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Kinematics
areaS oF STUdy
8a
Digital doc
differentiation and
displacement, velocity
and acceleration
10 Quick Questions
introduction
The motion of stellar and earthly objects like the sweeping movement of a planet, the curving
path of a thrown javelin, the acceleration of a stone dropped into a river and the graceful turnings
of a ballet dancer have intrigued people for centuries. Consequently, the study of the motion
of bodies, objects and particles termed kinematics has grown until now it is fundamental
to most sciences. This chapter will deal with motion in a straight line only rectilinear motion
and all objects considered will be treated as points for mathematical convenience; that is, the
objects do not rotate or change shape. First, some basic concepts are reviewed and explained.
position
The position of a particle moving in a straight line measures
its location from a fixed point of reference, usually the
origin O on the line. Positions to the right of O are usually
taken as positive. The point P in this diagram has a position
coordinate x.
x
O
Positive
direction
displacement
The displacement of a particle is its change in position relative
to a fixed point. Displacement gives both the distance and
direction that a particle is from a fixed point.
368
F
2
S
0
For example, a particle that moves from S to F via A is shown here on a positiontime line.
The distance travelled from S to F is 10 units. The displacement of S to F is 2.
Velocity
x2
Change in
position
x
x1
Change in
time
t
Position
t1
t2
Time
x
=
t
The instantaneous velocity, v(t), at time t is defined as the limiting value of the average
velocity as t approaches zero. That is, it is the gradient of a displacementtime graph
x
v (t ) = lim
or
t 0 t
dx
or
v (t ) =
dt
Units of velocity
The units of velocity are most commonly cm/s, m/s, or km/h.
Note: 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h (verify this).
Speed
Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity and is always positive;
that is, |v(t)|.
distance travelled
Average speed =
time taken
Note that distance travelled is not necessarily the same as displacement.
Worked Example 1
A particle moves in a straight line, left and right of an origin O. The position, x(t), of the particle at
any time, t (seconds), is given by:
x(t) = t2 2t 8
Assume that the negative direction is to the left of the origin.
Find:
a the initial position of the particle
b the position after 2 seconds
c the position after 3 seconds
d the average velocity during the third second
e the velocity at any time t
f the initial velocity
g the velocity after 2 seconds
h when and where the particle is stationary.
Hence, sketch a positiontime line.
Think
a
Write
x(t) = t2 2t 8
When t = 0, x(0) = 02 2(0) 8
= 8
Chapter 8 Kinematics
369
Find x when t = 2.
Find x when t = 3.
Average velocity =
change in position
change in time
Find v when t = 0.
g Find v when t = 2.
1
2
b x(2) = 22 2(2) 8
= 8
The position after 2 seconds is 8 cm,
or 8 cm left of the origin.
c x(3) = 32 2(3) 8
= 5
The position after 3 seconds is 5, or 5 units
to the left of the origin.
x (3) x(
x (2)
3 2
( 5) ( 8) cm
=
1s
= 3 cm/s
=
dx
= 2t 2
dt
or v = 2t 2
f When t = 0, v(0) = 2(0) 2
= 2
Initial velocity is 2 cm/s
or 2 cm/s to the left.
g When t = 2, v(2) = 2(2) 2
=2
Velocity after 2 seconds is 2 cm/s to the right.
e
v = 2t 2 = 0.
2(t 1) = 0
t= 1
x(1)= 12 2(1) 8
= 9
The velocity is 0 whent= 1 s and its
displacement from O is 9 cm, or 9 cm to the
left of O.
v = 0 when t = 1
so the particle turns at t = 1 s
(b) sketch the positiontime line.
370
x(0)= 8,
x(1) = 9,
x(2) = 8,
x(3) = 5,
v(1) = 0
t =2 s
t =3 s
t= 0
9 8
5
(cm)
t = 1s
0x
Worked Example 2
The displacement, x(t), of a particle moving in a horizontal straight line from an origin O, at any
time t is given by:
x( t ) = t 3
1 2
t
2
2 t + 1 cm
Find:
a the initial displacement
b when and where the velocity of the particle is 0
c the average velocity of the particle during the first 2 seconds of motion
d the average speed in the first 2 seconds.
Think
a
Write
Find x when t = 0.
a x (t ) = t 3
1 2
t
2
2t + 1
Differentiate x to find v.
Set v = 0.
b v (t ) =
When v = 0, 3t2 t 2 = 0.
(3t + 2)(t 1) = 0
t=
2
3
or t = 1
Evaluate x(1).
=
6
1
2
position is
Evaluate x when t = 2.
c x(2) = 23
1
2
cm or 2 left of O.
1
(2)2
2
2(2) + 1
=3
2
Evaluate.
change in position
change in time
Average velocity =
x (2) x (0)
20
31
2
2
2
=1
Chapter 8 Kinematics
371
t =1 s
1
t =2 s
t =0
O
x (cm)
Origin
2
Distance travelled = 5 cm
Average speed =
5
2
= 2.5
Hence, the average speed for the first
2 seconds is 2.5 cm/s.
Note: The distance travelled, and also the average speed, can be calculated without a line
sketch, providing the time(s) when the velocity is found and the appropriate positions found
are given.
That is, in part d above: distance = |x(2) x(1)| + |x(1) x(0)|
= | 3 1 | + | 1 1|
2
= | 3 12 | + | 1 12 |
= 3 12 + 1 12
=5
v
=
t
The instantaneous acceleration, a, at time t is the limiting
value of the average acceleration as t approaches 0. That is, it
is the gradient of a velocitytime graph, or
a = lim
a=
t 0
dv
dt
v
t
Velocity
Acceleration
v2
Change in
velocity
Change v
in time
t
v1
t1
t2
Time
Units of acceleration
The units of acceleration match their corresponding velocities and are usually expressed
as cm/s2 or m/s2.
Note: The downward acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.8 m/s2. For objects travelling through
the air, air resistance is ignored unless it is specified in a given problem.
372
Common units
Displacement: x
Velocity: v or
dx
or x
dt
Acceleration: a or
or
d2x
dt 2
dv
dt
or
x
cm
km
cm
s
m
s
km
h
cm
s2
m
s2
km
h2
WorKed example 3
WriTe
Chapter 8
Kinematics
373
WorKed example 4
WriTe
remember
1. Position gives the location of a particle relative to a reference point (usually the
origin). The variable used is x.
2. Displacement is change in position x or s.
dx
is the time rate of change of position or the rate of
3. Instantaneous velocity, v or
or x,
dt
displacement.
x s displacement
= =
4. Average velocity (during time interval t) =
.
t t
time
distance travelled
5. Speed =
time taken
d2x
dv
6. Instantaneous acceleration, a or
x or 2 or , is the time rate of change of velocity.
dt
dt
374
8a
Match the sketch of the displacementtime line below to each of the following objects
moving in a straight line, where x is the displacement from O (the origin) at time t and is
given by:
a x = t2 3t + 2
b x = t2 2t 3
2
c x = 2t t 3
d x = 3t2 7t + 2
t =2
t =3
t
t
=
2
=
3
t
=
4
ii
i
t =1
t =1
t =0
4321 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
iii
t =2
t =1
t =3
t=4
t =0
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
t =0
21 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
iv
t =1
t =2
t =0
3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
F
S
2 1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
S
6 5 4 3 2 1 O 1 2 x
F
S
5 4 3 2 1 O 1 2 3 4 x
In each case in question 2 it takes 4 seconds to get from S to F. For each case, find:
i the average speed
ii the average velocity.
B 5 13 m/s
D 7 m/s
(2, 20)
Metres
Exercise
8
0
Seconds
(6, _10)
B 5 3 m/s
D 7 m/s
5 The positiontime graph for a particle travelling in a straight line is shown below.
Use the graph to:
x
a state the position when
(10, 24)
i t = 3
ii t = 12
(12, 18)
b state the time when the displacement is
(7, 10)
i 24
ii 0
0
c find the average velocity from
t
5
10
i t = 3 to t = 7
ii t = 3 to t = 12
(3, 6)
10
d find the average speed from
i t = 3 to t = 7
ii t = 3 to t = 12.
Chapter 8 Kinematics
375
6 WE1 A particle moves in a straight line, left and right of an origin O. The position, x(t), of the
particle at any time, t (seconds), is given by:
a x(t) = 3t2 12
b x(t) = t3 12t + 2
c x (t ) = 4t
t +1
2t
d x (t ) =
e x(t) = et 5t 4
f x(t) = sin (4t)
t +1
For the above find:
i the initial position
ii the position after 3 seconds
iii the position after 4 seconds
iv the average velocity during the fourth second
v the velocity at any time t
vi the initial velocity
vii the velocity after 3 seconds
viii when and where, if at all, the particle is stationary.
Give answers correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
7 WE2 The position, x(t) m, of a particle moving in a horizontal straight line from an origin O,
at any time t s is given by:
x(t) = (5 t)(t + 1), 0 t 5
a Find the initial position.
b Find when and where the velocity is 0.
c Find the average velocity of the particle during the first 4 seconds.
d Sketch a positiontime graph for the particle.
e Find the average speed in the first 4 seconds by first sketching a positiontime line.
8 For each of the following positiontime rules, where x cm is the position at any time t seconds, find:
i the position after 3 seconds ii when, if at all, the velocity is 0
iii the distance travelled in the first 3 seconds.
a x = 2t2 8
b x = t3 6t2 + 9t + 1
c x = t 4 loge (t + 1) 2
t
t
d x = 1 cos
e x = 4 + tan 1
2
3
(Where appropriate, round answers to 2 decimal places.)
9 WE3 For each of the following, find i the velocity and ii the acceleration at any time t.
a x = t3 + 2t2 5t
b x = 4t t + 2
d x = t2 loge (t + 3)
e x = sin
t
3
c x = et + 2e
f x = t(5 t)(t + 2)
10 The height of a projectile h metres above the ground t seconds after it is fired vertically into the
air from a tower is given by:
h = 50 + 30t 5t2
Find:
a the average velocity during the first 2 seconds
b the time it takes to reach its greatest height
c the greatest height
d the acceleration at any time.
11 The position of an object relative to a reference point O is given by:
1
t
b x = 8 sin
4
c x = 2 + loge (t + 1)
d x = 3et + 2et
e x = 5t4 2t3 + 4t
f x = 2t cos (3t)
g x = 8t 10 1 e
1
2
h x =
t +1
t2
h = 200 1 e 4 40t
Find:
a the velocity and acceleration at any time t
b the initial height, velocity and acceleration
c the maximum height reached
d the acceleration in terms of the velocity.
8b
Using antidifferentiation
If the acceleration, a, of a particle is known in terms
of time t, then the velocity, v(t), can be found by
antidifferentiation. Thus,
v (t ) =
a dt + c1
Differentiate
Displacement
(or position)
Differentiate
Velocity
Acceleration
Antidifferentiate Antidifferentiate
Chapter 8 Kinematics
377
Similarly, the position, x(t), can be found by antidifferentiating velocity with respect to time:
x (t ) =
v dt + c2
v( t ) = a dt + c1
x( t ) = v dt + c2
Worked Example 5
Write
a v(t) = 3t2 2t 5
x(t) = (3t2 2t 5) dt + c
= t3 t2 5t + c
378
d
[v (t )].
dt
When t = 0, x = 3.
3 = 03 02 5(0) + c
3
=c
x(t) = t3 t2 5t 3
d
(3t 2 2t 5)
dt
.
v(t) = 6t 2
b v(t ) =
Solve for t.
c v(t) = 3t2 2t 5 = 0
(3t 5)(t + 1) = 0
d At t = 0, v = 5 m/s and at t = 1,
x(t) = t3 t2 5t 3
Distance travelled
=|x(1) x(0) |
=|(13 12 5 3) (3)|
= |5 |
=5
The object moves 5 m to the left during
the first second.
e v(t) = 3t2 2t 5 = 0
(3t 5)(t + 1) = 0
t 0, so only t = 35 is valid.
dv
dt
v(t) = 3t2 2t 5
a(t) = 6t 2
a=
When t = 35 , a = 6 35 2.
4
Evaluate for a.
a = 10 2
=8
When the velocity is 0, the acceleration is
8 m/s2.
WorKed example 6
eBook plus
Tutorial
int-0401
Worked example 6
WriTe
dv
, to find v.
dt
dv
= 5et 6t + 4
dt
v (t ) = (5et 6t + 4) dt + c
= 5et 3t2 + 4t + c
2
When
t = 0, v =1.
= 5e0 3(0)2 + 4(0) + c
1
1
=5+c
c =6
x (t ) = (5et 3t 2 + 4t 6) dt
= 5et t3 + 2t2 6t + c
Chapter 8
Kinematics
379
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
t = 0, x = 0.
0 = 5e0 (0)3 + 2(0)2 6(0) + c
0=5+c
c =5
Therefore, x(t) = 5et t3 + 2t2 6t 5
c x(1) = 5e1 (1)3 + 2(1)2 6(1) 5
= 5e 1 + 2 6 5
= 5e 10
Therefore, the displacement from O after
1 second is approximately 3.59 cm.
When
WorKed example 7
2
3
WriTe
v(t) = 3t2 2t 1
(3t 2 2t 1))dt
Then press E.
The constant of integration can be
found by completing the entry lines
as:
Define x(t) = t3 t2 t + d
solve(x(0) = 0, d )
Press E after each entry.
380
x(t) = t3 t2 t
b
1
t = 0 as t
3
x(0) = 0
x(1) = 1
x(3) = 15
Distance =|15 1 |+| 10 |= 17
Therefore the body travels 17 m in the first
3 seconds of motion.
remember
8b
Using antidifferentiation
A CAS calculator may be used to assist in calculations, or verify answers in the following
exercise where appropriate.
1 We 5 The velocity of an object which is initially 2 m right of O is given by:
v(t) = 6t2 2t 8 m/s
Find:
a the position x(t) from the origin at any time t
b the acceleration
x at any time t
c when the object is at rest
d the distance travelled in the first second
e the acceleration when the velocity is 0.
Chapter 8
Kinematics
381
Find:
a the position at time t
b the acceleration at time t
c when the object is at rest
d the distance travelled during t = 3 to t = 5
e the average speed during the time interval t = 3 to t = 5
f the average velocity during the time interval t = 3 to t = 5.
x = 6t 2
a The particle is stationary when t is equal to:
A
1
3
B 2 s
1
3
D 3 s
E 1 s
A 1 3
B 2 3
C 4
D 1
E 1 s
E 3
x = 10 e m/s2
a Find the velocity at any time t.
b Sketch a velocity versus time graph.
c Estimate the time taken, to the nearest second, to reach the ground.
382
d dt =
3 , 0 t < 2; when t = 0, v = 1 and x = 2
(4 t 2 ) 2
e a=
f
a=
3
; when t = 0, v = 0 and x = 5
(t + 1)2
et
; when t = 0, v = 0. Find the velocity only.
et + 1
x = 10 +
t m/s2
2
Find:
a the height of the missile after 2 seconds
b the height of the missile after 4 seconds
c the direction the missile is travelling when t = 4.
u = 20 m/s
13 The velocity of a tram travelling on a straight line between two stops is given by:
t
v = 16 sin m/s
30
Find:
a the time lapse between stops
b the distance travelled between stops
c the maximum velocity of the tram and when it occurs.
14 We 7 The acceleration of a body travelling in a straight line is given by:
x=
12
cm/s2
(2t + 1)3
Chapter 8
Kinematics
383
15 The acceleration of an object starting at rest from the origin is dv = 3 + v, where v is the velocity.
dt
a Find the velocity as a function of time.
b Find the position as a function of time.
dx
4 x2
16 The velocity of a particle starting at the origin is given by
, where x is the
=
dt
3
displacement.
a Find x as a function of t.
b Find the maximum displacement from O.
8c
Thus:
x = (u + at ) dt
x = ut + 12 at 2 + c1
When t = 0, x = 0, indicating that the object starts at the origin.
1
0 = u(0) + 2 (0)2 + c1
Thus:
c1 = 0
Therefore,
s = ut + 2 at 2, where s is the displacement
From equation [1]:
at = v u
Transposing to make a the subject gives:
vu
a=
t
Substituting into equation [2]:
t2
s = ut + 12 (v u)
t
s = ut + 12 (v u)t
[2]
= ut + 12 vt 12 ut
x = 12 (u + v )t
[3]
Here the distance travelled in a time, t, is equal to the average speed during that time interval,
1
(u + v ) ,
2
384
2as = v2 u2
or
v2 = u2 + 2as
[4]
The four formulas below can be applied to practical problems involving motion in a
straight line with constant acceleration a.
1. v = u + at
1
3. s = 2 ( u + v) t
2. s = ut + 2 at 2
4. v2 = u2 + 2as
Notes
1. Retardation or deceleration implies that the acceleration is negative.
2. Remember that acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.8 m/s2 upwards.
3. The variable s is the displacement of the object. This is not necessarily the distance
travelled by the object.
WorKed example 8
eBook plus
Tutorial
int-0402
Worked example 8
WriTe
a Given:
u=0
v = 20 m/s
t=8
Require: a = ?
v = u + at
Substitute u = 0, v = 20 and t = 8.
20 = 0 + 8a
a=
20
8
= 2.5
5
s = 2 (u + v )t
Chapter 8
Kinematics
385
Calculate s.
State the solution.
s = 12 (0 + 20)8
s = 80
Therefore, the particle travels 80 metres.
Worked Example 9
A ball is thrown vertically upward from a platform 16 metres above the ground and has an initial
velocity of 24.5 m/s. Find:
a the maximum height above the platform that the ball reaches
b the time taken to reach the maximum height
c the time taken for the ball to fall to the ground from the maximum height
d the total time the ball is in the air
e the speed of the ball when it returns to the level of the platform
f the speed of the ball when it hits the ground.
Think
a
Write
v=0
a = 9.8 m/s2
Platform
t=0
16 m u = 24.5
Ground
2
Given: u = 24.5
v=0
a = 9.8
Require: s = ?
386
v2 = u2 + 2as
b u = 24.5
a = 9.8
v=0
t=?
v = u + at
Max. height
u=0
30.625 m
Platform
a = 9.8 m/s2
16 m
Ground
Given: u = 0
a = 9.8
s = (30.625 + 16)
= 46.625
Require: t = ?
s = ut + 12 at 2
Chapter 8
Kinematics
387
2
3
388
a = -9.8
s = -30.625
v=?
v2 = u2 + 2as
REMEMBER
When the acceleration a is a constant during an interval of time t, an object will undergo
a displacement s. The object has a velocity u at the start of the time interval and a velocity
v at the end of the time interval. When motion has a constant acceleration the following
formulas can be used:
1. v = u + at
1
2. s = ut + 2 at 2
1
3. s = 2 (u + v )t
4. v2 = u2 + 2as
Exercise
8c
10
30
45
18
t
5
2
20
1
1.5
50
12
4
24
2 MC A particle moves from rest with constant acceleration of 2 m/s2. Answer the following
questions on the particle, which has travelled 25 metres.
a The velocity of the particle can be found using the formula:
A v = u + at
B s = ut + 12 at 2
D A = r2
E v2 = u2 + 2as
C s = 12 (u + v )t
D 5 m/s
E 50 m/s
c The time taken for the particle to reach a speed of 20 m/s is:
A 5 s
B 40 s
C 15 s
D 10 s
E 2 s
E 200 m
D 5 m
3 WE8 A particle moving from rest with constant acceleration reaches a speed of 16 m/s in
4 seconds. Find:
a the acceleration
b the distance travelled.
Chapter 8 Kinematics
389
4 An object travelling at 8 m/s accelerates uniformly over a distance of 20 metres until it reaches
a speed of 18 m/s. Find:
a the acceleration
b the time taken.
5 aA racing car accelerates constantly from
rest and covers a distance of 400metres in
10 seconds. Find its velocity at the end of the
400 metres.
b Another car travels the 400 metres with a
constant acceleration of 10 m/s2. Find its time
for the 400 metres.
u = 0, s = 400 m
390
17 A tram moving with uniform acceleration has a speed between two points of 4 m/s and 10 m/s
respectively. What is the speed half way between the two points? What is the average speed?
18 A bus travels 60 metres in 10 seconds and the next 60 metres in 15 seconds. If the acceleration
is constant, find:
a how much further it will travel before coming to rest
b how many more seconds it takes before coming to rest.
19 A juggler throws balls vertically into the air so that
they rise to a height of 4.4 metres above the ground. He
fails to catch one and it hits the ground with a speed of
1.155 times that of its initial speed. Find:
a the speed of projection of the ball
b the height from which the ball is thrown
c the total time the ball is in the air.
4.4 metres
8d
eBook plus
Interactivity
int-0349
Velocitytime
graphs
Velocitytime graphs
Velocitytime graphs provide visual information about
acceleration, velocity, distance and, of course, the time at which
events occur:
dv
1. Instantaneous acceleration = , the gradient of the vt graph.
dt
2. Instantaneous velocity = ordinate at a given time.
v
v1
t
t1
Area (A)
t1
A = 0 v(t) dt = distance
v (m/s)
20
Area1
0
Area2
20 24 t (s)
Chapter 8
Kinematics
391
Think
1
Write
a a=
20 8
60
12
6
=2
Therefore, the average acceleration in the
first 6 seconds is 2 m/s2.
0 20
b a=
24 20
20
=
4
= 5
Therefore, the average acceleration is
5 m/s2, which is a retardation of 5 m/s2.
(a + b)h
c A=
2
Area1 =
Area 2 =
(8 + 20)(6)
2
28 6
=
2
= 84
(14 + 18) (20)
2
32 20
=
2
= 320
Worked Example 11
392
Write
v (m/s)
12
10
20 26 t (s)
WorKed example 12
eBook plus
WriTe
a 75.6 km/h =
75.6
m/s
3.6
= 21 m/s
Deceleration time =
T
(given that the
2
deceleration is twice the magnitude of the
acceleration).
v (m/s)
21
1260
0
b
60
T
t(s)
T + 60
+ 60
T + 60 + 2T = 3T
2
= 21 60
= 1260 m
21T 21T
+
2
4
63T
=
4
=
Chapter 8
Kinematics
393
63T
= 275
4
So
= 60 + 17.46 + 17.46
2
= 60 + 26.19
= 86.19
10
T
.
2
63T = 1100
T = 17.46
Total time = 60 + T +
T
2
Worked Example 13
A lift operates between two floors within a building. The two floors are 80 metres apart. The lift can
travel with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2, decelerate at 3 m/s2 or travel at constant speed. If the
minimum travelling time between the two floors is 15 seconds, find the maximum speed of the lift.
Think
Write
Given: a = 2
u=0
v = v1
Require: t, the time to obtain a speed v1.
Use v = u + at.
Substitute u = 0, v = v1, a = 2.
v1 = 0 + 2t
v1
t=
2
0 = v1 3t
3t = v1
v
t= 1
3
v (m/s)
v1
394
v1
v 15 t(s)
1
3
10
11
12
90 5v1
v1
15 +
6
, (area of trapezium)
80 =
2
15 +
6
solve
v = 80, v
2
Then press E.
13
14
v1 = 29.49 or 6.51
90 5v1
| v = 29.49
6
Then press E.
Repeat for v1 = 6.51
15
90 5v1
= 9.575 .
6
90 5v1
= 9.575.
When v1 = 6.51,
6
As time must be positive, v1 = 6.51.
Therefore the maximum speed of the lift is
approximately 6.51 m/s.
When v1 = 29.49,
Chapter 8
Kinematics
395
REMEMBER
Exercise
8d
Velocitytime graphs
A graphics or CAS calculator may be used to assist in calculations or to verify answers in the
following exercise where appropriate.
12
0
30 t(s)
10
c v (m/s)
d v (m/s)
18
20
16
10
30 t(s)
10
30 t(s)
10
10
0
15
30 t(s)
e v (m/s)
v (m/s)
8
10
0
15
20
30 t(s)
30 t(s)
10
396
10
(4, 22)
v
(4, 30)
10
( 4, 4)
(16, 26)
0
2
10
v
(loge 9, 24)
8
1
0
( 34, 2)
2
D 2 m/s
E 0.4 m/s
v (m/s)
9
0 6
A 2.5 m/s2
B 3 m/s2
C 2 m/s2
D 3 m/s2
E 2.5 m/s2
c The total distance travelled in 35 seconds is:
A 429 m
B 500 m
D 408 m
E 510 m
15
25 28 35 t (s)
C 627 m
Chapter 8 Kinematics
397
5 MC A car starting from rest accelerates uniformly on a straight road to 90 km/h. It maintains
this speed for a while, then comes to rest with a uniform retardation of 1.25 m/s2. The total
distance travelled is 1 km in a total time of 55 seconds. Use a velocitytime graph to help with
the following.
a The time taken for the retardation phase is:
A 10 s
B 20 s
C 72 s
D 40 s
E 36 s
b The time into the journey at which the car starts to decelerate is:
A 35 s
B 20 s
C 40 s
D 10 s
E 50 s
c The time taken during the acceleration phase is:
A 35 s
B 20 s
C 25 s
D 10 s
E 60 s
d The distance the car travels at 90 km/h is:
A 500 m
B 700 m
C 625 m
D 600 m
E 250 m
6 WE12 A particle starting from rest and accelerating uniformly reaches a speed of 8 m/s in
2 seconds. It maintains this speed for a further 6 seconds and then decelerates uniformly to rest
in 3 seconds. Use a velocitytime graph to find the total distance travelled.
7 Two bus stops are 450 metres apart. A bus departs from one with constant acceleration until it
reaches a point where it decelerates uniformly at twice the magnitude of its acceleration. This
brings the bus to a halt at the other bus stop. The total time taken between the stops is 1 minute.
a Sketch a velocitytime graph for the bus.
b Find: i the acceleration and ii the maximum speed reached.
8 A bus accelerates and decelerates at 2 m/s2. Its maximum speed is 72 km/h. Find the shortest
time over which the bus can travel between two stops 800 metres apart.
9 A train leaves a station from rest with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2 until it reaches
a maximum speed of 18 m/s. It continues at this speed until it is brought to rest under a
retardation of 3 m/s2. The distance travelled by the train to the second station is 1485 metres.
Using a velocitytime graph, find the time taken to travel between the two stations.
10 WE13 A lift operates over a vertical distance of 120 metres. Its acceleration is 0.75 m/s2 and
its deceleration is 1 m/s2 and in between it travels at a constant speed for 13 seconds. The
minimum time for the journey is 27 seconds. What is the maximum speed of the lift?
398
11 A lift operates between the ground floor and top floor of a building, a vertical distance of
180 metres. It can move with a constant acceleration of 1.2 m/s2 or deceleration of 1.6 m/s2 or
at constant speed. If its greatest speed is 7.2 m/s, find the least time taken to travel between the
ground and top floors.
12 Two cars start from rest at the same place and same time and move in the same direction
with constant but different accelerations. If they are 90 metres apart after 60 seconds, find the
difference between their speeds at this point.
13 Go-carts A and B are stationary on a 400-metre straight racing track. At t = 0, cart A moves off
with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2 for 10 seconds, after which it moves at constant speed.
Cart B sets off at the same time with constant acceleration of 1.5 m/s2 for 16 seconds, then
maintains a constant speed. Which cart completes the 400 metres first and how far ahead of the
second cart is it when it does so?
14 A stationary police car is passed by a motorcycle travelling at a constant speed of 72 km/h. The
police car sets off in pursuit of the motorcycle 5 seconds after the motorcycle has passed it.
The police car moves with constant acceleration for a distance of 200 metres, reaching a speed
of 90 km/h which it then maintains. How long after the motorcycle first passes the police car
does the police car catch up to the motorcycle?
15 A car slows down with a constant retardation from 24 m/s to 16 m/s over a distance of
15 metres. What further distance will it travel before coming to rest?
16 Two cars, A and B, are moving with constant acceleration in the same direction on parallel
lanes of a freeway. At t = 0 s, car A passes car B when the speeds are 54 km/h and 36 km/h
respectively. Two minutes later car B, travelling at 90 km/h, passes car A.
Find:
a the distance travelled by the cars between the times at which they pass each other
b the time after their first passing when they are travelling at the same speed, and this speed
c the distance between them when their speeds are the same.
17 A drag-racing car accelerates from rest at 5 m/s2 until it reaches its maximum speed, which it
maintains for 2 seconds. It then releases its parachute, which decelerates it at 8 m/s2 until it is
brought to rest after travelling 506.25 metres in total. Find:
a the maximum speed reached by the car
b the braking distance (distance travelled after the parachute is released)
c the average speed.
eBook plus
Digital doc
WorkSHEET 8.1
18 Two trains pass one another, travelling in opposite directions on parallel tracks. When the
fronts of the trains are in line they are travelling at 12 m/s and 16 m/s and accelerating at
0.5 m/s2 and 1 m/s2 respectively. The length of each train is 136 metres. How long does it take
the rear of the two trains to pass?
19 A car travelling at 90 km/h along a highway passes a stationary motor cycle policeman.
The policeman starts off in pursuit 5 seconds later, moving for 250 metres with constant
acceleration until he reaches a speed of 120 km/h which he maintains.
a Find the time taken for the policeman to catch up to the car.
As soon as the policeman draws level with the car he indicates to the driver to stop. Both
uniformly apply the brakes, and stop 3 seconds later.
b How far does the policeman have to walk back from his cycle to the stationary car?
20 Two cars A and B, each moving with constant acceleration, are travelling in the same direction
along the parallel lanes of a divided road. When A passes B, the speeds are 64 and 48 km/h
respectively. Three minutes later B passes A, traveling at 96 km/h. Find
a the distance travelled by A and B at this instant (since they first passed) and the speed of A,
b the instant at which both are moving with the same speed, and the distance between them
at this time.
Chapter 8
Kinematics
399
21 A motorist is travelling at a constant speed of 120 km/h when she passes a stationary police
car. She continues at that speed for another 15 seconds before uniformly decelerating to
100 km/h in five seconds and then continues with constant velocity.
The police car takes off after the motorist the instant it passes. It accelerates uniformly for
25 seconds by which time it has reached 130 km/h. It continues at that speed until it catches
up to the motorist. After how long does the police car catch up to the motorist and how far
has she traveled in that time?
8e
1
dx
f ( x)
2. After the antiderivative is found, the equation may then be rearranged to make x the
subject.
Worked Example 14
Find:
1
cm/s, x > 2. When t = 0, x = 0.
x+2
400
Write
dx
.
dt
Express v as
1
, x > 2
x+2
dx
1
=
dt x + 2
dt
= x+2
dx
v=
t = ( x + 2) dx
t = 2 x2 + 2x + c
Substitute t = 0 and x = 0.
When t = 0, x = 0
0=0+0+c
c=0
10
11
12
1
Evaluate x.
Since v =
1
and x > 2, the velocity is
x+2
always positive.
So t = 2 x 2 + 2 x
or 2t = x2 + 4x
= (x + 2)2 4
or (x + 2)2 = 2t + 4
x + 2 = 2t + 4
x = 2 + 2t + 4, as x > 2
b When
t = 2.5,
x = 2 + 2(2.5) + 4
= 2+ 9
= 2 + 3
x=1
c Since v =
= 1 (2 + 4)
= 1 (2 + 2)
=10
=1
Therefore, the object travels 1 cm in the
first 2.5 seconds.
If the velocity is given as a function of position x, and the acceleration is required as a function
of x, we proceed as follows.
dv
a=
dt
dv dx
=
, using the chain rule.
dx dt
Chapter 8 Kinematics
401
But
dx
is the velocity, v.
dt
Therefore
a=v
dv
dx
WorKed example 15
The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is given by v(x) = 2 + loge (x), x > 0, where x is the
position at any time, t.
What is the acceleration in terms of x?
ThinK
1
2
3
4
WriTe
v = 2 + loge (x)
dv 1
=
dx x
dv
a=v
dx
a = (2 + log e ( x ))
a=
1
x
2 + log e ( x )
x
t=
Remember that:
1. t =
1
dv
g(v )
1
dv
g ( v)
dv
The acceleration of a particle travelling in a straight line is given by
= v + 1,
dt
where v is the velocity at any time t. At time t = 0, the body is at rest at
the origin.
Find, as a function of time:
a the velocity
b the acceleration
c the position.
402
eBook plus
Tutorial
int-0404
Worked example 16
ThinK
a
WriTe
dv
= v +1
dt
dt
1
or
=
dv v + 1
t=
1
dv
v +1
Then press E.
Given that t = 0 when v = 0, to find the
constant of integration. Complete the
entry line as:
solve(0 = ln(|0 + 1 |) + c, c)
Then press E.
Rearrange the equation to make v the
subject by completing the entry line as:
solve(t = ln(|v + 1 |), v)
Then press E.
5
t=
1
dv = loge (|v + 1 |) + c
v +1
b a=
a=
dv
dt
d (et 1)
dt
a = et
x = et t + c
When t = 0, x = 0
0 = e0 0 + c
Solve for c.
c = 1
x = et t 1
c x=
(e 1) dt
t
Chapter 8
Kinematics
403
dv
a=v
Now
Substituting
d 1 2
v for v, gives:
dv 2
dv
(seen earlier).
dx
a=
d 1 2 dv
v
dv 2 dx
a=
d 1 2
v
dx 2
Worked Example 17
404
Write
At x = 0, v = 1.
As x increases, v > 1.
So
or
d 1 2
v to set up a
dx 2
differential equation for acceleration.
d 1 2
x
v =e +1
dx 2
1 2
v
2
= (e x + 1) dx
= ex + x + c
When x = 0, v = 1.
1
2 (1)2 = e0 + 0 + c
1
2
=1+c
1
c=2
1 2
v
2
= ex + x 2
v2 = 2ex + 2x 1
v = 2e x + 2 x 1
v>1
but
v = 2e x + 2 x 1
1 2
d 2 x dv
dv d 2 v
a= 2 =
=v
=
dt
dx
dx
dt
The acceleration equation given will determine which form to use. The following summary may
help you decide.
Acceleration
Form of acceleration
to use
a = f(t)
a = f(x)
dv
d2x
or 2
dt
dt
d 1 v 2
2
dx
a = f(v)
dv
if the initial
dt
conditions are in
terms of t and v
or
dv
v
if the initial
dx
conditions are in
terms of x and v.
REMEMBER
1. If v = f(x), then t =
1
dx.
f ( x)
dv
d 1 2
2. a = v
and thus: a =
( v ).
dx
dx 2
1
3. If a = g(v), then t =
dv .
g(v )
Exercise
8E
405
b v in terms of t
4 WE15 The velocity, v m/s, of a particle moving in a straight line is given by:
v(x) = (x 1)2, x > 1
Find the acceleration when the velocity is 1 m/s.
5 MC A particle moves in a straight line so that the velocity is given by v = 1 + ex m/s, and
x = 0 when t = 0.
a The acceleration in terms of x is:
A 2 x ex 4 e2x
B x ex
C e2x ex
D ex e2x
E x + ex
b The position, x m, in terms of t is:
Exam tip A common mistake occurs when
A 2et 1
B loge (et + 1)
students simply differentiate the given expression
with respect to x, confusing dv with acceleration
C loge (2et 1)
D 2t 1
dx
E ex + t
dv
dx dv
dv
=
=v
.
instead of using a =
dt
dt
dx
dx
c The initial acceleration in m/s2 is:
1
A 1
5
4
C 0
D 1
E 2
v( x) = 4 1 x 2
b the position in terms of t if x = 1 when t = 0.
7 The velocity of a body moving in a straight line is given by v(x) = 4 + x2 cm/s, where at time
t = 0, x = 2.
Find:
a the acceleration in terms of position x
b the position in terms of t
d Find the distance fallen after 5 seconds (to the nearest metre).
16 A cork is projected vertically upwards (take upwards to be positive) with an initial speed
u m/s against an air resistance kv2, where v is the velocity in m/s at any instant and k is a
constant. If x is the height (in metres) of the cork at any time show that:
a a = (g + kv2)
eBook plus
and hence find:
b the velocity in terms of x
Digital doc
c the maximum height reached
WorkSHEET 8.2
d the maximum height if k = 0.002 and u = 30.
17 A particle has a displacement, x = 49t 225 + 245e0.2t metres above the ground after a time
t seconds. Find:
a its initial height above the ground
b its velocity v at time t and show that its initial velocity is zero
c its acceleration a at time t, and show that a = 9.8 0.2v.
d Deduce that the limiting speed is given by 49 m/s.
18 A particle moves back and forth along a straight line track so that its displacement at a time
t seconds is given by x = 3 sin (2t) + 4 cos (2t).
a Find its initial displacement and initial velocity.
eBook plus
b Find its acceleration after seconds.
Digital doc
c If its velocity is v, show that v2 = 4 (25 x2).
Investigation
Chapter 8
Kinematics
407
Summary
Differentiation and displacement, velocity and acceleration
Position gives the location of a particle relative to a reference point (usually the origin). The variable used is x.
Displacement is change in position x or s. Displacement and position have the same value if a body is initially at
the origin and so the two terms are often used to mean the same thing. Hence, the same variable is used, namely x.
dx
is the time rate of change of position or the rate of displacement.
Instantaneous velocity, v or
or x,
dt
x s displacement
Average velocity (during time interval t) =
.
= =
t t
time
distance travelled
Speed =
.
time taken
Instantaneous acceleration, a or
x or
dv
d2x
or
is the time rate of change of velocity.
2
dt
dt
Using antidifferentiation
x (t ) = v dt + c. The displacement and hence the position can be found by antidifferentiating the
instantaneous velocity. The value for c is found by knowing the position at a specific time, usually at time t = 0.
Motion under constant acceleration
When the acceleration a is a constant during an interval of time, t, an object will undergo a displacement, s.
The object has a velocity, u, at the start of the time interval and a velocity, v, at the end of the time interval.
When motion has a constant acceleration the following formulas can be used:
1
1. v = u + at 2. s = ut + 2 at 2
1
3. s = 2 (u + v )t 4. v2 = u2 + 2as
Velocitytime graphs
If v = f(x), then t =
a = v
1
dx.
f ( x)
1
dv .
g(v )
dv
d 1 2
and thus: a =
v .
dx
dx 2
If a = g(v), then t =
If a = h(x), then v
408
dv
= h( x ).
dx
chapter review
Short answer
v (m/s)
10
(1, 10)
Water
Air
0
2
t (s)
(4, 2)
Find:
a the height of the platform
b the acceleration of the person through the water
c the maximum depth the person reaches in the
water
d the depth the person reaches in the water after
4 seconds.
5 A stone is thrown vertically upwards from ground
level with an initial velocity of 29.4 m/s. Calculate:
a the velocity and direction of the ball after
4 seconds
b the total distance, in terms of g (acceleration
due to gravity), travelled by the stone after it
returns to the ground
c the velocity of the stone when it strikes the
ground.
6 A cyclist starting from rest travels a total distance
of 1800 metres before finishing at rest. During the
journey, the cyclists velocity increases uniformly
until he reaches 16 m/s. This velocity is maintained
for 100 seconds and then uniformly decreases to zero.
a Sketch the velocitytime graph of the cyclist.
b Find the total time of the cyclists ride.
Chapter 8 Kinematics
409
D 5
E 6
u = 5 m/s
10
8
13
(10, 4)
410
t (s)
D 5
E 8
20
B x = et + 1
E x = sin (t)
C x = 2t 1
dv
1
, v > 2; and that v = 3 when
=
dt 2v 4
t = 1 for an object moving in a straight line, the
acceleration when t = 9 is:
19 Given that
t(s)
18 22
v (m/s)
t(s)
13 22
v (m/s)
20
13
1
4
D 112
0
t(s)
25 29
t(s)
18 22
13
t(s)
18 22
v (m/s)
20
10
12
20
t(s)
2
3
1
6
2x
(1 x 2 )2
2x
3
(1 x 2 ) 2
v (m/s)
1
2
4x
4 sin 1 ( x )
C
A 2 sin-1(x)
B
(
1
x 2 )2
2
1 x
[VCAA 2005]
Extended response
1 Jogger A is running in a straight line at a constant speed of 4 m/s when passing jogger B who has stopped to
tie a lace. Jogger B heads off in the same direction as A 6 seconds later, accelerating uniformly at 2 m/s2 until
reaching a speed of 5 m/s.
a Sketch a velocitytime graph showing the motion of both joggers.
b How long is it after jogger A first passes jogger B until B catches up to A?
c How far has jogger B travelled to catch jogger A?
d How far ahead will jogger B be after jogger B has travelled 225 metres?
Chapter 8 Kinematics
411
2 An object moving in a straight line has an acceleration of (x 4). When x = 4, the velocity v = 0.
a Explain why the velocity is decreasing from x = 0 to x = 4.
b Hence, find v at x = 0.
3 The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line is given by:
v = 4 x2 , x > 0
t
v = 10 cos2
8
b the displacement from O.
5 A car travelling at 24 m/s overtakes a truck travelling at a constant speed of 17 m/s along a straight road.
T seconds later, the car decelerates uniformly to rest.
The truck continues at constant speed and it passes the car at the instant the car comes to a stop. This is
exactly 60 seconds after the car had passed the truck.
The velocitytime graph representing this situation is shown below.
v (m/s)
24
17
Car
Truck
60
Find T.
Car A
7 A high diver jumps off a tower which is 44.1 metres above a deep tank of
water. When the diver hits the water he is subject to an acceleration given
by a = 0.4(v + 0.6)2 m/s2, v 0 where v is the velocity in the water at any
time t seconds after impact with the water.
a Find the velocity of the diver on impact with the water, assuming a
constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s2.
b Find the velocity of the diver v(t) in the water at time t.
c How long after the diver leaves the tower does he come to rest in the tank?
d How far below the surface of the water does he descend?
412
780 m
Centre of
intersection
600 m
8 A ball is dropped from the top of a building 35 m above the ground. At the same time, a second ball is thrown
upwards with a speed of 20 m/s. The first ball is vertically above the second ball. The position above the
ground of the first ball is given by x(t) = 35 - 4.9t2, while the position of the second ball above the ground is
given by x(t) = 20t - 4.9t2.
a At what time will the first ball have a speed that is the same as the speed of the second ball? (Careful;
speed is not the same as velocity.)
b At the time the balls have the same speed, how far apart are they?
c Eventually, the two balls collide. At what height above the ground do they collide?
d Calculate the velocities of the two balls as they collide.
In a second trial, the two balls are once again released. This time the second ball is thrown upwards with a
speed V, such that when the first ball hits the second ball, the second ball is stationary.
e Find the speed V and the time at which the balls collide.
9 An object has a velocity given by v ( x ) = 2 x 1, x 12 .
a Show that the acceleration of the object is 1 for all values of x 12 .
b At t = 0, x = 1. Find the position of the object at all times t 0; that is, find x(t).
10 A motorcyclist passes a police car located at x = 0 at time t = 0. The speed of the motorcyclist is given by the
equation v(t) = 15 + 0.2t and the acceleration of the police car is uniform at a rate of 2.0 m/s2 until the car
reaches a speed of 25 m/s for t [0, 12.5], and 0 thereafter.
a On the same set of axes, draw the velocitytime graphs for both the police car and the motorcyclist.
b Determine the time(s) at which the two vehicles have the same speed.
c Calculate the time(s) it takes for the police car to catch up to the motorcyclist and hence the distance(s)
travelled by the police car.
11 Martin is trying out his new spaceship by challenging a local alien to a race. He places his hand on the throttle
and his spaceship starts to accelerate at a constant rate a for a time t. During that time, t, he travels a
distance s through space. Martins spaceship has an initial speed u at the beginning of the time interval and
a final speed v after a time t. The local space police are on to Martin and want to photograph him just as
he breaks the speed limit. However, they need to set their camera up at the precise point x where Martin is
travelling at his average speed. The police know when the average speed will occur; it will occur at a time
t
T = . They want to find out where the average speed will occur. Let x be the distance travelled when the
2
spaceship reaches its average velocity for the time interval t. All distances and times are in metres (m) and
seconds (s).
It is clear that x is a fraction of s, the total distance covered
during the time interval t.
a The initial velocity (u) is 0, the acceleration (a) is 1.0 and
the time interval (t) is 10. Find the value of x
x
and hence state the value of the fraction .
s
b Find an equation for x in terms of only the acceleration, a; the initial speed, u; and s, the total distance
travelled in the time interval t.
s
c Under what conditions will x = ?
2
12 A body is released from rest and falls vertically (let a = 10 m/s2) for a distance of 100 m.
a How far from the point of release will it be when it is moving at the average speed over that interval?
b What is the average speed of the body for that 100-m interval?
13 When a projectile is fired from a body out into space, it decelerates due to the gravitational pull of the body.
k
where r is the distance from the centre of the body and
The general equation for this deceleration is a =
r2
k is a positive constant.
Chapter 8 Kinematics
413
a On the surface of the moon (r = 1760 km), the deceleration is a = 1.6 m/s2. Find the value of k.
b If a body is launched from the surface of the moon with a velocity of 500 m/s, find the velocity of the
body at a distance r from the centre of the moon; that is, find v(r).
c Find the distance from the centre of the moon when the body is momentarily stationary.
14 A car travelling at 20 m/s passes a stationary police car, and then decelerates so that its velocity, v m/s, at
time t seconds after passing the police car, is given by v = 20 2 tan1 (t).
a After how many seconds will the cars speed be
exam Tip
Check the calculator mode, and round
17 m/s? Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
off to the correct number of decimal places.
exam Tip
The major error involved either
incorrect terminals or no terminals. Nearly all students
who attempted this part did have at least dt present.
VCAA Assessment report 2007
Three seconds later the police car starts to chase the passing car which has a polluting exhaust pipe. The
police car accelerates so that its velocity, v m/s at time t seconds after the polluting car passed it, is given by
13 2t
v = 13 cos 1
for t [3, 8].
7
d Write down an expression which gives how far the polluting car is ahead of the police car when
t = 8 seconds. Find this distance in metres correct to 1 decimal place.
exam Tip
This question was not well answered.
Of those who attempted the question, the most
common error was to have terminals in both integrals
from 0 to 8.
VCAA Assessment report 2007
exam Tip
This question was not well done. Of
the students who attempted this part, most calculated
the constant speed of the police car, but many simply
multiplied by Tc instead of Tc 8 to find the distance
it travelled at constant speed.
VCAA Assessment report 2007
eBook plus
Digital doc
Test Yourself
Chapter 8
414
exam Tip
This question was not well done.
Slightly more than half of those who set up a correct
equation in Question 5e managed to arrive at the
correct answer. Several methods could be used, each
involving a numerical solution process.
VCAA Assessment report 2007
[VCAA 2007]
eBook plus
aCTiViTieS
Chapter opener
Digital doc
Using antidifferentiation
Tutorial
Tutorial
Velocitytime graphs
Interactivity
Digital doc
Interactivity
Chapter 8
Kinematics
415