Bragg Reflection and Duane Hunt Relation

Dana J. Koczur
Minnesota State University Moorhead, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Moorhead MN
April 6, 2016
Introduction:

Braggs law of diffraction was derived in 1913 by English physicists Sir William Lawrence
Bragg and his son. As discussed by Compton in The Quantum Integral and Diffraction by a
Crystal, this law explains why crystals reflect X-ray beams at certain incident angles1.
= 2 sin()
(1)
Where n is an integer, is the wavelength of the waves,
d is the distance between atomic layers in a crystal and
is the angle of incidence between direction of travel of
the wave and atomic plane. They understood how the
arrangement of atoms or ions in a crystal can be related
to a parallel lattice plane as seen in figure 1. Martin
mentions further in Single molecule imaging with
longer x-ray laser pulses, Bragg Diffraction occurs when
electromagnetic radiation hits a crystal lattice barrier
and scatters. Braggs Law allows for calculating the
effects of diffraction on that crystal lattice2. The
Figure 1: Derivation of the Bragg equation.
The incoming plane waves are in phase, but
derivation of this equation is easier to understand
visually. Figure 1 shows how Braggs diffraction looks off a the outgoing reflected waves are not in
phase because of the two path lengths
crystal lattice similar to the NaCl crystal used in this x-ray
differ by a distance 2d sin , where d is the
experiment. Braggs reflection is an important part of this
2
separation of the atomic planes .
experiment to make sure the machine itself is accurate
and has as little error as possible when continuing to Duane Hunt Relation.
In correlation to the discovery in 1913, in 1915, physicists William Duane and Franklin
Hunt discovered an inverse proportionality between the limit wavelength and the tube high
voltage,
1

min ~

(2)

This equation comes from the relationship of wavelength () and frequency (v) for any
electromagnetic radiation starting with,

(3)

In this equation the velocity of light C = 2.99 *10 m s . Now min from equation 1
corresponds to the maximum frequency vmax respectively a maximum energy now equal to the
equation,
=
(4)
The value of h in this equation is equal to Plancks constant. This value can be found when an xray quantum attains maximum energy at precisely the moment in which it acquires the total
kinetic energy,
8

-1

E=
(5)
Where e = 1.6022 * 10 C or elementary charge of an electron decelerated in the anode. This
equation is then followed by,

=
(6)
-19

Respectively,
min =

(7)

Equation 7 corresponds to Duane Hunts law where the proportionality factor,

A=

(8)

can be used to determine Plancks constant h when the quantities c and e are known.
The goal of this experiment is to
determine Planks constant using the Duane
Hunt Relation. As discussed by Lipovka in
Duane-Hunt relation improved2, the known
Brehmsstrahlung Continuum
values of the NaCl crystal allow the use of
Braggs law using the first order of diffraction
value, n = 1, for any given angle of incidence
corresponding with the wavelength that gets
reflected. The crystal in this experiment can be
treated as an energy filter. X-rays are emitted
from electrons accelerated in a vacuum and
Figure 2: Spectrum of x-rays. The Duane-Hunt
shot at the crystal. The spectrum is recorded as
relationship explains why the curve goes to zero
before decreasing into the alpha and beta peaks.
shown in figure 2 is recorded by the sensor.
The Bremsstrahlung continuum can be
seen at the beginning of this plot where the line increases to zero. As mentioned by Perkovac in
Statistical test of Duane-Hunts law and its comparison with an alternative law Milan
Perkovac3, accelerated charges give off electromagnetic radiation, and when the energy of the
shot electrons is high enough, that radiation is in the x-ray spectrum. Bremsstrahlung is
characterized by the limit wavelength min. min gets very small as the tube voltage is
increased in the x-ray machine.
Braggs Diffraction and the Duane Hunt Relation are monumental in the research of
small, ordered structures. Humphreys discusses this in The significance of Braggs law in
electron diffraction and microscopy, and Braggs second law, and how this research led to the
relationships between the behavior of x-rays as waves of having wavelike properties and the
arrangement of crystals on a molecular level6. The relationship between Braggs Diffraction and
the Duane Hunts Law has been used to reach many different levels of understanding on big
and small levels in radiation and atomic structures.

Methods:

The schematic can be seen in figure 3 for

this experiment. This experiment uses a NaCl
crystal in an X-ray apparatus model 554 81
Rontgengerat. This machine also uses the program
X-ray Apparatus Windows 95/98/NT to run the
machine itself.
The mono crystal is placed in between the
counter tube and collimator on the target stage
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the diffraction of X-rays
mount. Gloves need to be worn to handle the
at the NaCl crystal. The x-rays come from the
crystal. This is very important not to damage or
collimator, hit the crystal and are measured in the
contaminate the crystal. The stage mount is
counter tube. The arrows represent the direction the xmoved up against a ledge to prevent movement
rays travel. This shows how the crystal and sensor
rotate through different angles.
of the crystal using the loosened knurl screw on
the side of the target stage mount. The
goniometer rods allow movement of the distance between the slit diaphragm and the
collimator. This distance is set to 5 cm. The distance between the mono crystal and the counter
tube is set to 6 cm.
Once the crystal is in place the machine needs to be zeroed for accuracy. The first peak
in the crystal is at 7.2. Using the buttons on the front, the machine is first coupled and the
angle of the counter tube is changed to find out where the current peak is. The peak should be
around the 7.2 angle. The peak is narrowed into using the sensor and target buttons. The
difference between the actual peak and the measured peak is then re-zeroed to make the
accuracy right on. It is zeroed by pushing the target, coupled, and button all at the same time.
The machine was run again to make sure this new zeroed scale is accurate. Before running the
program on the computer, the machine was put back into the zero stage.
The schematic diagram in figure 3 also shows the diffraction of the NaCl crystal. This
diagram shows the goniometer with a NaCl crystal and a Geiger-Muller counter tube in the
Bragg configuration. All of these pieces together form the configuration needed to comprise the
spectrometer. The crystal and counter tube are pivoted with respect to the incident X-ray beam
and -2 coupling between the counter-tube angle (2) and the scattering angle ().
After the crystal is in place, the X-ray Apparatus software is started. The tube high voltage U = 22
kV, the emission current I = 1.00 mA, the measuring time per angular step t = 30 s, and the angular
step width = 0.1. The COUPLED key was pressed to activate 2 coupling of targer and sensor and set
the lower limit of the target angle to 5.2 and the upper limit to 6.2. Start measurement and data
transfer to the PC by pressing the SCAN key. The U value was changed each time for different kV values
to show the effects as energy is changed including U = 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and 35 kV.

Figure 4: This figure shows the values for the recommended

settings for the x-ray apparatus.

Results:

The data was recorded and put into an Excel document to evaluate the data. The
measured Braggs scatter angles recorded were compared to the calculated angles. The counts
were significant for each Braggs Peak at the expected values. The measurements for Braggs
Scatter were taken 3 times to provide significant accuracy with little error. As seen in figure 4
the emission spectrum of the x-ray tube with the limit wavelength.
The Duane-Hunt experiment was run immediately after with 8 different kV changes
including U = 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and 35 kV. These are all shown in figure 4. The
measured values found in the experiment will be compared to the theoretical value of
6.62607004*10-34 m2 kg/s.

Figure 5: This figure shows the plotted values for the Braggs Peaks for 3 separate measurements. This
emission spectrum of the x-ray tube with the limit wavelength min shows the bremsstrahlung continuum
and the characteristic K and K lines. is the wavelength and R is the count rate.

Figure 6: This figure shows the plotted values for the Duane-Hunt measurements for 8 separate
measurements where the kV values were changed. Each one shows different sections of diffraction
spectra of x-radiation voltages U = 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, and 35 kV from right to left with the best-fit
straight line for determining the limit.

Figure 7: This figure shows the plotted values for the Duane-Hunt measurements from the previous
graph. This evaluation of the data uses min = f(1/U) for confirming the Duane-Hunt relation and
determining Plancks constant. The error bars are so small on this image that runs on such a small scale
the error bars barely show up = 0.117.

Plancks constant was determined by placing min in the y direction and 1/U in the x direction
as seen in figure 7. Using these plots the value for A can be determined. The slope was 1298 7 pm
which was A in equation 8. The other values are already known and equation 8 from above can be used
to determine Plancks constant = 6.53995 *10-34 m2 kg/s. Now this value can be compared to the
theoretical value of 6.62607004*10-34 m2 kg/s 0.117. The error came from the linear regression fit to
figure 7.
Discrepancy of the measurements are analyzed using error bars. The error bars tell how far
away from the original value the experimentally measured value is. After 3 error bars from the actual
value or reference point the data is significantly different and not accurate. Error analyzes method was
used to compare the actual Plancks constant with the measured value to get an error bar difference of
2.66.

Conclusion:
In conclusion this experiment tests the relationship between Braggs Peaks and the DuaneHunts Law and how to use it to measure Plancks constant. Braggs Scatter helps to determine how the
crystal interacts with the x-rays. Duane-Hunts shows how the slope of the line in the relationship can be
related to Plancks constant using the proportionality factor in this case is 1298 7pm. There is a direct

relation to the different values of U (which is the change in kV) and angle of diffraction. This is supported
by the data collected. The Experimental value for the Plancks constant found is = 6.53995 *10-34 m2 kg/s
0.117. The theoretical values for the diffraction peaks and measured values match. The error bars tell
how much of a difference from the theoretical value the actual measurements lie. The value of 2.66
error bars was found and is very close to the theoretical value and shows the experiment to be
acceptable and a success. To attempt a more accurate experiment, it is possible to take more data at
each peak or use different equipment.

References:
12

1
2
3
4

A.H. Compton, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 9, 359 (1923).

A. V. Martin, J.K. Corso, C. Caleman, N. Timneanu, and H.M. Quiney, IUCrJ 2, 661 (2015).
A. Lipovka and I. Cardenas, 1, 101 (2015).
M. Perkovac, 2, 1 (2010).

C.J. Humphreys, Acta Crystallogr. Sect. A Found. Crystallogr. 69, 45 (2013).

Appendix:
The values from the X-ray apparatus were saved into an Excel sheet. This is the example of the first
measurements for the Braggs Peaks.
n&l /
R_5 /
R_6 /
R_7 /
pm
1/s
1/s
1/s
24.6
7
3
9
25.6
5
4
9
26.6
2
5
6
27.6
2
4
7
28.5
4
11
0
29.5
3
3
4
30.5
5
1
5
31.5
7
2
8
32.5
3
4
6
33.4
4
7
8
34.4
7
9
10
35.4
34
45
39
36.4
95
96
90
37.4
165
131
151
38.4
249
208
209
39.3
296
288
290
40.3
345
315
341
41.3
400
371
397
42.3
430
451
444
43.3
408
449
463

Every count made for each rotation of the crystal for each run for Duane-Hunts Law.
n&l
/
pm

R_0 /
1/s

R_1 /
1/s

R_2 /
1/s

R_3 /
1/s

R_4 /
1/s

R_5 /
1/s

R_6 /
1/s

R_7 /
1/s

R_8 /
1/s

24.6
25.6
26.6
27.6
28.5
29.5
30.5
31.5
32.5
33.4
34.4
35.4
36.4
37.4
38.4
39.3
40.3
41.3
42.3
43.3
44.3
45.2
46.2
47.2
48.2
49.2
50.1
51.1
52.1
53.1
54.1
55
56
57
58
59
59.9
60.9

0.33
0.4
0.53
0.43
0.73
3.2
11.2
24.73
40.37
54.07
64.87

0.87
0.87
4
14.33
33.53
54.33
70.7
87.1
99.03
109.73
118
120.9
137.2

1.4
1.1
1.4
6.7
21.6
47.2
75
95.3
113.6
136.8
147.9
157.6
162.4
178.2
174.6
178.8
186.8
212.7

1.4
0.9
1.3
6.5
23.9
46.1
73.7
98.3
118.5
132.9
150.2
159.2
169.2
177.6
171.6
174.9
184.8
204.6

1.9
1.4
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.8
4.3
17.8
44.5
80.4
101.5
132.3
153.2
171.4
189.4
205.5
217.7
228.3
231.6
233.3
241.8
233.3
238.4

2.5
1.8
2.1
2.9
1.9
1.4
1.4
2.7
2
6.9
24.5
57.7
89.6
121.6
156.8
186
212
226.5
246.9
269.5
264.4
294
292
290.4
295.9
292.2
284.6
295.2
282.2

3.7
4.1
2.7
3.7
2.3
3
3.7
3.4
2.4
3.1
3
2.9
3
4.8
19.1
48.9
91.3
133.8
166.7
199.9
226.2
256.7
275.5
293.5
311.3
324.5
328.6
333.7
344.2
355.5
349.6
350.8
352
340.1
329.1
330.8

5
3.1
4.3
2.9
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.4
3.8
2.9
4.5
11.7
35.5
75
119.3
155.4
188.2
230.6
262
281.8
316.7
332.5
360.2
367.8
380.9
387.8
406
405.8
410.6
418.8
409.3
393
403.1
390.4
378.4
367.6

6.1
3.7
4
4.4
4.5
4.7
3.9
3.5
4.8
5.5
10
36
80.5
121.7
169.1
206.8
248.8
269.2
307.2
323.8
355.3
375.8
388.2
411.5
408.6
419.5
431.3
432.6
442.5
446.3
434.8
430.3
428.2
415.2
406.5
391.2

To calculate the error bars in this experiment this equation is used, the error for the
experimental
| | |( 6.53995 10 34 m2 kg/s) (6.62607004 10 34 m2 kg/s)| . 086
=
=
||
. 03
. 03

= 2.66