Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-0735-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effects of poor quality irrigation waters on the nutrient leaching

and groundwater quality from sandy soil
M. Jalali H. Merrikhpour

Received: 8 June 2006 / Accepted: 19 March 2007 / Published online: 12 April 2007
Springer-Verlag 2007

Abstract Sodium (Na+) in poor quality irrigation water

participate in ion-exchange processes results in the displacement of base cations into solution and a raised concentration in groundwater. Knowledge of the rate of
decrease of nutrients from soils resulting from poor water
quality application is essential for long-term planning of
crop production while minimizing the impact on groundwater quality. In this study, we examined the effect of
sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) of irrigation water on
nutrients leaching and groundwater quality in columns of
sandy soil. Three types of irrigation waters at three NaCl
CaCl2 solutions with the following levels of SAR (5, 15,
and 30) were synthesized in laboratory. With the application of solutions, exchange occurred between solution Na+
and exchangeable cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+), resulting
in the displacement of these cations and anions into solution. Increasing the level of SAR from 5 to 15 and 30
resulted in increase in the average exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) of the soil from 10.4 to 20.3, and 32.5,
respectively. Adverse effect of high Na+ concentration in
the solutions on raising ESP was less pronounced in solution having low SAR. Leaching of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and P
from soil with the application of solutions represents a
significant loss of valuable nutrients. This sandy soil
showed the high risk for nutrients transfer into groundwater
in concentrations exceeding the groundwater quality
standard. Irrigation with poor quality water, which is
generally more sodic and saline than regional groundwater,

M. Jalali (&)
H. Merrikhpour

Department of Soil Science,
College of Agriculture,
Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamadan, Iran
e-mail: jalali@basu.ac.ir

increases the rate of sodification and salinization of shallow

groundwater.
Keywords Sodification
Exchangeable sodium
percentage
Irrigation
Nutrient leaching

Introduction
In arid and semi-arid regions, a shortage of rain and water
resources exists and water resources of good quality are
allocated with priority for urban water supply (Beltran
1999). Groundwater is commonly the only source of irrigation, although its quality is usually low because of limited rainfall and high rates of evaporation. Thus, there is an
increasing need to irrigate using low- to medium-quality
groundwater. Such water may contain large quantities of
soluble salts, predominately Ca2+, and Na+ ions. The
presence of certain cations such as Na+ in the irrigation
water may create some environmental problems and needs
evaluation prior to its use in agriculture.
Irrigation with waters that have high concentrations of
Na+ relative to divalent cations may cause an accumulation
of exchangeable Na+ on soil colloids. Continued use of
alkali waters for irrigation in a closed system may deteriorate the soil and water resources of the region and affect
the sustainability of crop production in the long run.
Salinity and sodicity are the principal water quality concerns in irrigated areas receiving such water (Ayers and
Tanji 1999). Salinesodic irrigation water, coupled with
limited rainfall and high evaporation, may significantly
increase soil sodicity.
In addition, poor water quality may lead to leaching of
nutrients from soil. Leaching of nutrients is of major
environmental concern as high concentration of some ions

123

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in the drinking water is harmful to human health. Phosphorus (P) in soils is important because adequate availability of this nutrient is required for plant growth and crop
production. Some agricultural soils can now be classified as
over-fertilized due to a steady increase in available P
resulting from application of fertilizer P in the past
(Sharpley and Smith 1989). Phosphorous fertilizer is used
annually and plant uptake and microbial immobilization
cannot remove the entire P from the solution. Long-term
fertilization of course to medium-textured soils could increase downward P mobility (Campbell and Racz 1975;
Mozaffari and Sims 1994; Zhang et al. 1995). High P
application to soils can lead to deterioration of surface
water quality as a result of eutrification. In calcareous soils,
P sorption is greatly affected by the adsorption and precipitation reactions at the calcium carbonate surfaces
(Freeman and Rowell 1981). However, in intensively cultivated soils, P availability has increased, as measured by
soil-test methods. Phosphorous leaching in these soils may
result in contamination of drinking water and eutrophication of surface water bodies. Very low concentrations of P
can cause environmentally significant nutrient enrichment
of surface water. In some circumstances, concentrations as
low as 20 lg P l1 are sufficient to cause algal growth and
eutrophication (Powlson 1998). As a consequence, there is
increasing concern about soil enrichment with P and subsequent potential losses following long-term application of
poor quality water to agricultural land.
Although the leaching of Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ is not of
environmental concern, it represents an economic loss to
the farmer because the lost nutrients will need to be replaced in the form of fertilizers (Di and Cameron 2004).
Soil sodicity and salinity is a major concern in agricultural system in Iran and there has been little work specifically designed for evaluating the effects of poor quality
water and its vertical movement through the soil profile.
The quality of groundwater in the Hamadan, western Iran
varies from useable to hazardous (Jalali 2002). However,
sodicity problems have recently been encountered in irrigation development in Hamadan, where waters of marginal
quality is used (Merrikhpour and Jalali 2005). The
groundwater used for irrigation in the area has water
salinity and sodicity problems (Jalali 2002). Using
groundwater of poor quality for irrigation has further
aggravated the problem of soil salinity and sodicity as
8.4% of the groundwater is pumping sodic waters. These
results indicated that in respect of Na+ using 17.7 and 8.4%
of water samples can cause moderate and severe problems
for surface irrigation (Jalali 2002). Also, water type of Na
SO4 type which is less distributed in the Bahar area (near
the Hamadan) was recorded (Jalali 2005). Therefore, it
could be expected that using such waters may develop
soidic soils.

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Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

While sodification of soil as a result of alkali water

irrigation has been the subject of several studies, which
related the changes in soil with various indices of irrigation
waters (Shainberg et al. 1981; Qadir et al. 1996; Sharma
and Manchanda 1996; Ayers and Tanji 1999; Kaledhonkar
et al. 2001; Chaudari and Somawanshi 2002; Kopittke et al.
2006), their effects on nutrients losses remain relatively
unstudied. An understanding of NaCa exchange is necessary to predict how much exchangeable Na+ will accumulate and subsequently how much nutrients will leach
when sodic waters are applied. Therefore, this study was
conducted for evaluating the impact of using poor quality
water on: (1) soil sodicity and (2) leaching of the some
nutrients from the soils.

Materials and methods

Soil
The analyzed soil sample was taken from the 0 to 30 cm
layer of agricultural soil in Hamadan, western Iran. The
sample was selected to represent typical sandy loam soil
that is continuously cultivated (for grapes [Vitis vinifera
L.]). The soil was air-dried and passed through a 2-mm
mesh sieve before being stored in polyethylene bags. Soil
pH, organic matter, exchangeable K+, cation exchange
capacity (CEC), texture, and equivalent carbonate calcium
were determined according to the methods of Rowell
(1994). Olsen P was determined using a soil to solution
ratio 1:20 and 30 min shaking (Olsen and Sommers 1982).
Phosphorus in extractant and leachate was determined
using the ammonium molybdateascorbic acid method
described by Murphy and Riley (1962). The soil was a
sandy loam of the Azandarian Series (Typic Calcixerolic
Xerochrept). The chemical and physical properties of the
studied soil are shown in Table 1. The sodicity hazard of
water is generally described by the sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR):
Na 
SAR (mmolc l1 )1=2 = q ;
Ca2 ] + [Mg2 
where [Na+], [Ca2+], and [Mg2+] are the concentrations in
mmol l1. Three NaClCaCl2 solutions with three different
SAR and Na+ and Ca2+ concentrations values were prepared in the laboratory (Table 2).
Leaching experiments
The leaching columns consisted of Pyrex tubes of 30 cm
length and an internal diameter of 4.8 cm. The soil was

Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

1291

Table 1 Some physical and chemical properties of the soil

Determination

Unit

Value

Sand

g kg1

620

Silt

g kg1

223

Clay

g kg1

157

41

Textural class

Sandy loam

Saturation
pH (1:5)

7.1

EC (1:5)

dS m1

Soluble Ca2+

mmolc l1

Soluble Mg

2+

mmolc l

2.1

Soluble K+

mmolc l1

0.15

Soluble Na+

mmolc l1

Soluble CO2
3

mmolc l1

Soluble HCO3

mmolc l1

10

Soluble Cl

mmolc l1

12.2

2+

Exchangeable Ca
Exchangeable Mg2+

cmolc kg
cmolc kg1

7.8
2.6

Exchangeable K+

cmolc kg1

0.52

Exchangeable Na

cmolc kg1

1.3

CEC

cmolc kg1

12.6

ESP

10.3

SAR

(mmolc l1)1/2

3.4

CaCO3

g kg1

47

Table 2 Concentration of Na+ (as NaCl) and Ca2+ (as CaCl2) used
for the preparation of the three equilibrating solutions of various
sodium adsorption ratios (SAR)
1 1/2

Solutions SAR (mmolc l )

2+

Na (mmolc l ) Ca

15

20

3.4

30

50

5.4

(mmolc l )

seated at a height of 20 cm by uniform tapping with a

wooden rod to achieve a uniform bulk density of
1.45 g cm3. The soil was retained by a Whatman No.
42 filter paper supported by a piece of nylon mesh base.
After packing, the soil was covered with a filter paper to
protect the surface from disturbance. Leaching
experiments were conducted under saturation condition.
The study was conducted in two replicates at room
temperature. The solution level was maintained at
approximately 5 cm above the soil surface within the
soil column to maintain the effluent flow at an average
of 9 0.1 ml min1. The water level varied slightly
according to outflow rate. Pore volume (PV) of soil
columns was calculated from value for the bulk density
and particle density (2.65 g cm3) of the soil in the

column (Rowell 1994). Therefore, the pore volume of

the columns was taken to be 162.5 ml. The columns
were leached with 20 pore volumes. Effluents from each
leaching stage were collected in 3570 ml lots; leachates
were then analyzed for soluble anions (HCO3, Cl, and
P) and cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+). After the
completion of leaching phase, the soil columns were
allowed to drain free, then split open and sectioned into
2 cm sections from the base of the column up wards.
Soil samples for each depth were analyzed for pH and
exchangeable Na+. The quantity of cations leached was
calculated using the concentrations of each cation and
the volume of leachate fraction. The total amount of
cations and anions in the leachate leaving the columns
was calculated for each treatment. The cumulative
amount (Qi, mg) of ion i in the leachate relative to its
amount in the leaching solution was calculated as follows:
X
Qi
Cij Cis Vj ;
1
where Cij and Cis are the ion concentrations in the leachate
and in the leaching solution respectively, at a given volume
Vj. A positive value of Qi indicates an addition of ion i to
the leachate, compared with the leaching solution, whereas
a negative value indicates its depletion from solution and
therefore accumulation by the soil. The average ESP of the
soil in the column was calculated for each given
cumulative leachate volume V with the following equation:
Average ESP 100 QNainit
Q Nava  QNavr =CEC;

where Q(Na)va is the amount of Na+ added to the soil by

the leaching solution after volume V of leaching solution
has passed through the column (cmolc kg1) and Q(Na)vr
is the amount of Na+ removed from the soil by the
leachate after volume V of leaching solution has passed
from the column (cmolc kg1) and Q (Na)init is the initial
amount of Na+ adsorbed on the soil sample packed in
the column (cmolc kg1), CEC is the cation exchange
capacity of the soil sample in the column (cmolc kg1).

Results and discussion

Breakthrough curves
The results of the leaching are presented as breakthrough
curves (graphs showing the relationships between concentrations of cations/anions and cumulative water
passing out the columns). The breakthrough curves for

123

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Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

Na+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ in the different SAR solutions are

presented in Fig. 1. With the application of solutions
containing soluble Na+, exchange occurred between
solution Na+ and exchangeable cations resulting in the
displacement of these catoins into solution. The changes
in composition of soil solution and exchange complex
reveal a chromatography process in which a front that
exchanges Mg2+ and K+ in favor at the incoming Na+, a
dominant ion in solutions, moved to lower depth. The
general shape of the curve is indicative of interaction
between the soil exchange component and the solution
phase, the degree of skewness being a function of

(a)

Movement of leachate Na+, Ca2+, Ma2+, and K+

The breakthrough curve of Na+ is shown in Fig. 1a. Concentration of Na+ fell sharply to a minimum concentration
of about 4 (mmolc l1)1/2 for SAR 5, 10.2 (mmolc l1)1/2
for SAR 15 and 27 for SAR 30. The effluent Na+ reached
input values approximately after about 15 pore volumes of
leachate had passed through the column in all solutions
(Fig. 1a).

(b)

55

25
SAR 30
SAR 15
SAR 5

45

Concentration of Ca2+ in the leachate (mmolc l-1)

50
Concentration of Na+ in the leachate (mmolc l-1)

Fig. 1 Breakthrough curves for

(a) Na+, (b) Ca2+, (c) Mg2+, and
(d) K+ in soil leached with
different SAR solutions

incoming soluble and rate used (Cho 1985; Philips et al.

1988; Noble et al. 1995).

SAR 30
SAR 15
SAR 5

40
35
30
25
20
15
10

20

15

10

5
0

0
0

10

15

20

25

Pore volumes
7

(d)
SAR 30
SAR 15
SAR 5

Concentration of K+ in the leachate (mmolc l-1)

Concentration of Mg2+ in the leachate (mmolc l-1)

(c)

15

20

25

1.6
SAR 30
SAR 15
SAR 5

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0

123

10

Pore volumes

10
15
Pore volumes

20

25

10
15
Pore volumes

20

25

Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

Elevated effluents Ca2+ concentrations (Fig. 1b) apparently result from displacement of soil indigenous
exchangeable Ca2+ by leachate Na+. This peak of displaced
Ca2+ was followed by a dramatic reduction to effluent values,
indicating slow release of Ca2+ from the soil. Replacement of
soil exchangeable Ca2+ with leachate Na+ resulted in a broad
plateau of effluent Ca2+ in the soil column. After 20 pore
volumes, concentrations of Ca2+ in effluents from the soil
columns reached approximately the input value (Fig. 1b).
A similar trend in SAR effects was observed in Mg2+
concentration in the leachate (Fig. 1c) compared to that
reported for Ca2+. After 20 pore volumes, concentration of
Mg2+ remained below 0.60 and 0.2 cmolc l1 (7.2 and
2.4 mg l1) for SAR 30 and 5, respectively, and the amount
of Mg2+ leached was significantly different (P < 0.05) in
these three solutions.
The peak concentration of K+ was greater in the leachate
(Fig. 1d) from the higher SAR solution (30) than from the
lower SAR solution (5). After 20 pore volumes, concentration of K+ remained below 0.20 and 0.1 cmolc l1 (8 and
4 mg l1) for SAR 30 and 5, respectively, and the amount of
K+ leached was significantly different (P < 0.05) in these
three solutions. Therefore, an increase in K+ concentration
can be expected in groundwater within infiltration areas
subjected to agricultural land use. Such increases can even
lead to a breach of the drinking water limit for K+ (12 mg l1)
(Griffioen 2001; WHO 1993).
As the ratio of Na+ to Ca2+ of leaching solution (2.5, 5.8,
and 9 in SAR 5, 15, and 30, respectively) is higher than
initial ratio of Na+ values of the soil, the Na+ concentration
at exchange sites is going to increase. The Na+ ions are
being adsorbed at top soil; therefore, Na+ concentration in
leachate is decreasing. Effect of exchange reactions becomes prominent after one pore volume. It indicates that
adsorption Na+ in top soil was the maximum and soil
solution was approaching to equilibrium in top soil.
Therefore, there is increase in Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ concentrations in leachate for all solutions between 4 and 5
pore volumes. Decrease in Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ concentrations in leachate after these points suggests that the rate
of adsorption of Na+ had reduced after equilibrium in top
soil. However, desorption of Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ would
continue as layer immediately below topsoil layer would
try to reach equilibrium. For SAR 15 and 30, there is
maximum Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ concentrations that are
coupled minimum Na+ concentration in leachate. It indicates that Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ are desorbed and Na+ is
adsorbed.
Movement of leachate Cl, HCO3, and P
Figure 2 shows breakthrough curves for HCO3, Cl, and P.
Chloride is a weakly sorbed anion that is commonly used

1293

as a tracer in solute transport studies. The HCO3 and Cl

ions behave differently because of different values of solubility of their salts. The release of HCO3 into the leachate
was apparently a continuous process. The large initial
concentration of HCO3 in the leachate and its decreases to
more stable values after 1.52.5 pore volumes can be
attributed to a transitory phenomenon due to the fast dissolution of the finest particles toward macropores and
leachates, followed by the slower dissolution of most particles and diffusion toward the whole volume of micro
pores. Most of the Clwas removed from the soils during
the first pore volume, indicating that the sources of the Cl
were the highly soluble NaCl and CaCl2 salts. Thus, rapid
salinization of water resources of the studied area is one of
the most severe problems concerning groundwater quality.
It suggests that Cl will directly reach groundwater with
percolation water.
The peak P concentration was greater in the leachate
(Fig. 2c) from the higher SAR solution (30) than from the
lower SAR solution (5). In comparison to HCO3 and Cl
breakthrough curves, the large initial concentration of P in
the leachate decreased to more stable values after 45 pore
volumes, which can be attributed to a slow dissolution of
the P salts. The P concentration remained below 0.20 mg l
1
for all SAR solutions and the amount of P leached was
significantly different (P < 0.05) in these three solutions.
The mobility of P in soil is low compared with other
nutrients due to high capacity of soil material to adsorb P.
Phosphorous is known to accumulate in soil when it is
applied in excess of the crop harvest (Mozaffari and Sims
1994; Simard et al. 1995). Over time, this can increase the
risk of P transport to water bodies through leaching, erosion, and runoff (Sims et al. 1998). The observed effluent
concentrations of P under all solutions are high in terms of
freshwater eutrophication. Phosphorous leaching from soil
influences groundwater quality. Although, groundwater P
concentrations are generally low, the results of leaching of
this sandy soil showed the high risk for P transfer into
groundwater in concentrations exceeding the groundwater
quality standard.
ESP of the soil
As expected, ESP was found to increase with increasing
SAR (Fig. 3). The average ESP (calculated from Eq 2) of
the soil increased during leaching from 10.3 (initial ESP) to
10.4, 18.9, and 31 (final calculated average ESP) for
solutions 1, 2, and 3, respectively, after applying 20 pore
volumes of solutions to the soil columns (Fig. 3). The
average ESP increase rate was initially high for solutions 2
and 3 but toward the end of leaching, the rate decreased.
There was not any significant change in ESP of the soil
after applying solution with SAR = 5. Measurement of the

123

(a) 105
SAR 5

90

SAR 30

75
60
45
30
15
0
0

10
15
Pore volumes

20

25

60

leachate (mmolc l )

SAR 5

SA R 15

SAR 30

50

-1

Concentration of HCO3 in the

(b)
-

SA R 15

-1

leachate (mmolc l )

Fig. 2 Breakthrough curves

for (a) Cl, (b) HCO3, and
(c) P in soil leached with
different SAR solutions

Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

Concentration of Cl in the

1294

40
30
20
10
0
0

10

15

20

25

Pore volumes

Concentration of P in the
-1
leachate (mg l )

(c) 3.5
SA R 5

SA R 15

SAR 30

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

ESP performed at the end of leaching experiments indicates an increase in the soil ESP compared to the initial
ESP value (Fig. 4a). The average ESP of the soil after
applying three solutions was 10.4, 20.3, and 32.5, respectively (average value for all layers). The calculated final
ESP (Fig. 3) was well comparable with the measured values at end of leaching. These results indicate that a considerable increase in the soil ESP may occur when
application of a saline/sodic solution is performed.
Figure 4b shows the changes of pH as a function of depth.
The pH is increasing with increase in SAR solution. The
ESP development is important, as it is the parameter that it
used for classifying sodicity. High concentrations of Na+
are undesirable in water because Na+ adsorbs on the
exchange sites, causing soil aggregates to disperse, reducing its permeability (Shainberg et al. 1981; Shainberg and
Letey 1984). These processes influence the hydraulic
properties of the soil, crust formation, runoff generation,
and soil erosion (Ahuja 1990; Lavee et al. 1991; Shainberg
et al. 1981).

123

10
15
Pore volumes

Leaching losses of Ca2+, Mg

2+

20

25

, K+, and P

To analyze accumulation or leaching of cations or anion,

the difference between quantity of cations or anion entering
or leaving the soil, which represents the quantity of cations
or anion accumulated or released during leaching was
calculated and reported in Table 3. Except in the case of
Na+ the amount of cations (Mg2+, Ca2+, and K+) and P in
the leachate was negative, indicating that removal of cations and P from the exchange complex had occurred.
Table 3 shows that for all solutions, with increasing
leaching solutions, more Na+ was gained by the soil,
indicating a progressive Na+ adsorption in the soil. This
analysis indicates that the Na+ replacing the cations and
anion in the soil, thus determining a process of sodification.
A significantly greater amount of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and P
was leached through the soil columns where soil was
leached with solution having high SAR (Table 3). When
SAR = 30 was applied, the amount of Ca2+ lost through
leaching was significantly (P < 0.05) increased to

Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

35
30
Average ESP

Fig. 3 Changes in average

exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) as a function
of pore volumes when soil was
leached with different SAR
solutions

1295

25
20
15
10
5
0

SAR 5
0

10

SAR 15

15

SAR 30

20

25

Pore volumes

Fig. 4 Distribution of the (a)

ESP and (b) pH with depth in
soil before and after leaching
with different SAR solutions

ESP
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

(a)

Depth (cm)

5
10
15
20
befor leaching

SAR 5

SAR 15

SAR 30

25
pH
0

10

(b)
Depth (cm)

5
10
15
20
befor leaching

SAR 5

SAR 15

SAR 30

25

1,614 kg ha1. Where SAR = 5 was applied, the amount of

Ca2+ leached was 293 kg ha1 which was less than that
from SAR = 30.
The total amount of K+ leached was less than the
amount of Ca2+ leached in respective solutions (Table 3).
The loss of K+ was in the range of 97249 kg ha1. Losses
of K+ from soil due to the application of poor quality water
were also reported by other researchers (Feigenbaum 1986;
Feignebaum and Meiri 1988; Jalali and Rowell 2003).
Feigenbaum (1986) reported losses equivalent to 90300
K+ kg1 when 430 mm of solution containing 5 and
50 mmolc l1 of mixed NaClCaCl2 were applied to soil
column in the laboratory. Jalali and Rowell (2003) reported
losses equivalent of 63170 kg K+ ha1 when 196 mm of

solution containing 230 mmolc l1 CaCl2 were applied to

soil column in the laboratory.
The amounts of Mg2+ leached from the different SAR
solutions were less than the amounts of Ca2+ and more than
that of K+ leached, and varied from 83 to 398 kg ha1
(Table 3). Using undisturbed soil column, a loss of
118 kg Mg2+ ha1 was recorded when the column was
leached with 30 mmolc l1 CaCl2 (Jalali 1997). It would
appear that Mg2+ was more severely affected than K+.
These losses would be more severe on soils having a low
CEC and, if uncorrected, could eventually result in deficiencies for plant growth.
Although the loss of Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ from soil is not
considered an environmental concern, the leaching of these

123

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Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

Table 3 Amounts of cations and anions gained by or leached from soil following application of different SAR solutions
Input (mg per column)

Output (mg per column)

Difference input and output (mg per column) Loss

or gaina
(kg ha1)

Pore volume
4th

8th

12th

16th

20th

4th

8th

12th

16th

20th

4th

8th

12th

16th

20th

67

134

201

268

335

67

132

194

256

319

23

48

84

113

140

167

25

38

44

48.5

53

293

12

13

14

15

12

13

14

15

83

SAR = 5
Na+
Ca

2+

46

69

92

115

Mg2+

K+

Cl

144

288

432

576

720

HCO3
P

6.5
163
62
0.4

10.5
325
91
0.6

13.5

15.5

16.5

6.5

+2

+7

+12

+16*

+88.5

10.5

13.5

15.5

17.5 97

469

613

757

19

37

37

37

37

106
0.7

116
0.8

126
0.9

62
0.4

91
0.6

106
0.7

116
0.8

126 696.6
0.9 5

204.6

SAR = 15
Na+

285

570

855

1,140 1,425

216

433

702

977

1,257

+69

+137

+153

+163

+168

+928.9

Ca2+

42

84

126

168

210

142

223

275

322

369

100

139

149

154

159

879.1

30

40

45

50

53

30

40

45

49

52

287

171

Mg2+
+

13

20

24

28

31

13

20

24

28

31

Cl

515

1,030 1,545 2,060 2,575

642

1,157

1,672

2,187

2,702

127

127

127

127

127

702.3

HCO3

348

515

563

593

623

384

515

563

593

623

3,245.5

0.6

0.8

0.9

1.1

0.6

0.8

0.9

1.1 6.1

SAR = 30
Na+
Ca

2+

713

2,575 3,288 4,001 4,714

514

1,068

1,744

2,433

3,131

+199

+385

+395

+419

+434

+2,399.6

67

134

201

268

335

232

383

473

553

627

165

249

272

285

292

1614

Mg2+

42

57

63

68

72

42

57

63

68

72

398

K+

21

29

35

40

45

21

29

35

40

45

249

Cl
1,221 2,442 3,663 4,884 6,105 1,503
HCO3

768

2,724
1,099

3,945
1,287

5,166
1,381

6,387
1,432

282
768

282
1099

282
1287

282
1381

282
1432

P
a

0.6

0.8

1.1

1.2

0.6

0.8

1.1

1,559.1
7,071.6

1.2 6.6

Positive sign indicates add to soil and sign indicates leached from soil

cations does represent a significant loss of valuable nutrients to the farmer (Di and Cameron 2004). These losses
would be more severe on soils having a low cation exchange capacity, where regular replenishment of these
nutrients is necessary.
The loss of P when the soil was leached with solutions
having SAR value of 5, 15, and 30 was 5, 6.1, and
6.6 kg ha1, respectively (Table 3). Phosphate retention in
the soils is important from the perspective of plant nutrition
and fertilizer use efficiency. Phosphorus leaching can occur
in sandy soils (Guertal et al. 1991) and other types of soils
with high P levels due to continuous P application
(Heckrath et al. 1995). Field studies have shown that P
losses by erosion, surface runoff, and leaching are greater
when soil test P values are above the agronomically optimum range (Beauchemin et al. 1998; Hechrath et al. 1995;
Pote et al. 1996; Sims et al. 1998). In calcareous soils,
precipitation of calcium phosphate is supposed to be a
major factor in the time loss of P availability (Freeman and
Rowell 1981). However, continued long-term application

123

of fertilizers can lead to P accumulation in surface horizons

greater than that required for optimum plant growth, thus
increasing the potential for P loss to surface waters and
eutrophication (McDowell et al. 2001; Sui et al. 1999).
Many soils in Iran have received large amounts of P-fertilizer and consequently test high in available P (Jalali
2006). These results suggest that substantial leaching losses
of P can occur in this environment when a soluble fertilizer
is applied in the soil leading to a raised concentration in
groundwater. Therefore, the loss of small amounts of P
from soil to surface waters and by subsurface drainage
waters can lead to a deterioration of water quality (Foy and
Withers 1995; Sharpley et al. 2000).
No direct extrapolation to field conditions can be deduced from effluent concentrations observed from laboratory column. Several conditions may deviate, for instance
soil depth, number of preferential pathways, adsorption/
desorption and dissolution/precipitation. In the field, dissolution of CaCO3 is probably one source of the released
Ca2+. In addition, weatherable silicate plagioclase feldspars

Environ Geol (2008) 53:12891298

are also a major source of Ca2+ and Mg2+. Agricultural

activity is associated with elevated levels of Ca2+ and Mg2+
(Wayland et al. 2003). They reported increasing dissolution
of soil minerals, such as calcite, dolomite, and potassium
feldspar during soil cultivation. Mineralization of organic
N to nitrate, and weathering of minerals, will maintain the
concentration of Ca2+ in soil solution. Therefore, it is expected that with more realistic field conditions, increased
Ca2+ concentrations would reduce Na+ hazardous effects.

Conclusions
Irrigation water quality has a significant role in crop production and has a profound impact on physical and chemical
soil properties. Use of poor quality water has become inevitable for irrigation to compensate rapidly increasing demands in many arid and semiarid regions. Sodium in poor
quality irrigation water participate in ion-exchange processes results in the displacement of base cations into solution and a raised concentration in groundwater. These cation
exchange processes may affect nutrient status in soil. The
results of this study indicate that addition of the poor quality
water resulted in increased exchangeable Na+ on the
exchange complex at the expense of exchangeable Ca2+,
Mg2+, and K+. Initially, the ESP was low in soil but due to
alkali water use, this property increased as a function of time.
A significantly greater amount of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and P was
leached through the soil columns where soil was leached
with solution having high SAR. Nutrients leaching from soil
influence groundwater quality. These losses would be more
severe on soils having a low-cation exchange capacity. Large
amounts of P fertilizer and poor quality irrigation water may
lead to P accumulation and pollution of groundwater. The
results of soil P leaching can be used to identify areas where P
applications in fertilizers and manures should be controlled
to protect water quality. Thus, the use of these poor quality
waters for irrigation without proper amendments should be
discouraged and special management to prevent nutrients
losses in the root zone is necessary.

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