Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REPORTT
ZA
2014
AUTHORS
Paul J Oberholster and Anna-Maria Botha
Climate change, the Food Energy Water Nexus and food security in South Africa : Suzanne Carter and Manisha Gulati
Developing an understanding of the energy implications of wasted food and waste disposal: Philippa Notten,
Tjasa Bole-Rentel and Natasha Rambaran
Energy as an input in the food value chain: Kyle Mason-Jones, Philippa Notten and Natasha Rambaran
Food inflation and financial flows: David Hampton and Kate Weinberg
The importance of water quality to the food industry in South Africa: Paul Oberholster and Anna-Maria Botha
The agricultural sector as a biofuels producer in South Africa: Alan Brent
Virtual water: James Dabrowski
Water as an input into the food value chain: Hannah Baleta and Guy Pegram
Water, energy and food: A Review of integrated planning in South Africa: Sumayya Goga and Guy Pegram
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CITATION
Should you wish to reference this paper, please do so as follows:
Oberholster, P.J. and Botha, A-M. 2014. Importance of water quality to the food industry in South Africa. Understanding the Food
Energy Water Nexus. WWF-SA, South Africa.
For further information please contact:
Manisha Gulati at mgulati@wwf.org.za or
Tatjana von Bormann at tvbormann@wwf.org.za
ABSTRACT
South Africas water, energy and food sustainability are tightly linked. Water is required to extract energy and
generate power, while energy is needed to treat and transport water. Both energy and water are prerequisites for food
sustainability. It is thus evident that one area can impact on one or both of the other areas. However, the most
important challenge facing the South African Food Energy Water Nexus is water quality. Water quality in the food
sector is influenced by numerous anthropogenic sources, of which coal mining is one of the major drivers. However,
there is an interdependency in that energy in the form of coal-generated electricity is required for the production and
delivery of food, the pumping of irrigation water and the transport, distribution and storage of food.
KEY WORDS
Anthropogenic pollution, coal mining, waste-water treatment plants, processing industry, water management
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
1.
Introduction
2.
3.
The role of energy extraction and production activities, and waste disposal from energy production,
in water contamination
3.1 Coal mining as key for power production
4.
5.
The risks associated with the use of poor quality water for the food sector and human health
5.1 Adverse effects of high metal concentration on crops and human health
10
The impact of poor water quality on food export, with emphasis on access to market
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
Conclusion
12
REFERENCES
13
6.
7.
8.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although energy, water and food sustainability are often perceived as separate challenges in South Africa, these are in
fact highly interdependent problems. The quest to secure energy, water and food sustainability is complicated by the
reality of the links between these systems. Water, for example, is needed to process coal and generate thermoelectric
power, and energy is required for the production of food and the treatment of waste water. Although water is the
central element in the Food Energy Water Nexus, the awakened concern about water-quality issues and their possible
adverse effects on the food industry in South Africa have only been realised over the last two decades.
In 2003 the agricultural sector contributed 3.8% to the gross domestic product (GDP) (i.e. USD 159.9 billion) (OECD
FAO 2005). In Africa, South Africa is the leading exporter of fresh fruit and vegetables with exports to the USA
totalling 73% in accordance with the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) (Ndiame & Jaffee 2005). South
Africa is also the largest third-world exporter of fruit and vegetables to the European Union (EU) and is ranked the
second-largest southern hemisphere exporter of deciduous and stone fruit. Apart from the export market, 20% of the
fresh fruit is consumed locally, while 20% is processed into fruit juices (WESGRO 2006).
Coal-fired power plants and industrial activities, which ultimately contribute to acid rain and pollution through
high deposition levels of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, which can change the chemical structure of agriculture
soils.
(d) Industrial effluence containing pharmaceutical endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from manufacturing
factories, e.g. products like shampoo, pesticides, dyes and plastics.
Figure 1: AMD effluence from the Klip River into the Olifants River, Mpumalanga
Rainwater is naturally acidic since atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in moisture to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
this gives rainwater a pH of 5.6 (Wang 2008). During rain run-off, this weak carbonic acid dissolves minerals from
the geologic substrates it interacts with, thereby liberating minerals for plant uptake (Wang 2008). Although small
amounts of nitrous oxides (NO3) can be attributed to lightning storms, large amounts of contaminants like sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrous oxides are released during fossil-fuel combustion (Wang 2008). When these substances
come into contact with moisture, two strong acids are produced: sulphuric acid and nitric acid. Not only can these
acids cause severe damage to infrastructure but they can also release toxic metals that are only soluble at lower pH
levels. This leads to increased metal toxicity within the water system and agriculture soils. Furthermore, mercury can
be found in coal, mostly combined with sulphur, and can be released into the atmosphere upon combustion by
coal-fired power stations. Mercury is a persistent and toxic substance that can be accumulated in the food chain.
5. THE RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH USE OF POOR QUALITY WATER FOR THE
FOOD SECTOR AND HUMAN HEALTH
5.1. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HIGH METAL CONCENTRATIONS ON CROPS AND HUMAN HEALTH
Heavy metal pollutants can cause severe problems for crops; under high concentrations in soil they are toxic to the
plants themselves and to natural microbial soil populations. These abiotic heavy metals can negatively affect biomass
production and yields in almost all major crops (Athar & Ahmad 2002 and references within) and seem to lower soil
pH levels (Chunilall et al. 2005). Athar and Ahmad (2002) reported that heavy-metal pollution can not only result in
lower plant growth rates (ranging from 13% to 70%), but also in a decrease in the yield of wheat (40% to 83%). Studies
reported that Al3+ dominating low pH water retards germination rates and root development, which thereby reduces
the crop yields (Delhaize & Ryan 1995; Botha et al. 2013). The protein content of the exposed plants was also shown
to decrease by between 19% and 71% under different metal-pollution levels. Alarmingly, heavy metals can be taken up
in relation to the amount applied (Chunilall et al. 2005) (though less when metals were added in combination) and
stored in grains, for example (Athar & Ahmad 2002).
Gorbunov and co-workers (2003) showed in their study that a variety of toxic and heavy metals (Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu,
Zn, As, Cd, Sb, Hg, Pb) in food and agricultural products (meat, eggs, bread, etc.) were dependent not only on the
concentration in the soil, but also upon the quality of the irrigation water, processing and growing practices. The
levels of these metals in food were also dependent on their mobility, i.e. their chemical form, and the ease with
which they could be absorbed by the plants. These researchers concluded that if agricultural lands were watered
with contaminated sewage water, an increase in the concentration of metals could be observed in the end product
if the water had contained heavy metals. Chunilall et al. (2004) showed that metals like Pb, Hg, Cd and Ni were
easily absorbed by spinach leaves when irrigated with water containing higher than usual levels of heavy metals. The
intake of excessive heavy metals could be a potential health hazard to humans and may lead to poisoning, such as
microelementosis (Gorbunov et al. 2003). The risk of certain diseases such as chronic toxicity and organ malfunction
is thought to be greater with increased consumption of heavy metals by humans (Chunilall et al. 2004). Livestock fed
on feed containing heavy metals accumulate these metals in their meat, for example, thereby not only moving heavy
metals along the food chain, but also accumulating it along the way (Gorbunov et al. 2003; Liu 2003; Oberholster
2012). The metal load present in decanting AMD poses a potential health risk to humans via direct and indirect
ingestion (drinking water and food intake respectively) and is a primary concern (Pruvot et al. 2006).
It has been shown that the trace metal, aluminium (Al), has adverse effects on root growth and development, even
at low concentrations (Delhaize & Ryan 1995). Solubilisation of aluminium is enhanced under lower pH conditions
and thus toxic to plants (Ryan & Kochian 1993; Mossor-Pietraszewska 2001). Exposure of plants to high levels of Al
can lead to Al toxicity, of which the most prominent symptom is the inhibition of root growth (Ryan & Kochian 1993;
Delhaize & Ryan 1995; Mossor-Pietraszewska 2001; Botha et al. 2013). Al is mainly taken up through the root apex
(Mossor-Pietraszewska 2001), which is also the major site of Al toxicity (Ryan & Kochian 1993; Delhaize & Ryan 1995;
Mossor-Pietraszewska 2001). In the soil, Al is present in various compounds/states, only some of which are toxic
to the plant (Mossor-Pietraszewska 2001). The symptoms of Al are brought about by the biochemical effects of the
toxicity, i.e. the inhibition of cell division, cell extension and transport (Mossor-Pietraszewska 2001). As a result of Al
toxicity, nutrient and water uptake is inhibited (Ryan & Kochian 1993; Delhaize & Ryan 1995; Mossor-Pietraszewska
2001). Many studies such as Pruvot et al. (2006) and Zhuang et al. (2009) have found that accumulation of trace
metals in edible plant parts may pose a risk to human and animal health.
Athar and Ahmad (2002) found in their study that the number of Azotobacter chroococcum, free-living nitrogen
fixers, also decreases with increases in metalsup to 84% in the presence of Cadmium (Cd) and 100% when metals
were applied in combination. Azotobacter is beneficial to crops in that it secretes antifungal substances, vitamins and
growth-promoting substances and helps with phosphate solubilisation.
To complicate our ability to measure endocrine disrupting effects, these substances are found to have trans-gen-erational capabilities (IPCS 2002; American Chemical Society 1998), meaning that not only can these adverse effects
result from exposure of either parent prior to conception, but also from exposure of the developing embryo in utero,
or the progeny after birth (Daston et al. 2003). In simple terms, this implies that our exposure to these chemicals
may only manifest and become apparent in our grandchildren, but could be visible in all three generations. Chemicals
suspected of being endocrine disruptors are pharmaceuticals (e.g. birth control), personal care products (e.g. shampoo,
lotions, perfumes, cosmetics, sunblock) and industrial substances (e.g. plasticisers, fabric softeners and cooling
agents). These chemicals find their way into our environment and we are in contact with them through all the major
exposure routes such as the air we breathe, water we ingest, food we consume, and by absorption through our skin.
Effects of these substances on animals have been widely published (from subtle changes in physiology and sexual
behaviour to permanently altered sexual differentiation of wildlife species; a marked population decline in Baltic seals;
eggshell thinning and altered gonadal development in birds of prey) (IPCS 2002).
Figure 3: Discharge of untreated sewage containing high levels of microbials in the Upper Olifants River catchment
10
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8. CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the quality of South Africas freshwater resources is fundamentally important to ensure food
security. Freshwater, being a limited resource, needs to be managed carefully. The problems discussed in this paper
emphasise the continuous and urgent need for sound water management with respect to both abundance and quality
within the Food Energy Water Nexus.
12
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