an essential aspect of the
experience.
The audience was generally perceived to be quite diverse: a good mixture
(SpQ38), although there were a few participants who viewed it as an aging audience
with an injection of youngsters from the University [providing] a lively influence to
relieve the monotony of us greybeards gabbing on about the Old Days (SpQ48)! In
fact, the demographics of our participants suggest that the audience is diverse with
most participants aged between 36 and 65. Certainly, it seemed that participants were
keen to identify with other audience members, seeing similarities if not in age, then in
attitude and passion for jazz music. The Spins audience is seen as serious and
knowledgeable and there is a sense that as a club they have learnt the rules of being
an audience member together:
Surprisingly when I started, my first question was how noisy it was and all that. I think
its a fantastic tribute to [the management] is that now there is real attention to the
music. Ive got this memory, it must have been of 4 or 5 years ago, of some woman . . .

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coming in, and shes talking throughout the fucking performance. And I remember
going across to her at half time . . . and berating her. (AJ3)

There is a sense of moving away from gigs where people could dance around and
enjoy it (AJ3) towards new rules for audience behaviour. AJs frustration at what he
perceived to be a disrespectful audience member indicates the sense of responsibility
that some individuals have for maintaining or upholding traditions of behaviour, and
disgruntled comments about having to quieten a couple of young parties (SpD1.5)
or other people talking appear throughout the data. It certainly seemed that rules of
being attentive were true to The Spin in particular, with some participants
commenting about jazz venues in London [which] have a clientele that is there
solely to be seen (SpQ41): this particular audience seemed keen to protect the
special atmosphere created at their local venue. There is an obvious conflict here
with the notions of The Spin being a club
connotations of which relate to talking
about, and sharing a passion for, jazz. It seems that there are rules surrounding the
modern jazz club, or at least The Spin, that talking should be reserved for moments
when the musicians are not performing. This is perhaps more formal than the
comments about The Spins informality might suggest (and more akin to the
conventions associated with classical concerts: cf. Small 1998), but there is evidence
in the data that these same rules apply for other small venues (and some large ones

see earlier comments about the Royal Festival Hall and Hammersmith Odeon):
The audience behaviour is interesting because I think, and its something that musicians
would mention that they really like playing at The Spin because the audience sits and
listens, they care. You go to Ronnie Scotts and theyll be people talking, er, quite loudly
sometimes. Despite the fact that theyve paid 25 quid to get in. (PM2)

Jazz musicians appreciate a knowledgeable and informed audience (MacDonald and

Wilson 2005) and prefer to play to individuals who commit to a performance.
Musicians fears about the status of the valuable arts and needing to dumbdown their performances are perhaps diminished when they perform to an attentive
audience (Kubacki and Croft 2005). Despite the apparent contradictions in the
attitudes of these participants, it is clear that the music is the priority and the ideals
described so far relate to enhancing the special experience of the live performance.
Therefore, The Spin is a club for individuals who are serious and knowledgeable
about jazz and who want to show their respect for the performers (and the
management who have organized the gig) by being attentive. The quote above also
suggests that an attentive audience can enhance the quality of the performance,
thereby making individual listeners feel as if they are truly part of the music being
created. We have discussed above how these participants are interested in seeking
inspiration and new experiences, which further explains their need for other audience
members to follow the rules.

The performers
It is clear that the performers are central to the experience of the audience: they
are the focus of attention and bring the music to life, and in the same way as the
audience, they respond to aspects of the venue, the audience and other performers

Social Semiotics

533

(cf. Kubacki 2008). In particular, this section builds upon previous mention of the
audience
performer relationship by considering performer interaction and onstage presentation; expectations for skill and innovation; and aspects of
instrumentation.
There is an expectation that jazz performances will be high quality: the respect for
their skill and artistry is apparent throughout the data; this is perceived as inspiring:

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What appeals to me about some jazz is . . . the energy you get in a band, when its
working well, and just the vibe really . . . the brilliance of, technically the brilliance of the
players
they all have such huge knowledge of music, such musicianship . . . its the
togetherness of the band, its the energy of the band and the fact that theyre all such
excellent musicians, in jazz generally I think. (LR3)

Jazz musicians are perceived to be of high calibre and at the top of their game; in
comparison with other genres of music, jazz performers were described by several
participants as really much better musicians. The excitement of seeing the
musicians create music in the moment inspires an enthusiasm that is again perceived
to be unique to jazz.
Theyre playing off each other. And thats really exciting for me because its sort of, well
for me jazz is composition and the appreciation all in one go, you can tell its not been
rehearsed, theyre just really into it. They click and they make good music at the time,
theyre improvising all of the time together, and thats just amazing for me. Im not a
musician . . . so that sort of ensemble playing is quite exciting to me. (PH3)

Being able to see the music being created in the moment makes jazz gigs special for
these participants, partly because it is satisfying to see the musicians enjoying
themselves and being inspired by that particular environment and audience. The size
of the venue means that audience members are close to the performer and so can
easily be drawn in by the musicians performance style:
There is something about making eye contact with the musicians. I mean one of the
things I like about the saxophonist is he does, you know, hell throw stuff out into the
audience so you feel like youre part of his performance. And theres just something very
special about that. Yeah, something really magical about it. (DGW5)

The impact of such performances is that they are perceived to make the music
accessible. The managements decision to invite soloists to perform with the house
band was met with some frustration by regular attenders, but for some the sense
of connection and familiarity with the band provided an important message that
you dont have to be a huge name to be a good jazz player . . . that jazz is
accessible (HW1). There are many comments in the data about the pleasure the
performers seem to get from playing at The Spin which is in stark contrast to
other clubs:
When I lived in London I sometimes used to go to jazz in pubs and it seemed like
everyone was depressed! [laughter]. I used to joke with a friend about how everybody
there looked miserable, and thats really not the case with The Spin. You know, that . . . it
conveys that theres a liveliness and a fun about jazz as well as a seriousness about
music. (HW1)

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

This suggests that there is a fine balance to be achieved between taking the music
seriously and treating the performers with respect but also wanting the experience to
be perceived as fun and enjoyable: perhaps the cue for this comes from the musicians
themselves
in terms of the way they present themselves on stage (and off
mingling
with the audience before and after the gig). The management (who also play in the
house band) have perhaps made a very wise and deliberate choice to share this
message with its regular audience
it is possible to be passionate and serious about
jazz whilst also having fun and perhaps this explains the commitment (to the club
and jazz more generally) of The Spins members.
Perceptions of the ideal jazz gigs also relate to the types of performers and
instruments that these audience members preferred. A number of participants spoke
positively about the absence of singers in the programme; this reveals something
about their expectations of jazz gigs being related to instrumental jazz and removed
from a reliance on the formulaic standards discussed above. Some of the
participants complained that The Spin does not have an acoustic piano because it
sounds like a cheap home keyboard and not professional (SpD2.3), again
supporting the earlier suggestion that jazz audiences have high expectations for
the quality of live jazz. Similarly, complaints about the volume of the house bands
guitarist being too loud and getting in the way of the soloist suggest that the
audience take the quality of the house band for granted, wanting instead to hear
what someone else has to offer
reminiscent of their desire to experience something
new discussed above. The most effusive comments about performers relate to intense
and inspiring experiences which blow the cobwebs away (RW2), perhaps
connecting with individual identities and aspirations: Derek Nash great gusty
sax. Loud and invasive one piece, melodic and mellifluous another. The sort of jazz I
would play if I was that talented (SpQ53).
The sense of connection with the performers was something these participants
expected of jazz gigs; live music offered more than listening to recordings and this
was one motivation to attend. The implication of much of the data we have discussed
so far relates to jazz audiences having expectations about a range of factors
surrounding the venue, other audience members and the performers: these
expectations seem to relate to previous experiences (at The Spin and in other
venues) but also connect with their individual identities and personal goals.
Impact of personal factors
We have discussed above how The Spin has the feeling of a special club to many of
its members and it is clear from the data that their weekly visits have a positive
impact on their lives. The Spin offers the participants a focus for social activity, a
sense of belonging, feelings of escapism or therapy, and their experiences as audience
members are connected to a sense of personal identity. Underpinning their views on
the importance of the themes discussed above are their individual values and
motivations which are satisfied by their regular attendance at The Spin.
Belonging and friendship
Experiences at The Spin are likened to being a football fan, sharing with others
feelings of intimacy, connectedness and despair and joy . . . when one felt one knew

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535

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the players and with friends and surrounded by a like-minded crowd (SpQ17).
Many participants refer to the club as feeling like home, especially because they
feel like it is full of friends (and by this they refer to the management, other
audience members, and the performers too). Given earlier comments about other
jazz venues, such feelings of connectedness and belonging are seemingly unique to
this particular small jazz club (although it is easy to imagine similar stories
elsewhere), and there is a suggestion that this atmosphere did not appear by accident,
rather by design:
What do you need to create a culture that, something which might be important to a few
people but you could haul many people in if you stick at it, if you work out what
works . . . But what could we do to pull them in so they feel wanted and involved . . . And
The Spin has done something of that order, which goes way beyond jazz, way beyond
music. That to me is quite an important thing. (AJ10)

The intention to create a unifying culture reinforces the idea that this is a club
run by people passionate about jazz for people who share their enthusiasm, and this
is emphasized by the preceding thematic discussion that highlights the participants
values and ideals for jazz gigs. There is also some recognition here that the audience
is as important to an event (and the club) as the performers or even the venue (and
this is reflected elsewhere in the literature: Gainer 1995). Likening The Spin to being
at home shows how an atmosphere of warmth and friendliness provides individuals
attending alone with the confidence to talk to other audience members (the seating
around tables helps this too) if they desire, and facilitates a culture in which
individuals feel able to share their thoughts about the performance, or the music
more generally. It is through this open and welcoming atmosphere where if you
catch someones eye you just start a conversation or they will start a conversation,
you can feel very welcome if you need to (AGW13) that individuals have made lifelong friends.
Ive met a couple who are in our group through going there, and theyre my best friends
you know, who I wouldnt have met normally. But also outside our close group theres
people there who I talk to who I would never have met outside The Spin. I might have
seen them at another jazz gig I suppose, but you wouldnt talk to them. (PH2)

The particular features of the venue (as discussed above), other audience members
and the performers seem to combine in order to create this social environment in
which individuals see themselves fitting; the club provides validation for
perceptions they have of themselves as a jazz enthusiast (SpQ40), or an old
aficionado who bumbles around the scene (SpQ7) because they are at home with
a group of like-minded others.
Attending The Spin is not only about making new friends but also about sharing
experiences with existing friends and family. Many plan to attend The Spin each week
as a matter of routine, to punctuate a week (AJ5), and many describe how they are
motivated by the social aspect of having a drink with friends (KM1) whilst
carefully acknowledging that without the music I wouldnt go (AJ5). One
particular participant described how an experience at The Spin was special because
it was shared with his son:

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

The venue has intimacy and seeing this (gig) with my son and seeing him respond (this
first time he had seen/heard her) gave the event an even extra emotional intensity.
(SpD1.6)

Sharing intense musical experiences with friends or family serves to create significant
and lasting memories and it seems that these motivate audiences to re-attend on a
regular basis with the expectation that they will have similar encounters in the future.
Feelings of belonging perhaps mean that individuals are relaxed and able to immerse
themselves completely in the experience: for many, this is the aim.

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Escapism and relaxation

We have discussed above how The Spin affords an intimate and informal atmosphere
in which audience members can relax and immerse themselves in the performance
experience. The kinds of attentive listening the participants describe might be
considered by some to be rather intense: the music demands focus from its listeners
and as such many perceive their experiences at The Spin to be therapeutic and
relaxing (SpQ58). Being based in Oxford means that many of the clubs members
work at the university, often in stressful roles. The commitment to attend The Spin
each week is a useful anchor in their working week:
I go every week. On the grounds that . . . its kind of good to structure something in the
week thats kind of definite. And a kind of fixture. I have quite a stressful job and family
life, so thats my time. So I kind of try to keep it, I try to protect it as much as possible.
(HW5)

Visits to The Spin are perceived almost as a treat, as something personal and selfish

because it offers some sort of escape from everyday life. Such uses of music are welldocumented (DeNora 2000; Sloboda and ONeill 2001), but it is possible that live
jazz is particularly suited for this function because it can be intense, exciting and
created in the moment. Ultimately, the opportunity to see high-quality music is
viewed as pure pleasure (HW5) and is therefore important to a sense of well-being.
Attending gigs at The Spin offers a sense of personal connection
to others and
to the music. The close relationships that many participants had with music suggest
that it is exactly the link between jazz music and identity that motivates them to
attend the club and to do so with commitment and enthusiasm.

Personal identity
Participants described themselves as jazz enthusiasts suggesting that their regular
attendance at The Spin was part of their self-perceptions
something to be proud of:
I listen to a lot more pop on the radio than I would ever be seen dead at the live
performance of. Whereas jazz Im proud [their italics] to admit that I listen to it at home
and go to concerts. (DGW6)

Perhaps being a jazz fan is seen by some as a badge of identity (Hargreaves and
North 1997), which further enhances the sense of belonging felt when attending The
Spin. Jazz is seen as the only music that engages me (SpQ44), suggesting that this

Social Semiotics

537

individual connects with many of the features of jazz music described above (its
complexity or creativity, perhaps). It appears that there is a sense of fit between the
participants self-perceptions and jazz music, which motivates them to listen to it and
attend gigs:
I feel that listening to or making high-quality music is one of the things that makes us
human. It simply feels right (SpQ75).

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The value of jazz for these participants is apparent and perhaps explains why they
have such fixed and high expectations for all aspects of jazz events. For some,
however, jazz music is more fundamental. Some describe it as a faithful
companion (SpQ34) and as a vital part of life (SpQ48). Others suggest that jazz
is intertwined with who they are:
There are certain pieces of jazz . . . they just go inside me shift me around. Its not that I
dont like other forms of music, but . . . I cant put it into words. Its, its not the 17-18
pretentious twat that I was. And going for being cool or whatever. But now I just feel
very much at home within that music. (AJ6)

Jazz connects with AJ such that he perceives it as fundamental to his sense of self.
Others describe how they get withdrawal if they do not go to the club one week,
again suggesting that events at The Spin offer much more than simply an opportunity
to see a live music performance.

Conclusions and implications

The discussion above suggests that the participants experiences at The Spin (and in
other venues too) had led them to develop expectations for live jazz performances
They had in mind an ideal jazz gig which they aimed to replicate when deciding
where and when they would go to a live performance. Their ideals related to
instrumentation, the atmosphere and venue, the performers and the other audience
members. The rules we have discussed are wide-ranging but are focused around a
club in which members are able to immerse themselves in a live jazz experience
which reaches far beyond simply watching musicians performing live. Jazz audiences
expect to feel part of the performance
by feeling connected to other audience
members and the performers, by being close enough to the music that it is totally
immersing and by feeling inspired by the musicians and the music which they expect
to be of the highest quality. When these ideals are not met, participants become less
forgiving of uncomfortable surroundings, more judgmental of the performers, less
tolerant of unappreciative or inattentive audience members, and over time are less
likely to sustain their loyalty to particular venues. Fortunately for The Spin, audience
ideals were frequently satisfied and despite momentary frustrations, participants
were loyal and dedicated to the club.
Such understanding of what makes a music experience special for its audience has
important implications
for arts marketers, club owners and musicians, as well as for
audience members themselves. At a time when the arts are in danger of being
significantly under-funded and marginalized, understanding how to increase the
appeal of live music events for audiences is essential. Many of the rules discussed in

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

this paper have application beyond the remit of jazz: for example, optimal
environments for listening and ways to enhance the experience of being an audience
member in terms of socializing and relaxing. The Spins success must, in part, be
related to its choice to develop a community, or club, of like-minded individuals
who support its activities almost as a matter of routine, suggesting that the current
focus on developing new audiences may be better dedicated to understanding how to
sustain current audiences and increase their loyalty to events within particular venues
(Hayes and Slater 2010).
(7882 words)

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Notes on contributors
Karen Burland is a Lecturer in Music Psychology at the University of Leeds with research
interests in musical development, musical identities and creative collaboration. She has
published widely in well-respected journals and participated in numerous interdisciplinary
research collaborations. Karen is currently Reviews Editor for the British Journal of Music
Education and a member of the SEMPRE (Society for Education, Music and Psychology
Research) Committee.
Stephanie Pitts is a Reader in Music at the University of Sheffield, with research interests in
music education and the social psychology of music. She is the author of books including
Valuing Musical Participation (Ashgate, 2005), Chances and Choices: Exploring the Impact of
Music Education (Oxford 2012) and, with Eric Clarke and Nicola Dibben, Music and Mind in
Everyday Life (Oxford, 2010).

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Belk, R.W. 1988. Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research 15: 139
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Burland, K., and S.E. Pitts. 2010. Understanding jazz audiences: Listening and learning at the
Edinburgh Jazz and Blues Festival. Journal of New Music Research, Special Issue:
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DeNora, T. 2000. Music and everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Earl, P.E. 2001. Simons travel theorem and the demand for live music. Journal of Economic
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Hargreaves, D.J. and A.C. North, eds. 1997. The social psychology of music. Oxford: Oxford
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Hayes, D., and A. Slater. 2010. Rethinking the missionary position
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Appendix 1: Audience questionnaire

This questionnaire forms part of a research project based at the Universities of Leeds and
Sheffield investigating the role that music plays in peoples lives. We would be grateful if you
would complete the following short survey about your general musical activities, and your
reasons for attending jazz events at The Spin. Responses will be treated as confidential and
reported anonymously in publications arising from the study. Many thanks for your
participation.
Dr Karen Burland, School of Music, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT
(k.burland@leeds.ac.uk).
Information about you
1. Are you: 17 or under 18
25 26
35 36
45 46
55 56
65 66
75 76 or over
2. Are you: male
female
3. What is your current occupation? ______________________________________________
Attending The Spin
4. What are your main reasons for attending this
I have been before and enjoyed the experience.
I am a jazz enthusiast.
I really like the artists who are performing.

event? (Please tick all that apply)

I enjoy hearing live music of high quality.
I like the venue as a performance space.
I wanted to try something new.

Other (please give details):________________________________________________________

5. How often do you attend gigs at The Spin?_______________________________________

540

K. Burland and S. Pitts

6. How do you decide which gigs to attend? (Please tick all that apply)
The style of jazz The performer(s) Particular instruments Cost Venue
My availability Friends availability General interest Recommendation
Other (please give details): ___________________________________________________
7. Please tell us about a particularly memorable gig which you have experienced at The Spin.
8. What appeals to you most about live music events at The Spin?
9. From your perceptions of other people attending The Spin, how would you describe a
typical audience member?
Age and gender ______________________________________________________________
Musical interests/experience____________________________________________________
Likely occupation ____________________________________________________________

Other characteristics ________________________________________________

10. How closely do you fit the pattern you have described above?

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Music in your life

11. Do you attend any other jazz (or other music) gigs during the year? If so, please provide details:
12. How often do you attend live music events?
once a week several times a month every so often rarely
13. What types of music do you most often choose when attending live performances?
14. How often do you listen to recorded music?
every day several times a week once a week every so often rarely never
15. What kinds of music do you prefer when listening to recorded music?
16. To what extent is listening to music and attending gigs an important part of your life?
17. Are you involved in singing or playing music yourself ? If so, please give details.
18. Would you describe yourself as a musician? Please explain . . .
MANY THANKS FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY
Please leave your completed questionnaire in one of the boxes in the Foyer after the
performance. If you would like more time to complete the questionnaire, please use the stamped
addressed envelope to return it by post.
If you are willing to take part in a follow-up interview, please give your contact details below:

NAME:
TELEPHONE:

E-MAIL:

Appendix 2: Interview schedule

1. Could you start by telling me when you first attended The Spin and why?
What were your first impressions of the venue?
What were your first impressions of the audience?
If youve been attending from the start
what difference did The Spin make to the jazz
scene in Oxford and surrounding area?
If not
what do you think The Spin contributes to the jazz scene in Oxford and
surrounding area?
2. How has your attendance at The Spin developed from there? [see questionnaire for starting
points]
How often do you attend?
What affects your decision to attend?
Do you tend to go alone or with friends?

Social Semiotics

541

3. [For long-term attenders] Has The Spin changed at all over the time that youve been
attending?
How has the programming altered, if at all?
Has the audience profile or behaviour changed at all?
4. Please tell me about a gig thats been a particular highlight for you [see questionnaire for
lead on this]. What qualities made the gig special?
What was the atmosphere in The Spin that night?
What appealed to you particularly about those performers or the music?
Did that gig have any impact on your future listening or attendance?
5. Has there been a gig at The Spin that you havent enjoyed?
What didnt you enjoy
music, performers, atmosphere?

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6. What would you change, if anything, about The Spin?

Why/explain . . .
7. What particularly appeals to you about listening to jazz?
Music, performers, nature of gigs?
How is jazz different from other styles of music?
If youve attended other jazz venues or festivals, how have your listening experiences varied
between places/events?
We carried out some previous research at the Edinburgh Jazz and Blues Festival: have you
ever attended? If so, what were best and worst aspects for you?
8. Now wed like to ask some questions about your live music listening, other than jazz. Have
you been to any other live music events within the last six months?
What, where, how often?
How important is The Spin compared to your other regular gig/concert attendance?
Do live music events offer you something that recorded music doesnt? Explain . . .
9. Can you now say a little more about your recorded music listening?
How often do you listen to recorded music? Where, when, why . . .
Are your musical tastes different for recorded music and live listening?
Does your live listening have an impact on your recorded listening
or vice versa?
10. What role does music play in your life?
Social, supporting friends, enjoyment, escape . . .
11. You described yourself as a musician/not a musician: how do you define the term musician?
What are the qualities of a musician?
What skills do musicians have?
Why do you think you are not a musician? (especially if they play)
12. If a musician: can you tell me a bit about yourself as a musician?
For how long have you played/sung? Do you play in any ensembles?
How often do you perform?
What does playing music offer you?
Does listening to music offer you the same as playing/singing? Explain
13. Do you have any other comments that you would like to make about The Spin and the role
of music in your life . . .?

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K. Burland and S. Pitts

Appendix 3: Sample diary questions

Diary
Name:
Have you attended a gig at The Spin during the past week?
Yes
No
Please describe the gig (who was playing, what style of music it was, who you attended with).
What made you decide to attend this gig?

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How enjoyable did you find the gig? Please describe what you enjoyed in particular
(performers, venue or atmosphere).
Was there anything you didnt enjoy about the gig? If so, please explain.
How did this gig compare with others you have seen at The Spin?
Have you been to any other live music events this week?
Yes
No
How many other live music events have you attended this week?
Please describe the event (who was playing, what style of music it was, where it took place, who
you attended with). If you have been to more than one event this week then you will be given
the opportunity to write about the other events in turn.
What made you decide to attend this event?
How enjoyable did you find it? Please describe what you enjoyed in particular (performers,
venue or atmosphere).
Was there anything you didnt enjoy about the gig? If so, please explain.
How did this gig compare with others you have been to either at The Spin or elsewhere?
Have you been to another live music event that you would like to tell us about?
Yes
No
Have you listened to recorded music during the past week?
Yes
No
How frequently have you listened to music?
Every day
4
6 days
2
3 days
1 day
What have you been listening to this week? (style of music, artists, instruments, etc.)
What has influenced your choice of music listening this week?
Is there a particular time of day that you have listened to music this week? Please describe
when you have tended to listen to music (when driving, at the end of the day or when reading).
Have you enjoyed listening to music this week? Please explain your answer.

Social Semiotics

543

How has your experience of playing compared with the other musical activities you have
participated in this week (gig attendance or listening)?
Have you been involved in playing or performing music yourself this week?
Yes
No
How many times have you played this week?
Every day
4
6 times
2
3 times
Once

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What kinds of playing have you been involved with? Please provide as much detail as possible
(e.g. style of music, solo/ensemble, repertoire and instruments involved).
Where has your playing taken place this week (at home, at a friends house or at a particular
venue)?
What have you particularly enjoyed about playing this week? Please explain.
Is there anything you havent enjoyed about your playing this week? Please explain.
How has your experience of playing compared with the other musical activities you have
participated in this week (gig attendance or listening)?
Do you have any comments about your experiences of listening, attending gigs or performing
that you would like to make this week?