Ch03 Complex Numbers

3
3A Introduction to complex numbers

3B Basic operations using complex
numbers
3C Conjugates and division of complex
numbers
3D Complex numbers in polar form
3E Basic operations on complex numbers in
polar form
3F Factorisation of polynomials in C
3G Solving equations in C
Complex
numbers
areaS oF STuDy
including their geometric representation and

interpretation
Factors over C of polynomials with integer
coefficients; and informal introduction to the
fundamental theorem of algebra, including
its application to factorisation of polynomial
functions of a single variable over C; for
example, z2 i, z3 (2 i)z2 + z 2 + i, or
z8 + 1
Solution over C of corresponding polynomial
equations by completing the square, use of the
quadratic formula and using factorised form;
occurrence of non-real roots in conjugate pairs
(conjugate root theorem).
C, the set of numbers z of the form z = x + yi,

where x, y are real numbers and i2 = 1
Real and imaginary parts; complex conjugates
Equality, addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division of complex numbers
Use of an argand diagram to represent complex
numbers
Polar form (modulus and argument);
multiplication and division in polar form,
including their geometric representation and
interpretation
De Moivres theorem and its use to find powers
and roots of complex numbers in polar form,
eBook
eBoo
k plus
3a
introduction to complex
numbers
In 1545, the Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano proposed (what
was then) a startling mathematical expression:
40 = 5 +
15
) (5
15
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions
eBook plus
eLesson
eles-0081
Applications
of complex
numbers
This was a valid expression, yet it included the square root of a negative number, which
seemed impossible.
Eventually, however, this idea became central to the new study the study of complex
numbers. Complex numbers are now used extensively in the fields of physics and engineering
in areas such as electric circuits and electromagnetic waves. Combined with calculus theory,
complex numbers form an important part of the study of mathematics known as complex
analysis.
108
maths Quest 12 Specialist mathematics for the Casio Classpad
Square root of a negative number

The quadratic equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no solutions for x in the real number system R because
the equation yields x = 1 and there is no real number which, when squared, gives 1 as the
result. If, however, we define an imaginary number denoted by i such that i2 = 1, then
x=
becomes x = i 2 = i . For the general case x + a2 = 0, with a R, we can write:

x=
=
a2
1 a 2
= i2 a2
= ai
Powers of i will produce i or 1. We have i2 = 1, i3 = i2 i = 1 i = i, i4 = i2 i2 = 1 1 = 1,
i6 = (i2)3 = (1)3 = 1 and so on. The pattern is quite obviously that even powers of i give 1 or 1
and odd powers of i give i or i.
Definition of a complex number

A complex number (generally denoted by the letter z) is defined as a quantity consisting of a real
number added to a multiple of the imaginary unit i. For real numbers x and y, x + yi is a complex
number.
C = {z: z = x + yi, x, y R} defines the set of complex numbers.
The real part of z is x and is written as Re(z).
The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im(z).
Note: Every real number x can be written as x + 0i and so the set of real numbers is a subset of
the set of complex numbers. That is, R C.
Worked Example 1
Using the imaginary number i, write down an expression for:

a
16
c Repeat a and b using a calculator.

Think
a
Write
Express the square root of 16 as

the product of the square root of 16
and the square root of 1.
Substitute i2 for 1.
Take the square root of 16 and i2.
Express the square root of 5 as the

product of the square root of 5 and
the square root of 1.
Take the square root of i2.
16
= 16
= 16 i 2
= 4i
5
= 5
= 5 i2
=i 5
Chapter 3 Complex numbers
109
Ensure your calculator is in

complex number mode. To do this,
tap Real at the bottom of the
screen.
On the Main screen, complete the

entry line as:
16
5
Press E after each entry.
Note: The calculator needs to be put
into Complex mode.
Worked Example 2
Write the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers, z.
a z = -3 + 2i b z =
1
2
Think
a
Write
The real part is the non-i term.
The imaginary part is the coefficient

of the i term.
The real part is the non-i term.
The imaginary part is the coefficient

of the i term.
a Re(z) = 3
Im(z) = 2
b Re(z) = 0
Im(z) =
1
2
Worked Example 3
Write i8 + i5 in the form x + yi where x and y are real numbers.

Think
110
Simplify i8 and i5.
Sum the two answers.
Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics for the Casio ClassPad
Write
i8 = (i2)4 = (1)4 = 1
i5 = i4 i = (i2)2 i = (1)2 i = 1 i = i
i8 + i5 = 1 + i
Worked Example 4
Simplify z = i4 - 2i2 + 1 and w = i6 3i4 + 3i2 1 manually, then using the calculator.
Think
Write
Simplify i4 2i2 + 1
and i6 3i4 + 3i2 1.
On the Main screen, complete the entry

line as:
i4 - 2i2 + 1
i6 - 3i4 + 3i2 - 1
i4 2i2 + 1 = (i2)2 2 1 + 1

= (1)2 + 2 + 1

=4
i6 3i4 + 3i2 1 = (i2)3 3(i2)2 + 3 1 1

= (1)3 3(1)2 3 1

= 1 3 3 1

= 8
Worked Example 5
Evaluate each of the following.

1 3i i 2 i3
a Re(7 + 6i) b Im(10) c Re(2 + i - 3i3) d Im
e evaluate parts a , b and c using a CAS calculator.

Think
Write
a The real part of the complex number
a Re(7 + 6i) = 7
b The number 10 can be expressed in complex
b Im(10) = Im (10 + 0i)
7 + 6i is 7.
form as 10 + 0i and so the imaginary

part is 0.
Simplify 2 + i 3i3.
The real part is 2.
Simplify the numerator of

1 3i i 2 i3
.
2
Simplify by dividing the numerator

by 2.
The imaginary part is 1.
=0
c Re(2 + i 3i3) = Re(2 + i + 3i)
= Re(2 + 4i)
=2
1 3i i 2 i3
1 3i + 1 + i
= Im
2
2
d Im
2 2i
= Im
2
= Im(1 i)

= 1
111
On the Main screen, tap:

Action
Complex
re/im
Complete the entry line as:
re(7 + 6i)
im(10)
re(2 + i - 3i2)
2
3
im 1 3i i i
REMEMBER
1. The imaginary number i has the property that i2 = 1.

2. A complex number z is of the form z = x + yi, x, y R.
3. The real part of z is x and is written as Re(z).
4. The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im(z).
Exercise
3A
Introduction to complex numbers

1 WE1
Using the imaginary number i, write down expressions for the following.
25
49
11
4
9
36
25
2 WE2
Write the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the following complex numbers, z.
a 9 + 5i
e 27
3 WE3
d 11i 6
h -17i
Write each of the following in the form x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
a i9 + i10
e i5 + i6 i7
4 WE4
c 3 8i
g -5 + i
b 5 4i
f 2i
b i9 i10
f i(i13 + i16)
c i12 + i15
g 2i i2 + 2i3
d i7 i11
h 3i + i4 5i5
Simplify z = i6 + 3i7 2i10 3 and w = 4i8 3i11 + 3.
5 WE5 Evaluate each of the following.

a Re(5 + 4i)
b Re(15 8i)
c Re(12i)
d Im(1 6i)
e Im(3 + 2i)
f Im(8)
9 5i14 2i 7
4
i
g Re(i5 3i4 + 6i6)
h Im
i3 i + 2
6
Write 3 2 4 in the form x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
i i
7 MC
a The value of Re (i + i3 + i5) is:
A 2
112
B 1
C 3
D 1
E 0
b The value of Im [i(2i4 3i2 + 5i)] is:

C 5
D 10
A 0
B 5
c The expression i + i2 i3 + i4 i5 + i6 simplifies to:
B 0
A i
C i 1
D i + 2
E 4
E i
1 + i + i 2 + ... + i11
which one of the statements below is true?
1 i
A f(i) = 2 + i
B Re[f(i)] = 5
C Im[f(i)] = 8
D f(i) = 1 i
E f(i) = 0
d If f (i) =
1 + i i3
i 4 + 3i + 4
8 Evaluate 3 Re
+
2
Im
.
i
2i
5 i3
5 i2 i4
+
3
9 Find values for a, b R so that a + bi = 2
.
i
i
n
10 If n is an even natural number show that (1) 2 = i n.
3b
Basic operations using complex

numbers
Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. In general, the solutions
obtained when performing these operations should be presented in the form x + yi. This is
known as the Cartesian form.
Argand diagrams
We know that an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) can be represented on the Cartesian plane.
Similarly, if we regard the complex number x + yi as consisting of the ordered pair of real
numbers (x, y), then the complex number z = x + yi can be plotted as a point on the complex
number plane.
This is also referred to as the Argand plane or an Argand diagram in recognition of the work
done in this area by the Swiss mathematician Jean-Robert Argand.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the Real axis and the vertical axis is referred to as the
Imaginary axis.
Im(z) (Imaginary axis)
The points A, B, C, D and E shown on the Argand
5
C
4
diagram at right represent the complex numbers 3 + 0i,
3
2 B
0 + 2i, 4 + 5i, 3 4i and 2 2i respectively.
1
A
This method of representation is a useful way of
543 1 1 2 3 4 Re(z) (Real axis)
illustrating the properties of complex numbers under the
2
E
3
operations of addition, subtraction and m
ultiplication.
Addition of complex numbers
D 4
5
Addition is performed by adding the real and imaginary parts separately.

If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i.
Geometric representation
If z1 = x1 + y1i and z2 = x2 + y2i then z2 + z1 = (x2 + x1) + (y2 + y1)i. If a directed line segment connects
the origin (0 + 0i) to each of the points z1, z2 and z1 + z2, then the addition of two complex numbers
can be associated with standard methods of vector addition. (Vectors are covered in more detail in
later chapters.)
113
The figure at right illustrates the situation for z2 + z1, with,

say, positive values for x1, x2, y1, y2 and x1 < x2 and y1 < y2.
Note: The origin, z1, z2 and z2 + z1 form a parallelogram.
Subtraction of complex numbers
Im(z)
(y1 + y2)
y2
y1
If we write z w as z + w we can use the rule for addition of

complex numbers to obtain z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di)
= a + bi c di
= (a c) + (b d)i
z1 + z2
z1
z2
Re(z)
x2 (x1 + x2)
x1
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (a c) + (b d)i.

Im(z)
Geometric representation
y2
If z1 = x1 + y1i and z2 = x2 + y2i then z2 z1 = (x2 x1) + (y2 y1)i.
z2
If a directed line segment connects the origin (0 + 0i) to each of
(y2 y1) z1
the points z1, z2 and z2 z1 then the subtraction of two complex
z2 z1
y1
numbers can also be associated with standard methods of vector
addition. The figure at right illustrates the situation for z2 z1,
0 x1 (x2 x1) x2 Re(z)
again with positive values for x1, x2, y1, y2 and x1 < x2 and y1 < y2.
Worked Example 6
For z = 8 + 7i, w = -12 + 5i and u = 1 + 2i, calculate:

a z + w b w - z c u - w + z.
Think
Write
a z + w = (8 + 7i) + (12 + 5i)
a Use the addition rule for complex numbers.
= (8 12) + (7 + 5)i
= 4 + 12i
b w z = (12 + 5i) (8 + 7i)
= (12 8) + (5 7)i
= 20 2i
c u w + z = (1 + 2i) (12 + 5i) + (8 + 7i)
= (1 + 12 + 8) + (2 5 + 7)i
= 21 + 4i
b Use the subtraction rule for complex numbers.
c Use both the addition rule and the subtraction rule.
Multiplication by a constant
If z = x + yi and k R
then kz = k(x + yi)
= kx + kyi
For k > 1, the product kz can be illustrated as shown at right.
The ratio of corresponding sides of the two triangles is k.
A similar situation exists for k < 1.
Im(z)
ky
y
Worked Example 7
If z = 3 + 5i, w = 4 - 2i and v = 6 + 10i, evaluate:

a 3z + w b 4z - 3w + 2v.
Think
a
114
Write
Calculate 3z + w by substituting
values for z and w.
3z + w = 3(3 + 5i) + (4 2i)

= (9 + 15i) + (4 2i)
kz
kx Re(z)
Use the rule for adding complex

numbers.
Calculate 4z 3w + 2v by
substituting values for z, w and v.
Use the addition rule and the
subtraction rule to simplify.
= (9 + 4) + (15 2)i
= 13 + 13i
b 4z 3w + 2v
= 4(3 + 5i) 3(4 2i) + 2(6 + 10i)
= 12 + 20i 12 + 6i + 12 + 20i
= 12 + 46i
multiplication of two complex numbers

The multiplication of two complex numbers also results in a complex number.
If z = a + bi and w = c + di
then z w = (a + bi)(c + di)
= ac + adi + bci + bdi2
= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i (since i2 = 1)
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
WorkeD example 8
If z = 6 2i and w = 3 + 4i express zw in the form x + yi.

Think
WriTe
Expand the brackets.
Express in the form x + yi by substituting 1 for i2

and simplifying the expression using the addition and
subtraction rules.
zw = (6 2i)(3 + 4i)
= 18 + 24i 6i 8i2
= 18 + 24i 6i + 8
= 26 + 18i
WorkeD example 9
Simplify (2 3i)(2 + 3i).

Think
1
2
WriTe
(2 3i)(2 + 3i) = 4 + 6i 6i 9i2

= 4 9 1
= 13
Expand the brackets.

Substitute 1 for i2 and simplify the expression.
WorkeD example 10
Determine
Re(z2w)
Im(zw2)
eBook plus
for z = 4 + i and w = 3 i.
Think
Tutorial
WriTe
z2w
in the form x + yi.
Express
The real part, Re(z2w) is 53.
int-0366
= (4 +
i)
= (16 + 8i + i2)(3 i)
= (16 + 8i 1)(3 i)
= (15 + 8i)(3 i)
= 45 15i + 24i 8i2
= 53 + 9i
Re(z2w) = 53
z2w
i)2(3
Worked example 10
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
115
Express zw2 in the form x + yi.
zw2 = (4 + i)(3 i)2

= (4 + i)(9 6i + i2)
= (4 + i)(8 6i)
= 32 24i + 8i 6i2
= 38 16i
The imaginary part, Im(zw2) is 16.
Im(zw2) = 16
Calculate the value of x + y.
Re(z2w) + Im(zw2) = 53 16
= 37
Alternatively, on the Main screen, complete

the entry line as:
4+iWz
3-iWw
re(z2 w) + im(z w2)
Write the answer.
Re(z2 w) + Im(zw2) = 37
Equality of two complex numbers

If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z = w if and only if a = c and b = d.
The condition if and only if (sometimes written in short form as iff) means that both of the
following situations apply.
1. If z = w then a = c and b = d.
2. If a = c and b = d then z = w.
Worked Example 11
Find the values of x and y that satisfy (3 + 4i)(x + yi) = 29 + 22i.

Think
116
Write the equation.
Expand the left-hand side of the equation.
Express the left-hand side in the form a + bi.
Equate the real parts and imaginary parts to create a

pair of simultaneous equations.
5
6
Write
(3 + 4i)(x + yi) = 29 + 22i

3x + 3yi + 4xi + 4yi2 = 29 + 22i
(3x 4y) + (4x + 3y) i = 29 + 22i
3x 4y = 29
4x + 3y = 22
[1]
[2]
Multiply equation [1] by 3 and equation [2] by 4 so that

y can be eliminated.
or 9x 12y = 87
16x + 12y = 88
[3]
[4]
Add the two new equations and solve for x.
Adding equations [3] and [4]:

25x = 175
x=7
Substitute x = 7 into equation [1] and solve for y.
Substitute x = 7 into equation [1]:

3(7) 4y = 29
21 4y = 29
4y = 8
y = 2
State the solution.
Therefore x = 7 and y = 2.
Multiplication by i
Let us examine the effect on z = x + yi after multiplication by
Im(z)
iz x
i, i2, i3 and i4.
z or i4z

z = x + yi

iz = i(x + yi) = y + xi
x y
y x Re(z)
2

i z = 1z = x yi = z
i2z

i3z = i(i 2z) = y xi = iz
i3z

i4z = i(i 3z) = x + yi = z
The five points are shown on the complex plane at right.
It is observed that multiplying z by in, n N produces an anticlockwise rotation of
90n degrees.
REMEMBER
If z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c, d R then:

1. z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
2. z w = (a c) + (b d)i
3. kz = ka + kbi, for k R
4. z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
5. z = w iff a = c and b = d.
Exercise
3b
Basic operations using complex numbers

1
Represent each of the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram.

a 3 + i
d 3i + 7
2 WE6
b 4 5i
e
b u z
e w z u
a zw
d zu
8 + i
c w + v
f v + w z.
If z = 3 + 2i, w = 4 + i and u = 8 5i, evaluate:
a 3w
d 3z + u + 2w
4 WE8
For z = 5 + 3i, w = 1 4i, u = 6 11i and v = 2i 3 calculate:
a z + w
d u v
3 WE7
5 2i
c 2 6i
b 2u + z
e 2z 7w + 9u
c 4z 3u
f 3(z + 2u) 4w.
Using z, w, u and v from question 2 express each of the following in the form x + yi.
b uv
e u2
c wu
f u(wv)
117
5 We9
Simplify the following.
a (10 + 7i)(9 3i)

d (5 + 6i)(5 6i)
b (3 4i)(5 + 4i)
e (2i 7)(2i + 7)
c (8 2i)(4 5i)
f (9 7i)2
6 For z = 1 3i and w = 2 5i calculate z2w.

7 We10 Determine Re(z2) Im(zw) for z = 1 + i and w = 4 i.
8 For z = 3 + 5i, w = 2 3i and u = 1 4i determine:
a Im(u2)
c Re(uw) + Im(zw)
e Re(z2) Re(zw) Im(uz)
b Re(w2)
d Re(zu) Im(w2)
f Re(u2w) + Im(zw2).
9 We11 Find the values of x and y that satisfy each of the following.
a (2 + 3i)(x + yi) = 16 + 11i
b (5 4i)(x + yi) = 1 4i
c (3i 8)(x + yi) = 23 37i
d (7 + 6i)(x + yi) = 4 33i
10 mC If z = 8 7i and w = 3 + 4i, then:
a Re(zw) is equal to:
A 4
B 4
C 5
b Im(w2) + Re(z2) is equal to:
A 76
B 39
C 105
c 3z 2w is equal to:
A 30 13i
B 30 29i
C 18 29i
D 11
E 52
D 56
E 32
D 24 13i
E 18
11 If z = 2 + i and w = 4 3i then represent each of the following on an Argand diagram.

a z2
e 3z + w
12
Simplify
b zw
f 2w 4z
3 i
1+ i
c z+w
g (z + w)2
d wz
h (w z)3
1 + 3i
.
1 i
13 If z = 3 + 2i represent each of the following on the same Argand diagram.

z, iz, i2z, i3z, i4z, i5z, iz, i2z
3C
Conjugates and division of complex

numbers
eBook plus
The conjugate of a complex number

The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by simply changing the
sign of the imaginary component.
If z = x + yi the conjugate z of z is defined as z = x yi.
Interactivity
int-0343
The conjugate
of a complex
number
Conjugates are useful since the multiplication (or addition) of a complex number and its
conjugate results in a real number:
zz = (x + yi) (x yi),
= x2 + y2, x, y R,
where x yi and x + yi are conjugates.
Note: Compare this expression with the formula for the difference of two squares
(a b)(a + b) = a2 b2.
Also,
z + z = x + yi + x yi
= 2x
118
Worked Example 12
Write down the conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.

a 8 + 5i b -2 - 3i c 4 + i 5
Think
1
Write
a Change the sign of the imaginary
component.
b Change the sign of the imaginary
a 8 5i
b
component.
c On the Main screen, tap:
+ 3i
Action
Complex
conjg
Conjg(4 + i(5))
Then press E.
Write the answer.
4i 5
Worked Example 13
If z = 5 - 2i and w = 7 - i show that z + w = z + w.

Think
Write
Add the conjugates z and w.
z + w = (5 + 2i) + (7 + i) = 12 + 3i
Add z to w.
Write down the conjugate of z + w.
z + w = (5 - 2i) + (7 - i) = 12 - 3i
z + w = 12 + 3i
The conjugate of z + w equals z + w.
z+w= z +w
Division of complex numbers

The application of conjugates to division of complex numbers will now be investigated.
z
Consider the complex numbers z = a + bi and w = c + di. To find in the form x + yi we must
w
multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of w to make the denominator a
real number only.
z a + bi
=
w c + di
a + bi c di

Multiply by the conjugate of c + di.
=
c + di c di
(ac + bd ) + (bc ad )i

Simplify the expressions in the numerator and in the
=
c2 + d 2
denominator.
ac + bd (bc ad )i

Express
in the form x + yi.
= 2
+
c + d2
c2 + d 2
119
Thus we can state:

z
If z and w are complex numbers in the form x + yi, then can also be expressed in the
w
form x + yi by simplifying:
zw
ww
Worked Example 14
Express
2+i
in the form x + yi.
2i
Think
Write
2+i 2+i 2+i

=
2i 2i 2+i
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by

the conjugate of 2 i to make the denominator
real.
Expand the expressions obtained in the numerator

and in the denominator.
4 + 4i + i 2
4 i2
Substitute for i2 and simplify the expression.
4 + 4i 1
4 +1
3 + 4i
5
3 4i
+
5 5
Multiplicative inverse of a complex number

Given a non-zero complex number z, there exists a complex number w such that
1
zw = 1, with w being the multiplicative inverse of z denoted by w = z 1 = .
z
Worked Example 15
If z = 3 + 4i, determine z-1.

Think
Write
1
z
z 1 =
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by

the conjugate of 3 + 4i.
z 1 =
Write the expression in the form x + yi.
This example shows that if z = a + bi then z 1 =
120
1
1
=
z 3 + 4i
=
1
3 4i
3 + 4i 3 4i
3 4i
25
3 4i
25 25
a bi
.
a2 + b2
WorkeD example 16
eBook plus
5 z 15
a If z = a + bi, find a and b such that
= 4 3i .
z1
b Check your answer using a calculator.
Think
a
Tutorial
int-0367
Worked example 16
WriTe
Multiply both sides by z 1
Substitute z = a + bi.
Expand and collect real and
imaginary parts.
5(a + bi 15 = (a + bi 1)(4 3i)

5a 15 + 5bi = 4a 3ai + 4bi 3bi2 4 + 3i
= (4a + 3b 4) + (3a + 4b + 3)i
Equate real and imaginary parts to

get two simultaneous equations
5a 15 = 4a + 3b 4
5b = 3a + 4b + 3
a 3b = 11
3a + b = 3
Solve the equations for a and b.

Action
Advanced
solve
5z 15
= 4 3i, z
solve
z 1
Then press E.
a = 2, b = 3
a 5z 15 = (z 1)(4 3i)
a = 2, b = 3
a is the real part of z, b is the

imaginary part.
rememBer
If z = a + bi and w = c + di, for a, b, c, d R, then:

1. The conjugate z of z is z = a bi.
2.
z ac + bd (bc ad )i
.
=
+ 2
w c2 + d 2
c + d2
3. The multiplicative inverse of z is
exerCiSe
3C
a
b
i.
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
Conjugates and division of complex numbers

1 We12
Write down the conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.
a 7 + 10i
b 5 9i
c 3 + 12i
7 3i
e 2i + 5
i 11
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
121
2 WE13
If z = 6 + 3i and w = 3 4i, show that z w = z w.
2+i
in the form x + yi.
3i
Express each of the following in the form x + yi.
3 WE14
4
Express
1 i
1+ i
3 2i
2 + 3i
4 3i
5 + 2i
4 5i
2 7i
5 WE15
2 + 5i
4 3i
2+i 3
5i 2
Determine z-1 if z is equal to:
a 2 i
d 5 + 4i
6 If 676z = 10 24i, express
7 If z = 2 i and w =
a Re(z + w)
d Im(3z + 2w)
z-1
b 3 + i
c 4 3i
e 2i 3
3 i 2.
in the form x + yi.
1
determine each of the following.
3+i
b Im(w z)
e Re(4w 2z)
c Re(z-1 + w-1)
2 + i 9 2i 7 + i
in the form x + yi.
+
+
1+ i 2 i 1 i
Write
Simplify
10
Determine the conjugate of (5 6i)(3 8i).
(2 + 5i)2 (5i 2) .
3(4 + 7i) 2(5 + 8i)
11 MC If z = 5 12i, w = 9 i and u = 15 6i, then:

a Re(z-1) is:
12
A 5
B 12
C
169
b Im( zw) is equal to:
B 103
C 113
A 33
c The expression 2 z w + 3u is equal to:
A 26 7i
B 64 + 41i
C 46 29i
5
169
D 70
E 0
D 34 41i
E 64 19i
12 If z = 6 + 8i and w = 10 3i:
a show that zw = z w
b generalise the result by letting z = a + bi and w = c + di.
13 Use the result zw = z w to prove that z n = ( z ) n .
14 If z = 4 + i and w = 1 + 3i:
z z
a show that =
w w
b generalise the result by letting z = a + bi and w = c + di.
15 If z = 5 4i and w = 2i, calculate Re( zw + zw).
16 If z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 4 i and z3 = 5 i find:
a 2z1 z2 4z3
b z1z2 + z2 z3
122
12i
169
c z1z2 z3 z1 z2 z3 .
17 If z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di show that (z1z2)1 = z11z21.

18 a If z = 1 + i find z4, z8 and z12.
b Deduce from your results in a that z4n = (2i)2n, n N.
19 If z = x + yi find the values of x and y such that
z 1
= z + 2.
z +1
20 We16 Find values for a and b so that z = a + bi satisfies
z+i
= i.
z+2
21 If z = x + yi, determine the values of x and y such that z = 3 + 4i .
3D
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0342
Complex numbers
in polar form
Complex numbers in polar form

The modulus of z
The magnitude (or modulus or absolute value) of
the complex number z = x + yi is the length of the
line segment joining the origin to the point z. It is
denoted by
| z | , | x + yi | or mod z.
The modulus of z is calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
| z | = x 2 + y 2 so that we have zz = | z |2 .
Im(z)
y
z=
P(x, y)
z = x + yi
x2 + y2
Re(z)
WorkeD example 17
Find the modulus of the complex number z = 8 6i.

Think
1
Calculate the modulus by rule.
WriTe
| z | = 82 + ( 6)2
= 100
= 10
Alternatively, on the Main screen, complete

the entry line as:
abs(8 6i)
Then press E.
Write the answer.
| z | = |8 6i| = 10
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
123
WorkeD example 18
eBook plus
If z = 4 + 2i and w = 7 + 6i, represent the position of w z on an

Argand diagram and calculate |w z|.
Think
1
Tutorial
int-0368
Worked example 18
WriTe
w z = 7 + 6i (4 + 2i)
= 3 + 4i
Calculate w z.
Represent it on an Argand diagram as a

directed line segment OP.
Use Pythagoras theorem to determine the

length of OP.
Im(z)
6
5
4
3
2
1
O
0
OP = 32 + 42 = 25
OP = 5
So |w z| = 5
w
wz
P
z
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Re(z)
WorkeD example 19
Represent z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = 5 2i and z3 = 4 2i on the complex number plane and calculate the area
of the shape formed when the three points are connected by straight line segments.
Think
1
WriTe
Im(z)
Show the connected points on the complex

number plane.
4
3
2
1
432 1
2
3
z3
2
Calculate the area of the triangle obtained.
1 2 3 4 5 Re(z)
z2
Area of triangle = 2 9 5 = 22.5 square units.
The argument of z
The argument of z, arg(z), is the angle measurement
anticlockwise of the positive Real axis.
In the figure at right, arg(z) = q, where
sin ( ) =
z1
y
y
x
and cos ( ) =
or tan ( ) = x
|z|
|z|
Im(z)
y
z=
x2 + y2
P(x, y)
z = x + yi
y
x Re(z)
0
For non-zero z an infinite number of arguments of z exist
x
since, for a given z, any of the angles q 2n, n N
also represents the position of point P in the figure above
because a clockwise or anticlockwise rotation consisting of multiples of 2 radians (or 360)
merely moves P to its original position.
To ensure that there is only one value of q corresponding to z we refer to the principal value
of q and denote it by Arg(z).
Arg(z) is the angle q in the range < q or q (, ].

WorkeD example 20
Find the argument of z for each of the following in the interval [0, 2].
a z = 4 + 4i
b z = 1 3i
124
Think
a
1
2
Write
The angle is in the first quadrant.

y
Use tan (q) = x .
Find arg(z).
The angle is in the fourth quadrant.
y
Use tan (q) = x .
a If arg(z) = q
4
4
=1
=
4
b If arg(z) = q
tan ( ) =
tan ( ) =
=
3
1
arg( z ) = 2 tan 1 ( 3)
= 2
3
5
=
3
Find arg(z), the angle associated

with tan = 3 in the fourth
quadrant.
Worked Example 21
Convert each of the following into Arguments.
5
7
a
b
2
4
Think
Write
7
2
4
=
4
b
5
Arg( z ) =
+ 2
2
=
2
a Arg( z ) =
a Since the given angle is positive, subtract multiples
of 2 until it lies in the range (, ].
b Since the given angle is negative, add multiples of
2 until it lies in the range (, ].
Worked Example 22
Find the modulus and Argument for each of the following complex numbers.
a
b
3+i
1
3i
Think
a
Write
Calculate the modulus by rule.
a |z|=
( 3 )2 + 12
= 4
=2
125
y
Find using the rule tan (q) = .
x
State the Argument of z.
Calculate the modulus of z by rule.
tan ( ) =
=
6
Arg( z ) =
6
( 1) 2 + ( 2 )2
b |z|=
= 3
2
Find tan (q) by rule.
tan ( ) =
3
1
= 3
3
Calculate , which is in the third

quadrant.
= + tan 1 ( 3 )
= +
3
4
=
3
Determine Arg(z) by subtracting 2

from since is not in the range
(-, ].
Arg( z ) =
=
4
2
3
2
Complex numbers expressed in polar form

Suppose z = x + yi is represented by the point P(x, y) on the
complex plane using Cartesian coordinates.
Using the trigonometric properties of a right-angled
triangle, z can also be expressed in polar coordinates as follows.
We have:
x = r cos ()
y = r sin ()
Im(z)
y
P(x, y)
r = z
Re(z)
where | z | = r = x 2 + y 2 and = Arg(z).
The point P(x, y) shown at right can also be denoted in polar form as the ordered pair [r, ]
where r is the modulus of z and is an argument of z.
Now z = x + yi in Cartesian form becomes

z = r cos () + r sin () i (after substitution of

x = r cos (), y = r sin ()), = r (cos () + i sin ())

= r cis (), where cis () is the abbreviated form of

cos () + i sin ().
Im(z)
y
P(r cos ( ), r sin ( ))

r
O
0
r cos ( )
126
r sin ( )
Re(z)
Some useful triangles

1
cos =
,
4
2
sin =
,
4
2
tan = 1
4
1
cos = ,
3 2
sin =
,
3
2
tan = 3
3
cos =
,
6
2
1
sin = ,
6 2
tan =
6
3
2
1
2
1
Although we write the polar form of a complex number as r cos (q) + ir sin (q), abbreviated
as r cis (q) the more conventional form used in later studies is reiq. This shows the remarkable
relationship between the circular functions, Eulers number e and the imaginary number i. The
calculator uses this as its way of displaying a complex number in polar form.
The following worked example illustrates this.
WorkeD example 23
eBook plus
Express each of the following in polar form, r cis (q ), where q = Arg(z).

a z=1+i
b z = 1 3i
c Answer parts a and b using a calculator.
Think
a
Find the value of r using
y
Determine tan (q ) from tan ( ) =
x
and hence find q.
The angle q is in the range (, ].
Substitute the values of r and q in

z = r cos (q ) + r sin (q )i = r cis (q ).
int-0369
Worked example 23
WriTe
r = | z | = x2 + y2 .
Tutorial
z is in the fourth quadrant.
a r = 12 + 12
= 2
1
1
=1
=
4
tan ( ) =
z = 2 cos + 2 sin i
4
4
= 2 cis
4
b r = 1 + ( 3 )2
=2
2
Calculate the value of r.
Determine the appropriate value of q.
tan ( ) =
=
3
1
= 0 tan 1 ( 3 )
=
3
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
127
+ 2 sin
z = 2 cos
i
3
3
Substitute r and q into

z = r cos (q ) + r sin (q )i and
write in the form r cis (q ).
Im(z)
= 2 cis
3
0
2
This complex number is

represented at right.
3
c

Action
Complex
compToPol
compToPol(1 + i)
Then press E.
Write the answer.
Use the relationship reiq = r cos (q) +

ir sin (q) to express the answer in the
required form. The calculator always
gives q in principle valued form.
Key in 1 3i and repeat the above
procedure.
Write the answer.
Re(z)
z = 1 3i
For a , 1 + i = 2 cis
4
For b , 1 3i = 2e
= 2 cis
3
WorkeD example 24
Express 3 cis in Cartesian form.

4
Think
1
Express 3 cis in Cartesian form.

4
Simplify.
WriTe
3 cis = 3 cos + 3 sin i

4
4
4
3
+
i
2 2
3
=
(1 + i)
2
eBook plus
History of mathematics
Abraham de Moivre
128
REMEMBER
1. The magnitude (or modulus or absolute value) of z = x + yi is the length of the line
segment from (0, 0) to z and is denoted by |z|, |x + yi| or mod(z).
2. | z | = x 2 + y 2 and zz = | z |2 .
y
3. arg(z) = where tan ( ) = x .
4. z in, n N produces an anticlockwise rotation of 90n degrees.
5. z = r cos () + r sin ()i = r cis () in polar form.
6. Arg(z) is the angle in the range < .
Exercise
3D

In the following exercise give arg(z) or Arg(z) correct to three decimal places where it is not
easily expressed as a multiple of .
1
a Represent z = 4 + 8i on an Argand diagram.

b Calculate the exact distance of z from the origin.
2 WE17
Find the modulus of each of the following.
a z = 5 + 12i
b z = 5 2i
c z = 4 + 7i
d z = 3 6i
e z = 3 + 2i
f z = (2 + i)2
3 WE18
i
ii
a
d
If z = 3 + i, w = 4 3i and u = 2 + 5i then:
represent each of the following on an Argand diagram

calculate the magnitude in each case.
zw
b u + z
w+z
e z + w u
c w u
f z2
4 WE19
a Show the points z1 = 3 + 0i, z2 = 2 + 5i, z3 = 7 + 5i and z4 = 9 + 0i on the
complex number plane.
b Calculate the area of the shape formed when the four points are connected by straight line
segments in the order z1 to z2 to z3 to z4 and back to z1.
5 a Show the points z = 1 + 3i, u = 3 and w = 3 + 12i on the complex number plane.
b Calculate the area of the triangle produced by joining the three points with straight line
segments.
6 WE20
Find the argument of z for each of the following in the interval [0, 2]. (Give
exact answers where possible.)
a z = 3 + 2i
b z = 3 + i
c z = 5 5i
d z = 4 + 8i
e z = 2 2 3i
i z = 6i
f z = 6 10i
j z = 55
g z = 3i
h z =
7 WE21 Convert each of the following into Arguments.

a 3
2
19
e
6
11
6
20
f
7
b
c 15
8
g 18
5
5
4
13
h
12
d
129
8 We22 Find the modulus and Argument of each of the following complex numbers.
a 3 3i
e
10i
+ 5i
3i
d 4 3 + 4i
g ( 3 + i)2
f 6i 2
9 We23 Express each of the following in polar form z = r cis (q ) where q = Arg(z).
a z = 1 + i
b z = 6 + 2i
d z = 5 15i
e z=
c z=
3
i
2
z=
5 5i
1
+ i
4 4
10 We24 Express each of the following complex numbers in Cartesian form.

2
a 2 cis
3
7
7 cis
4
b 3 cis
4
5
5 cis
6
8 cis
2
3 cis ( )

d 4 cis
3
11 mC If z = 3 50i and w = 5 + 65i the value of | z + w | is:

A 64
B 15
C 17
D 225
E 289
12 mC The perimeter of the triangle formed by the line segments connecting the points 2 4i,
14 4i and 2 + i is:
A 13
B 30
C 10
D 17
E 25
4
3
4
i
13 mC The Argument of
is:
A
5
6
14 mC In polar form, 5i is:
A cis
2
B cis (5 )
15 mC The Cartesian form of

A 1+ 3i
2 2
3e
5
C cis
2
D 5 cis (5 )
E 5 cis
2
7
3 cis
is:
6
3
i
2
3 1
+ i
2 2
3
i
2
Basic operations on complex

numbers in polar form
addition and subtraction
In general there is no simple way to add or subtract complex numbers
given in the polar form r cis (q ). For addition or subtraction the complex
numbers need to be expressed in Cartesian form first.
3 1
i
2 2
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0344
Complex numbers:
sum, difference
and product
multiplication in polar form

Finding the product and quotient of two complex numbers is made easier if the complex
numbers are first expressed in polar form.
If z1 = r1 cis (q1) and z2 = r2 cis (q2) then z1z2 = r1r2 cis (q1 + q2).
[Equation 1]
130
Proof
z1 = r1[cos (q1) + sin (q1)i] and z2 = r2[cos (q2) + sin (q2)i]

Then z1z2 = r1[cos (q1) + sin (q1)i] r2[cos (q2) + sin (q2)i]
= r1r2[cos (q1) cos (q2) + cos (q1) sin (q2)i + sin (q1) cos (q2)i + sin (q1) sin (q2)i2],
expanding brackets
= r1r2[(cos (q1) cos (q2) sin (q1) sin (q2)) + (cos (q1) sin (q2) + sin (q1) cos (q2))i]
= r1r2[cos (q1 + q2) + i sin (q1 + q2)],
(Since cos (q + ) = cos (q ) cos () sin (q ) sin () and
sin (q + ) = sin (q ) cos () + cos (q ) sin ().)
= r1r2 cos (q1 + q2) + r1r2 sin (q1 + q2)i
= r1r2 cis (q1 + q2)
Corollary
If zn = rn cis (qn), n N then z1z2 . . . zn = r1r2 . . . rn cis (q1 + q2 + . . . + qn).
[Equation 2]
Proof
z1z2 . . . zn = r1 cis (q1) r2 cis (q2) . . . rn cis (qn)
= [r1 cis (q1) r2 cis (q2)] r3 cis (q3) . . . rn cis (qn)
= r1r2 cis (q1 + q2) r3 cis (q3) . . . rn cis (qn), using equation [1]
= r1r2r3 cis (q1 + q2 + q3) r4 cis (q4) . . . rn cis (qn), using equation [1]
and so on for the n complex numbers.
Geometrical interpretation of complex number

multiplication
Im(z)
If z1 is the point [r1, q1] and z2 is the point
[r2, q2] then z1 z2 is represented by the
point [r1 r2, q1 + q2].
So the modulus of z1 is enlarged by a
factor of r2 and is turned anticlockwise
through an angle of q2.
For example, if z1 is [2, 40] and z2
is [3, 70]:
z1 z2 = [2 3, 40 + 70]
= [6, 110]
8
7
6
5
4
3
z2 [3, 70]
2
40 70z [2, 40]
1
1
z1z2 [6, 110]
40
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re(z)
WorkeD example 25
eBook plus
Express 5 cis 2 cis in the form r cis (q ) where q (, ].

6
4
Think
1
Simplify using the multiplication rule, equation [1].
Subtract 2 from q to express the answer in the

required form.
WriTe
Tutorial
int-0370
Worked example 25
5
5 cis 2 cis = (5 2) cis +
4 6
4
6
13
= 10 cis
12
11
= 10 cis
12
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
131
Worked Example 26
Express z1z2 in Cartesian form if z1 = 2 cis and z2 = 6 cis

.
6
3
Think
1
Use z1z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2).
Write
z1z2 = 2 cis 6 cis

6
3
5
= ( 2 6 ) cis
6 3
= 2 3 cis
2
Write the result in Cartesian form.
= 2 3 cos + 2 3i sin
2
2
= 2 3 0 + 2 3i 1
= 2 3i
Worked Example 27
If z = 5 3 + 5 i and w = 3 + 3 3 i express the product zw in polar form.

Think
1
Write z in polar form.
Write
Let z = r1 cis ()1.

Then r1 = (5 3 )2 + 52 = 10 .
tan ( ) =
5
5 3
1
3
, so take 1 =
.
6
Therefore z = 10 cis .
6
2
Write w in polar form.
Let w = r2 cis (2).

Then r2 = 32 + (3 3 )2 = 6 .
tan 2 =
3 3
= 3 , so take 2 = .
3
3
Therefore w = 6 cis .
3
3
Determine zw using
z1z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2).
zw = 10 cis 6 cis
6
3

= 60 cis +
6 3
= 60 cis .
2
132
Division in polar form

If z1 = r1 cis (1) and z2 = r2 cis (2) then
z1 r1
= cis (1 2 ).
z2 r2
Proof
The proof again involves application of addition formulas.
z1 r1[cos (1 ) + sin (1 )i]
=

z2 r2 [cos ( 2 ) + sin ( 2 )i]
r [cos (1 ) + sin (1 )i] cos ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )i
= 1

r2 [cos ( 2 ) + sin ( 2 )i] cos ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )i
Multiply by the conjugate of the denominator.

r [cos (1 ) cos ( 2 ) + sin (1 ) sin ( 2 )] + [sin (1 ) cos ( 2 ) cos (1 ) sin ( 2 )] i
= 1

r2
cos2 ( 2 ) + sin 2 ( 2 )
r
= 1 [cos (1 2 ) + i sin (1 2 )],

r2
(using the properties that cos ( ) = cos () cos () + sin () sin (),
sin ( ) = sin () cos () cos () sin ()
2
and cos (2) + sin2 (2) = 1)
r
= 1 cis (1 2 )

r2
1 cis (0)
Notice also that if z = r cis () then z 1 = =
z cis ( )
1
= cis (0 )
r
1
= cis ( )
r
Geometrical interpretation of complex number division
If z1 is the point [r1, 1] and z2 is the point [r2, 2] then z1 z2 is represented by the point
[r1 r2, 2 2].
So the modulus of z1 is reduced by a factor of r2 and is turned clockwise through an
angle of 2.
For example if z1 is [3, 120] and z2 is [1.5, 90]:

z1 z2 = [3 1.5, 120 - 90]

= [2, 30]
Im(z)
8
7
6
5
4
z1 [3, 120] 3
2 z [1.5, 90]
2
1
z1
z2 [2, 30]
8 7 65 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re(z)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
133
Worked Example 28

5
Express 10 cis
5 cis in the form r cis ()where (-, ].
3
6
Think
1
Write
Simplify using the division rule.
5
5 cis = 2 cis

10 cis
3
3
6
6
7
= 2 cis
6
Add 2 to to express the answer in the

required form.
= 2 cis
+ 2
6
5
= 2 cis
6
The complex conjugate in polar form

ince sin () = sin () and cos () = cos (), it follows that
S

r cis () = r[cos () + sin () i]

= r[cos () sin ()i]

= z , where z = r cis ()
If z = r cis (), then z = r cis (-).
De Moivres theorem
Powers of z can be readily calculated if z is first expressed in polar form. Consider equation [2]
presented earlier:
If zn = rn cis (n), then z1z2 ... zn = r1r2 ... rn cis (1 + 2 + ... + n), n N.
Now if r1 = r2 = ... = rn (= r, say) and 1 = 2 = ... = n, then z1 = z2 = z3 = ... = zn (= z, say).
Equation [2] becomes:
zn = rn cis (n), n N
It can be shown that this equation is also valid for n < 0.
Let
n = m, m N
Then:
zn = rn[(cos () + i sin ())m]1

= rn[cos (m) + i sin (m)]1, using the previous result.

= rn[cis (m)]1

= rn cis (m), using the fact that [cis ()]1 = cis ()

= rn cis (n), substituting for m.
De Moivres theorem can now be stated as:

If z = r cis () then zn = rn cis (n), n z.
In fact, De Moivres theorem is applicable for n C. However, the proof is beyond the scope
of this course.
Geometrical interpretation of powers of

complex numbers
If z is the point [r, ], then zn is represented by the point [rn, n].
So the modulus of z is enlarged by a factor of rn, and is turned anticlockwise through an
angle of n.
134
Im(z)

For example, if z is 2, :
6
8 z3 [8,
2]
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
z [2,
6 ]
z 3 = 23 , 3
6

= 8,
2
87 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Re(z)
30 (or 6 ) apart
WorkeD example 29
5
If z = 2 cis
, express z3:
6
a in polar form
b in Cartesian form.
Think
a
WriTe
Use De Moivres theorem to calculate z3.
a z 3 = 23 cis 3
5
6
5
= 8 cis
2
2
Express q (, ].

= 8 cis
2

+ 8 sin
i
b z 3 = 8 cos
2
2
= 8(0) + 8(1)i
= 8i
WorkeD example 30
If z = 1 + i, write z4 in Cartesian form.

Think
1
Express z in polar form.
WriTe
z=1+i
r = 12 + 12
= 2
1
tan ( ) =
1
=1
=
4
z = 2 cis
4
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
135

z 4 = 2 cis
4
Use De Moivres theorem to calculate z4.
= ( 2 )4 cis 4
4
= 14 cis ( )
1
= 4 cis ( )
3
z 4 = 4 cos ( ) + 4 sin ( )i
1
4
WorkeD example 31
Determine
(1 i )4 (
eBook plus
+ i )5
in Cartesian form.
Think
1
Express 1 i and
Tutorial
int-0371
WriTe
3 + i in polar form.
Worked example 31
For 1 i,
r = 12 + (1)2
= 2
1
tan ( ) = = 1
1
=
4

1 i = 2 cis
4
For 3 + i
r = ( 3)2 + 12
=2
1
tan ( ) =
3
=
6
3 + i = 2 cis
6
Use De Moivres theorem to calculate

(1 i)4 and ( 3 + i)5 .
(1 i)4 = 24 cis 4
= 4 cis ( )
= 4 cis ()
( 3 + i)5 = 25 cis 5
6
5
= 32 cis
6
136
Calculate the product in polar form.
5
(1 i)4 ( 3 + i)5 = [4 cis ( )] 32 cis
6
= 128 cis +
6
11
= 128 cis
6
11
11
= 128 cos
+ sin
6
6
3 1
= 128
i
2 2
= 64 3 64i
WorkeD example 32
z2
If z = 4 3 cis
and w = 2 cis , state the modulus and the Argument of
.
4
3
w3
Think
1
WriTe
Use De Moivres theorem to find z2 and w3.
2
3
z 2 = (4 3 )2 cis
and w3 = 23 cis
3
4
2
z 2 = 48 cis
3
Calculate
z2
using the fact that
w3
3
and w = 8 cis 4
z2
2
3
= 48 ciss
8 cis
3
3
4
w
z1 r1
=
cis (1 2 ).
z2 r2
17
= 6 cis
12
Ensure that < q1 q2 .
7
= 6 cis
12
The modulus is
r1
and the Argument is q1 q2.
r2
The modulus is 6 and the Argument

is 7 .
12
WorkeD example 33
By finding z3 if z = cis (q), show that cos (3q) = cos3 (q) 3 cos (q) sin2 (q) and
sin (3q) = 3 cos2 (q) sin (q) sin3 (q).
Think
1
Let z = cis (q) and use De Moivres theorem to

find z3.
WriTe
z = cis (q) so z3 = cis (3q) = cos (3q) +

i sin (3q).
Also z3 = [cis (q)]3 = [cos (q) + i sin (q)]3
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
137
Expand (cos () + i sin ())3.
[cos () + i sin ()]3

= cos3 () + 3i cos2 () sin ()
+ 3i2 cos () sin2 () + i3 sin3 ()
= [cos3 () - 3 cos () sin2 ()]
+ [3 cos2 () sin () - sin3 ()]i
Equate the real and imaginary parts.
cos (3) = cos3 () - 3 cos () sin2 () and

sin (3) = 3 cos2 () sin () - sin3 ()
REMEMBER
1. If z1 = r1 cis (1) and z2 = r2 cis (2), then:

z1 z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2)
z1 r1
=
cis (1 2 ).
z2 r2
2. If z = r cis () then zn = rn cis (n), n z (De Moivres theorem).
3. If z = r cis () then z = r cis ().
Exercise
3e
Basic operations on complex numbers

in polar form
1 WE25
Express each of the following in the form r cis where (, ].
a 2 cis 3 cis
4
2
c
2 cis
3 cis
6
2
7
5
2 cis
7 cis
12
12
b 5 cis 4 cis
3
3
3
d 6 cis 5 cis ( )
4
2 WE26 Express the resultant complex numbers in question 1 in Cartesian form.

3 WE27
Express the following products in polar form.
a (2 + 2i)( 3 + i)
b ( 3 3i)(2 3 2i)
c ( 4 + 4 3i)( 1 i)
4 WE28 Express each of the following in the form r cis where (, ].

5
a 12 cis 4 cis
b 36 cis 9 cis
6
3
4
6
c
5 cis
20 cis
2
5
4
11
d 4 3 cis 6 cis
7
14
7
5
2 10 cis
e 3 5 cis
12
6
3
5 WE29 If z = 3 cis and w = 2 cis

then express each of the following in:
4
4
i polar form
ii Cartesian form.
a z3
138
b w4
c z4
d w5
6 WE30 If z = 1 i and w =
a z-4
b w-3
3 + i , write the following in Cartesian form.

z3
c z-3
d w-5
e
f z2w3
w4
7 WE31 Determine (2 + 2i)2 (1 3i)4 in Cartesian form.

8 Write
( 3 i )6
(2 2 3i)3
9 MC a
in the form x + yi.
8 cis
5 cis
is equal to:
3
6
A 6 2i
B 2 10i
C 6 3
D 6i
E 6 6
D 2 + i
E 1 2i
D 4i
E 8
b If z = ( 6 + 2 ) + ( 6 2 )i then 64 2 z 3 is:
A 1 + i
C 1 i
w4
c If z = 1 3i and w = 2 + 2i then
is equal to:
z3
A 4 + 4i
B 2 3
C 2
B
2i
z6
10 WE32 If z = 2 cis and w = 3 cis , find the modulus and the argument of
.
4
6
w4
11
If z = 4 + i and w = 3 2i, determine (z + w)9.
12
Find z6 + w4, if z = 2 2i and w = 2 2i.
2
3
13 If z1 = 5 cis
, z2 = 2 cis and z3 = 10 cis , find the modulus and the
12
5
8
argument of
z12 z23
.
z3 4
14 WE33 By finding z4 if z = cis (), show that cos (4) = cos4 () 6 cos2 () sin2 () + sin4 ()
and that sin (4) = 4 cos3 () sin () 4 cos () sin3 ().
15 Using z = r cis (), verify that z z = | z |2.
16 If zn = (1 + i)n, determine the smallest value of n N so that zn is equal to:
a ( 2 ) n
3F
b ( 2 ) n
c ( 2 ) n i
d ( 2 ) n i.
Factorisation of polynomials in C
A polynomial in z is an expression of the form
P(z) = an zn + an 1 zn 1 + an 2 zn 2 + ... + a1z + a0,
where n N is the degree (highest power) of P(z) and an (with an 0) are the coefficients.
If an R, that is, all the coefficients are real, then P(z) is said to be a polynomial over R.
Similarly, if at least one of the an is complex, P(z) is said to be a polynomial over C.
For example, P(z) = 3z4 5z2 + 6 is a polynomial of degree 4 over R and
P(z) = 2iz3 + 3z2 8i is a polynomial of degree 3 over C.
The fundamental theorem of algebra

Firstly recall that R C and the factor theorem, which states:
If (x a) is a factor of the polynomial P(x), then P(a) = 0.
In 1799 the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss proved that every polynomial over C
has a solution that is a complex number.
139
That is, if Pn(z) is a polynomial of degree n over C, then there exists a z0 C such that
Pn(z0) = 0. This important result can be used to show that a polynomial of degree n, with n N,
has n solutions.
The proof relies on a repeated application of the fundamental theorem of algebra and the
factor theorem.
Firstly, the fundamental theorem of algebra guarantees that there is a z0 C such that
Pn(z0) = 0. The factor theorem states that if Pn(z0) = 0 for some z0 then (z z0) is a factor of
Pn(z) so that Pn(z) = (z z0)Pn 1(z), where Pn 1(z) is a polynomial of degree n 1.
Now by applying the fundamental theorem of algebra to Pn 1(z) there is a z1 C such that
Pn 1(z1) = 0 and the factor theorem ensures that Pn 1(z) = (z z1)Pn 2(z).
Hence Pn(z) = (z z1)(z z0)Pn 2(z). By applying this method to each successive polynomial
we can state the following:
There are n linear factors for all Pn(z) over C and therefore n solutions for Pn(z) = 0. So
Pn(z) = (z - zn)(z - zn - 1)(z - zn - 2) ... (z - z2)(z - z1)P0(z),
where P0(z) is a constant.
Note: Although n solutions are obtained, the fundamental theorem of algebra does not prescribe
that they are necessarily distinct.
Quadratics are factorised over C by completing the square.
Worked Example 34
Factorise: a z2 + 4z + 13 over C
Think
a
b P(z) = 4z2 + (8 - 4i) z + 3 - 4i.

Write
Use the complete the square method.
Express as the difference of squares.
Take the coefficient of z2 out as a factor.
Complete the square.
a z2 + 4z + 13 = (z2 + 4z + 4) 4 + 13
= (z + 2)2 + 9
= (z + 2)2 9i2
= (z + 2)2 (3i)2
= (z + 2 3i)(z + 2 + 3i)
b P(z) = 4 | z 2 + (2 i ) z +
3 4i
|
4
2
2
2 i
3 4i 2 i
+
= 4 z +
2
2
4
2 i
3 4 i 4 4 i 1
= 4 z +
+
2
4
4
2 i
3 4i 3 4i
= 4 z +
+
4
2
4
2 i
= 4 z +
= (2 z + 2 i ) 2
Cubics (or higher order polynomials) may be factorised using the factor theorem or, in some
cases, using grouping.
140
Worked Example 35
Factorise 6z4 + z2 - 1 over C.

Think
Write
Express the polynomial as a quadratic.
Let w = z2 so 6z4 + z2 1 becomes 6w2 + w 1.
Factorise the quadratic.
6w2 + w 1
= (3w 1)(2w + 1)
Substitute w = z2 back into the expression.
= (3z2 1)(2z2 + 1)
= (3z2 1)(2z2 i2)
Factorise each quadratic by writing it as the

difference of squares.
= ( 3z 1)( 3z + 1)( 2 z i)( 2 z + i)
Worked Example 36
a If f(z) = z3 + 7z2 + 16z + 10, find all factors of f(z) over C.
b Factorise P(z) = z3 - (3 -i)z2 + 2z - 6 + 2i.
c Check your answers using a calculator.
Think
a
1
2
Write
Find z = z0 so that f(z0) = 0.

Use the factor theorem.
f(z) = (z + 1)Q(z), where Q(z) is a
polynomial of degree 2.
To find Q(z) divide (z + 1) into f(z).
a f (1) = (1)3 + 7(1)2 + 16(1) + 10 = 0,
so (z + 1) is a factor of f(z).
z 2 + 6 z + 10
z + 1 z 3 + 7 z 2 + 16 z + 10
z3 + z2
6 z 2 + 16 z
6z 2 + 6z
10 z + 10
10 z + 10
0z + 0
So f(z) = (z + 1)(z2 + 6z + 10)
Factorise the quadratic equation by

completing the square.
State all factors of f(z).
Factorise by grouping two pairs.
= (z + 1)[(z + 3)2 + 1]
= (z + 1)(z + 3 i)(z + 3 + i)
The three factors of f(z) are z + 1, z + 3 i
and z + 3 + i.
b P(z) = z2[z - (3 - i)] + 2(z - 3 + i)
= z2 (z - 3 + i) + 2(z - 3 + i)
Take out the common factor z 3 + i.
= (z2 + 2)(z - 3 + i)
Replace z2 + 2 with z2 2i2.
= (z2 - 2i2)(z - 3 + i)
Factorise the quadratic factor using

the difference of perfect squares.
= ( z + 2i)( z 2i)( z 3 + i)
141

Action
Transformation
factor/rFactor
Complete the entry lines as:
factor(z3 + 7z2 + 16z + 10, z)
factor(z3 (3 i)z2 + 2z 6 + 2i, z)
rFactor(z2 + 2)
Write the answers in the required

form.
For a , the three factors of P(z) are

(z + 1), (z + 3 i) and (z + 3 + i)
For b , P( z ) = ( z 3 + i)( z + 2i)( z 2i)
Conjugate root theorem

In the previous three examples the polynomials contained only real coefficients and the complex
factors occurred in conjugate pairs.
The conjugate root theorem states that:
If a polynomial has real coefficients, its roots are either real numbers or occur as pairs of
conjugate complex numbers.
To prove the theorem we aim to show that for some z, if P(z) = 0, then P ( z ) = 0. First, by the
fundamental theorem of algebra, P(z) = 0 for some z so P(z) = 0. Now, if P(z) = an zn + an 1 zn 1 +
an 2 zn 2 + . . . + a1z + a0, then
P( z ) = an z n + an 1z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + + a1z + a0
(using the property that z + w = z + w ).
= an z n + an 1 z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + + a1 z + a0 (using the property that zw = z w )
= an z n + an 1 z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + + a1 z + a0(since an, n N are real coefficients)
= an z n + an 1 z n 1 + an 2 z n 2 + + a1 z + a0 (since z n = z n)
= P ( z ).
Since we assumed P(z) = 0 then P ( z ) = 0 so z is also a solution.
The conjugate root theorem provides an immediate way of determining zeros (roots) of the
polynomial if at least one zero (root) is known.
WorkeD example 37
If 5 + 5 2 i is a zero of P(z) =
two zeros over C.
eBook plus
z3
8z2
+ 55z + 150, find the other
int-0372
Think
1
142
Since all the coefficients of the polynomial are

real, use the conjugate root theorem to find one of
the other roots.
Tutorial
WriTe
Worked example 37
Let z1 = 5 + 5 2i.
Then z2 = 5 5 2i is another zero.
Expand the two brackets containing the two zeros.
Let z3 be the third zero. Then

P(z) = (z z1)(z z2)(z z3)
= ( z 5 5 2i)( z 5 + 5 2i)( z z3 )
= [(z 5)2 + 50](z z3)
= (z2 10z + 75)(z z3)
Divide the result into P(z) to find the third root.
z z3 =
z2
P(z )
z 2 10 z + 75
10 z + 75
z3
8z 2
z+2
+ 55z + 150
z 3 10 z 2 + 75z
2 z 2 20 z + 150
2 z 2 20 z + 150
0z2 + 0z + 0
Hence z z3 = z + 2.
Therefore z3 = 2 and the three zeros are
2,
5 + 5 2i, 5 5 2i .
Worked Example 38
a Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if -3 and -4 are zeros of P(z) = az4 + 28z3 + 49z2 + 7 + b.
b Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if 2i and 4i are zeros of P(z) = z3 - aiz2 - 2z + bi.
Think
a
Write
Obtain expressions for P(3) and P(4).
a P(3) = a(3)4 + 28(3)3 + 49(3)2 + 7 + b
= 81a + b 308
P(4) = a(4)4 + 28(4)3 + 49(4)2 + 7 + b
= 256a + b 1001
Since P(3) = 0 and P(4) = 0 we have the

two equations
81a + b 308 = 0
[1]
256a + b 1001 = 0
[2]
List the pair of simultaneous equations in a

and b.
Solve the simultaneous equations for a by

subtracting equation [1] from equation [2].
Substitute a = 4 into equation [1] to find b.
Substituting a = 3.96 into equation [1]:

320.76 + b 308 = 0
b = 12.76
State the values of a and b.
So a = 3.96, b = 12.76.
Obtain expressions for P(2i) and P(4i)
175a 693 = 0
a = 3.96
b P(2i) = (2i)3 - ai(2i)2 - 2(2i) + bi
= (4a + b - 12)i
P(4i) = (4i)3 - ai(4i)2 - 2(4i) + bi
= (16a + b - 72)i
List the pair of simultaneous equations in a

and b.
As P(2i) = 0, P(4i) = 0
we get the equations
4a + b - 12 = 0
16a + b - 72 = 0
Solve for a and b in the usual way.
a = 5, b = -8
143
Worked Example 39
Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if z - 2 is a factor of P(z) = iz3 + a(1 - i)

z2 - (4 + i)z + bi.
Think
Write
Obtain an expression for P(2) in the form x + yi.
P(2) = i(2)3 + a(1 i)(2)2 (4 + i)(2) + bi

= 8i + 4a 4ai 8 2i + bi
= (4a 8) + (6 4a + b)i
Since P(2) = 0, equate P(2) to 0 + 0i.
P(2) = (4a 8) + (6 4a + b)i = 0 + 0i
Equate the real parts of P(2) and solve for a.
Equate the imaginary parts of P(2) and solve for b.
6 4a + b = 0
68+b=0
b=2
State the solution for a and b.
Solving for a and b gives a = 2 and b = 2.
4a 8 = 0
a=2
REMEMBER
1. Every polynomial over C has a solution that is a complex number (fundamental

theorem of algebra).
2. A polynomial of degree n has n solutions.
3. A polynomial with real coefficients has solutions that are real numbers or that occur as
pairs of conjugate complex numbers (conjugate root theorem).
Exercise
3F
1 WE34
Factorise each of the following over C.
a z2 + 4
d z2 3z + 4
g z2 2iz 5
b z2 + 7
e 4z2 4z + 17
h 2z2 2(2 + i)z + 2i
2 WE35 Factorise each of the following over C.

a z4 81
b z4 2z2 3
c z4 + 20z2 + 64
c z2 + 8z + 25
f 9z2 + 24z 32
d z4 + 3z2 10
3 WE36 Find all of the factors of f(z) over C for each of the following. Check your answers
using a calculator.
a f(z) = z3 4z2 + 2z + 28
c f(z) = z3 z2 z + 10
e f(z) = z4 2z2 16z 15
g f(z) = z3 + iz2 9z 9i
b
d
f
h
f(z) = z3 + z2 + 2z 4
f(z) = 2z3 + 3z2 14z 15
f(z) = z6 1
f(z) = z3 + (2 i)z2 z 2 + i
4 WE37 For each of the following polynomials, find the other two zeros of P(z) if:
a 1 + i is a zero of P(z) = z3 + 4z2 10z + 12
b 2 + i is a zero of P(z) = 2z3 + 9z2 + 14z + 5
c 4 i is a root of P(z) = z3 10z2 + 33z 34.
5 If z 3i is a factor of 2z4 4z3 + 21z2 36z + 27, find the remaining factors.
144
6 MC The zeros of P(z) = z2 + (3 + 2i)z + 6i are:

A 2i, 3
B 3i, 2
C 3i, 2
D 3, 2
E 2i, 3
7 MC If P(z) = z3 (1 + 2i)z2 + 2(1 + i)z 2 and P(z) = (z 1)Q(z), where Q(z) is a polynomial,
then Q(i) is:
A 4
B 2
C 0
D 3
E 1
8 MC If P(z) is a polynomial of degree 4 with all of its coefficients real with ai, bi(a, b R) as
two of its zeros, then the term that does not contain z is:
A ab
B a b
C a + b
D a3b3
E a2b2
9 MC If P(z) = z3 + 2z2 6z + a and P(1 i) = 0, then a is equal to:
C 8
D 6
A 4
B 6
10
E 5
Calculate the value of a in each of the following given that:

a
b
c
d
(z + 2) is a factor of z3 + 3z2 + az + 8
(z + i) is a factor of z3 + az2 + z 4
(z + 1 2i) is a factor of 2z3 + 3z2 + 8z + a
2i is a root of z3 2z2i + az 32i.
11 WE38 Find the values of a and b (a, b R) given that:

a 3 and 2 are zeros of z3 + az2 + 8z + b
b 4 and 1 are zeros of z4 + az3 + bz2 7z + 12
c 2i and 3i are roots of P(z) = z3 + aiz2 + bz 12i.
12 WE39 Find the values of a and b (a, b R) if:
a (z + 1) is a factor of z3 2iz2 + aiz + b
b (z i) is a factor of az3 3z2 + biz + 12i
c (z + 2i) is a factor of z3 + aiz2 + 2iz + (1 + i)b.
13 Explain why at least one of the zeros of a polynomial of degree n (where n is an odd natural
number) is a real number.
14 Write down a polynomial of degree 3, whose coefficients are all real, that has 4i and 2 as two
of its zeros.
15 Find the values of a, (a R) for which ai is a solution to:
a P(z) = z3 + 3z2 + 36z + 108
b P(z) = z3 + 6iz2 11z 6i.
16
Factorise z3 + i over C.
17 a Show that P(1) = 0 for P(z) = z4 (1 + 3i)z3 + 3(i 1)z2 + (7 + i)z 4 i.

b Find the polynomial Q(z) if P(z) = (z 1)Q(z).
c Determine the values of a C, b R if Q(z) is of the form Q(z) = (z a)3 + b.
18 Factorise z4 + 2z3 + 8z2 + 10z + 15 over C given that z + 5i is a factor.
19
Factorise P(z) = 9z3 + (9i 12)z2 + (5 12i)z + 5i over C if P(i) = 0.
20 Determine the value of a R if
3g
3i is to be a zero of a + z 2 =
a 11
.
z2
Solving equations in C
Solving polynomial equations using factorisation
A polynomial equation P(z) = 0 can be solved by first factorising P(z) so that:
if P(z) = (z z1)(z z2) ... (z zn) = 0
then z = z1, z2, ..., zn.
145
Solution to quadratic equations

A quadratic equation of the form az2 + bz + c = 0, where a, b, c R, can be solved using the
quadratic formula: z =
b 2 4 ac
.
2a
Worked Example 40
Solve the quadratic equation x2 - 2x + 2 = 0 over C.

Think
1
Write
Use either the completing the square

method or the quadratic formula.
x=
b 2 4 ac .
2a
x2 2x + 2 = 0
(x 1)2 12 + 2 = 0
(x 1)2 + 1 = 0
(x 1)2 = 1
x 1 = 1
x = 1 i2
=1i
or
a = 1, b = 2, c = 2
x=
x=
( 2)
( 2)2 4 1 2
2 1
2 4i 2
2
2 2i
x=
2
x=
Simplify the expression.
x=1i
State the solutions for x.
The two solutions for x are x = 1 + i, x = 1 i.
Solving cubic equations

Worked Example 41
Solve the equation z3 + 3z2 + 8z - 12 = 0 over C.

Think
146
Write
Use the factor theorem to find a solution to the

cubic equation.
P(1) = (1)3 + 3(1)2 + 8(1) 12 = 0

z = 1 is a solution.
Express the first solution as a factor of the cubic.
z 1 is a factor.
By long division or otherwise determine the

quadratic factor.
z3 + 3z2 + 8z 12 = (z 1)(z2 + 4z + 12)
Solve the quadratic expression using the quadratic

formula.
If z2 + 4z + 12 = 0
z=
=
=
=
4 2 4(1)(12)
2 1
32
2
4 4
2
2 2
= 2 2 2i 2
= 2 2 2i
5
State the three solutions to the cubic equation.
The three solutions are 1, 2 + 2 2i and
2 2 2i.
Worked Example 42
Solve the equation x4 + 13x2 + 36 = 0 over C.

Think
Write
Obtain a quadratic equation by putting y = x2.
x4 + 13x2 + 36 = 0
y2 + 13y + 36 = 0, with y = x2
Factorise the quadratic equation.
(y + 4)(y + 9) = 0
Substitute for y.
(x2 + 4)(x2 + 9) = 0
Solve for x using each expression contained in

brackets.
x2 + 4 = 0,
x2 = 4,
x=
x2 + 9 = 0
x2 =9
4,
x=
x = 4i 2 ,
x = 9i 2
x = 2i,
x = 3i
The four solutions for x are x = 2i, 2i, 3i, 3i.
Square root of z
Given z2 = a + bi with z = x + yi and a, b, x, y R, we seek values for x and y so that
x + yi = a + bi
Then
(x + yi)2 = a + bi
By expanding (x + yi)2 we obtain (x2 y2) + 2xyi = a + bi.
Equating real and imaginary parts yields two equations:
x2 y2 = a and 2xy = b.
Solving this pair of simultaneous equations gives x 2 =
a + a2 + b2
. (Verify this.)
2
147
(Notice the requirement to take the positive square root since x is real.)
The value of y can now be determined by substituting for x2 in y2 = x2 a.
Worked Example 43
Find 3 + 4 i in Cartesian form.

Think
Write
Determine the values of a and b in the expression

z2 = a + bi.
Substitute a and b in x 2 =
Use y2 = x2 a to find y.
a + a2 + b2
to find x.
2
z = 3 + 4i so z2 = 3 + 4i. Take a = 3 and b = 4.

3 + 32 + 4 2
2
2
x =4
x = 2
x2 =
y2 = 4 3
y2 = 1
y = 1
Therefore the two roots z1, z2 are z1 = 2 + i and
z2 = 2 i.
So 3 + 4i is 2 + i or -2 i.
Notes
If z1 and z2 are the two square roots of a complex number:
1. the line segment connecting z1 to z2 halves the complex number
plane,
2. the root z2 can be obtained by rotating z1 through an angle of
180 corresponding to multiplication by i2, (that is, z2 = i2z1),
3. the modulus of z1 and z2 is 5 and z1 and z2 lie on the circle of
2
z2
Im(z)
2
1
0
1
2
z1
2 Re(z)
radius 5 units.
An alternative method to finding the square root and the cube root of z involves expressing z
in polar form. This is outlined below.
Solving equations of the form zn = w,

where w C
Values of z that satisfy zn = w, where z, w C and n N, can be found using De Moivres
theorem. We seek solutions to zn = w for n = 2 and n = 3 and for the particular case w = a where
a R. The steps involved are outlined as follows.
If zn = w,
1. Express w in polar form r cis ().
2. Express r cis () = r cis ( + 2k), k Z (since the solution repeats every 2 ).
1
3. Therefore, z = [r cis ( + 2k )] n , k Z, (by De Moivres theorem).

1
+ 2k
4. Hence z = r n cis
, k Z, using k until n solutions are found (that is, until the
n
solutions start repeating).
148
Cube root of z
WorkeD example 44
Use De Moivres theorem to solve
eBook plus
z3
2i, in polar form.
Think
1
Express w = 2 2i in polar form.
Tutorial
int-0373
WriTe
Worked example 44
If w = 2 2i = r cis (q ):
r = ( 2)2 + ( 2)2
= 8
tan ( ) =
2
2
=1
q = + tan1 (1) (3rd quadrant)
= +
4
5
=
4
5
+ 2k
So w = 8 cis
4
Let z3 = w.
+ 2k
Let z 3 = 8 cis
4
Determine z using De Moivres theorem.
Evaluate the solutions by rule.
5
3
z = 8 cis
+ 2k
5 2k
, k Z
= 2 cis
+
12
3
k = 0,
5
z = 2 cis
12
k = 1,
5 2
z = 2 cis
+
12
3
13
= 2 cis
12
11
= 2 cis
12
k = 2,
5 4
z = 2 cis
+
12
3
21
= 2 cis
12
3
= 2 cis
12
= 2 cis
4
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
149
The three cube roots of 2 2i in polar
State the solutions.
form are
and
5
2 cis ,
12
11
2 cis
12
2 cis
.
4
Geometrical interpretation of roots of

complex numbers
5
The three cube roots of 2 2i : z1 2 , , z2 2 ,

and
4
12
11
z3 2 ,
are shown here on the complex plane.
12
Im(z) z2
120
z3
Notes
1. On the complex number plane, z1, z2 and z3 are equidistant
2
Re(z)
120
120
z1
or 120 on
from the origin and are equally spaced
3
the circle of radius
2 units.
2. The three solutions should be converted to Cartesian form if required.
Solving zn = a, where a R
Since 1 = 1 + 0i = cis (0), it follows that:

a = a 1 = a cis (0)

= a cis (0 + 2k), k Z
Therefore solving zn = a becomes zn = a cis (2k), k Z, and using De Moivres theorem as
outlined previously it follows that:
If Zn = a, a R,
1
2 k
Z = a n cis
n
where k Z until n solutions are found.
then
Worked Example 45
Find the solutions to z4 = 9 in Cartesian form.

Think
Write
Express the equation in polar form.
z4 = 9
= 9 cis (2k)
Use De Moivres theorem to find z in polar form.
z = [9 cis (2k )] 4
2k
= 9 4 cis
4
k
= 3 cis
2
150
Substitute k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 to find the four solutions.
k = 0, z = 3 cis (0)
k = 1, z = 3 cis
2
k = 2, z = 3 cis ( )
3
k = 3, z = 3 cis
2
Express the solutions in Cartesian form.
The four solutions in Cartesian form are

3 , 3i,
3 , and 3i .
The exact values of cos 25 and sin 25

Consider the values of z for which z5 = 1. Follow these steps.
Step 1. Substitute z = x + yi in z5 = 1 and expand the left-hand side.
Step 2. Equate the real parts to obtain an equation in x and y.
Step 3. By expressing |z| in terms of x and y obtain an equation for y2 in terms of x2.
Step 4.Combine the equations from parts 2 and 3 to obtain an equation involving powers
of x only.
Step 5.Using a computer package or otherwise solve the equation to get two exact positive
solutions for x.
2k
Step 6. We know that the five solutions for z5 = 1 are given by cis
, k Z. Use this
5
5 1
2
information with the appropriate answer from step 5 to obtain cos =
.
5
4
2
Step 7. Use Pythagoras theorem together with your answer for cos to show that
5

2
sin =
5
2 5+ 5
.
4
REMEMBER
1. A polynomial P(z) = (z z1)(z z2) ... (z zn) has solutions z = z1, z2, . . . zn.
2. Use the complete the square method or
b 2 4 ac
to solve equations in z that
2a
can be expressed in quadratic form.

3. Substitute i2 for 1 to change expressions of the form a2 + b2 to the difference of two
squares: a2 + b2 = (a + bi)(a bi).
4. If zn = r cis (), then:
1
+ 2k
z = r n cis
, k Z, using k until n solutions are found (that is, until the
n
solutions start repeating).

5. If zn = a, a R, then:
1
2k
z = a n cis
, where k Z until n solutions are found.
n
151
exerCiSe
3G
1
We40 Solve the following quadratic equations over C. Check your answers with a calculator.
a x2 + 2x + 5 = 0
b x2 8x + 25 = 0
d 4x2 12x + 13 = 0
e 4 x 2 32 x + 4 = 0
c x2 14x + 149 = 0
We41 Solve the following equations over C. Check your answers with a calculator.
a z3 z2 z + 10 = 0
d 3z3 13z2 + 5z 4 = 0
b z3 2z2 + 3z 2 = 0
e 4z3 20z2 + 34z 20 = 0
c 2z3 7z2 + 10z 8 = 0
3 For f (z) = z 4, g(z) = z2 z + 1 and h (z) = z3 5z2 + 5z 4 show that f (z) g (z) = h (z) and
hence determine the values of z such that h (z) = 0.
4
We42 Solve these equations over C.
a x4 + 25x2 + 144 = 0
c 9z4 + 35z2 4 = 0
5
b z4 3z2 4 = 0
d 4x4 + 12x2 + 9 = 0
mC The solutions to the equation (z 3)2 + 4 = 0 are:
A z = 2 + 3i, z = 2 3i
D z = 4 3i, z = 4 + 3i
B z = 3 2i, z = 3 + 2i
E z = 9 + 16i, z = 9 16i
C z = 3 + 4i, z = 3 4i
We43 Find the square roots of each of the following in Cartesian form.
a 1 + 3i
b 11 + 60i
c 16 + 63i
7 Find i in Cartesian form.

8
mC If one of the roots of a(1 + i) is
7
a cis
8
9
a cis
8
7
a cis , the other root is:
8
7
a cis
8
9
a cis
8
7
a cis
8
We44 Use De Moivres theorem to solve the following equations, in polar form.
a z2 = 3 i
d z3 = i
b z2 = 4 + 4i
e z3 = 1 i
c z 3 = 4 + 4 3i
f z6 + i = 0
10 Find ( 125i) 3 and determine the value of the sum of the roots.
11 a Find the cube root of 64.
b Show the results on an Argand diagram.
12 We45 Solve the following equations in Cartesian form.
a z4 = 16
b z4 = 25
c z6 = 64
13 Find all z satisfying:
a z5 = 1
b z8 + 1 = 0.
Express your answers in polar form.
d z6 = 27
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.1
152
Summary
We define the imaginary number i as having the property that i2 = 1.

A complex number z = x + yi with x, y R and C = {z: z = x + yi, x, y R} defines the set of complex
numbers.
The real part of z is x and is written as Re(z).
The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im(z).
If z and w are two complex numbers such that z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c, d R then:
1. z = w iff a = c and b = d
2. z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
3. z w = (a c) + (b d)i
4. kz = ka + kbi, for k R
5. z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
The product of z in, n N produces an anticlockwise rotation of the point z of 90n degrees.
If z = a + bi and w = c + di, then:

1. The conjugate z of z is z = a bi .
2.
z ac + bd (bc ad )i
=
+ 2
.
w c2 + d 2
c + d2
3. The multiplicative inverse of z is
a
b
2
i.
2
a +b
a + b2
2
The polar form of complex numbers
The magnitude (modulus or absolute value) of z = x + yi is the length of the line segment from (0, 0) to z. It
is denoted by |z|, |x + yi| or mod(z).
| z | = x 2 + y 2 and z z = | z |2 .
The argument of z, arg(z), is the angle measurement anticlockwise of the positive Real axis and arg(z) =
y
where tan ( ) = x .
z = x + yi can be expressed in polar form as z = r cos () + r sin ()i = r cis ().
Arg(z) is the angle in the range < .
Basic operations on complex numbers in polar form
If z1 = r1 cis (1) and z2 = r2 cis (2), then:

1. z1 z2 = r1r2 cis (1 + 2)
z
r
2. 1 = 1 cis (1 2 )
z2 r2
De Moivres theorem: For z = r cis (), zn = rn cis (n), n Z.
If z = r cis (), then z = r cis ().
The fundamental theorem of algebra states that each polynomial over C has a solution that is a complex
number.
A polynomial of degree n has n solutions.
153
The conjugate root theorem states that polynomials with real coefficients have solutions that are real
numbers or that occur as pairs of conjugate complex numbers.
A polynomial P(z) = (z z1)(z z2) ... (z zn) has solutions z = z1, z2, ..., zn.
2
Use the complete the square method or b b 4 ac to solve equations in z that can be expressed in
2a
quadratic form.
Substitute i2 for 1 to change expressions of the form a2 + b2 to the difference of two squares:
a2 + b2 = (a + bi)(a bi).
If zn = r cis (), then:
1
+ 2k
z = r n cis
, k Z, using k until n solutions are found (that is, until the solutions start repeating).
n
If zn = a, a R, then:
1
2k
z = a n cis
, where k Z until n solutions are found.
n
154
chapter review
3
11 If z = cis and w = 2 cis then show each
8
4
Short answer
1 Simplify i6 i3 (i2 1).

2 If z = 3 8i, then find:
a Im(z2)
b a and b if z3 = a + bi.
3 If z = 2 5i, u = 3 + i and w = 1 + 2i evaluate:
a z 2u + 3w
b |z|
c |u| |z + w|.
of the following on the Argand diagram below.

a z
b w
c zw
z
e z4
f z 4
d
w
g the square roots of w (that is,
6 Represent z1 = 5i, z2 = 4 and z3 = 3 on the complex

number plane and calculate the area of the shape
formed when the points are connected by straight
line segments.
cis 2 cis
4
3
7 a Find Arg
.

cis
cis
6
4
b Calculate (3 3i)12.
c Find
z6
for z = 1 +
w4
3i and w = 1 + i.
d Find Arg 2 2 cis cis

.
3
4
8 Factorise each of the following polynomials over C.
a P(z) = z2 16z + 89
b P(z) = 2z3 + 6z2 7z + 4
c P(z) = z3 (1 2i)z2 + z 1 + 2i
9 Find the value a R if P(3i) = 0 for
P(z) = z4 + z3 + az2 + 9z 9.
10 Solve each of these equations over C.
a x2 - 2 5x+ 13 = 0
c z3 + 8 = 0
b z2 = 8 + 15i
w).
5 If z = 7 7i, express z in polar form.
VCAA Assessment report 2004
Im(z)
2
z
4 If z = 6 2i and w = 5 + 3i, express in the form a
w
+ bi, a, b R.
Exam tip Do a quick sketch of the complex

number on an Argand plane to see which quadrant it
is in.
w and
2 Re(z)
apart
8
12 Express
2 3 + 2i
in polar form.
1 3i
Exam tip This question was quite well done.

Two methods were widely used; rationalising using
the complex conjugate and converting the numerator
and denominator to polar form before proceeding. In
both cases it was clear that several students had not
learned the relevant exact values for circular
functions. Most students used a rationalisation
approach.
[VCAA 2007]
13 a Show that
5 i is a solution of the equation
z 3 ( 5 i) z 2 + 4 z 4 5 + 4i = 0.
Exam tip Most students did this question very
well. The vast majority recognised that the value of
z = 5 i could be substituted and the expression
evaluated to obtain zero without expanding the
square or cube. Those who attempted to expand
often ran into difficulties.
155
b Find all other solutions of the equation

z 3 ( 5 i) z 2 + 4 z 4 5 + 4i = 0.
2 The Argand diagram which correctly represents z is:

A
Im(z)
z
4
Exam tip Far too many students decided

[wrongly] that the complex conjugate 5 + i was
another solution despite the coefficients of the cubic
polynomial not being real.
2 5 Re(z)
[VCAA 2007]
Im(z)
14 a Express 1 + 3i in polar form.

Exam tip This question was well done by most
students, although it was clear that some had not
learned the exact values for trigonometry as the most
common mistake was to use 6 as the argument.
0
4
b Solve the quadratic equation z 2 + 2 z 3i = 0,

expressing your answers in exact Cartesian
form.
2 5 Re(z)
z
Re(z)
2 5 Im(z)
Exam tip Many of the attempts at this question
were very disappointing, with far too many students

having no idea how to get started. Students were
expected to either complete the square or use the
quadratic formula. In either case, they then had to
use the information from part a and apply de
Moivres Theorem. Few students were able to get
past the first stage and it was disappointing to see
how many students either failed to use the quadratic
formula correctly, did not complete the square
correctly, or could not simplify their result. A large
proportion of students stopped after completing the
square or using the quadratic formula.
Re(z)
4
2 5 Im(z)
Im(z)
2 5
[VCAA 2006]
15 Let w = 1 + ai where a is a real constant.

a Show that | w 2 | = (1 + a 2 ) .
b Find the values of a for which |w2| = 8.
c Let p(z) = z2 + bz2 + cz + d where b, c and d are
non-zero real constants. If p(z) = 0 for z = w
and all roots of p(z) = 0 satisfy |z2| = 8, find the
values of b, c and d and show that these are the
only possible values.
3
2
[VCAA 2008]
Multiple choice
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the complex number

z = 2 5 - 4i.
1 The real and imaginary parts of z respectively are:
156
A 2 5 and 4
B 2 5 and 4
D 4 and 2 5
E 2 5 and 4i
C 4 and 2 5
Re(z)
Questions 3 and 4 refer to the complex numbers

u = 5 - i and v = 4 + 3i.
3 The expression 2u v is equal to:
A 1 4i
B 3 7i
C 6 5i
D 5 + 8i
E 14 + i
4 The expression uv is equal to:
A 9 + 2i
B 20 3i
C 20 + 3i
D 15 4i
E 23 + 11i
5 If z = 5 12i, decide which statement is true
concerning iz.
A |iz| = 13
B iz = 12 5i
C The point z is rotated 90 clockwise.
D Re(iz) = 0
E Im(iz) = i
1 + 2i
6 Im
is equal to:
1 i
A 2
D
2
3
1
2
3
2
E 2
8 The expression
w is equal to:
B 12 i
C 7 + 3i
E z = 4 2i
2i
3
simplifies to:
1+ i 2 i
2
A
+ i
B 3 + 7i
5 5
D 4 2i
E 3 i
9 Arg(2 2i) is equal to:
A p
B
4
D
E 2p
4
10 The polar form of 3 + 3i is:
3
A 3 2 cis B 3 2 cis
4
4

D 3 cis
1 3
C i
4 4
3
4
3
C 3 cis
4
5
E 3 2 cis
4
5
B 15 cis
12
B 5 3 5i
C (5 + 5 3i)
30
10
i
D
2
2
C 2 cis
12

3
12 In Cartesian form, 12 2 cis 3 cis
is
4
2
equal to:
A 4 + 4i
B 4 4i
C 4 4i
D 4 + 4i
E 36 36i
13 When factorised over C, x2 + 6x + 1 is equal to:
15 5i
16 The solutions to z 3 = 3 + i in polar form are:

3
5
A 2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis

2
6
6

5
2 cis , 2 cis , 2 cis
6
6
2
B
3
11
13 3
3
2 cis , 2 cis
, 2 cis
18
18
18
d 4 cis
6
E

5
D 15 cis
E 2 cis
12
12
A ( x + 3 + 2 2 )( x + 3 2 2 )
A (5 5 3i)
11 If z1 = 10 cis and z2 = 5 cis

then z1z2 in
4
6
polar form is:
A 50 cis
12
5 5 3i in Cartesian form is:
15
7 If z = 3i and w = 4 i then |z|

A 12 + 3i
D 12 3i
14 If 2i is a zero of z3 3z2 + 4z 12, then the other

two zeros are:
B 2i and 3
C i and 3
A 2i and 3
D i and 3
E 3i and 3
2 cis , 2 cis
3
3
17 How many degrees apart are two consecutive roots

of z8 = 1 on the unit circle?
A 180
B 90
C 135
D 225
E 45
18 Which one of the following diagrams
could represent the location of the roots
of z5 + z2 - z + c = 0 in the complex plane,
where c R?
A
Im(z)
Re(z)
Im(z)
B ( x + 6 + 2 )( x + 6 + 2 )
C ( x 3 2 2i)( x 3 + 2 2i)
D ( x + 3 + 2 2i)( x 3 2 2i)
Re(z)
E ( x + 3 + 2 2i)( x + 3 2 2i)
157
All axes below have the same scale as the diagram

above. The complex number -i(a + bi) could be
represented by:
A
Im(z)
Im(z)
Re(z)
Re(z)
Im(z)
Re(z)
Im(z)
Re(z)
Im(z)
Im(z)
Re(z)
Re(z)
[VCAA 2007]
19 If z = 3 - 4i, then
A
D
1 2i
1
is equal to:
1 z
10
1 + 2i
10
1 i
E
6
1 + i
1 i
Im(z)
6
0
Re(z)
[VCAA 2007]

4
20 If z = 2 cis
, then z is equal to:
3
4

A 8 cis
B 8 cis
3
12
2
D 8 cis
3
4
E 16 cis
2
C 16 cis
3
[VCAA 2007]
21 The complex number a + bi, where a and b are real

constants, is represented in the following diagram.
Im(z)
Im(z)
[VCAA 2006]
22 One of the complex solutions to z5 = -a, where a
is a positive real constant, is a cis . One of

5
the other solutions is a real number and is equal to:
1
5
3
A a cis
5
7
D a cis
5
9
E a cis
5
1
5
Re(z)
Re(z)
1
5
a5
C a
1
5
1
5
[VCAA 2006]
158
23 For a certain complex number z, where
Arg( z ) = , Arg( z 7 ) is:

5
A 7
B 3
C 2
5
5
5
D 3
E 7
5
5
D -2i
[VCAA 2008]
25 In polar form, the complex number i - 1 is:

A
[VCAA 2008]
24 If z =
3 + 4i
, the imaginary part of z is:
1 + 2i
B 2 i
5
A 2
E 2
2
5

2 cis
3
B 2 cis
4
5
C cis
4
3
D 2 cis
4
5
E 2 cis

[VCAA 2008]
Extended response
1 Let z = 2 cis and w = 2 cis .

4
3
z
in the form r cos () + r sin () i.
w
b Express z and w in Cartesian form.
z
c Express in Cartesian form.
w
a Express
d Using the results of parts a and c, find the exact values for:

i cos
12
ii sin
12
iii tan .
12
z
e By letting z = 2 cis and w = 2 cis and following parts a to c for zw instead of w , deduce that
4
6
2 a
b
c

d
e
5
tan = 2 + 3 .
12
Factorise z2 + 64 over C.
Express z4 + 64 as a pair of quadratic factors in C.
Show that:
i (2 + 2i)2 = 8i ii (2 2i)2 = 8i.
Hence factorise z4 + 64 into linear factors over C.
Factorise z4 + 64 over R.
3 a Find the roots of z2 6z + 25 = 0 where z C, and hence find the sum of the roots and the product
of the roots.
b Let u and v be the roots of the equation z2 + bz + c = 0 where b, c, z C.

i Show that u + v = -b and uv = c.
ii Hence show that if u = p + qi where p, q R, and u and v are complex conjugates, then b and c
are real.
c Find the quadratic equation in z that has roots 2 + 5i and 2 + 5i.
d A quadratic equation in z has roots u and v.
The sum of the roots is -3 and the product of the roots
Exam tip Make sure that you know the
is 4. Find a quadratic equation in z that has roots
difference between a root and a factor.
(u + v) and (u v).
[VCAA 2003]
159
4 Let u = 1 i.
a i Find uu.
ii Find Arg(u) + Arg (2u ).
b i Show that u is a solution of the equation z4 4z3 + 9z2 10z + 6 = 0.
ii Hence find the other three solutions of this equation.
c Let z = x + yi, x, y R, and | z u | = | z 2u | .
Find the value of x when y = 0.
d Use De Moivres theorem to find all values of n if u n + (u ) n = 0.
5 a Express z1 =
3 + i in polar form.
b Plot and label z1 on the Argand diagram.
Im(z)
2
1
3 2
3 Re(z)
1
2
c By solving z 2 2 3z + 4 = 0 algebraically, show that the roots of this equation are

z = 3 + i and z = 3 i.
3 + i.
d Express the roots z 2 2 3z + 4 = 0 in terms of z1,where z1 =
e Show that the Cartesian equation for the relation | z | = | z z1 | is given by y = 3 x + 2.
f Show that z1 satisfies the relation | z | = | z z1 |.
g Shade the region specified by, { z: | z | 2} {| z | | z z1 |}, where z C on the Argand diagram below.
Im(z)
2
1
3 2
3 Re(z)
1
2
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 3
160
[VCAA 2007]
eBook plus
aCTiviTieS
Chapter opener
Digital doc
10 Quick Questions: Warm up with ten quick

questions on complex numbers. (page 108)
3A
eLesson
eles-0081 Applications
(page 108)
3B
of complex numbers.
Tutorial
We10 int-0366: Watch a tutorial on expressing real

and imaginary components of products of complex
numbers. (page 115)
3C
Interactivity
The conjugate of a complex number int-0343:

Consolidate your understanding of the geometric
representation of complex numbers and their
conjugates. (page 118)
Tutorial
We16 int-0367: Watch a tutorial on expressing the

quotient of two complex numbers in the form a + bi.
(page 121)
3D
Interactivity
Complex numbers in polar form int-0342: Consolidate

your understanding of the relationship between
complex numbers in rectangular form and polar
form. (page 123)
Tutorial
We18 int-0368: Watch how to represent a complex

number on an Argand diagram and calculate the
modulus. (page 124)
We23 int-0369: Watch how to express complex
numbers in polar form. (page 127)
Digital doc
History of mathematics: Learn about the

mathematician Abraham de Moivre. (page 128)
3E
Basic operations on complex numbers in

polar form
Tutorial
We25 int-0370: Learn how to multiply complex

numbers in polar form. (page 131)
We31 int-0371: Watch a tutorial on applying De
Moivres theorem to raising complex number to a
power. (page 136)
3F
Tutorial
We37 int-0372: Watch a tutorial on finding the zeros

of a cubic polynomial over the complex number
field. (page 142)
3G
Tutorial
We44 int-0373: Use de Moivres theorem to solve a

cubic equation over the complex number field.
(page 149)
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 3.1: Express complex numbers in

polar form, factorise and solve equations over C .
(page 152)
Chapter review
Digital doc
Test Yourself: Take the end-of-chapter test to test

your progress. (page 160)
To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to
www.jacplus.com.au
Interactivity
Complex numbers: sum, difference and product

int-0344: Consolidate your understanding of the
geometric representation of the sum, difference and
product of two complex numbers. (page 130)
Chapter 3
Complex numbers
161

Ch03 Complex Numbers

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Ch03 Complex Numbers

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3

3A Introduction to complex numbers

including their geometric representation and

C, the set of numbers z of the form z = x + yi,

maths Quest 12 Specialist mathematics for the Casio Classpad

Square root of a negative number

becomes x = i 2 = i . For the general case x + a2 = 0, with a R, we can write:

Definition of a complex number

Using the imaginary number i, write down an expression for:

c Repeat a and b using a calculator.

Express the square root of 16 as

Take the square root of 16 and i2.

Express the square root of 5 as the

Take the square root of i2.

Chapter 3 Complex numbers

Ensure your calculator is in

On the Main screen, complete the

The real part is the non-i term.

The imaginary part is the coefficient

The real part is the non-i term.

The imaginary part is the coefficient

Write i8 + i5 in the form x + yi where x and y are real numbers.

Simplify i8 and i5.

Sum the two answers.

Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics for the Casio ClassPad

On the Main screen, complete the entry

Evaluate each of the following.

e evaluate parts a , b and c using a CAS calculator.

a The real part of the complex number

b The number 10 can be expressed in complex

b Im(10) = Im (10 + 0i)

form as 10 + 0i and so the imaginary

The real part is 2.

Simplify the numerator of

Simplify by dividing the numerator

The imaginary part is 1.

c Re(2 + i 3i3) = Re(2 + i + 3i)

Chapter 3 Complex numbers

On the Main screen, tap:

Press E after each entry.

1. The imaginary number i has the property that i2 = 1.

Introduction to complex numbers

Simplify z = i6 + 3i7 2i10 3 and w = 4i8 3i11 + 3.

5 WE5 Evaluate each of the following.

Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics for the Casio ClassPad

b The value of Im [i(2i4 3i2 + 5i)] is:

10 If n is an even natural number show that (1) 2 = i n.

Basic operations using complex

Addition of complex numbers

Addition is performed by adding the real and imaginary parts separately.

Chapter 3 Complex numbers

The figure at right illustrates the situation for z2 + z1, with,

Subtraction of complex numbers

If we write z w as z + w we can use the rule for addition of

If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (a c) + (b d)i.

For z = 8 + 7i, w = -12 + 5i and u = 1 + 2i, calculate:

a Use the addition rule for complex numbers.

b Use the subtraction rule for complex numbers.

c Use both the addition rule and the subtraction rule.

If z = 3 + 5i, w = 4 - 2i and v = 6 + 10i, evaluate:

3z + w = 3(3 + 5i) + (4 2i)

Maths Quest 12 Specialist Mathematics for the Casio ClassPad

Use the rule for adding complex

multiplication of two complex numbers