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3
Sociolinguistics for Heritage
Language Educators and Students
A Model for Critical Translingual Competence
57
56
educators and policy; it can help IIL students critically reAect on their own
experiences, ideologies, and understanding of themselves ,IS speakers of the
heritage language.
58
Language Variation
As most people recognize, language varies from place to place, with speakers
in different locales exhibiting phonological, lexical, syntactic, morphologi
cal, and pragmatic variation. For example, the french commonly spoken in
Montreal, Canada, is different from that spoken in Abidjan, Ivory Coast; and
the Spanish spoken in T:icna, Peru, is different from that spoken in Pucalpa,
also in Peru. Such vari,1tion is particularly rclev,1nt in IIL contexts bccausc
students' home varieties may differ from the one(s) spoken by the instruc
tor or used in the classroom. The failure to recognize :rnd legitimate stu
dents' home varieties can damage their self-esteem as well .is their ,1cademic
achievement and llL mainten.ince (Bartolome and Macedo 1999; Carreira
2007; T lorn berger 2005). For example, Doerr and Lee (2009) describe the
1mirginalization experienced by a IIL speaker of Os:i bn Japanese in a J,tpa
nesc complementary school th.it privileged the 'I <>kyo standard. The case
of Chinese is particularly extreme, given that different "varieties" arc actu
ally mutually unintelligible and are considered by most linguists to be dis
tinct langui1gcs. Jn the United States, 1mny HL speakers of Chinese speak
Cantonese whereas many Chincse-Llnguagc pedagogical materials focus
exclusively on Mandarin (Wu, Lee, and Leung 2014). As Wu and colb1gucs
nrgue, th.is mismatch can negatively impact students' identities and invest
ment in maintaining their IIL language.
ln addition to reAecting particular geographic regions, ccrt:oiin pronuncia
tions, gramm:oitical structures, or lexical items can index social class, educa
tionid attainment, or sexual ickntity. So too, particular linguistic features or
practices may be lin keel to specific social networks or cliques (Eckert 2012;
Mendoza-Denton 2008) or other communities of practice-groups of people
who come together around a shared activity (Lnve and Wenger 1998). HL
students in the United States sometimes speak language va rictics associated
with rural communities of their, or their parents', home countries. \,Vhcreas
carly studies of socird variation sought to identi ry Jifferenccs in the ways
these different groups of people used language, current understanding is that
rather than detennining language use, social identity is constructed anti per
formed through language (Bucholtz and I lall 2005; Eckert 2012). for example,
a study of I TL speakers of Salvadoran and Honduran Spanish found that the
pronoun "vos" (absent in many geographic varieties of Spanish, and associ
ated with low socioeconomic status in some) was nscd to perform solidarity
with Centnil American Spanish-speakcrs or to mark ethnic boundaries with
those ofotbcr backgrounds (Rivera-Mills 2011).
59
60
61
62
63
64
1o
Our model for the incorporation of sociolinguistics builds on previous calls for
critical language awareness in Spanish IIL education (e.g., 1\tfartfnez 2003; Lee
man 2005; Leeman and Rabin 2007 ) while also incorporating some elements
of the MLA proposal-in particular, the goal of fostering students' "ability to
65
66
67
Multilingualism
Language Variation
68
69
tension surrounding such contact. One way for students to further explore
this topic is to critically examine the choice of language variety in radio, tele
vision, and news broadcasting, along the lines of Mahmoud Al BataJ's (2002)
analysis of the mixing of the formal "standard" variety, fulfa, and the Leba
nese colloquial variety in forty local news broadcasts in Lebanon.
It is crucial that students also study contextual and stylistic variation,
including socially indexed meanings, and the role of variation in identity
performance and ascription. Film and TV clips can be used to explore how
different languages and language varieties are used to portray characters
in different ways (see Lippi-Green 2012 for discussion of the association of
nonstandard varieties of English with villains in Disney movies; sec Fuller
2012 regarding the linking of Spanish to traditional values; and sec Ble
ichenbacher 2008 for a discussion of the discursive functions of multilin
gualism in Hollywood movies). Connections between identity construction
and language variation could also be explored through playing audio snip
pets of a dialogue in a movie and asking students to interpret the characters'
identities basecl solely on their speech. To expose and examine competing
social n1eanings and norms regarding variation, students could administer
surveys or conduct interviews regarding the attitudes held by family, peers,
and community members toward different ways of performing speech acts in
the beritage language (e.g., greetings, farewells, forms of address, thanking,
making requests) in different situational contexts (e.g., home, school, work)
(see Correa 2011; .Martfnez 2003; Rodriguez Pino and Villa 1994). Crucially,
discussion must include a consideration of the social and power dynamics
undergirding the results (Leeman 2005).
Discussions of social variation and identity should also include activities
explicitly highlighting the role of speaker agency in choosing among different
linguistic forms and styles. In this regard, movie dips can be used to show not
only ho,v certain varieties are associated with certain social groups or situ
ations but also how characters style-shift between varieties in their linguis
tic repertoire in the construction and performance of identity (e.g., the Key
and Peele series on Comedy Central). In order to explore this further, students
could carry out analyses of how they use different languages and language
varieties on a daily basis as well as how, when, and under what conditions they
mix languages (NI acGregor-Mendoza 1999). A key element of such activities is
for students to analyze the various factors that shape their language choices and
the (invisible) meanings conveyed by those choices, such as in the activity based
on African American Vernacular English described by H. Samy Alim (2010).
Another activity that can be used to highlight both contextual variation
and the agentive use of different styles to convey different social meanings
involves asking students to brainstorm different HL expressions for a specific
topic, for example, asking about someone's health in a range of settings, such
as friendly conversation among friends and in a consultation with a doctor
in a hospital setting (e.g., "How are you feeling?" versus "Tell me about your
70
(2014) notes, the choice of variety used in the classroom is less important
than students' recognition that it involved a choice.
Finally, students should be given tools to grapple with the personal
impact of language ideologies, such as through language shift within their
family or personal experiences with linguistic discrimination. As mentioned
previously, digital storytelling is one pedagogical technique that positions
students as storytellers and cultural experts. Several recent I-IL service
lcarning projects have also sought to empower students as experts and activ
ists combating linguistic discrimination in local communities (see Leeman,
Rabin, and Roman-Mendoza 2011; Lowther Pereira 2015; Martinez and
Schwartz 2012).
71
CONCLUSION
how they should speak in various situations, our goals include fostering stu
dents' agency and their understanding of linguistic knowledge as a creative
resource for performing identities, negotiating social relationships, and navi
gating political hierarchies. In line with critical pedagogical approaches, our
proposed learner-centered objectives include achieving critical translingual
competence and ensuring students' full participation in shaping and remak
ing the world in which they live.
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72
NOTES
1. A full discussion of the compcting definitions of "heritage language" is beyond
the scope of this chapter, but see Hornberger and Wang (2008), Leeman (2015)
and Van Deusen-Scholl (2003). In this chapter, we are referring primarily to
"foreign" or additional language education designed for learners who have some
home knowledge of that language. It should be noted that while heritage lan
guage education is a growing ticld within "foreign" language education, far too
few 1 IL speakers have access to such programs (Wiley 2005b).
2. Unfortunately, even when paying lip service to the equality of all varieLies,
teaching materials often continue to uphold Eurnpcan or "global" Sp,1nish ,is
the model and to disparage contact varieties (Ducar 2009; Garcfa 2009; Lee
man and Martinez 2007; Lynch and Porowski 2014). There is a similar ueecl for
greater recognition of bilingual practices and regionaI varieties in the te,1ching
of other HLs; asJeffrey Bale (2010) notes, Arabic F-JL progrnrns tend to focus
exclusively on Modern Standard Arabic, while most Chinese textbooks were
developed for either n.1tive speakers (e.g., in China or Taiwan) or foreign-lan
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