Engine

BEARINGS

Image Credit: ACL Race Series

General Bearing Requirements and Design Criteria

Bearings are vital engine components; therefore, the correct bearing design
and the proper choice of bearing metal is necessary for reliable engine
performance. Bearing design criteria depend on the bearing type and, in
general, on:
a) Bearing sliding surface geometry.
b) The surface roughness of the journal or pin, which determines the
permissible bearing pressure and required oil film thickness. This is
necessary to ensure effective and safe functioning of the bearing.
c) The correct flow of cooling oil to prevent heat accumulation, which is
obtained through a flow area, provided either through the clearance
between the journal and the bearing bore or through axial grooves in the
bearing sliding surface.

The compactness of engines and the engine ratings influence the

magnitude of the specific load on the bearing and make the correct choice
of bearing metals, production quality and, in certain bearings, the application
of overlayer an absolute necessity.
An overlayer is a thin galvanic coating of mainly lead (Pb) and tin (Sn),
which is applied directly on to the white metal or, via an intermediate layer,
on to the tin aluminium sliding surface of the bearing. The overlayer is a soft

and ductile coating, its main objective is to ensure good embedability and
conformity between the bearing sliding surface and the pin surface
geometry.
Scraping of the bearing surfaces is strictly prohibited, except in those
repair situations of oil wedges, tangential run out, bore relief, removing
ridges and high spots from wiped bearing as approved by manufacturer.
Incorrect scraping has often proved to have an adverse effect on the sliding
properties of the bearing, and can result in damage.

Bearing Design
Plain bearings for MC engines are manufactured as steel shells with a
sliding surface of white metal or tin aluminium. Tin aluminium bearings are
always of the thin shell design
while the white metal bearings can either be of the thick shell or thin shell
design.
The bearing surface is furnished with a centrally placed oil supply groove
and other design features such as tangential run-outs, oil wedges and/or
bore reliefs.
Tangential Runout
A tangential runout is transition geometry between the circumferential oil
supply groove and the bearing sliding surface. This special oil groove
transition geometry prevents an oil scraping effect and reduces the
resistance to the flow of oil towards the loaded area of the bearing

Bore Relief
The bearing sliding surface is machined at the mating faces of the upper
and lower shells to create bore reliefs. Their main objective is to
compensate for misalignments which could result in a protruding edge
(step) of the lower shell's mating face to that of the upper shell. Such a
protruding edge can act as an oil scraper and cause oil starvation. Fig A-A
above.
Axial Oil Grooves and Oil Wedges
Oil grooves and wedges have the following functions:
a) To enhance the oil distribution over the load carrying surfaces. (The
tapered
areas give improved oil inlet conditions).
b) Especially in the case of crosshead bearings to assist the formation of a
hydrodynamic oil film between the load carrying surfaces.
c) To provide oil cooling (oil grooves). In order to perform these functions,
the oil must flow freely from the lubricating grooves, past the oil wedges,
and into the supporting areas ! where the oil film carries the load.
Thick Shell Bearings

This type of bearing has a steel back with the required stiffness
a) To ensure against distortion of the sliding surface geometry, and
b) To support the cast-on white metal in regions where the shell lacks
support, for example in the area of the upper shell mating faces.

The top clearances in this bearing design are adjusted with shims, while
the side clearances are a predetermined result of the summation of the
housing bore, shell wall thickness, journal tolerances, and the influence of
the staybolt tensioning force which deforms the bedplate around the bearing
assembly.
Thin Shell Bearings

Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2% and 2.5% of the
journal diameter.
The steel back does not have the sufficient stiffness to support the cast-on
white metal alone. The bearing must therefore be supported rigidly over its
full length. This type of bearing is manufactured with a circumferential
overlength (crush/nip) which, when the shells are mounted and tightened
up, will produce the required radial pressure between the shell and the
bearing housing. The maximum/minimum top clearance in this shell is
predetermined and results from a summation of the housing bore, shell wall
thickness, journal/pin diameter tolerances and, for main bearings, the
deformation of the bedplate from the staybolt tensioning force.
Top Clearance
Correct top clearance in main bearings, crankpin bearings, and crosshead
bearings
is necessary to sustain the required oil flow through the bearing, and hence
stabilize the bearing temperature at a level that will ensure the fatigue
strength of the bearing metal.

In the main and crankpin bearings, the clearance ensures the necessary
space to accommodate the journal orbit so as to avoid mechanical overload
tendencies on the bearing sliding surface (especially in the main bearing).
The bearings are checked in general by measuring the top clearances.
In service, clearance measurements can be regarded:
1. as a check of the correct re-assembly of the bearing.
For new thin shell bearings and new/ overhauled thick shell bearings the
clearances must lie within the limits specified in the maintenance manual.
2. as an indicator to determine the condition of the bearing at a periodic
check Checks without opening-up
In both cases, it is vital that the clearance values from the previous check
are available for comparison. Therefore, it is necessary to enter clearances
in the engine log book with the relevant date and engine service hours.
Wear
Under normal service conditions, bearing wear is negligible. Excessive wear
is due to abrasive or corrosive contamination of the system oil which will
affect the roughness of the journal/pin and increase the wear rate of the
bearing.
The reduction of shell thickness in the loaded area of the main, crankpin
and crosshead bearing in a given time interval represents the wear rate of
the bearing. Average bearing wear rate is 0.01 mm/10,000 hrs. As long as
the wear rate is in the region of this value, the bearing function can be
regarded as normal.
For crosshead bearings, the wear limit is confined to about 50% reduction of
the oil wedge length

Journals/Pins
Surface Roughness
Journal/pin surface roughness is important for the bearing condition.
Increased surface roughness can be caused by:
a) Abrasive damage due to contamination of the system oil.
b) Corrosive damage due to sea water contamination of the system oil
(acidic) or oxidation of the journals due to condensate.
c) Spark erosion (only in main bearings).
With increasing journal/pin roughness, a level will be reached where the oil
film thickness is no longer sufficient, causing metal contact between
journal/pin and the bearing sliding surface. This will cause white metal to
adhere to the journal/pin, giving the surface a silvery white appearance.
When such a condition is observed, the journal/pin must be reconditioned
by polishing, and the roughness of the surface made acceptable.
In extreme cases, the journal/pin must be ground to an undersize.
Limits to surface roughness
The surface roughness should always be within the specified limits.
1. For main and crankpin journals:
a) New journals 0.8 Ra
b) Roughness approaching 1.6 Ra (journal to be reconditioned).
2. For crosshead pins:
a) New or repolished 0.05 Ra
b) Acceptable in service 0.05-0.1 Ra
c) Repolishing if over 0.1 Ra
Determination of the pin/journal roughness
Measure the roughness with an electronic roughness tester, or
Evaluate the roughness with a Ruko tester, by comparing the surface of the
pin/journal with the specimens on the Ruko tester.
When performing this test, the pin surface and the Ruko tester must be
thoroughly clean and dry.

Hold the tester close to the surface and compare the surfaces. If necessary,
use your finger nail to run over the pin/journal surface and the Ruko
specimens to compare and determine the roughness level.
Spark Erosion
Spark erosion is caused by a voltage discharge between the main bearing
and journal surface. The cause of the potential is the development of a
galvanic element between the ships hull, sea water, and the propeller
shaft/crankshaft.
The oil film acts as a dielectric. The puncture voltage in the bearing depends
on the thickness of the oil film.
With increasing engine ratings, the specific load in the main bearing is
increased. This will reduce the oil film thickness, and enable the discharge
to take place at a lower voltage level.
Since the hydrodynamic oil film thickness varies through a rotation cycle,
the discharge will take place at roughly the same instant during each
rotation cycle, i.e. when the film thickness is at its minimum. The roughening
will accordingly be concentrated in certain areas on the journal surface.
In the early stages, the roughened areas can resemble pitting erosion - but
later, as the roughness increases, the small craters will scrape off and pick
up white metal hence the silvery white appearance.
Therefore, to ensure protection against spark erosion, the potential level
must be kept at maximum 80 mV, which is feasible today with a high
efficiency earthing device.
If an earthing device is installed, its effectiveness must be checked
regularly. Spark erosion is only observed in main bearings and main bearing
journals.
The condition of the bearings must be evaluated to determine whether they
can be reconditioned or have to be discarded. Manufacturer is consulted.

Bearing Metals
Tin based White Metal
Tin-based white metal is an alloy with minimum 88% tin (Sn), the rest of the
alloy composition is antimony (Sb), copper (Cu), cadmium (Cd) and small
amounts of other elements that are added to improve the fineness of the
grain structure and homogeneity during the solidification process. This is
important for the load carrying and sliding properties of the alloy. Lead (Pb)
content in this alloy composition is an impurity, as the fatigue strength
deteriorates with increasing lead content, which should not exceed 0.2 % of
the cast alloy composition.
Tin based white metal is used in the main bearings, crankpin bearings,
crosshead guide shoes, camshaft bearings and thrust bearings
because of its excellent load carrying and sliding properties.
Tin Aluminium (AlSn40)
Tin aluminium is a composition of aluminium (Al) and tin (Sn) where the tin
is trapped in a 3-dimensional mesh of aluminium. AlSn40 is a composition
with 40% tin. The sliding properties of this composition are very similar to
those of tin based white metal but the loading capacity of this material is
higher than tin based white metals for the same working temperature; this
is due to the ideal combination of tin and aluminium, where tin gives the
good embedability and sliding properties, while the aluminium mesh
functions as an effective load absorber.
Tin aluminium is used in main bearings and crosshead bearing lower
shells.
Overlayers
An overlayer is a thin galvanic coating of mainly lead (Pb) and tin (Sn),
which is applied directly on to the white metal or, via an intermediate layer,
on to the tin aluminium sliding surface of the bearing. The overlayer is a soft
and ductile coating, its main objective is to ensure good embedability and
conformity between the bearing sliding surface and the pin surface
geometry.

Flashlayer, Tin (Sn)

A flash layer is a 100% tin (Sn) layer which is applied galvanically; the
thickness of this layer is from 2 m to 5 m. The coating of tin flash is
applied all over and functions primarily to prevent corrosion (oxidation) of
the bearing. The tin flash also functions as an effective dry lubricant when
new bearings are installed and the engine is barred.

LUBRICATION OF BEARINGS
Effect of Viscosity
The hydrodynamic behaviour of bearing is completely dependent upon the
viscous behaviour of the lubricant. Both load carrying oil film pressure and
temperature raising power loss are functions of lubricant viscosity. Viscosity
is the resistance of a fluid to motion its internal friction. Bearing

performance depends on correct viscosity of lubricant as well as speed and

load. So, the selection of the correct viscosity for bearing calculations must
be made carefully. Three primary relationships determine the final
equilibrium viscosity and temperature:
Viscosity of lubricant decreases rapidly as temperature increases;
Heat generated in the bearings is proportional to viscosity;
The temperature rise in the bearing is proportional to the heat
generated and inversely proportional to the heat flow from the bearing..
Note that in larger bearings, the flow of heat from the bearings takes place
largely through the bearing oil flow. Rate of oil flow depends on viscosity.
So the bearing temperature rise depends on oil viscosity.
It is important to note at this stage that for bearings to operate satisfactorily
following factors must be taken into account:
Correct clearance which will ensure the required flow of lubricating oil
through the system in maintaining the bearing and the shaft at right
temperature and lubricating oil at the right viscosity.
What is Lubricating Oil Film?
This is a thin layer of oil between the bearing and shaft, essential for
separating them from each other. This lubricating oil must be maintained at
the right temperature through the bearing otherwise the viscosity of the oil
will be affected.
Lower viscosity will result in thin oil film termed as Boundary Lubrication or
Thin Film Lubrication. The bearing and shaft can come in contact with each
other in this situation. This will be extremely damaging if prolonged.
Higher than designed viscosity of lubricating oil will result in bearing running
hot and eventually the viscosity of oil will be dropping. Boundary lubrication
will be the end result.
The desired lubrication is termed as Hydrodynamic Lubrication or Thick Film
Lubrication which will provide full separation between bearing and shaft.
Importance of Bearing Material, Shaft Material and Lubricant
Compatibility

In order for damage to the rubbing surfaces to be at a minimum, it is

essential to have proper choice of Bearing Material, Shaft Material and
Lubrication combination. When no lubricant is present or when lubricant is
squeezed out from rubbing surfaces, there is severe frication between the
contacting asperities (high points) of the two surfaces i.e. shaft material and
bearing material . Materials are fused at the point of contact because of the
high local pressure. For low friction and minimum damage to the surfaces,
it is desirable that the alloy formed at the weld has a lower shear strength
than the parent metals. If this condition exists, the weld will shear at the
point of original contact and minimum surface damage will result. If the
alloy formed at the point of contact is stronger than the parent metal, the
weld will break at some point beneath on or other of the surfaces and
extensive damage will take place. This is one of the main reason why large
portions bearing surfaces are damaged.
Viscosity

Lubricant

Bearing

Temperature
Fig 1
Bearing Operating Temperature

Lubricant insists on following the lubricant curve and since bearing must
operate on computed bearing curve, the particular Bearing-Lubricant
combination will reach a steady operating condition at the intersection of
these two curves. This method of solution is known as the Operating-Line
Method and is quiet general in its applicability.
Boundary Lubrication
In bearings of almost all designs there are periods of operation during which
a Hydrodynamic or Thick Film Lubrication cannot be maintained between
moving surfaces. In starting a Hydrodynamic Lubrication, rubbing will occur
at the initial stage before a load-carrying film is established. In other cases,
the load may be so high and speeds so low that it is not possible to obtain a
hydrodynamic film under any conditions.
Under these circumstances, where complete separation of the moving
surfaces by a lubricant film cannot be maintained, the kind of lubrication
occurring is called Boundary Lubrication.
Conditions which may result in Boundary Lubrication are as follows:
a) High Load Oil film can get ruptured.
b) Low Speed Prolonged operation of the engine at extremely low speed
can be damaging to the bearings because full separation between shaft
and bearing do not take place.
c) Low Viscosity Lubricant This results in thin film between bearing and
shaft.
d) Misalignment between Bearing and Shaft Some of the bearings get
overloaded resulting in poor lubrication.
e) Insufficient Clearance Oil flow through the bearing gets affected
resulting high bearing temperature and lower lubricant viscosity.
f) Rough Surfaces High points of bearings and shaft come in contact.
g) Irregular Surfaces.
It must be clear at this stage that Boundary Lubrication is extremely
damaging to the bearing and shaft. Necessary steps must be taken in
designing and during operation so that the period ob boundary lubrication is
minimized.

Hydrodynamic Lubrication
The film thickness under this lubricating conditions is estimated to be 0.025
mm to 0.1 mm under full load. The lubricant is drawn by moving parts
because of its oiliness and viscosity on the running surfaces.
Mean Lubricating Oil Film Pressure = Mean Load Pressure
uv
Film Thickness ---P
Where u = Viscosity
v = Rubbing Speed
p = Pressure
It can be seen that the film thickness is directly proportional to the viscosity
of lubricant and rubbing speed on the bearing surface. However, beyond a
certain viscosity and speed the film will be affected as mentioned earlier.
Beyond this limiting speed, turbulence occurs in the oil film. This results in
higher power loss, lower oil flow and higher operating temperature. This
higher temperature will eventually lower the viscosity resulting in thin oil film.

Fig 2
Generation of Oil Film (Source: Lubrication Fundamentals)

Fig 3
Generation of Oil Film (Source: Lubrication Fundamentals)

With reference to Fig 2 & 3, note the wedge formation between the shaft
and bearing and the eccentricity in the shaft as it has stabilized.

Fig 4
Fig 4
Generation of Oil Film: Gudgeon Pin Bearing
(Source: Lubrication Fundamentals)

With reference to Fig 4, note the oil film in the gudgeon pin bearing of 4
stroke engine along with load reversal during the end of exhaust stroke.
Reciprocating Loaded Bearings Design Features
Internal combustion engine bearings will be discussed in particular in this
section. The forces on a typical diesel engine bearing are as follows:
There is fluctuating gas load on the piston crown, which is transmitted
through the top end bearing and the connecting rod to the crankpin.
There is inertia force which is required to speed the piston from rest, at
the end of stroke to maximum speed near the middle of the stroke and to
bring back to rest again at the other dead centre.
These bearings are subjected to fatigue of bearing-surface metal caused
by the repeated loading and unloading under the ever changing load
pattern.
The cylinder pressure and inertia forces vary very much in magnitude
throughout the working cycle. Hence the loads to be sustained by the
bearings fluctuate very severely and the bearing must be designed to
withstand fluctuation.
Bearing Clearance
Bearing clearances may vary because of combination of tolerances on the
journal, bearing bore and housing bore. Operating loads and speeds also
play an important role in determining the clearance. The clearance is very

critical factor in reciprocating load bearings. The oil flow through the
bearing varies roughly as the cube of clearance i.e.
Oil Flow Clearance3
This relationship means for example, if clearance comes down by two (2)
times, the oil flow will come down by eight (8) times. This will seriously
affect the bearing performance. The clearance must not be so small that
the oil flow is unduly restricted and the bearing overheats. This has been
mentioned earlier that the bearing performance significantly depends on oil
flow which in turn depends on clearance. While the clearance must not be
so small as to restrict oil flow, larger clearances will make excessive
slapping noise and end leakage will be excessive. In extreme cases it may
damage bearing material, reduce the load carrying oil film. In order to
obtain an adequate oil flow without slapping from large clearance, the
clearance in the direction of principal load is normally kept small and
clearance at right angles in the direction of the split is two to four times the
clearance in the direction of the load. Actually less oil will flow through
bearing with smaller clearance, causing it to run warmer. This will drop oil
viscosity and further decrease film thickness. In order to avoid excessive
slapping and noise, connecting rod bearings are often held to minimum
clearance in the direction or rod axis. The clearance is 2 to 4 times as much
in the direction at right angle along the bearing spilt. This increases oil flow,
maintaining the bearing temperature and oil viscosity.
Oil Grooves
The use of oil grooves in the pressure areas of bearing should be avoided,
as the pressure built up within the oil films tends to escape from the high to
low pressure zones. All the oil will have a tendency to escape in the groove
thus reducing the possibility of establishing hydrodynamic conditions on the
bearing surface. However, in some diesel engine bearings, a
circumferential groove is used to convey oil to other bearings. In such
designs the bearing length is usually increased to compensate for the
groove. Longitudinal groove should not extend to the end of bearing to
prevent excessive side leakage. Grooving differs extensively between main
bearing, connecting rod bearing and top end bearing.

Identify the type of grooves on the crosshead bearing, main bearing and
bottom end bearing i.e. circumferential, longitudinal and combination of
both.
Oil Inlet & Supply
Oil can enter the bearing surface only from the unloaded part. For example,
oil enters main bearing from top because this is the unloaded half of the
bearing. In case of bottom end bearing of large 2 stroke engines, oil enters
from the side. Correct oil flow through the bearing is essential for
satisfactory operation.
The journal or shaft surface of highly rated engines are hard and smooth.
The hard surface reduces embedment of dirt or other foreign matter.
Study the manual and identify the oil entry point to main bearings and
bottom end bearings?
Is there any difference in oil entry point between crosshead and trunk type
engines?
It is important to note that oil outlet is through the side leakage. This must
not be restricted under any circumstances. Free flow of oil at right quantity
is the aim for satisfactory operation.
Bearing Properties
A good bearing alloy should possess following essential properties:
Mechanical Strength A compromise must be adopted as too soft a
bearing material posses other desirable properties but tend to flatten
under heavy loads. On the other hand, a harder alloy capable of
withstanding high loads, may posses high frictional characteristics and
may be brittle with poor fatigue characteristics.
Softness and Melting Point This softness and modulus of elasticity of
a baring alloy should be as low as possible but hard enough to withstand
heaviest continuous loading or shock loading to which it is likely to be
subjected, without plastic deformation. Low melting point constituents will
under boundary conditions with high local asperities contact

temperatures, enable the softer metal to melt and flow locally and / or
deform plastically.
When there is dirt, rust or other foreign matter entering the bearing with
the oil, it is advantageous if the bearing alloy has the ability to absorb
such contaminants, thus avoiding damage or scoring of the journal.
White metals or babbits are good in this respect. This property of bearing
alloy is commonly termed embeddability.
Compatibility This is an indication of antiweld or antiscore
characteristics of a bearing material with a given bearing and journal
combination under boundary lubrication conditions. Softer alloys are
beneficial.
Corrosion Resistance Particularly under high temperature conditions,
some metals used in bearing alloys are attacked by decomposition
products of lubricating oil such as weak organic acids and even
peroxides. In diesel engines the attack may be caused by mineral acids
formed as a result of condensation of sulphur oxides, specially in fuel with
high sulphur content. In general, it is the steel working part which
corrodes more than bearing alloy. Usually the higher the temperature,
more readily do these metals react with contaminants. A successful
method of protecting both steel and bearing alloy is to add good rust and
corrosion inhibitor in oil.
Material
Provided that load and temperatures are not excessive, good tin-based or
lead-based white metal alloys are most widely used bearing alloys for diesel
engines, marine turbine and auxiliary machinery. Thick white metal linings
(up to 12.7mm) which was the old practice have relatively poor compressive
strength at high operating temperature. This will cause fatigue failure of
bearing material if load is high. That is why the modern practice is to u se
bearing shell with thin lining of white metal.
Measurement of Clearance
The following methods are used for checking bearing clearances:

 Lead clearance (strips of lead wire is placed between the bearing and
pin/journal on the unload half).
Feeler Gauge.
Dial Gauge.
Inside and outside micrometer.

Above mentioned methods are adopted to check oil clearance. The

following methods can also be used to measure bearing wear.
Bridge Gauge.
Measuring thickness by micrometer.
Lead Clearance
It is advisable not to use this method in thin shell bearings. Clearance can
be measured over a wide bearing surface. It is very important that the wire
is soft enough and does not make indentation on the bearing alloy. The
wire should not get compressed less than 2/3rd of its original diameter. The
bearing should be tightened to required torque or tension.
Feeler Gauge
Feeler gauges are easy and simple to use where it is accessible. It is very
important to make sure that sufficient length of feeler gauge has been
inserted to give a representative measurement of the full length of the
bearing. It must not be taken in way of oil grooves, this may restrict entry of
the feeler gauge. The feeler gauge should not score the bearing surface or
the shaft. In case of a very small clearance, sometimes the feeler gauge
tends to break because of insufficient stiffness. It is ideal for checking guide
clearance.
Inside and Outside Micrometer
Inside and outside micrometers are used for measuring internal bore of
bearing halves (bolted) and pin diameter. It is used where clearance is
large compared to the diameter.
Bridge Gauge
It is used to measure main bearing wear down. The measurement should
be done without disturbing the lower half of the bearing. The machined face
of the bearing housing should be absolutely clean where the gauge if fitted.
The gauge is stamped with original bearing reading, comparison is made
with same to assess the wear down. They should be stored in a protective

box. Describe briefly how the bearing wear down can be measured with the
aid of the bridge gauge.
Thin Shell Bearings
It is widely used in marine engines especially in the crosshead. Thin wall
bearings will have a ratio of Wall Thickness/Bore of 1/25 or less. These
bearings take their final shape in the housing. Proper interference fit is
extremely important as discussed earlier.
The advantages of thin shell bearings are as follows:
The uniform wall section permitted better metallurgical control of the
white metal casting process.
Bond testing carried out by ultrasonic methods is more reliable on the
uniform wall and it is therefore possible to maintain a higher quality. The
uneven thickness and configuration of the conventional bearings gives
rise to uncertain signals, making ultrasonic testing more difficult, if not
impossible, in some areas.
The reduced thickness of white meta and absence of keying grooves
gives improvement in fatigue strength and consequently in bearing life.
The keying groove is a source of weakness in white metal due to the
sharp change in section and fatigue cracking had been known to be
initiated in line with the edges of the grooves.
The thin shell bearing is not confined to steel lined with white metal but
could benefit from more advanced materials such as tri metal i.e. steel
lined with an intermediate layer of copper lead overlaid with white metal
or steel lined with Tin Aluminium. As newer materials are developed, they
would only be available in shell form due to the manufacturing techniques
required.
Thin shell bearings could and indeed must be, made to high degree
accuracy for wall thickness and circumferential length. As the bearings
are thin and flexible until fitted into a housing, the diameter would not be
measured and is meaningless. The fit will be determined by
circumferential length. Shells could be completely prefinished and
interchangeable.

Identify the crosshead bearing spare shells in the workshop. These are thin
shell bearings. Observe the grooves on the bearing shell (bottom half). The
grooves are provided to spread and store lubrication oil.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BEARINGS
Lack of Compatibility
It has generally been the experience that stainless steels of 18%
Chromium, 8 % Nicket variety, have a very low compatibility with white
metal oil lubricated bearings. The tendency is perhaps rather worse with
tilting pad journal bearings than with plain bearings but in repeated
instances wiping, pick-up and seizure have occurred with these steels.
The problem is naturally worse at high specific loads but has been known
to occur at quite low loads.
Nickel and Chrome Plating
Occasionally shaft journals are damaged or accidentally machined
undersize and then it appears to be an attractive proposition to restore
them to size by Nickel or Chrome Plating. In all instances where rotating
machines had journals built up by Nickel plating, the results were
unsatisfactory. Scuffing and seizure occurred within a few hours of
operation. Hard chrome plating, applied on top of Nickel has, however,
been found to give good results when the process properly carried out.
Tin Oxide Corrosion
This failure is due to the corrosion of the tin phase of the white metal to
form tin oxide. Tin oxide is extremely hard and brittle. This breaks off
rapidly causing wear of the surfaces and breakdown of the film. The
appearance of film so formed is grey in the early stages, becomes
progressively darker as its thickness increases and particles become
detached.

 Cause of the Corrosion

One of the main causes is water. It is probable that this form of corrosion
has always taken place in marine bearings but in the past, bearing loads
and clearances have been able to tolerate a thin layer of oxide and
bearing has continued to work with a slight rise in temperature.
More recently, with higher loads, when the oxide layer becomes thick, the
bearing temperature may rise sufficiently to melt the underlying metal and
failure occurs by wiping. Regular and continuous removal of water from
lubricating oil should prevent tin oxide formation.
Electrical Potential
This type of damage occurs frequently in electrical machinery due to
stray currents. The damage consist of uniformly distributed pitting, the
pits being generally hemispherical, with the intensity increasing to a
maximum in the zone of thinnest oil film. The usual method of prevention
is to insulate the non-driving end bearing of electrical machines, and
sometimes in fact both bearings.
Identify the spare pedestal bearing of the alternator end in the engine
room. The back of the bearing will be insulated. Check with the
electrician on board as to how the pedestal bearing (alternator end) is
inspected.
Fretting
In dynamically loaded bearings, fretting will occur on the back of support
surface where the interference fit or nip is insufficient for the dynamic
forces involved. It may also be caused by the housing which is
insufficiently rigid for the load cycle involved. Pivoted pad bearings
(thrust pads of thrust bearing) are peculiarly liable to fretting of the pivot if
subjected to dynamic loading

 Fatigue
Bearings carrying high dynamic loads are liable to fatigue damage, often
caused by a concentration of load due to mechanical imperfection e.g.
poor geometric form, misalignment and distortion. White metal bearings
are particularly prone to fatigue since any high loading not only increases
the stress in the lining but the associated temperature rise reduces the
strength.
Wiping of Bearing Surface
Very often, wiping is a slight transient phenomenon and is undetected
until the machinery is opened up for survey. In serious cases, complete
bearing failure occurs. It may be due to the following reasons:
a) Temporary lack of oil
b) Very slow start up of engine
c) Too small clearance
d) Misalignment
e) Fabricated cross girder of bedplate (Refer to notes on Bedplate)
f) Tin oxide corrosion
If wiping is only discovered upon opening up of the machinery for
inspection, it is usually a sign that bearing has in fact done its job correctly
and has saved further damage occurring. The temperature at which bearing
surface yields is a function of load.
Cavitation Erosion
This is unusual form of bearing failure but could be quite severe. It is
confined mainly to shell-type bearings fitted to high or medium speed
engines and to bearing subjected to fluctuating loads, such as crankpin
bearings. Bearing subjected to this kind of failure usually have complete
areas of the bearing metal missing.
These cavities are usually around oil grooves or holes particularly in low
pressure areas. It is caused by an implosion of gas or air bubbles
released from a lubricating oil film under particular conditions. Some of
the dissolved air is released as bubbles, usually fairly large in size, which

form cavities in the oil film, unless they escape with oil through end of
bearings.
In a bearing subjected to fluctuating load, particularly if applied suddenly,
the air bubbles or cavities collapse or implode. The pressure set up
locally during these implosions are very high, possibly exceeding 220 Bar
and may cause a pitting or cavitation in the area.
It appears cavitation erosion may be reduced by Viscous oil because of
dampening effect high viscous oil. There is a practical limit to acceptable
oil viscosity. We have discussed this in detail earlier.
Thermal Ratcheting
This is the deformation of tin based white metal by alternate heating and
cooling. Its occurrence is generally and indication of high bearing
temperature. This problem is common thrust pad bearing surface.
CROSSHED BEARINGS
In the slow speed 2 stroke Diesel Engine, the top end bearings have
number of factors which limit their safe working load. Improvements in
design and materials have barely matched the engine builders requirements
for up rating, and these bearing still operate with tool small a margin of
safety. In a two-stroke engine, the bearing must operate under slow speed
oscillating conditions which produce very thin oil films and there is no load
reversal, which in a higher speed engine allows the entry of providing a
squeeze film.
In most designs the pin hardened and polished to a pure finish of at least,
and preferably better than 0.1 um. It should be stressed that geometric
shape is equally important and there should be an absence of waviness in
the surface. The bearing surfaces and geometric tolerances are equally
important, as also are those of the housing bore.

Factors Limiting Safe Working Load on Crosshead Bearing

High Sudden Load Full effect of combustion is applied directly to the
crosshead bearing bottom half through the piston rod and crosshead pin.
High Bearing Pressure The bearing is placed high in the engine in a
limited space. The whole assembly reciprocates full length of stroke.
The size (diameter and length) has to be kept as low as possible. So, the
area will be limited resulting in high specific load.
Distortion The crosshead pin is simple supported beam with central
load and two reactions in most of the engines. Number of older model
engines have bearings on either side of the pin at the bottom.

Crosshead bearing
Fig 5
Older Model Engines
Bending moment and deflection are maximum at centre. This will cause two
problems as follows:
High Stress Concentrations and Less Stiffness because the maximum
Bending Moment is applied where pin is often bored at the centre to carry
piston rod.
Bearing surfaces will deflect making alignment with pin poor.
Poor Lubrication Lubrication is poor because of the following factors:
Slow Oscillating Movement Connecting rod swings through 25O to 30O,
depending upon Connecting Rod Length: Crankthrow ratio. It is
extremely difficult to build up full fluid film (hydrodynamic lubrication).

Condition is improved slightly because highest load is applied when the

bearing is mid way through the oscillation and slight reform of oil films
has taken places.
Reciprocating Movement Oil supply is disturbed by vertical Movement
of pin and bearing. It is difficult to get smooth and uninterrupted flow of
oil.
2 Stroke engine No load reversal takes place which does not help the
oil flow into the loaded part of bearing. It means the load is always on the
lower part of the bearing, making it difficult for lubricating oil to flow in for
an effective film.

Fig 6
Crosshead design with pin bored at the centre-older design
(Source: Motor Engineering Knowledge by T D Morton & L Jackson)

The crosshead pin design in the Fig 6 of older model engines where the pin
is not getting the full support at the bottom. Bending moment is maximum at
the centre where the pin has been bored to accommodate the piston rod.

Fig 7
Crosshead design with full support at the bottom modern engines
(Source: Motor Engineering Knowledge by T D Morton & L Jackson)

This is the crosshead design of modern engines with full support at the
bottom of the pin.

This results in better alignment between the pin and the bearing. Study the
manual and spare bearing shell (bottom half) to identify the type of
crosshead design in your main engine. Crosshead bearings must be given
due attention during operation and maintenance because of its onerous
working condition as mentioned in earlier sections.
Checking Crosshead Bearing Clearance

Fig 8
Bearing Clearances at Top and Bottom End
(Source: Sulzer Engine Manual)
Study the manual and observe carefully how the crosshead bearing
clearances are measured. It is checked at the top of the pin with the
crank at BDC. Crosshead bearings are thin shell type. So if the
clearance is excessive, the shells have to be renewed.

Thin shell bearing must be inspected thoroughly on the bearing surface

as well as at the back of the shell. If there are rubbing or fretting marks
on the back of the shell, the shell must be renewed because this is an
indication of shell running loose in the housing. This can block lubricating
oil passage with serious consequences. Study the following figure. Thin
shell bearing has just a layer of white metal or soft material on the
running surface. So never scrap or use rough brush.

Fig 9
Lubricating Oil Passage through Trunk Piston Engine
(Source: Pielstick Engine Manual)

REFERENCE
1. Christensen, Stanley G, Lambs Question and Answer on Marine
Diesel Engine (1990), Edward Arnold, (Ch 6 pp 141, 264, 272-277,
258, 260-261, 315)
2. Morton, Thomas D and Jackson, Leslie, Motor Engineering Knowledge
for Marine Engineers (1994), Thomas Reed Publications (Ch 2 pp 58)
3. Pirro, D. M and Wessol, A.A, Lubrication Fundamentals (2001), ExxonMobil Corporation, Mercel Dekker, Inc
4. Pielstick Engine Manual
5. Sulzer Engine Manual
6. MAN B&W Engine Manual
Useful Link:
1. http://www.hotrod.com/how-to/engine/ctrp-1201-bearings-clearancebasics/
2. http://www.brighthubengineering.com/marine-enginesmachinery/28734-bearings-used-in-marine-diesel-engines/
3. www.marineengineering.org.uk

Thank you!