Short Notes (Questions-Answers) On

Research Methodology
&
Medical Statistics
(For BAMS, MD, MBBS, B.Pharma, M.Pharma)

Dr. Prashant Kumar Jha

GCIP, DIM, PGDEE, M.Sc. Ph.D.

Reader, ALNRMAMC

Dr. Sanjaya K.S.

MD (Ayu)

Principal,
ALNRMAMC

First Edition: 2017

ARMARC Publications,
Aroor Educational Trust,
ALN Rao Memorial Ayurvedic Medical College,
Koppa-577126
Dist.: Chikmagalur, Karnataka, India

Patron: Aroor Ramesh Rao

All rights are reserved. No Parts of this book
can be reproduced or stored in information
system without prior written permission of Author.

CONTENTS
Research Methodology
1.

Preface

i-ii

Research in Ayurveda

1 - 16

Definition and etymology of Anveshana, Gaveshana, Prayeshana, Anusandhan, Shodha

1-2

Pramanas as tools of reaseach in Ayurveda

2-8

Historical background of research in Ayurveda

8-11

Scopes of research in Ayurveda

11-12

Reasons of need of research in Ayurveda

13-15

Importances and utilities of research in Ayurveda 15-16

2.

Research and Types of Research

18-31

Definition, objectivity and goal of research

18-20

Types of research

20-23

Differences between qualitative and quantitative 24-25

research; merits and demerits of mixed research
Meaning of observation in research; types of ob- 25-26
servations and their link with potential issues in
research
Observation and interventional study designs and
their types

26-30

3.

Preclinical and clinical research designs

30-31

Research Processes

33-48

Research problem, selection of topic and its im- 33-35

portances
Review of literature and its importances

35-37

Hypothesis, its characteristics, ways of its testing 37-39

and its importances
Aims and objectives, their characteristics, points 39-40
to write them and their importances
Materials and methods, steps to write them and 40-42
their importances
Result/observation, its features, steps to write re- 42-44
sult/observation and its importances
Discussion, steps to write discussion and its im- 44-45
portances
Conclusion, steps to write conclusion and its im- 45-46
portances
Communication of research and methods of com- 46-48
munication

4.

Concept of Ethics in Research and Importances

of Ethics in Research

5.

50-51

Concept of Evidence Based Medicine (EBM),

Steps of EBM, Advantages and
Disadvantages of EBM

6.

Scientific Writing, Its Purpose and Basic

Structure

7.

53-54

56-57

Importances of IT (Information Technology)

in Data Mining and Research Portals in
Ayurveda

59-63

Importances of IT in Data mining

59-60

Research data portal concerned with Ayurveda

and contemporary medicine, steps to search data
using such portals
DHARA, Pubmed, Ayush ResearchPortal, 61-63
Bioinformatics Center Research Management
Informatics System

Medical Statistics
1.

Introduction of Statistics

67-72

Statistics and its characteristics

67-68

Medical statistics, its importances and scopes

68-70

Functions and limitations of statistics

2.

Statistical enquiry and its stages

69-72

Sample and Population

74-75

Difference between sample and population

Sample, use of sample, main objectives and
theory of sampling

3.

70

74
74-75

Data and Variable

77-100

Data, types of data

77-79

Methods of data collection

79-81

Variables and types of variables

81

Data presentation and its importances

82

Tabulation and parts of table

82-84

Requisite of good table, types of table

84-85

Advantages of diagrammatic and graphical

presentation, differences between diagrams and
graphs.

85-86

Rules for constructing diagrams, types of diagrams 86-87

Line diagram or line chart

88

Bar diagram, important points to draw a bar diagram, types of bar diagram.
88-93
Two-dimensional diagrams and their types,
contruction of pie diagram/chart

94-96

Histogram, difference between histogram and bar

diagram
96-97
Frequency polygon, frequency curve, pictogram,
cartogram
98-100

4.

Central Tendency
Measures of location and measures of dispersion, measures of central tendency and measures of spread
Statistical average, its uses and desirable
properties

102-110

102
102-103

Mean, median, mode, geometric mean,

harmonic mean, range and interquartile range,
percentile, variance and standard deviation
103-110

5.

Probability

112-121

Concept of probability with mathematical or

priori approach and relative frequency or
empirical approach.

112-113

Definition of experiment and random

experiment, trial and event, exhaustive cases,

favourable cases to events, mutually exclusive

events or cases, equally likely cases, independent events, set, null set, sub-set, universal set,
outcome, addition theory of points.
113-114
Axiomatic probability, conditional probability,
addition theory of probability, multiplication
theory of probability, Bayes theorem
114-117
Normal distribution and its probability density
function and important properties
117-1119
Test of significance

119

Significance level, P-values mean in hypothesis

test, statistical significance
119-120

6.

Type I error, Type II error

120-121

Statistical Tests

123-145

Nonparametric tests, advantages and disadvantages of nonparametric tests, differences

between nonparametric and parametric tests 123-124
Corresponding nonparametric tests relevant to
parametric tests.
124-125
Skewness, different types of skewness,
kurtosis.

125-126

Correlation, types of correlation, causes of

correlation

126-127

Methods of studying correlation, Karl

Pearsons coefficient of correlation

128-129

Wilcoxon rank-sum test, Wilcoxon signed-rank

test, Kruskal-wallis test, Spearmans rank
correlation coefficient, McNemars test,
Chi square
129-134
Students t-test, its probability density function,
its chief properties
134-135
T-test and application of t-distribution

135-136

Types of t-test

136-137

Z-test, its properties and application

137-139

F-statistic, its properties and application

ANOVA
Assumptions of ANOVA, application and
properties of ANOVA

7.

140
140-142
142

Principles of ANOVA

142-144

Post hoc tests and their uses

144-145

Statistical Software

147-149

Statistical software, importances of statistical

software, commonly used statistical software

147-149

Preface
Any of scientists, businessmen, students, politicians etc.
comes across research in his/her daily life by means of gathering
information, analyzing them and processing for better result with or
without knowing about the methodology or design. None of them
can negate the importance and utility of research and statistics. For
better performance and yield, we need to understand the
methodology or design of research with cognition of statistical
aspects. Students feel problem in apprehension with complexities
of subjects, so it becomes necessary to remind the students that
the original idea is simple and graspable.
Present book is directed at undergraduate and
postgraduate students from medical science (BAMS, MBBS) and
pharmaceutical science. It may also be helpful to researchers to
design their projects. The effort made in this book is to simplify the
subject for understanding and use at basic level. For the purpose,
topics are explained in terms of probable raising questions and
their answers. The book is segmented in research methodology
and medical statistics parts with appreciation of easy perceiving.7
chapters are included in each of Research Methodology and
Medical Statistics section.
Research is not new to Indian medicine, so the chapter
starts with citations of research in different ancient texts. Relevance
of those citations with present research methodology is time-tested.
i

Illustrations are inserted at appropriate place for understanding.

Research designs are classified with basic consideration of aim of
research. Instructions about important points to write the research
processes are mentioned. Idea about medical ethics, evidence based
medicine, scientific writing etc. are presented. Tools and techniques
to utilize the information technology for research are added.
In Medical Statistics portion, other than the introduction
of statistics and medical statistics, basic information of data and
use of proper data collection methods are given. It is observed
that many of researchers lack the information about the appropriate
technique of data presentation, so it is made easy to understand
and opt with suitable one. Important parametric and nonparametric
tests are shown to be selected according to taken research problems
and research design. Some of commonly used statistical softwares
are quoted with idea to use for the purpose of statistical analysis.
I am grateful to all of them who enabled me to shape this
work as book. Story starts with my god, Lord Hanuman, who
shows the path for creation. A great inspiration came from the
president of Aroor Educational Trust, Honourable Aroor
Ramesh Rao sir, his wife Smt. Shantha Rao and his son Shri
Arvind Rao sir. Any thankfulness in words is less for them. Right
from beginning of my study in research since last 17 years, my
father Shri Bimal Chandra Jha taught me to share the knowledge
to world in very simplified way what maximum of persons can
easily get. I have tried my best to make the subject as well as
ii

language used with this book easier. I am thankful to you. Other

than my wife, my mother and other family members, lots of people
encouraged at a time or many times for creative works related
with my research projects. My gratitudes are always there with
you all. I appreciate and extend my thankfulness to all my students
who insisted to bring my teachings of their classes in book form.

Koppa: 2nd January 2017

Dr. Prashant Kumar Jha

iii