Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Concrete dams
2. Embankment dams
1. Concrete dams
Concrete dams are those which
are constructed of concrete and
they are mainly of three types,
a. Gravity dams
b. Arc dams
c. Buttress dams
a. Gravity dams
Masonry dams that relied upon their weight for stability against sliding and
overturning date back 3000 to 4000 years, both upstream and downstream faces
were sloped and the base thickness was many times the height. In 1872 Rankine
proposed that there should be no tensile stress in a gravity dam. In 1895 Levy
proposed that the compressive stress in the material of the dam at the upstream
face should be greater than the water pressure at the corresponding depth in the
reservoir.
The danger from uplift had been recognized in 1882, and the danger of sliding
was highlighted by the failure of the Austin Dam, USA. The most recent advance
has been in the application of the finite element method of analysis.
Loading Criteria
In 1940 Houk and Keener, listed twenty five basic assumptions that should be
considered relative to the design of important masonry dams.
1. The rock that constitutes the foundation and abutments at the site is
strong enough to carry the forces imposed by the dam with stresses well
below the elastic limit at all places along the contact planes.
2. The bearing power of the geologic structure along the foundation and
abutments is great enough to carry the total loads imposed by the dam
without rock movements of detrimental magnitude.
3. The rock formations are homogeneous and uniformly elastic in all
directions, so that their deformations may be predicted satisfactorily by
calculations based on the theory of elasticiy, by laboratory measurements
on models constructed of elastic materials, or by combinations of both
methods.
4. The flow of the foundation rock under the sustained loads that result from
the construction of the dam and the filling of the reservoir may be
adequately allowed for by using a somewhat lower modulus of elasticity
than would otherwise be adopted for use in the technical analyses.
5. The base of the dam is thoroughly keyed into the rock formations along
the foundations and abutments.
6. Construction operations are conducted so as to secure a satisfactory bond
between the concrete and rock materials at all areas of contact along the
foundation and abutments.
7. The concrete in the dam is homogeneous in all parts of the structure.
8. The concrete is uniformly elastic in all parts of the structure, so that
deformations due to applied loads may be calculated by formulae derived
on the basis of the theory of elasticity or may be estimated from laboratory
measurements on models constructed of elastic materials.
9. Effects of flow of concrete may be adequately allowed for by using a
somewhat lower modulus of elasticity under sustained loads than would
otherwise be adopted for use in technical analyses.
10. Contractions joints are properly grouted under adequate pressures, or
open slots are properly filled with concrete, so that the dam may be
considered to act as a monolith.
11. Sufficient drains are installed in the dam to reduce such uplift pressures as
may develop along areas of contact between the concrete and rock
materials.
12. Effects of increases in horizontal pressures caused by silt contents of
flood waters usually may be ignored in designing high storage dams, but
may require consideration in designing relatively low diversion structures.
13. Uplift forces adequate for analysing conditions at the base of the dam are
adequate for analysing conditions at horizontal concrete cross sections
above the base.
14. Internal stresses caused by natural shrinkage and by artificial cooling
operations may be adequately controlled by proper spacing of contraction
joints.
15. Internal stresses caused by increases in concrete temperature after
grouting are beneficial.
16. Maximum pressures used in contraction joint grouting operations should
be limited to such values as may be shown to the safe by appropriate
stress analyses.
17. No section of the United Sates may be assumed to be entirely free from
the occurrence of earthquake shocks.
18. Assumptions of maximum earthquake accelerations equal to one tenth of
gravity are adequate for the design of important masonry dams without
including additional allowances for resonance effects.
19. Vertical as well as horizontal accelerations should be considered,
especially in designing gravity dams.
20. During the occurrence of temporary abnormal loads, such as those
produced by earthquake shocks, some increases in stress magnitudes
and some encroachments on usual factors of safety are permissible.
21. Effects of foundation and abutment deformations should be included in the
technical analyses.
22. In monolithic straight gravity dams, some proportions of the loads may be
carried by twist action and beam action at locations along the sloping
abutments, as well as by the more usually considered gravity action.
23. Detrimental effects of twist and beam action in straight gravity dams, such
as cracking caused by the development of tension stresses, may be
prevented by suitable construction procedure.
24. In monolithic curved gravity and arch dams, some proportions of the loads
may be carried by tangential shear and twist effects, as well as by the
more usually considered arch and cantilever actions.
25. The distribution of loads in masonry dams may be determined by bringing
the calculated deflections of the different systems of load transference into
agreement at all conjugate points in the structure.
Uplift
Stresses
It is significant that the maximum stresses do not occur at the downstream toe,
and there may be tension rather than compression at the upstream heel.
However, there is similarity between the two methods. It is important to check the
distribution and intensity of stress around galleries and other openings in the dam
and to provide adequate reinforcement to prevent propagation of cracks from
points of high stress concentration.
Contraction joints
Transverse Joints
Longitudinal Joints
Galleries
Appurtenant structures
The reluctance to use cables has been related to a lack of knowledge of steel
cables when embedded in concrete. It is however generally agreed that steel
does not rust when embedded in high quality concrete or cement grout in which
there are no cracks or interconnected voids.
The actual behaviour of the dam will depend upon the nature of the foundation
rock, any initial stress in the rock and the effect of saturation of the rock mass.
For reasonable stress distribution the depth of the anchorage should be not less
than the width of the base of the dam. The advantages of wires over bars are:
The allowable working stress in high tensile wires is usually greater than in
bars
Wire cables can be fabricated on site in one length, avoiding the use of
couplers that are necessary with bars and are a source of trouble
Cables can be accomodated in drilled holes whereas bars with couplers
usually require larger pits.
b. Arc Dams
The ultimate complexity of design and analysis of stresses is attained in arch and
dome dams. These dams are thin, curved structures commonly containing
reinforcement, either steel rods or prestressed steel cables the volume of
concrete required is much less than for gravity and gravity arch dams, but the
competency of bedrock in foundations and abutments to sustain or resist loads
must be of a high order.
Arch dams are usually built in narrow, deep gorges in mountainous regions
where access and availability of construction materials pose especially acute
problems.
Constant radius arch dams - commonly have a vertical upstream face with a
constant radius of curvature
Variable radius dams - have upstream and downstream curves (extrados and
intrados curves) of systematically decreasing radii with depth below the crest.
When a dam is also doubly curved, that is, it is curved in both horizontal and
vertical planes, it is sometimes called a dome dam. Some dams are constructed
with two or several contiguous arches or planes and are described as multiple
arch or multiple dome dams.
Analysis assumes that two major kinds of deflections or dislocations affect the
dam and its abutments. Pressure of water on the upstream face of the dam and
uplift pressures from seepage beneath the dam tend to rotate the dam about its
base by cantilever action. In addition the pressure of reservoir water tends to
flatten the arch and push it downstream.
An arch dam transfers loads to the abutments and foundations both by cantilever
action and through horizontal arches, and a method of distribution was
developed by Stucky in Switzerland and the USBoR.
The assumptions made are not strictly true so the effect of each must be
understood before accepting the design.
The concrete in the dam and the rock foundations are homogeneous and
isotropic;
Stresses within the elastic limit for both concrete and the rock formations
and that stress will be proportional to strain;
That plane sections before bending remain plane after bending;
That direct stresses vary linearly between the upstream and downstream
faces, in both arch and cantilever elements;
That the modulus of elasticity of concrete and the modulus of deformation
of the foundation are the same in tension as in compression;
That temperature stresses and strains are proportional to temperature
changes;
That water load on the reservoir walls does not cause differential
movements at the damsite;
That foundation deformations are independent of the shape of the
foundation;
That tensions are relieved by cracking so that all loads are carried by
compression and shear in the uncracked portions;
That the dam acts as a monlith, i.e. that contraction joints or slots have
been tightly grouted and that all shrinkage of the concrete has taken place
before this.
Steel reinforcement can reduce the thickness of the dam but at a cost. If
reinforcement was not used then cracking in the faces of an arch dam may result
from:
Abutment Stability
Minimum safety is usually found in the upper part of the double curvature dams
because:
The upper zones of the valley are less tight and earthquake forces here
cause stronger reactions;
The rock overburden is less - providing less normal loading on possible
sliding planes;
The direction of the resultant forces from the dam often meet the
abutments at less favourable angles.
Percolation of water under pressure may affect the strength of a rock abutment:
Shell Geometry
Vertical curvature introduced so that the weight of the dam will offset vertical
tensions due to water load. Cupola dams are ideal for narrow valleys and are
similar to the thin arch dams in regard to foundation requirements.
Contraction Joints
It has been normal practice to provide radial contraction joints in arch dams at
approximately 15 meter spacing. This dimension has evolved from experience
since cracks often appeared in monoliths of 20 meter or more in length, where
full control of concrete temperature was either impractical or uneconomical;
cracking occurred particularly at sides subject to sudden and large falls in
ambient temperature. For constant radius arch dams the joints are radial and
plane, whereas for double curvature dams they are frequently warped; in some
cases they are formed to leave the rock almost normal to the contact surface.
Since monolithic action is required in the arch, provision is made for the injection
of cement grout into the joints after the concrete has cooled to mean
temperature, or has been artificially cooled to a little below mean temperature in
order to introduce some compression into the arches.
Each joint is usually divided by horizontal grout stops so that zones from ten to
fifteen meters high may be grouted progressively to ensure stability of the
completed sections against
inadvertent overtopping by
floods.
Prestressing
The flat slab is simply supported on the buttress heads to avoid negative bending
and cracking on the upstream face of the slabs. Flexible seals should be installed
to prevent water loss around the ends of the slab as they defect. Some buttress
dams have been constructed with the slab continuous over one or more
buttresses.
Multiple arch dams evolved at approximately the same time as the slab and
buttress dam, but at a slower rate. The factors influencing the selection of
multiple arch dams as a preferred type are similar to those for slab and buttress
structure relative to reduction in materials, low uplift forces, and adaptability to a
wide variety of canyon configurations.
The majority of multiple arch dam where constructed before 1935, and although
state of the art at the time, by today's standards are deficient relative to seismic
and hydrologic conditions.
Buttresses
For small dams the buttresses are usually analysed as gravity blocks subject to
the inclined water load, their own weight and small uplift. A buttress can also be
considered as composed of a system of curved beams, each of which trasmits
part of the water load and its own weight to the foundations.
Prestressing
2. Embankment dams
A rockfill dam where all the voids have been filled by finer materials by hydraulic
sluicing is usually regarded as an earthfill dam.
Terminology of Earthfill dams
Types of Earthfill Dam
1. Homogenous
2. Central Impervious Core
3. Sloping Impervious Core
4. Hydraulic Dams
Slopes of 1 in 1.33
are suitable for
concrete faced
rockfill dams, but
for effective placing
and stability of an
asphaltic concrete
facing, the
upstream slope
must be about 1 in
1.7. It is significant
that men can walk
on this slope without ropes, but on a slope of 1 in 1.33 safety ropes are essential.
An asphaltic concrete allows for more movement due to settlement that for a rigid
concrete deck.
Such embankments are made of a single type of material or material from the
same source. This may be small particles placed by hydraulic means, or
compacted earth or gravels that are handled and compacted mechanically.
The location and inclination will depend on the materials used. It has been
suggested that maximum stability would result from locating it nearer the
upstream face with the angle ø less than a right angle.
1. One advantage of the vertical core is that higher pressures will exist on
the contact between the core and the foundation, and will provide more
protection against the possibility of leakage along the contact.
2. The vertical core tends to be slightly thicker for a given quantity of
impervious soil than the thickness of a sloping core.
Cores with a width 30% to 50% of the head of water have proved
satisfactory on many dams under diverse conditions. Cores of this width
are adequate for any soil type and dam height.
Cores with a width of 15% to 20% of the head of water are considered
thin. However, when adequately designed and constructed filter layers are
used, then the core is satisfactory under most circumstances.
Core widths of less than 10% of the head of water are not used widely and
should only be used when a large leak through the core would not lead to
failure of the dam.
The cost of rolled earth has droped rapidly with the development of larger
more economical earth moving equipment.
It is difficult to control the quality which makes them less dependable than
other types of dam.
Drainage of the core takes place in two ways, some of the water percolates
horizontally into the more pervious shell. The remainder moves upward to the
surface, allowing the centre of the dam to subside. The downward movement
eventually develops arching in the core and prevents its full consolidation.
Materials
The thouroughness with which borrow areas are investigated can have a major
effect on the cost of the dam. The best information is derived from trenches cut
by bulldozer. Two questions must be asked;
1. Is the material acceptable?
2. How will it be excavated?
When selecting earth for a core or for a homogeneous dam, one must consider
its permeability, resistance to piping, shear strength, flexibility and resistance to
cracking. The water content will effect each of these differently; testing and
judgement are required to determine the optimum mositure content for the
particular soil in the particular part of the dam.
Earthfill Design
An earth dam is basically a trapezoidal embankment built in a valley to form a
water reservoir. The design has to ensure:
Freeboard
A homogeneous embankment dam should never be overtopped and for
preference no permanent embankment dam should be overtopped. However,
provision for freeboard can be expensive because it requires enlargement of the
dam section and hence much more materials.
It may be convenient to pave the crest and downstream face. The level of the
crest is then determined to allow for only spray to pass over, or for the peak flood
discharge to pass over or even more frequent overtopping. However this is only
used for dams under 30m high.
b. Rockfill dams
ICOLD defined a rockfill dam as, "an embankment type of dam, dependent for its
stability primarily on rock. As rockfill dams must contain an impervious zone -
now usually selected earth with filter zones, comprising a substantial volume of
the dam - the term Rockfill dam usually represents a dam that contains more
than 50% of compacted or dumped pervious fill. The dam is dependent for
watertightness on an impervious upstream blanket or an impervious core."
Like an earth dam it is composed of fragmental materials, with each particle
independent of the others. The mass stability is developed by the friction and
inter-reaction of one particle on another rather than by any cementing agent that
binds the particles together.
Upstream core
Very rapid constructions are possible with rockfill because of its adaptability to
bad weather and because the process of filling does not have to be interrupted
for rolling or other separate compaction operations.
The rockfill dam with an upstream diaphragm is very well adapted to stage
construction. The dam height can be increased merely by dumping more rock
behind the impervious diaphragm without interfering with or encroaching on the
reservoir. The dam is then made water-tight by continuing the impervious face
upward. The stage construction concept is also suitable for cofferdamming, as
the first part of the dam serves as a cofferdam which protects the remainder of
the foundation for further construction.
Rockfill Materials
The quality of the rock is a major factor in the choice of a rockfill dam and in the
design of the structure. Extensive testing is necessary to judge whether the rock
is suitable for construction.
Quarrying - The cost of drilling and blasting constitutes a large part of the unit
price of rockfill. Quartzite for example has excellent qualities for rockfill but is
extremely expensive to drill. The way the rock breaks up is also important,
sandstone produces a lot of fines, others produce flat slate pieces which do not
lend themselves to dumped rockfilling.
Strength - In high dams where crushing of the corners of the rock pieces will
result in settlement, the strength is important. In general strengths of over 35MPa
or more are desirable for dams over 40m, while strengths as low as 14MPa are
more suitable for dams less than 15m in height. Friability, the tendency to
become a powder during crushing is important because too many fines can
seriously interfere with construction.
Petrography - The study of the rock under chemical reaction and under a
microscope to establish rock breakage.
Shear Strength - Large size triaxial or direct shear tests are the best method for
determining strength.
The main rockfill provides the structural support for the dam by its weight and
internal stability. The impervious zone holds back the water. It is made up of the
membrane which holds the water and transition zone which transfers the water
load to the rockfill. The membrane may be a thick blanket or core of earth or a
thin diaphragm or deck of wood, concrete, steel, asphalt, dry rubble masonry or
stone masonry. The auxiliary support members help to sustain the membrane or
parts of the main rockfill. These components are similar to the shell, core, and
appurtenances of the earth-fill dam and are analysed in a similar way.
Cores
The core may be defined as a membrane built within an embankment dam to
form the impermeable barrier, the balance of the dam being provided to ensure
stability. It may be of natural materials, clay, gravels etc. or prepared materials
such as cement or asphaltic concrete, or of metal, plastic, rubber, etc.
The thickness of the core will depend primarily on the material available, i.e. if a
good clay is available at low cost one would tend to be liberal with the core. The
core width will often be related to the type of foundation, the permissible
hydraulic gradient along the contact zone.
A core of natural materials may be central, inclined and close under the upstream
face or in some intermediate position. A general core thickness is one half of the
height of the dam, depending on materials available. Permeability of the
compacted core should not exceed 10-5 cm/s.
The hydraulic gradient relative to the core is the ratio of maximum head of water
to the thickness of the core. Thin cores may be adequate for impermeability but it
is essential to provide well designed filters on either side. The greatest danger
with thin filters is the possibility that a 'blow through' may occur in a segregated
zone.
Crest
Kind of cracking
Settlement (mm)
Less than 50 No cracking of dams
Equal or greater
Transverse cracking of dams compacted dry may appear
than 50
Greater than 100 Reinforced concrete facing without perimetral joint may crack
Equal or greater
Longitudinal cracking between core and shell may appear
than 130
Greater than 160 Longitudinal cracking of core compacted dry may appear
Greater than 180 Hydraulic fracturing may appear
Transverse cracking of core compacted wet may appear.
Equal or greater
Longitudinal cracking between core compacted wet and shell
than 220
may appear.
Equal or greater Asphaltic concrete facing may crack (self healed for
than 350 settlement of 350mm)
Longintudinal cracking of core compacted wet may appear.
Greater than 400
Reinforced concrete facing with perimetral joint will crack
Greater than
No uncracked dam in those studied
1000
Greater than
All dams exhibit transverse cracking
1200
Equal or greater
Serious cracking of asphaltic concrete facing
than 1400
Equal or greater
Cracking needing substitution of reinforced concrete facing
tahn 3800
watertightness. Leakage under and around the dam could not be prevented, but
usually did no harm to a free-draining rockfill. Although not used in present day
construction, the value of timber should not be overlooked.
Steel Face - consists of large welded panels, connected by flexible joints to allow
for expansion and contraction and any displacement of the plates relative to the
face of the rockfill. To help reduce corrosion, coats of coal-tar epoxy resin
preparation and supplementary cathodic protection are provided below water
level, giving about a 50 year life.
Cement Concrete Face - since cement has a very long life, it is an obvious
watertight membrane on rockfill dams. Details of typical facing are shown in the
figure.
The facing can be tied to the dam in two ways, either poured directly onto the
rubble transition zone. A mortar bed is initially placed which penetrates into the
rubble a few centimeters. This is immediately covered with the concrete to form a
monolithic mass which extends into the rubble and is thus bonded to the dam.
Or, ribs are placed in the bottom of the slab by forcing grooves in the facing. The
ribbed support, however, is unnecessary if the bonding with the backing is
effective.
The second type, used in most concrete faced dams, has a facing which consists
of monolithic slabs, 10 to 30 sqm each. The concrete thickness is largely a
matter if experience. Only nominal reinforcement is required, about 0.5%
concrete area in each direction. Water tightness is ensured by copper water
stops.
Asphaltic Concrete Face - two types of asphaltic facings have been used, a
laminated facing consisting of:
The outer layer of concrete only serves to protect the bituminous side from
sunshine and physical damage. It is sprayed with water during very hot weather
to keep the bituminous concrete from sagging in plastic flow. The second form
employs an asphaltic concrete paving similar to that used in highways. It is
placed in layers and rolled as for paving. The advantage of a purely asphaltic
paving is that it tends to adjust itself to movement by plastic flow. As with other
thin facings, a transition zone is required to equalise settlement movements and
to provide uniform support.
Rubble Retaining Zone - used in the upstream face to permit a slope that is
steeper than the angle of repose of the rockfill. This makes it possible to reduce
the volume of rockfill, but at the expense of construction of the retaining zone.
There are two types for this zone, a wedge of compacted rockfill, where the
steeper slope is merely the angle of repose of dense rather than loose rock.
Slope angles of 45 degrees can be obtained this way.
The location of the impermeable zone in a rockfill dam involves the same factors
as it does in the case of an earth dam.
The choice for dams with impermeable zones depends largely on the stability of
the core material. If it is strong, a near upstream location is often the most
economical. However, if the core material is weak a central location is better.
Since the core is established with rock or gravel zones, it is necessary to prevent
the fine core material being sucked into the upstream shell material during rapid
drawdown of the reservoir, or forced into the downstream shell by seepage water
under reservoir head. Transition or filter zones must therefore be provided on
each side of the core.
The upstream filter, if non-cohesive and of proper grading, can serve a valuable
service by providing material for induced self-healing should a transverse crack
appear in the core. Selection of the best material for this purpose is well justified.
Although its prime function is to retain the core material against movement into
the rockfill, the downstream transition material should be selected and placed so
as to inhibit the propagation of a core crack into the compacted rockfill. It is good
practice to widen the transition zones towards each abutment, i.e. where tension
and oblique cracking may occur.
To prevent migration of fines from the core:
D50/D50 < 25
(filter)/(zone being filtered)
Settlement
Settlement is a problem for embankment dams. It begins during construction and
continues for many years after the dam is complete. The two main causes are:
Slope Stability
Introduction
Failure of an embankment dam can result from instability of either the upstream
or downstream slopes. The failure surface may lie within the embankment or may
pass through the embankment and the foundation soil. The critical stages in an
upstream slope are at the end of construction and during rapid drawdown. The
critical stages for the downstream slope are at the end of construction and during
steady seepage when the reservoir is full.
1. The slopes must be safe against surface slipping. To ensure this the
slopes must be no steeper than the angle of repose
2. The dam must be safe against sliding on the foundation
3. The mass of the embankment must be safe against a circular arc failure or
composite linear failure. This is likely to occur within an earth core or weak
foundation
The safety against failure can be increased by reducing the gradient of the
slopes.
Homogeneous Embankment
Zoned Embankment
1. Within rockfill
2. Through rockfill and foundation
3. Through core and foundation
End of construction
Most slope failures occur either during, or at the end of construction. Pore water
pressures depend on the placement water content of the fill and on the rate of
construction. A commitment to achieve rapid completion will result in high pore
water pressures at the end of construction. However, the construction period of
an embankment dam is likely to be long enough to allow partial dissipation of
excess pore water pressure, especially for a dam with internal drainage.
Dissipation of excess pore water pressures can be accelerated by installing
horizontal drainage layers within the dam. However, a total stress analysis would
result in an over conservative design. An effective stress analysis is therefore
preferred. A factor of safety as low as 1.3 may be acceptable at the end of
construction provided there is reasonable confidence in the design data.
Steady seepage
When the reservoir has been full for some time, conditions of steady seepage
become established through the dam with the soil below the top flow line in the
fully saturated state. This condition must be analysed in terms of effective stress
with values of pore pressure being determined from the flow net. The factor of
safety for this condition should be at least 1.5. Internal erosion is a particular
danger when the reservoir is full because it can arise and develop within a
relatively short time, seriously impairing the safety of the dam.
Rapid drawdown of the reservoir after a condition of steady seepage will result in
a change in the pore water pressure distribution. If the permeability of the soil is
low, a drawdown period measured in weeks may be 'rapid' in relation to the
dissipation time and the change in pore water pressure.
The pore water pressure distribution after drawdown in soils of high permeability
decreases as pore water drains out of the soil above the drawdown level. The
saturation line moves downwards at a rate dependant upon the permeability of
the soil. A series of flow nets can be drawn for different positions of the saturation
line and values of pore water pressure obtained. The factor of safety can then be
determined, using an effective stress analysis, for any position of the saturation
line.
Slope Protection
Both faces of an embankment dam must be protected against structural damage.
In normal circumstances the downstream will only be subject to the forces of
nature. The upstream face must be protected against erosion or disturbance by
wave action, ice or by impact of floating debris. Various methods of protection
include large rocks (rip-rap), precast concrete forms, soil cement or the
waterproofing membrane of the dam. Protection must be well above and below
the operating range of the reservoir.
Soil Cement Slope Protection
Rip-rap size : Mass of individual rock = 1000 x (Wave Height Hs)3 (kg)
The rip-rap must be durable, weatherproof and of good quality sound rock to
enable it to withstand the changing harsh conditions.
Seepage Paths
Piping
Plastic clays with a plasticity index >15, for both well and poorly compacted are
the materials which are most resistant to piping. Minimum piping resistance is
found in poorly compacted, through to well-graded cohesionless soils with
practically no binder. It is also found in uniform, fine, cohesionless sand, even
when well compacted. Settlement cracks in resistant materials may also produce
piping.
Piping can be avoided by lengthening the flowpaths of water within the dam and
its foundations. This decreases the hydraulic gradient of the water flow and
hence its velocity. The flowpaths can be increased by:
Cutoff walls
Impermeable cores
Seepage control
Seepage is the continuous movement of water from the upstream face of the
dam toward its downstream face. The upper surface of this stream of percolating
water is known as the phreatic surface. The phreatic surface should be kept at or
below the downstream toe.
The phreatic surface within a dam can be controlled by properly designed cores
or walls.
Purpose
1. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam
therefore increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
2. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and
prevent erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location
and extent. However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the
pervious material from which the drain is constructed meets the filter
requirements for the embankment material.
Toe drains
For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have
been installed in some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent
softening and erosion of the downstream toe.
For reservoir depths greater than 15 m, most engineers would place a drainage
system further inside the embankment where it will be more effective in reducing
pore pressures and controlling seepage.
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or one-third
of the foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's 45 m Vega Dam is a
homogeneous dam which has been constructed with a horizontal downstream
drain. Where pervious material is scarce, the internal strip drains can be placed
instead since these give the same general effect.
For an effective cutoff the positioning and depth of cutoff must be essentially
'perfect'. Since this is impossible to achieve, other methods of seepage control
should be used in conjunction with cutoffs.
Spillways
The provision of adequate spillway facilities can pose more problems than the
design of the dam. Complete protection against the greatest flood that might
occur would in almost all circumstances be unjustifiable. The existing or possible
future habitation in the valley below the dam must influence decisions to be made
regarding the spillway. Four standards for dam design have been suggested;
Freeboard and still capacity sufficiently to ensure that the dam will not be
overtopped by floods up to probable maximum categories;
Such that the dam can be overtopped without failing, and in so far as
practicable, without suffering serious damage;
Such as to ensure that breaching of the structure would occur at a
relatively gradual rate; and
The height of the dam and storage are small enough that no serious
hazard exists downstream in the event of breaching.
Spillway Location Options - The sites indicated by the red areas are the most
favourable locations for spillway positioning. The order of preference for rapid
concrete construction is indicated by the numbering.
Passage over or through the dam - Many dams are designed for the safe
passage of controlled and uncontrolled flood waters over the crest. Radial or
sector gates are also used in large diversion weirs, however spilling over the
crest is the cheaper method.
Siphon Spillway
Disadvantage - construction is expensive
- sudden appearance of flood water
downstream
- large flood debris can block outlet.
If proper gate operation can not be guaranteed then the effect of flood water
passing over the top of gates must be investigated. Hydraulic gates are most
reliable, followed by mechanically and electrically operated gates.
The flow over a spillway gives rise to self-excited vibration, in which three
coupled elements are involved; the jet, the overflow crest and the air cushion
between dam and jet. This can be avoided by using splitters on the crest.
With the reservoir at a particular level the discharge over the spillway will be
proportional to its length. It is possible to introduce variations in the plan shape of
the spillway crest so that the effective length is increased, for example,
rectangular 'duckbill' spillway or triangular sections.
In narrow gorges it is often expedient to adopt the glory-hole spillway. The design
of a glory hole spillway is involved since it includes flow over the weir, free or
forced flow in the shaft, flow around the bend and flow in the discharge tunnel.
Since velocities are very high at the bottom of the shaft damage to lining is likely
to occur. The main disadvantage with the glory-hole spillway is that beyond a
certain surcharge the discharge only increases slowly with increased head. It
does not provide any substantial margin for underestimation of the maximum
flood.
Foundation
The foundations of a dam must be able to withstand without unacceptable
deformation the loads imposed upon it by the structure, both immediately after
filling the reservoir and in the long term.
With time, deteriotation by saturation and percolation of water can occur, whilst
soft rocks and clays usually exhibit lower residual strengths under sustained
loading than under rapid testing. It is the 10-20m of rock immediately below the
dam that is of greatest importance.
Foundation Preparation
Introduction
If it is economically feasible, all material under the base of a proposed dam which
could cause excessive settlement and leakage should be removed. If this cannot
be done, the dam design should be modified to take account of such material.
Sometimes it may be necessary to remove material to considerable depths in
isolated areas of the foundation. This is known as dental work. The general
overall removal of material is termed stripping, whereas the removal of loose
masses of rocks on the abutments is termed scaling. The engineering geologist
has to determine the expected depth of weathered or unsound rock or
overburden that must be removed in advance of construction.
Foundation programme
Excavation in bedrock
The objective of excavation is the preparation of a clean surface that will provide
optimum contact with the dam materials, whether earth or concrete is to be
placed on that surface. Therefore excavations in bedrock should extend into firm,
fresh rock. Any closely fractured zones extending downward, especially if
containing soft altered materials such as clay gouge or other products of
weathering, should be removed if feasible.
Except for low dams of small gross weight, concrete dams are not built on
unconsolidated deposits because of their generally low bearing strength. Larger
dams constructed in whole or in part on unconsolidated deposits should without
exception, be earth or rockfill dams with the capacity to adjust to settlement in the
foundation materials.
For concrete dams
Preparation of foundations - the extent of the work that will be necessary in the
foundations for a concrete dam will be determined by two main factors, their
strength to sustain the loads that will be imposed by dam and the reservoir water,
and the effect of water entering the foundations under pressure from the
reservoir.
Generally the quality of foundations for a gravity dam will improve with depth of
excavation however the abutments for an arch dam often do not improve with
distance excavated into the sides of the valley. Deterioration of clay could
endanger the dam and/or lead to collapse of abutments downstream from the
dam.
Frequently the course of the river has been determined by geological faults or
weaknesses; proving of the river bed is therefore of first importance in the
investigation stage. The depth to be excavated will depend upon the nature of
the infilling material, the shape of the excavated zone, and the depth of cutoff
necessary to ensure an acceptable hydraulic gradient after the reservoir is filled.
Concrete dams may be constructed on foundations other than massive rock, i.e.
shales, glacial deposits or even sand for river works. Each case must be
examined relative to permeability, settlement, and load-carrying capacity (vertical
and horizontal).
The final preparation of the foundation should be undertaken just prior to the
placement of concrete. It should include the removal of loose rock and all debris,
roughening of smooth rock surfaces, washing down of all surfaces, and the
removal of excess water from pools to leave a clean damp surface to receive the
concrete.
Foundation Design
Construction of a dam and filling of the reservoir behind it create load stresses on
the floor and sides of a valley that did not exist previously.
The kinds and distributions of imposed stresses created by a dam on its
foundation depend on the shape of the dam and the materials used in its
construction.
The pressures exerted by earth and rock-fill dams resemble in some respects
those exerted by the water in a reservoir, but pressure distribution is modified by
the fact that the materials of construction have some inherent strength, and fail
only after some threshold stress has been exceeded. Pressures exerted by water
in the reservoir behind a dam are hydrostatic and increase linearly with depth.
The deadweight load of a concrete dam is distributed over the total area of the
foundation and is shown by vectors normal to the surface beneath the dam. The
figures are essentially static, and depend only on the weight of the dam and the
area of the foundation.
Water exerts hydrostatic pressures not only on the floor and walls of a reservoir
but also on the upstream face of a dam. D is the depth of water in a reservoir, P
is the hydrostatic pressure per unit area acting on the vertical face of a concrete
dam assumed to behave as a rigid body. The change in pressure with depth (in
the y direction) is given by dP/dY=þg in which þ is the density of water and g is
the acceleration due to gravity.
Figure 1 illustrates an earth dam, a non rigidstructure that under stress behaves
semiplastically. Because of relatively easy internal adjustments to loads, the
pressure exerted on the
foundation are
approximately equal to
the weight of overlying
prisms of material of
different heights.
Pressures exerted on
the dam by water in the
reservoir tend to cause
greater adjustments
near the base of the
dam than at shallower
depths.
A cross section of a concrete gravity dam, presumed to behave as a rigid body.
When the reservoir is empty, the weight of the dam is directed vertically
downward. When the reservoir
is full, a combination of
hydrostatic pressure on the
upstream face of the dam and
the weight of the dam produces
a force vector inclined
downstream away from the
vertical force vector, and there
is a tendency for the dam not
only to be displaced
downstream but also to rotate
about the downstream toe of
the dam because of a torque.
These figures show force vectors for empty and filled reservoirs behind concrete
arch dams. Unlike gravity dams, arch dams because of the egg-shell effect tend
to resist downstream dislocation and the displacing forces, instead, are
transmitted laterally through the dam and toward the abutments.
Slope failures toward abutments (in direction of the dam axis) which disturb or
dislocate the abutments are rare. In concrete dams in which slopes in the
abutment areas maintain
themselves during
excavation for the
foundation, the possibility
of downslope movement
along surfaces that
intersect the foundation
of the dam is remote
because of the added
stability provided by the
weight and strength of
the dam. However, the
possibility that slopes
above the dam, especially in deep valleys, may fail and bury surface structures
with rock and/or soil debris.
Figure - Conditions promoting possible slope failure beneath abutments of an
earth or rock-fill dam along curves shear surfaces. Shale beneath a sandstone
layer has been weakened by infiltration of water from the reservoir.
Bearing capacity
To avoid shear failure, the foundation pressures used in design should have an
adequate factor of safety when compared with the ultimate bearing capacity of
the foundation. If failure is to be avoided, then a factor of safety must be applied
to the ultimate bearing capacity, the value being obtained being the safe bearing
capacity. The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the least pressure which
would cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below and adjacent
to a foundation. However, this value still may mean risk of excessive settlement
or differential settlement. Thus the allowable bearing capacity which is used in
design will take into account all possibilities of ground movement and so its value
will normally be less than the safe bearing capacity.
Seepage
Stored water behind dams, gives rise to three basic seepage problems, which
can lead to difficulties and in serious cases to total failure:
1. Piping occurs when water picks up soil particles and moves them through
unprotected exits, developing unseen channels or pipes through a dam or
its foundation.
2. Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces.
3. Excessive loss of water.
Concrete dams are almost always based on strong rock foundations where
settlement of the dam is kept to a minimum otherwise the dams would crack
leading to serious structural faults. Embankment dams can be founded on soft
compressible materials and are able to withstand large settlements.
Causes of settlement
Measurement of settlement
Effects of settlement on structures
Settlement due to changes in environment
Causes of settlement
Measurement of settlement
Crest settlement is measured by bench marks placed at intervals along the top of
the dam. Obviously these are tied to a reference bench mark on the abutment
which is immovable.
Measurement of Internal Settlement
Total settlement
Tilting
Distortion
Total Settlement
The total amount of settlement a structure can undergo without damage is large
provided it is relatively uniform. However, with large amounts of settlement
several forms of trouble develop. In embankments and dams on earth
foundations the result will be a lowering of the crest. This is an insidious form of
trouble since it usually develops slowly, often without the operators of
maintenance personnel being aware of the loss of height and free board.
Allowances must be made for settlement in the design height, and periodic
measurements should be taken to be sure that the proper crest level is
maintained. A considerable part of the settlement, both of the foundation and of
the embankment, occurs during the construction period. This can result in
discrepancies in the computed volume of the structure unless it is anticipated and
careful records of the settlement are kept. With proper allowances, embankment
settlements of a few metres can be tolerated. Total settlement is not a serious
matter if it is anticapted and provisions made before hand.
Tilting
Tilting occurs in the parts of the structure that are outside the centre of the
saucer-like depression. It also takes place when the structure is unevenly loaded,
or when the soils are non-uniform. It is of importance mainly with tall structures
such as large retaining walls, transmission towers, water tanks, and smoke
stacks. It is particularly serious in structures that are inter-connected. The
amount of tilt which can be tolerated depends on the height-width ratio of the
structure.
Distortion
Differential settlement which produces relative movement is known as distortion.
The load of an embankment on a uniform soil produces a settlement profile as
shown below. There is also a tendency for cracks to develop as indicated. These
cracks may lead to accelerated seepage, erosion, and even failure.
Figure 2 - The non uniform foundation thickness and the greater loading at the
centre than at the abutments brings about a sagging profile along the axis. Shear
cracks tend to form as shown. These are far more serious because they extend
from upstream to downstream and several dam failures have been attributed to
such cracking.
Figure 3 - When a small portion of the embankment extends beyond the main
section shear cracks sometimes develop.
Changes in environment can bring about a reduction in void ratio in certain soils
and a corresponding settlement. Shock and vibration from earthquakes, blasting,
and construction machinery can cause loose cohesionless soils to densify. In
addition, flow failure may accompany the settlement if the soils are saturates.
Detioration of cementing agents from physical and chemical changes brought on
by exposure and inundation can cause the collapse of loose skeleton soil
structures and settlement. Bacteriological decay of organic materials can
produce settlement accompanied by formation of gas pockets. Such decay is
inhibited by permanent submergence.
Exposure to soils to hot dry weather during construction can cause both
settlement and shrinkage cracking. A desiccated clay that is subsequently
inundated may swell and damage a superimposed structure or embankment by
heave. Moreover, the cracked, swollen soil is weakened and can be a cause of
foundation failure.
Foundations Improvement
1. Pre-Consolidation
2. Densification of cohesionless soils
3. Dynamic Compaction
4. Grouting
Pre-Consolidation
If the rate is slower (one to two years for 50%) the dam weight can be used to
consolidate the soil and increase it's strength. It would be necessary to control
the rate of construction so that the weight applied does not exceed the ability of
the foundation to support the structure safely. It may, however, be necessary to
increase the length of the construction period to obtain a sufficient gain in
strength. Drainage of the foundation can also help to accelerate consolidation.
A vibroflot can be used to penetrate the soil and can operate efficiently below the
water table. The best results are obtained in coarse sands which contain little or
no silt or clay, since both reduce the effectiveness of the vibroflot.
Dynamic compaction
Grouting
There are many locations where the depth of valley fill is too great to remove and
so the dam or parts of it may have to be built on unconsolidated deposits. Cross
sections of several earth and/or rockfill dams constructed at least in part on
unconsolidated subsurface deposits are shown below. It is clear that
considerable information as to the distribution and permeabilities of subsurface
materials is required prior to the design and construction of cut-off features.
Grout
Types of Grouting
Concrete arch-dam
Pattern Grouting
Plans for dams commonly include broad specifications for a systematic program
of blanket and/or curtain grouting. Grouting is an uncertain process, it is
impossible to accurately estimate the amount of grout required, and usually the
'take' amounts moderately to greatly in excess of the estimate. 'Grouting is an art
and not a science.'
Pattern grouting is grouting included in the plans and specifications for a dam
and commonly is the basis for estimation prior to construction of the total footage
of grout holes and the expected amount of grout consumption. It is general
practice to lay out locations of grout holes in the plans with a definite, systematic
pattern, spacing and assumed depths.
Blanket Grouting
Curtain Grouting
Where there are no geological controls the depths of curtain pattern grout holes
are determined by a formula. A frequently used formula is: the vertical depth of
grout holes shall be a third of the dam height at the location of the hole plus (15 -
20m).
Off-pattern, Special Purpose Grouting
The depths, directions and inclinations of the grout holes are determined by the
three-dimensional geometry of zones of incompetent and / or permeable rocks as
revealed by field examination of bedrock exposures in foundation and abutment
excavations
If easy grout circulation continues with the progress of the grouting operation, the
suspension is gradually thickened and, if necessary, the pressure
correspondingly increased until filling of available openings is indicated by refusal
of the grout hole to accept additional grout. Grout leaks at the surface should be
calked or otherwise sealed to promote confined subsurface movement of grout
suspensions.
The definitions of thin and thick are not precise, but generally thin mixtures are
construed to mean mixtures prepared by mixing 8-10 volumes water with one
volume of cement. Thick mixtures have volume proportions of cement to water of
approximately 1:1, or thicknesses that are not so great that the grout can not be
pumped with reasonable ease. In highly permeable materials thick grout mixtures
are indicated with inert additives such as clay or sand may be added to grout
suspensions as inexpensive fillers.
Piping failures
Water that percolates through earth dams and their foundations can carry soil
particles that are free to migrate. The seepage forces tend to cause the erodible
soil or soft rock to move towards the downstream face of the dam. That is if the
seepage forces are large enough and the pore spaces in the material are large
enough. Along the unprotected discharge face AB, the soil will heave if the
gradients are large enough.
Every seepage discharge surface, both internal and external, which could be
susceptible to piping or heave must be covered with filters that permit water to
pass but will hold the soil particles firmly in place.
Filter criteria
Since the core is stabilised with rock or gravel zones, it is necessary to prevent
the fine core material being sucked into the upstream shell material during rapid
drawdown of the reservoir, or forced into the downstream shell by seepage water
under reservoir head. Transition or filter zones must therefore be provided on
each side of the core.
The upstream filter, if non-cohesive and of proper grading, can serve a valuable
service by providing material for induced self-healing should a transverse crack
appear in the core. Selection of the best material for this purpose is well justified.
Although its prime function is to retain the core material against movement into
the rockfill, the downstream transition material should be selected and placed so
as to inhibit the propagation of a core crack into the compacted rockfill. It is good
practice to widen the transition zones towards each abutment, i.e. where tension
and oblique cracking may occur.
To prevent migration of fines from the core:
D50/D50 < 25
(filter)/(zone being filtered)
The foundations and abutments of dams are usually stable under the influence of
the natural groundwater flow. However, reservoir filling greatly changes the
groundwater regime and may lead to piping and internal erosion. The potential
for internal erosion and piping may occur at joints in rock, beds of gravel and in
cavities left by rotting roots, animals’ burrows or other buried organic matter.
Field exploration and geological mapping for dam projects should identify the
important soil and rock formations that could cause failure by internal piping or
heave. The geotechnical properties of these materials should be thoroughly
investigated. If the materials are proven to be unsuitable then remedial action
should be taken to improve their geotechnical properties. All new dams and
reservoirs should be carefully observed and monitored once in service to detect
the development of unsafe conditions. If seepage quantities increase or if there is
an unexplained change in seepage conditions then protective measures should
be put into action. Such actions should include lowering the reservoir and placing
weighted filters over areas where seepage discharges occur.
Seepage Reduction
Basic considerations
Drainage Methods
At dam sites where there is an abundance of at least two different materials with
significantly different permeabilities, a zoned dam may be constructed. In such
cases permeable material is placed downstream of less permeable material,
often with a transition zone between. For example, in a zoned dam which has a
thick impermeable core and rests on an impermeable foundation, the flowpaths
within the downstream portion of the dam will be low. Thus seepage has a
negligible effect on the stability of the downstream slope, which is the ideal
condition in zoned earth dams.
Purpose
1. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam
therefore increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
2. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and
prevent erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location
and extent. However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the
pervious material from which the drain is constructed meets the filter
requirements for the embankment material.
Toe drains
For reservoir depths greater than 15 m, most engineers would place a drainage
system further inside the embankment where it will be more effective in reducing
pore pressures and controlling seepage.
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or one-third
of the foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's 45 m Vega Dam is a
homogeneous dam which has been constructed with a horizontal downstream
drain. Where pervious material is scarce, the internal strip drains can be placed
instead since these give the same general effect.
Chimney drains
Geology of dams
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TERMINOLOGY
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
4. TYPES OF ROCK
5. ROCK PROPERTIES
6. SURFACE FEATURES OF VALLEYS
7. EXCAVATION AND FILLING OF VALLEYS
8. TOPOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
9. SEISMIC ACTIVITY
10. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Introduction
The geological services required for the engineering of a large dam are in the
following areas;
The safety, viability and cost of a dam are all dependent upon geology. Most
rocks have adequate strength but their weakness is in the orientation and dip of
discontinuities relative to the loading from the dam, as well as the infilling
material in, and depth of, weathering in such discontinuities.
It is necessary to investigate both the regional geology and the specific local
geology to ensure a global picture is developed.
Terminology
Classification of rocks
2. Prefailure Deformation
Elastic
Viscous
3. Failure Characteristics
Brittle
Plastic
4. Gross Homogeneity
Massive
Layered
5. Continuity in Formation
Types of Rock
1. Granite
2. Gabbros, Andesites, Dolerite and Basalt
3. Amphibolites
4. Metamorphic Rocks
5. Limestone
6. Sandstones
7. Clays
8. Gravel, Sands and Boulder Clay
Granite
Fissures
Disintegration due to weathering
China clay
Caution must be taken when large masses of china clay appear, for
it is not feasible to anchor pre-stressed cables in china clay.
Amphibolites
Example: the Forks dam, California, founded on gneiss and mica schists, had to
be abandoned in 1929 because of bad foundations which occurred at the
junction of these two rocks which, in themselves, were quite sound.
Metamorphic Rocks
Example: The Lavaude-Gelade dam in the Central Massif, Creuse, France was
founded on altered granulite. The alteration in the granulite was found to persist
to a depth of 20m, in addition to being broken and fissured. The site required an
extensive grouting injection with cement, clay and bentonite.
Limestone
Sandstones
Sandstones have a wide range of strength depending largely upon the amount
and type of cement matrix material occupying the voids of the rock. Generally
sandstones do not deteriorate rapidly on exposure to the surface with the
exception of shaly sandstone.
Clays
Clay formations are often thick and massive and are frequently associated with
thin seams of sandstone or limestone.
Earth dams or rockfill dams are usually constructed on clay foundations because
clays lack the load bearing properties necessary to support concrete dams.
Gravels, sands and boulder clay of glacial origin are notoriously variable in
composition both laterally and vertically.
As a result dam sites in glaciated areas are among the most difficult to appraise
on the basis of surface evidence. Generally, earth dams are constructed in areas
of glacial deposits.
Rock Properties
Crushing strength
Shearing strength
Elasticity of rock
Deformability of the rock mass
Tectonic stresses
Crushing Strength
In general the compressive load from a dam on to its foundations will not exceed
10 MPa.
Quality
The degree of weathering
Presence of micro-cracks
Shearing Strength
Elasticity of Rock
It is not appropriate to classify rocks by elastic constants alone, since many rocks
are nonelastic. Elasticity refers to the property of reversibility of deformation
when subjected to a load. Many fresh, hard rocks are elastic when considered as
laboratory specimens. But on the field scale rocks can be expected to contain
fractures, fissures, bedding planes, contacts, zones of altered rock and clays with
plastic properties.
The concave upward curvature of this load/deflection path is typical for fractured
rocks on first loading because the fractures close and stiffen at low loads. When
the reservoir is lowered, the rock unloads along path 2, with a permanent
deflection.
The dam will try to follow the loading, but since it is often more elastic than the
rock, it will move away from the rock on unloading. This could open joints in the
rock or concrete or simply lower the compressive stress flowing through the
structure. Repeated cycles of loading and unloading in response to cyclic
operation of the reservoir would produce the series of loops ('hysteresis').
Some sites have been considered unacceptable for concrete dams because of
large hysteresis even though the modulus of elasticity of the rock itself was
considered reasonable.
Dolomite 7-15
Limestone (very hard) 70
Sandstone 10-20
Quartz-sandstone 60-120
Greywacke 10-14
Siltstone 3-14
Schist - Biotite 40
Schist - Granitic 10
Schist - Quartz 14
Granite - very altered 2
Dolerite 70-100
Basalt 50
Andesite 20-50
Amphibolite 90
The large ranges emphasize the need for testing at each site.
Deformability
The modulus of elasticity of rock is normally adequate, but due to the existence
of joints, faults amd seams in the rock mass - sometimes open and sometimes
filled with products of decompostion, the modulus of deformation may be
inadequate.
Tectonic Stresses
The fact that rock may be in a state of high internal stress is often overlooked. It
is common to assume a vertical stress field due to the weight of overlying rock.
The corresponding horizontal stress will vary with the rock and the rock
formation. Frequently one horizontal principal stress will equal or exceed the
vertical stress, the other being much lower - indicating the existence of large
shearing stresses.
Laboratory testing
Compressive strength
Unconfined compression
Triaxial compression
Splitting tension (Brazilian)
Four-point flexure
Ring shear
Shear tests
Direct shear
Triaxial shear
Field Testing
Hydraulic Fracturing
Flat Jack Method
Overcoring
When the crest chord-height ratio is under 3 and the rock is capable of
withstanding high pressures, not being able to fail by shearing, thin arch or thin
cupola dams are the most successful and the most economical.
Soundness of the foundation is of paramount importance for all arch and cupola
dams.
Narrow valleys have a chord-height ratio of between 3 and 6. Gravity arch dams
are normally constructed in narrow valleys providing that the foundations are
suitable.
Example : Piave di Cadore dam (Italy) was constructed as a thick arch dam with
a chord-height ratio of 5.5. It's thickness was less than a gravity dam but more
than a thin arch dam.
If the narrow valley is filled with permeable and compressible material, for
example from a glacial origin, the dam engineer has two choices:
More and more thick arch dams with a thickness of less than the gravity section
will be constructed in the future as more confidence is gained in:
Gravity Dams : there are many examples of masonry and concrete gravity dams
in wide valleys, especially where the bedrock is close to the surface. The earliest
large example in Great Britain is the Vyrnwy dam (masonry), which supplies
water to the city of Liverpool. The chord-height ratio of the dam is 7.
Earthfill Dams : because there are a great many wide valleys in England, there
are a number of examples of earthfill dams. These dams are most suitable if the
foundation is soft compressible sedimentary strata.
Rockfill Dams : the wide valley is suitable for all forms of rockfill dams.
Example : Scotland, the Errochty and Shira dams are situated in wide valleys
and have chord-height ratios of 10 and 15 respectively.
Normally, dams are associated with valleys and are not built on level ground in
the middle of sandy plains. However, examples of dams on plains are to be
found on the Rhone diversion canals, the Rhone being diverted by means of
gate-control barrages, into canals. These canals are some 30 miles in length and
lead the water from the Rhone to normal gravity section dams, built several miles
away on alluvial permeable strata.
Other types of dams constructed on flat country and which may certainly be
considered dams, are the embankments of the large reservoirs of the
Metropolitan Water Board, and the large reservoirs at Cheddar, Bristol. There are
also many instances of what might be considered to be dams; the embankments
of which are measurable in terms of kilometres in length and which retain water
well above ground, such as the man-made levees on the Mississppi River.
Valleys have been formed or have been modified by downward and lateral
erosion of running water and/or ice, and commonly contain unconsolidated
deposits transported by water, ice, or wind. The individual characteristics of a
valley are a function of the topography, climate, rock type and geologic structure.
Running water erodes the materials in the bottom and sides of the channel by
corrosion, corrasion and cavitation.
Cavitation - requires high velocities in running water and results first from
formation of vapour bubbles because of pressure decrease associated with
velocity increase in accordance with the Bernoulli theorem, and then explosive
collapse of the bubbles where the velocity diminishes.
When considering the construction of a dam and reservoir in a valley the concern
generally is with only a relatively short segment of the total length of a stream,
and particular attention is given to whether in the floor of the valley erosional
features on the average dominate or are subsidiary to depositional features.
Glaciated Valleys
Streamcut valleys that have been modified by glaciers moving through them are
of interest. The figure shows an idealised plan and sections of a stream and
glacier eroded valley with two stages of glacier advance and retreat and prior and
intervening periods of stream erosion. Morainal ridges formed by deposition of
glacial till along the sides of the glacier are called lateral moraines. Stationary
moraine is termed end or terminal moraine.
The alluvial, glacial, and landslide deposits on the floors and sides of valleys
generally have locations, configurations, and physical properties that are
identified in the field with relative ease. During planning, design, and construction
of a dam and reservoir an assessment of these deposits can be made without
difficulty, and appropriate measures can be taken for their removal or
stabilisation.
In many steep-walled valleys, stream-cut or glaciated a relatively inconspicuous
kind of slope failure is present, especially in highly competent, crystalline igneous
and metamorphic bedrocks. Although they may not be easily observed, gravity-
slip surfaces may be present in bedrock as indicated in the figure below and
contribute to the instability of the foundation and abutments of a dam that might
be constructed at the site.
Gravity Dams
Buttress Dams
An arch dam utilises the strength of an arch to resist loads placed upon it by 'arch
action'. The foundations and abutments must be competent not only to support
the dead weight of the dam on the foundation but also the forces that are
directed into the abutments because of arch action in response to the forces
acting on the dam. Therefore, the strength of the rock mass at the abutments and
immediately downvalley of the dam must be unquestionable and its modulus of
elasticity must be high enough to ensure deformation under thrust from the arch
is not so great as to induce excessive stresses in the arch.
The thick arch dam can be built where the crest chord-height ratio is
between 3 and 5.
The chief geological criterion is that the rock must be absolutely reliable to
bear 3.5 MPa or more without any appreciable settlement.
A substantial saving in material compared with that of gravity dams.
Thick arch dams are difficult to design on paper but are well determined
from trials on models.
Thin arch dams require valleys to have a crest chord-height ratio of under
3, with a radius of under 150m.
The pressure exerted on the valley sides is between 5.5 - 8 MPa
Where there is a vertical radius of curvature as well as a horizontal, this is
known as a cupola or dome type.
Used where cement is expensive and labour is cheap.
Rockfill Dams
Earthen Embankments
Near the site there must be clay to fill the trench and embanking material
capable of standing safely, without slipping, to hold up a clay core.
An advantage of earthen embankments is that troubles due to the
deterioration of the structure by peaty waters of low pH do not arise.
Composite Dams
Not only can different types of dam can be built in the same valley, but the
same dam can be of different types owing to the varying geological and
topographical features of the dam site.
Many buttress dams also join up with gravity mass concrete dams at their
haunches at the sides of the valley, and again at the centre have a mass
concrete gravity dam to form a suitable overflow or spillway.
Seismic Activity
2. Whether filling of the reservoir might induce earthquake activity, with the
possibility of damage to the dam or liability for damage to other structures
or persons. Although the magnitude of the shocks maybe low, the
proximity of the epicenters could make the effects more serious.
Triggered Events
Natural Events
The scope of the seismic investigation is decided by the engineer. The engineer
must consider the probable cost in comparison with the cost of conservative
assumptions in design, the effect of such extra cost on the viability of the project,
and the damage that might occur by neglect of such investigations.
Triggered Events
In this type of seismic activity there is a big seismic trigger system is blasting.
Blasting in nearly situated quarry or any excavation.
Geological Hazards
A gorge wherein the side slopes are equal to or steeper than the angle of repose
of loose rock is attractive as a damsite, however, in such a gorge instability of the
slopes can pose serious problems.
Landslips are a common feature of valleys in mountainous areas and large slips
often cause narrowing of a valley which may then look topographically suitable
for a dam. Unless they are shallow seated and can be removed or effectively
drained, it is prudent to avoid land slip areas in dam location, because their
unstable nature may result in movement during construction or subsequently on
drawdown.
Valley Bulging
Mining
The existence of a mine either under a reservoir or a dam will present many
problems such as:
When the mine is under a reservoir there is the possibility that sufficient water
could pass through the intervening rocks to flood the mine, or at least increase
drainage problems. Even if the rock series were sufficiently impermeable to
impede the flow of water, there is the possibility that excessive interstical
pressure could build up - with the danger to mine faces. If the mine is above and
adjacent to the reservoir, saturation of the hillside and change in the water table
could lead to potential instability. Seismic effects from blasting within the mine
might then be sufficient to trigger a landslide.
Any site investigation must include both existing mines and potential mines, for
matters of liability.
Hydrology
1. INTRODUCTION
2. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
3. STORAGE CAPACITY
4. FREEBOARD
5. FLOODS
6. HYDRODYNAMIC FLOW NETS
7. ANISOTROPIC BEDROCKS
8. FILLED RESERVOIRS
Introduction
Whatever dimensions the Engineer selects for the dam and spillway there will
always be some risk, assessment of the acceptable risk is the art of dam
engineering.
Hydrological Cycle
The cyclic movement of water from the sea to the atmosphere and thence by
precipitation to the Earth, where it collects in streams and runs back to the sea, is
referred to as the hydrological cycle. The cycle is not as simple as that, firstly,
precipitation may fall at all stages, secondly, there is no uniformity in the time a
cycle takes, thirdly, the intensity and frequency of the cycle depend on
geography and climate.
Water in the sea evapourates under solar radiation, and clouds of water vapour
move over land
areas.
Precipitation
occurs as snow,
hail, rain and
condensate in the
form of dew, over
land and sea.
Snow and ice on
land are water in
temporary
storage. Rain
falling over land
surfaces may be
intercepted by vegetation and evaporate back to the atmosphere. Some of it
infiltrates into the soil and moves down or percolates into the saturated ground
zone beneath the water table, or phreatic surface. The water in this zone flows
slowly through aquifers to river channels or sometimes directly to the sea. The
water that infiltrates also feeds the surface plant life and some gets drawn up into
this vegetation where transpiration takes place from leafy plant surfaces.
The water remaining on the surface partially evapourates back to vapour, but the
bulk of it coalesces into streamlets and runs as surface runoff to the river
channels. The river and lake surfaces also evapourate, so still more is removed
here. Finally, the remaining water that has not infiltrated or evapourated arrives
back at the sea via the river channels. The groundwater, moving much more
slowly, either emerges into the stream channels or arrives at the coastline and
seeps into the sea, and the whole cycle starts again.
Man can exercise some control only when the rain has fallen on the land and is
making its way back to the sea.
Storage Capacity
The storage capacity of a reservoir is defined as the volume of water which can
be stored. Initial estimates of storage capacity can be made from topographic
maps or aerial photographs.
The reservoir volume
can be estimated by
planimetering areas
upstream of the
proposed dam site up
to the proposed top
water level. The mean
of the two successive
contour areas is
multiplied by the
contour interval to give
the interval volume, the
summation of the
interval volumes
provides the total
volume of the reservoir
site.
Freeboard
Freeboard - 'The vertical distance between the top of the dam and the full supply
level on the reservoir.'
The top of the dam is the level of watertightness of the structure and may be the
top of a parapet that is watertight throughout its length. Full supply level is the
level adopted in design for the maximum operation of the reservoir.
Flood Surcharge
Seiche effects
Wind set-up of the water surface
Wave action
Run-up of waves on the dam.
Inaccuracy of data;
Large risks if breached;
Type of dam
Floods
When a flood enters a reservoir it will cause the water level to rise, with
consequent discharge over the spillway. The reservoir level will continue to rise
until the free discharge over the spillway equals the inflow at time 'X' on the
figure. Spillway discharge will then exceed inflow until the reservoir level falls to
spillway crest level.
If spillway gates are installed they can be opened in advance of peak of the flood.
The rate at which they can be opened will usually be governed by permissible
river rise conditions downstream. There is the danger that the flood inflow will not
reach the volume
anticipated and the
water will be wasted or
a flood of unjustifable
size will be created
downstream of the
dam.
Symmetrical hydrodynamic flow net beneath a dam with its base at ground level
When the base of the dam figure 2, is set below ground elevation and a cut-off is
constructed there is a change in flow net compared to figure 1, that results in the
following advantages:
1. The uplift pressure at the heel of the dam is reduced and the total uplift
pressure downstream from the cut-off has been diminished. Accordingly,
the moment of uplift forces tending to lift the dam has been reduced.
2. The danger of piping and erosion at the toe of the dam has been reduced
or eliminated.
3. The longer flow paths along the streamlines below the cut-off causes a
notable decrease in the exit velocities downstream in the proximity of the
dam and reduces total seepage under the dam.
Hydrodynamic flow net beneath a dam with its base below ground level and with
an impermeable cut-off near the heel of the dam
Almost an infinite number of possibilities exists with respect to the magnitude and
space distribution of zones of potential seepage in bedrock in the vicinities of
dams and in the reservoirs behind the dams. A few of the many possible
configurations of zones of potential are shown below;
Idealised cross sections of dams showing various kinds of zones of
potential seepage in bedrock.
Fractured sandstones in a
strike valley are prone to
seepage.
A subsided block (arrow)
has created an open
channelway in a massive
horizontal sandstone layer.
Fractured sandstones in an
anticline create a permeable
zone parallel to the valley.
Folded, jointed rocks and a
strong fault create a
potential for groundwater
flow.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. STATIC LOADING
3. DYNAMIC LOADING
4. FACTOR OF SAFETY - Gravity Dams
5. FACTOR OF SAFETY - Concrete Arch Dams
6. FACTOR OF SAFETY - Embankment Dams
7. FACTOR OF SAFETY - Abutments and Foundations
Introduction
The factor of safety must relate to the strength, stability and durability with
consideration to magnitude of economic and personal loss that would result from
its failure.
The aim of the Engineer must be to reduce the number of uncertainties, both as
regards loading on the dam and in the means by which the dam and the
foundations withstand such loads. The Engineer must also be satisfied that there
is no feasible mechanism that could result in failure.
Static Loading
Horizontal Loads
Headwater (H1) - For the basic calculation of stability the level in the reservoir will
be assumed at or above the level required for the passage of the design flood. In
many instances the dam is designed for the highest level of watertightness, e.g.
a concrete parapet.
Silt (H2) - A changed
land usage as a
result of a dam may
well result in
increased erosion,
causing a deposition
of silt. Unless very
deep deposits of silt
are likely it is
adequate to assume
a triangular load
allotting an
appropiate relative
density to the fluid. This would have a maximum value of 1.4
Reservoir Behaviour (H3) - Wind and other natural causes will induce movement
in the reservoir as waves, reservoir set-up or seiche effect.
Ice Loading (H4) - It is assumed that ice will not form and exert pressure on the
dam at times of maximum flood. The slope of the upstream face of the dam as
well as the slope and roughness of the valley walls will influence the magnitude
of ice loading. Even wind blowing down the reservoir at 50km/hr may increase
the ice loading by 4-5 t/m of exposed face.
Tailwater (H5) - In some cases water is ponded downstream from the dam.
Assistance from this may be assumed but it must not be overlooked that, in the
case of an overflow dam, flood waters passing over the dam might well evacuate
such water from the face of the dam.
Seiche effect (H7) - Is an undulation in the reservoir water due to natural causes,
intermittent wind, variation in atmospheric pressure, earthquake and motion of
the Earth. Usually less than 0.5m, though levels of 2m have been reported in
Lake Geneva
Vertical Loads
Uplift (V3)- Hydrostatic forces acting within a dam and its foundations including
interstitial or pore pressures. Some Engineers rely on drainage to prevent
occurence of uplift, assuming the drainage will be effective for the entire life on
the dam, therefore some inclusion for uplift must be included in the design. See
diagram for distribution of pressure. [k values vary between 0.25 to 0.50
depending on conditions.]
Water Density - Some rivers carry very heavy silt load in seasons which changes
the density of the reservoir.
Reservoir set-up - The result of continuing wind causing one end of the reservoir
to be at a higher level. Calculations for a large reservoir in which the fetch is
38km would indicate the following values:
Construction Loads - Concrete dams of cupola and buttress shape offer good
resistance to water loading when complete but during construction it is necessary
to control the rate of construction and to include reinforcement in overhanging
sections.
Dynamic Loading
The Earth's crust is in a state of stress. When the stress is great enough, and the
crust is weak enough, adjustments may occur. These adjustments will release
energy in the form of shock waves, propagated from an epicentre. These waves
will vary in wavelength and frequency. Short-period waves have predominant
frequencies within the range of natural frequencies for dams, they are apt to
produce conditions of resonance in the dam. Engineers are therefore more
concerned with the possibility of moderate earthquakes occurring within 80 to
120 km of the dam than larger earthquakes occurring outside this limit.
Design
For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient was generally adopted and
applied as an additional static load. Vertical effects were taken into
account in very few circumstances and dynamic analysis was used by
very few.
For arch dams the dynamic effects received greater attention in model
tests and in situ testing by vibration of the dam.
For embankment dams additional horizontal static loads were
considered; dynamic analysis was being developed and closer
attention was being given to the characteristics of fill material.
Zoning - Many countries were adopting the principle of seismic zoning.
Seismic Coefficients - A coefficient of from 0.1 to 0.2 was commonly used.
Seismic Waves - Analyses had been made by applying sinusoidal or
modified earthquake records - but actual earthquake records had only
been applied in rare cases for dynamic analyses.
Properties of Materials - Different mechanical properties of various
materials when subjected to static and dynamic loading.
Loads Considered - For dynamic water pressure the formulae of
Westergaard, Zanger and the USBoR were in use.
Allowable Stresses - In many cases the permissible compressive stress
under dynamic loading was increased by up to 30% above the permissible
static stress. Factors of Safety for arch dams were usually 4, based on
compressive stress and 1.2 minimum for fill dams.
Deformations - An embankment dam which employed dynamic analysis
was assumed to suffer 5% axial strain.
Models - These were popular for arch dams and were used for some
gravity dams. There was a tendency to employ model tests for fill dams.
In Situ Tests - Some arch dams were shaken by vibrating machines to
study natural frequeny and modes of vibration.
Seismographs - In a majority of large dams seismographs were used.
Factor of Safety
- Gravity Dams
The ratio of the sum of the horizontal forces to the sum of the vertical forces is
referred to as the sliding factor (Fss). This is usually about 0.75 but must not
exceed 0.90 under extreme loading. These figures represent the range of the
coefficient of static friction normally encountered at the site of a gravity dam.
Load Combination
Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme
dam concrete, base interface 3.0 2.0 <1.0
foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3
The design criterion adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is for a factor of
safety of 4 based on the strength of concrete at 1 year. Except for extreme
loading combinations the maximum compressive stress is usually limited to 6.9
MPa.
Upstream Slope
1.3-
Immediately after completion with full construction pore pressure
1.5
Following rapid drawndown (slip circles between high and low water 1.2-
levels) 1.3
Downstream Slope
The dam foundations and abutments should be thoroughly investigated for any
possible mechanism of failure. This would involve identification of joints, faults
and any other forms of weakness.
- the ratio of shearing resistance to the maximum shearing stress predicted; the
lowest value of the ratio in the foundation being the factor of safety of the
foundation
SITE INVESTIGATION
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TIME AND MONEY FOR INVESTIGATIONS
3. DESK STUDY
4. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
5. GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION
6. EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION METHODS
7. EVALUATION OF SELECTED SITES
8. DETAILED INVESTIGATION
9. MONITORING
Introduction
Most failures are due to lack of appreciation of how the particular damsite would
react to the superposition of the dam and reservoir. It is therefore essential that a
detailed site investigation takes place and the results are appropriately used by
Engineers.
In the planning stage possible damsites will have been chosen from contour
maps and aerial photography, selected primarily on topography. A narrow gorge
is best, hoping for minimum quantities in the dam and a valley opening upstream
to provide the required storage. There maybe alternative sites along the length of
a river and hence further investigation has to be done to assertain the best
possible position.
The amount of money required to investigate a damsite will depend upon the site
and the type of dam. An experienced department of engineers, hydrologists,
geologists and surveyors may produce sufficient information for an outlay of 2-
3% of the dam cost. This figure could reach 6% in remote locations where basic
information is not available.
It is not unusual to spend 3 years on site investigations, this will depend on the
location and size of the dam, but time must not be underestimated. To meet
stringent requirements for environmental studies and public opinion polls could
add 2 years to the time and several percent to the cost.
If, as a result of the site investigation another site is to be chosen, the same time
and money must be spent investigating the new site. Adequate time and money
must always be available to all disciplines to give them the opportunity to
investigate and report.
Desk Study
Initial desk study can be done by researching from these sources of information -
5. Aerial Photography
Landsat Images
Colour and infra red photography
A Geologist will assist the Engineer in the selection of the damsite, and a
construction Engineer will study the access and possible sources of materials.
At this stage, the preliminary geological data should be assessed and enhanced
by mapping and modelling. This can help to highlight important considerations
about which type of dam may be most appropriate, and any problems which may
be encountered, before extensive drilling or exploratory works are performed.
Assessment of preliminary data will assist in the choice of exploratory methods
and in the design of the exploratory programme as a whole.
Geophysical Investigation
Purpose - to secure accurate information about the soil and rock stratification,
the composition of the materials and the location of ground water.
Auger Boring - Generally limited to firm soils, above the watertable. Gravel
larger than about a third of the diameter of the hole cannot be drilled but
very hard soil and soft rock can often be penetrated if sufficient power is
available.
Test Boring -
Core Drilling -
Diamond Drilling -
Short Drilling or Calyx Drilling -
Boring layout
Procedure
Laboratory testing
Correlation of results
Field Work
Testing and Correlation
At this stage, potential hazards and problems should have been identified.
However, it is still necessary to remain alert for indications of hazardous or
problematic features which were not identified during the earlier stages of the
investigation. The main effort is directed in producing parameters for the final
design. This would involve high quality boring and drilling, with particular
attention being paid to sample quality and high core recovery, careful logging of
trenches, shafts and adits, in situ testing such as plate loading tests and in situ
shear tests in adits, trial embankments, grouting trials and so on.
Foundation testing
Undisturbed Sampling
Pit Sampling
Thin-walled Samplers
Foil Samplers
Rotary Samplers
Laboratory Testing
Correlation of Test Results
Field testing
Test Pit
Plate Load Test
Seepage Test
Sampling
Laboratory Testing
Test Strip
Detailed Investigation
The evaluation of preliminary desk and field work should assess the potential for
major hazards and qualitatively assess the likelihood of encountering any more
hazards. This should allow a ranking of the potential sites in order of their
probable suitability.
Following the desk study and preliminary field work, it may be necessary to
establish a pattern and base level of seismicity for later evaluation of induced
seismicity. If potential active faults are identified, seismic arrays should be
installed to monitor these. This will help assess the need for criteria changes
should seismic activity occur after the feasibility stage has been completed and
the design is well advanced.
Monitoring
CONSTRUCTION
1. GENERAL
2. RIVER DIVERSION
3. CONCRETE DAMS
4. EMBANKMENT DAMS
General
1. Safety
2. Specifications
3. Plant
4. Cost and its control
Safety - with the ever increasing height of dams there is greater need for
precautions, especially against falling objects or persons. Double curvature
structures have made access and movement of personnel difficult. All site
personnel must be alert at all time for the accidents that might happen. The
insurance is regular meetings of staff and representatives of the work force,
where knowledge and experience can be pooled - especially in the planning
stage of an unusual operation.
Specifications
For all types of dam, the specification should cover the following:
The required date for completion, with a schedule to indicate dates for
completion of stages of the work;
The degree of responsibility to be accepted by the Contractor in the
dimensioning of diversion works, for losses due to floods, for river pollution
and general care of the river;
Clearing of the site and works areas;
The extent of foundation preparation required and the sharing of
responsibility for unforeseen conditions;
Protection of the environment, disposal of soil, rehabilitation of borrow
areas, beautification, etc.;
Premliminary work that will be done by the Owner and the degree of
responsibility accepted by the Owner for consequences of such work.
Plant - The cost of purchasing plant and its operation are major items. On a dam
involving 2 million cum of concrete, the purchase and operation might each
represent 18-20% of the direct cost of the dam. For an embankment dam this
may be of the order of 25-35%. It is therefore important to select the correct plant
to achieve optimum cost.
The specification for some major contracts calls for the use of only new plant and
the main advantage is that suitable plant can be matched to the particular job.
Material transporters can be matched to quarry equipment for example. For
compaction of embankments - soil or rock, it is important to select the most
appropiate equipment and this can be best determined by means of a trial
embankment. It is also necessary to have a supply of spare parts since many
sites are remote. Plant should be simple and rugged, and preferably modular to
simplify the replacement of parts.
Consistently high quality of materials is the objective of all dam builders and to
sacrifice quality for a doubtful saving in cost is poor engineering.
Cost and its Control - Safety, Time and Cost are interrelated and usually
conflicting. Safety is always paramount, and hence time and cost directly relate
to quality and degree of perfection required. There is an optimum time for any
operation and beyond this time will incur extra costs. Cost is made up of direct
charges for manpower and materials, plus overheads and interest. Interest is out
of the control of the Engineer.
With regard to the direct charges, the selection of the type of dam will be the
major decision and this might well be influenced by local conditions rather than
mathematical economies.
For an embankment dam, for example. the dissection of costs may be;
River Diversion
Regardless of the type of dam, it is necessary to de-water the site for final
geological inspection, for foundation improvement and prepartation, and for the
first stage of dam construction. The magnitude, method and cost of river
diversion works will depend upon the cross-section of the valley, the bed material
in the river, the type of dam, the expected hydrological conditions during the time
required for this phase of the work, and finally upon the consequences of failure
of any part of the temporary works.
At most sites it will be necessary to move the river whilst part of the dam is
constructed; this part will incorporate either permanent or temporary openings
through which the river will be diverted in the second stage. If the first diversion is
not large enough the initial stages of construction will be inundated, if the second
stage outlets are too small, the whole works will be flooded.
At some sites there is a distinct seasonal pattern of river flows and advantage
can be taken of such conditions but noting that Nature is random.
Construction of a semi circular arch cofferdam on the left bank of the river.
Construction of the flanking portions of each of the upstream and
downstream mid channel concrete arch cofferdams which cross the river
upstream and downstream of the central section of the dam.
Excavation of a channel along the right bank, leading to the temporary
openings through the dam, demolition of portions of the right bank
cofferdam to permit the diversion of the river through the temporary
openings and such clearing out of the right bank diversion channel as may
be necessary.
The cutting of a channel through the portion of the right bank groyne
adjacent to the bank to form an entrance to the diversion channel
described above.
The placing of rockfill to connect together the right and left bank groynes
so as to divert the river flow into the right bank diversion channel, thereby
cutting down the velocity of the water in the vicinity of the mid river
cofferdams.
Completion of the upstream mid river cofferdam completion of the
downstream mid river cofferdam.
Placing of spoil, excavated from the works, in the flood channel on the left
bank upstream of the dam to prevent the river flooding into the area to the
protected by the mid river cofferdams.
Third stage (C) & (D) & (E) -
De-watering of the left bank cofferdam and excavation for the dam blocks
and the portion of the overspill apron within this cofferdam.
Concreting of the dam blocks numbers 9 to 27 to a minimum level of 1206
meters.
Demolition of the left bank cofferdam.
Demolition of the remaining portion of the right bank cofferdam within the
areas protected by the mid channel cofferdams.
The de-watering of the mid channel cofferdam and excavation within it for
dam block numbers 1 to 7 and 2 to 12 and portion of the overspill apron.
Concreting of dam blocks 1 to 7 and 2 to 12 to such levels that the
contraction joints in the lower part of the dam up to gallery can be grouted.
Concreting within the mid channel cofferdams of the portion of the
overspill apron downstream of blocks 1 to 7 and 2 to 12.
Cooling of the concrete and grouting of the dam construction joints.
Diversion can also be achieved by means of a tunnel, which depends on the
nature of the rock and depth of weathering and should be far away from the dam
itself to not interferre with the foundations. The tunnel also should be large
enough to avoid the possibility of job jams.
1. Aggregate Production
2. Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
5. Cooling of Concrete
6. Economical Construction
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in
keeping the belt temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy
conditions. The conveyors are usually covered and cold air is blown over the
concrete to lower its placing temperature.
The placing of a low-slump concrete, four layers in 2.3m lift
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams
a height of 2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer
movements of forms and fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift
formwork is unique and expensive with less prospect for re-use, heavier
equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat problems and risks of
cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of cantilever
design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work
and lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast
concrete slabs for formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay
on construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The
complication of installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage
wells and gate wells are common on spillways. There has been a tendency to
use precast concrete units for galleries to save time, however this prevents the
inspection of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The simplest method of
forming galleries is vertical formwork extending the full height of a lift. When this
is removed, precast concrete beams or slabs can be laid over the opening and
concreted into the next lift. Reinforcement is usually required above and below
rectangular galleries and this is best installed as prefabricated units.
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days
after placing can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is
essential to give attention to both internal and external factors that may induce
cracking;
Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the
cement, the quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing
temperature and the rate of construction;
Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure -
including the temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal
diffusivity of the concrete. If it is considered necessary to heat the
underlying concrete the rate of rise of its temperature should not exceed
2° Celsius per day;
The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14
days old, it will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be
reduced by placing concrete in half lifts for a predetermined height, say
3m above the cold surface;
The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift
may be more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the
new lift. The horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal
required and the temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of
varying temperature or refrigerated water);
The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads
4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
Phases of Construction -
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined
primarily on the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound,
hard and clean. If the location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to
separate the quarry and the haul roads from other works such as the intake,
spillway or power station construction. Attention should be given to
environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for
rubber-tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for
minimum loading costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this
involves the size of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for
two way traffic, for preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job.
The gradients must be such as to give minimum cost for the vehicles involved.
The general layout of haul roads and ramps can be greatly facilitated with scale
models.
Material Compaction -
Earth Dams -
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The
choice of the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the
topography of the site.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just
inside the embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the
permanent rock toes themselves but they can also be made of rolled pervious
earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid on top of these dikes or are
carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to allow full
discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the
discharge points while the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension.
A pool is created between the 'beaches'. The core level is always below the
beach level because the rate of sedimentation there is much slower.
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil
and the level of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in
the core pool is raised to provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum
limit of core in the shell. Filling commences when the coarse materials settling on
the beach above the pool and encroaching on the pool limits. As the beach rises
the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is stopped when the pool
width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone with jagged
edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the
desired dam shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the
outlet. Draglines are placed on the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to
the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes, if necessary, is built and the process
is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established
limits. These are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell
material. Zones of shell material in the core are likewise equally dangerous.
These develop from slides into an excessively deep core pool or as a result of
too small a proportion of fines available from the borrow pits. A small hydraulic
dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the mix back into the
core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often
develops when fine sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless
soils are potential sources of failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam
construction.
Rockfill Dams -
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally
drop by 50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures
may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of
the fill is dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the
abutments to form a mound or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the
top of this mound, allowing the rock to fall down the sloping surface. The
combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the pieces to become
tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third
of a cubic metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then
rolled by heavy rubber tyred rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight
passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of
repose. If a flatter slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal
berms as required.
An Engineer's responsibility is to safety. They must act with integrity giving due
consideration to the purpose of the project and the ultimate effects of the project
on fellow human beings.
At the same time the Engineers are responsible to the community for the cost of
the structure. There is always a limit to the finance, so any cut in cost must not
sacrifice safety. The Engineers also carries a legal responsibility, and are
responsible at all times for both what they do and what they say.
Consequences of Failure
Failure happens with fearful rapidity and usually without little warning, with the
potential to cause a national catastrophe.
When the Oros Dam failed in Brazil in March 1960, between 30 and 50 people
were lost and 100 000 people were evacuated, some 730 million cubic metres of
water were released in 34 hours with a peak flow of 9600 cubic metres per
second.
Number of incidents
Appurtenant Features
Coffer Dams - Coffer dams usually are temporary structures built upstream from
a dam to prevent stream flow around the excavation for a dam. In valleys of
steep profile diversion commonly is accomplished by a tunnel or tunnels in the
walls of the valley. Commonly the diversion tunnels are put to further use to
control flow from the reservoir either for drainage of the reservoir or for flow
under pressure into a hydroelectric generating plant. In valleys of low profile
diversion is by tunnels, canals, or by conduits which subsequently are buried by
the dam. It is not unusual in embankment dams to incorporate the coffer dam into
the larger embankment structure comprising the designed dam.
Hydroelectric power plants - many dams are constructed to generate
hydroelectric power. The powerhouse is located at,or in the vicinity of, the toe of
a dam or at some distance downstream. Flow of water into the powerhouse is
controlled by valves upstream from the dam, within the dam downstream, or in
valve vaults excavated in rock outside of the dam.
Fish ladders - dams constructed on streams that are the migration paths for
spawning fish commonly make provisions for movement of the fish up or in the
vicinity of the downstream face of the dam. The facility that permits fish migration
is usually called a fish ladder. See figure.
Gates - gates are devices installed in the tops of spillways to control the flow of
water over the spillway.
Locks - locks are movable dams or portions of dams utilized in navigation along
rivers and canals.
Spillways are located within or on the downstream face of a dam, outside of the
dam on one side or the other, or within the reservoir, where water spills into a
glory hole and passes through a shaft and tunnel or tunnels in the abutment of
the dam.
Valves and valve vaults - Valves control the flow of water through tunnels and
penstocks. In many large dams the valve are installed in underground vaults or
chambers to which access is gained downstream from the dam.
Water is probably Man's most vital commodity; its optimum utilization will be of
prime importance in our expanding civilisation. Planning is therefore essential on
a geographically wide scale and over a long period of time. The greatest obstacle
is usually the unavailability of finance for comprehensive investigations.
For example the Hoover Dam, used to prevent floods, generate electricty and
provide irrigation has two mighty spillways, which due to subsequent
development upstream will probably never be used. Such occurences are
unavoidable when only part of a river system is developed, i.e. when the
economy requires the 'best' damsites be exploited first.
On a larger scale the major rivers of the world often form international boundaries
or they rise in one country and flow through several others. International
agreements may exist between countries with regards the usage of the river for
example. For the satisfactory allocation of costs a basic programme for the full
development of the river basin must be evolved and accepted.
Reservoir Utilization
Mainly for industry, such as mining where the life of the dam depends on the
mines resources, town water supply or for beautification and recreation.
Multipurpose Reservoirs
Life of a dam
Many dams are in existence that are over 1000 years old. Gravity and rockfill
dams must qualify for long structural lives wheras thin arches, multiple arches or
buttress dams have more limited lives, especially if they retain aggresive water.
It is usual to finance the building of a dam on the basis of repayment of its cost
over 50 or 60 years. After this the only cost will be maintenance. The life of a
dam may be prejudiced by the amount of silt carried by the river, since the
reservoir loses capacity. It is possible to raise the dam by building up, but at a
considerable expense.
Environmental Implications
Multidisciplinary Approach
We have reached an era when the Engineer must cooperate with members of
other disciplines if a project is to be completed for optimum benefits and
minimum adverse effects.
An example of the number of disciplines involved, relative to the Auburn Dam
project;