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4.1 IRON
Iron is widely available all over the world, but only in combination with other elements.
The most important iron-bearing minerals or iron ores are limonite (brown iron ore,
Fe2O3.nH2O) hematite (red iron ore, Fe2O3) and magnetite (magnetic oxide of iron,
FezO4).
The mined ore is crushed to small particles of size 1 in. (25mm) or smaller, and further
reduced to fine powder, which is later converted to pellets or sinters. Sintering is a
process of application of heat that results in the conversion of fine ore into hard and
porous lumps (of size 10-50 mm). Pelletizing is the process of forming balls (10-20mm)
in diameter in the presence of moisture and additives.
Blast Furnace
Iron is produced in blast furnace. Blast furnaces were developed in Europe around 1400.
The hot metal that was tapped in the furnace and cast in sand was termed as a pig if the
weight was less than 112lb (50.7kg), and hence the term pig iron was derived, which
represents iron produced in a blast furnace, that is not pure iron, nearly saturated with
carbon. The type and composition of pig iron depends on the composition of the ore.
A blast furnace is a tall, circular shaft that increases in cross-sectional area from the top
to the base. The main function of a blast furnace is to reduce the ore to metal, followed
by separation of the metal from the impurities. The inside of the furnace is lined with
firebricks or carbon bricks (Figure 4.1). A tapping hole is located about 2-3 ft from the
bottom. The iron ore in the form of pellets or sinters is charged into the furnace with
coke (carboneous solid made from coal, petroleum etc.) and limestone (which acts as a
flux holding the silica and alumina impurities of the ore and coke).
Charge
Brick lining
Slag
Molten
Iron
Wrought iron (besi tempa) has the least, and cast iron the greatest amount of carbon.
Increase in the amount of carbon decreases the melting point of the metal. Carbon, exerts
the most significant effects on the microstructure and properties of iron products. The
upper theoretical limit of carbon in steel is 1.7 %; in structural steel the carbon content <
0.25% by weight.
4.2.3 Steel
Steel is a combination of iron and carbon (0.01 0.1 %). Steel in addition contains
varying amounts of manganese, phosphorous, sulfur, and silicon, together with some 20
other alloys. The alloys are added to molten steel to produce steel of different
characteristics, such as hardness, tensile strength, and toughness. An alloy is a mixture
of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are used in a wide variety
of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the
material
while
preserving
important
properties.
Examples
of
alloys
are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, phosphor bronze and amalgams.
Kinds of Steel:
There is an almost an infinite number of kinds of steel available. Steels are grouped into
a number of classifications, based on the content of modifying elements. They are as
follows:
Carbon Steel
A steel that owes its properties mainly to the presence of carbon, without substantial
amounts of other alloying elements, except manganese.
Tool Steels
Either carbon or alloy steels which are capable of being hardened and tempered for use as
cutting and stamping tools.
Properties of Steel
Steels usually contain < 1% carbon by weight. Structural steel has < 0.25 % of carbon.
Manganese is the main alloying element and is added when the steel is in molten
condition, up to about 1.6%. Cementite is the hardest and most brittle component of steel
and is found in high-carbon steel.
Dr CPG uthm 2016
Carbon has the most significant effect on the microstructure and properties of steel.
Increase in carbon content increases the hardness, strength, and abrasion resistance, but
decreases the ductility, toughness, and impact resistance. Ductility, as measured by the
percentage of elongation during the tension test, decreases drastically with increase in
carbon content. Toughness, as measured by the area under the stress-strain diagram,
decreases rapidly with carbon content exceeding 0.4%.
Tensile strength and yield point of steel are maximum when carbon content is about 1%
(Fig. 4.1). High-strength low-alloy structural steel is expected to have a tensile strength
of 60 ksi when the carbon content is 0.2%, and 80 ksi when the carbon content is 0.26 %.
With heat treatment, it is possible to change the properties of steel without changing the
chemical composition. Ductility is also affected by heat treatment.
In general, properties of steel are greatly affected by three factors:
Chemical composition
Heat treatment
Mechanical work
Carbon and alloying elements affect both physical properties (such as weldability and
corrosion) and mechanical properties (such as yield strength, tensile strength, and
ductility).
The process of corrosion of steel by exposure to the atmospheric conditions can be
reduced by:
Painting (Mengecat)
Coating with metal (lapisan logam)
cathodic protection (Ketahanan kathod)
By alloying with increased Copper and Chromium (Aloi dengan menambah
kuprum dan kromium)
Properties of steel are greatly affected by high temperatures. Temperatures > 4800 C may
not only cause loss of cross-section but may also result in metallurgical changes and
severe deformation. Steel exposed to very high temperatures will have heavy scale,
pitting, and surface erosion. Exposure of steel to severe fire of nominal duration will
destroy the ability of steel members to sustain loads.
Cold-drawn steel
100
Tensile strength
80
Rupture
Hot-worked
Steel
60
Stress
(ksi)
40
Yield Point
20
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Strain (in/in)
10
Tensile Strength
and yield point ksi,
and elongation (%)
120 (60)
Tensile
Strength
100 (50)
80 (40)
60 (30)
Yield point
% elongation
(2 in. gage length)
40 (20)
20 (10)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Investigations of earthquake damage have revealed that buildings of structural steel have
performed better than any other type of construction in protecting life and preventing
economic loss. This is due to the physical and mechanical properties of steel:
In addition, damaged steel buildings can be repaired relatively easily. All structures rely
on steel to supply the ductility and toughness needed to resist severe earthquakes.
Weldability is important for steel used in majority of building projects, and this property
decreases with increase in carbon content. Structural carbon steel, or A36 steel, has
good ductility and is weldable. In fact, all ASTM grades of structural steel are weldable,
and their carbon content is limited to about 0.25 %. In steel structures exposed to severe
environment, adequate corrosion resistance is required.
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Steel bridges and buildings are assembled by connecting the individual elements of
various shapes and sizes using bolts or welding or both. Connections between various
members in a structure are of many types: simple, eccentric, tension, shear, shear and
tension, and moment-resisting connections. When a beam transfers only the shear forces
to the supporting columns or girders, the connection is a simple or shear connection; if ,
in addition, it transfers the couple, the connection is moment-resisting.
Reinforcing Steel
Concrete has low tensile strength and modulus of rupture, although its compressive
strength is high. To use concrete in places where the applied loads induce tensile or
bending stresses, such as in beams, slabs, walls and beam-columns, the tensile capacity of
the cross-section has to be improved. Steel reinforcement within the concrete c-s
enhances the bending capacity as well as the resistance to cracking from tensile forces.
The cost of steel reinforcement in a reinforced concrete structure is about 50-70% of the
total cost. Reinforced concrete is a composite material, made from steel, which has a
high modulus of elasticity and tensile strength, and concrete, which has superior
compressive and bond strengths. Adequate bond is ensured by using rebars with surface
deformation, called deformed bars. The bond capacity in these bars is mainly from the
surface friction and roughness.
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Non-Ferrous Metals
1. Aluminum:
The principal constituents of bauxite (Al2O32H2O) which yield aluminium on a commercial scale are
hydrated oxides of aluminium and iron with some silica. Some of the other aluminium ores are
corundum, kaolin or china clay, and kryolite. The ore is purifed by Bayers process and is reduced to
aluminium by Hall Hiroults process in two stages. In the first stage bauxite is converted into alumina
by roasting, grinding, heating (with sodium hydrate) and filtering. Then it is agitated for several hours
to precipitate the hydrate, which is separated, washed and calcined at 1000 C. In the next stage
aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of alumina in a molten bath (Fig. 4.1) of crystolite (a fluoride of
alumina and sodium). A flow diagram for extraction of aluminium is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Fig. 4.13
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Uses: Pure aluminium is very soft and is unsuitable for structural purposes. Satisfactory properties
are derived by alloying copper, manganese, zinc, silicon, and nickel with aluminium. It is most
suitable for making door and window frames, railings of shops and corrugated sheets for roofing
system. Aluminium sheets are used over doors in bathrooms to protect them from getting rot and for
stamping into a variety of shapes. Aluminium powder is used for making paint. Aluminium is
extensively used in making parts of internal combustion engine, airplanes, utensils and packings for
medicines, chocolates, etc. Aluminium alloys are widely used for the manufacture of rolled sections,
such as angles, channels, I-sections, round and rectangular pipes, rivets and bolts.
Copper:
Copper is extracted form ores, e.g., copper pyrite, such as, chalcopyrite (CuFeS2, 34.5 per cent
copper), malachite (CuCO3 + Cu(OH)2, 57.3 per cent copper) and copper glance (Cu2S, 79.8 per cent
copper). Nearly all the copper is extracted by smelting. After calcining the ore it is mixed with silica
and coke. Then it is oxidized in Bessemer converter where removal of major portion of iron and
sulphur compounds is affected. The crude copper thus produced is known as blister copper which is
cast into small pigs. The blister copper contains many impurities and is refined in the reverberatory
finance (Fig. 14.3) or by electrolysis. In reverberatory furnace the sulphides are oxidized and the
cuprous oxide exerts cleansing action on the base metals in the crude copper. A larger excess or a
deficiency of cuprous oxide in the copper makes it weak and brittle which make it necessary to
remove any excess which remains after the impurities have been skimmed off. This is achieved by the
addition of charcoal and green wood to the bath. Fire refining imparts malleability, toughness and
ductility. Electrolytic refining is used when pure grade copper is required for electrical purposes, and
where there is a considerable quantity of gold or silver associated with the crude copper.
Properties: Copper is a bright shining metal of reddish colour which turns greenish on exposure to
weather. Copper is malleable and ductile and can be worked in hot and cold conditions. It is not
weldable, except on red heat. It is soft and good conductor of heat and electricity. The electrical
resistivity of copper having less than 0.1 per cent non-metallic impurities lies between 0.1550.159
ohms per metre gram at 20 C. The resistivity increases with the content of impurities and with
amount of wire drawing. Its tensile strength is high.
Uses: Copper is extensively used for electrical purposes, tubes for condensers and for other
conductors which must withstand corrosion. In buildings copper is used for roofing, sheeting and
damp proofing. Its use is restricted in the appliances and connections used for water supplies in
houses.
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Tin:
It is extracted from black oxide of tin, casseterite (SnO2,78.6 per cent tin). Tin is extracted from the
ore by crushing, roasting and melting to a temperature of about 1000 C in a way similar to that of
coppers.
Properties; Tin is a silvery-white, lustrous, and extremely malleable metal. It is so soft that it can be
cut by a knife. Its specific gravity is 7.3 and it melts at 232 C. It is harder, more ductile and stronger
than lead. Tin is as ductile as soft steel. It is highly resistant to corrosion and has low tensile strength.
Uses; Sheets coated with tin are used to make cans, utensils and furnace pipes. Sheets coated with
lead-tin alloy are used for roofing. Tin is also used for making bronze and other alloys.
Lead:
Mainly used in its pure form, lead is the densest, softest and the weakest metal. The principal ore is
lead sulphide, galena (PbS, 86.6 per cent lead). Lead is extracted by reducing the sulphur content by
roasting the raw ore in pots or sintering it in shallow pallets (Fig. 14.5). It is then smelt in a blast
furnace (Fig. 14.6) along with flux and coke. Lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, etc., are taken out of the
blast furnace and separated alternately on the basis of their different melting points.
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14.17
14.18
Properties: Pure lead can be scratched even with finger nail, highly malleable and can be rolled, into
thin foils. It has a blue grey colour and dull metallic lusture when freshly fractured. When exposed to
moist air it loses lusture due to oxidation. Its relative density is 11.34 and melting temperature is 327
C. The softness and specific gravity of lead are reduced because of the impurities such as antimony,
arsenic, zinc and copper. Magnesia (2 per cent) raises the hardness abruptly.
Uses: It finds its principal use in paints as base, lead pipes and joints in sanitary fittings and in
batteries.
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