Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
72
Canada
UK
USA
Australia
While the proportion of immigrants in the Australian population has barely changed, the composition of nationalities has become more
diverse, and so too has their reasons for migrating (ABS & Hugo 2002).
Immigration is accompanied by acculturation processes that affect the way in which immigrants perceive their ethnic identities. Uni-dimensional theories
of acculturation assume that immigrants will relinquish aspects of their previous culture in exchange
for new cultural paradigms in their host country.
However, recent times have seen the emergence of
hybrid, bicultural individuals who are more inclined
to retain their original cultural framework and switch
between their ethnic identity and those of their host
country as the situation warrants.
This can be problematic for marketers attempting
to segment consumers in multicultural communities
on the basis of their ethnicity.
The purpose of this paper is to present a synopsis
of current issues in relation to consumption and ethnicity, in particular:
Definitions
Pires (1999), highlights problems with the interchangeable nature of terminology applied to ethnicity
and cultural studies. Indeed the research examined
in this paper uses the terms ethnicity, culture, cultural, multicultural and cultural diversity in the same
context. Culture is considered to be a loose, fuzzy
concept that is difficult to define (Pressey & Selassi
2002). However, Schnpflug (2001a) offers a concise
and uncomplicated definition, The term cultural
may apply to traits acquired by any process of non
genetic transmission, whether by imprinting, conditioning, observation, imitation, or as a result of direct
teaching (Schnpflug 2001a:131).
The term ethnicity is closely related to culture but
includes a genetic aspect, In simple terms, ethnicity
can be viewed as a characteristic of racial group
membership on the basis of some commonly shared
features. Ethnicity can also be described in terms of
biological makeup of individuals and the extent to
which genetic factors play a role in conveying as-
Consumption as an Expression of
Identity
Kozinets (2002) provides a broad definition of consumption as the many human acts that people perform as they interact with the material world around
them (Kozinets 2002:24).
According to OCass and McEwen (2004) the acquisition of material goods is considered to be one
of the strongest measures of social success and
achievement. These markers of social standing can
be displayed conspicuously, to visually represent
status [referred to as conspicuous consumption]
(OCass & McEwen 2004) or serve a more underlying purpose of securing friendships and social acceptance (OShaughnessy & OShaughnessy 2002). An
individuals identity can also be expressed through
the symbolic meaning of their material possessions
and how they choose to relate to them (Dittmar 1992,
in OCass & McEwen 2004) (Lindridge & Dibb
2002; OShaughnessy & OShaughnessy 2002).
The role of consumption in shaping identity and
consumer behaviour has not been without criticism,
particularly the level of materialism exhibited by
consumers (Pachauri 2002). That is, the importance
a consumer attaches to worldly possessions (Belk
1985, in Eastman et al. 1997:54), and judging own
and others success by the number and quality of
possessions accumulated (Richins & Rudmin 1994,
in Eastman et al. 1997:54).
Dysfunctional behaviour such as shoplifting has
been attributed to materialism (Tonglet 2001), along
with the undermining of traditional values of work
and citizenship (Stevenson 2002). From this perspective, the individualistic nature of materialism can be
Ethnic Identity
Jamal (2003) presents two perspectives on identity.
The first suggests that it is a complex internal process
involving cognition, emotion and knowledge,
whereas the second proposes that individuals construct their own identity by drawing on heterogeneous elements taken from a diversity of cultural
representations and practices (Jamal 2003: 1602).
Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind (1996) suggest that
ethnic identity requires an individual to firstly, label
themselves as being of a particular ethnicity and to
subsequently identify with others of the same ethnic
group (Jasinskaja-Lahti & Liebkind 1999:527).
Domains that have been used to identify ethnic
identity include:
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74
Response Bias
Tests developed in one country can fail to achieve
their aims in other countries. This can be due to cultural differences in the way individuals respond to
the measuring instrument (response bias), (Church
& Lonner 1998; Paunonen & Ashton 1998; Caprara
et al. 2000; Cheung & Rensvold 2000; Schwartz &
Bardi 2001; Van Hemert et al. 2001; Byrne &
Watkins 2003; Eid et al. 2003; Allik et al. 2004;
Smith 2004; Van Herk et al. 2004; Johnson et al.
2005).
Response bias can result in the following respondent behaviour:
Chung & Fischer 2000; Euler et al. 2001; Ben-Shalom et al. 2003; Snauwaert et al 2003). The model
outlines four possible acculturation strategies can
result in an immigrant either: Integrating, Assimilating, Segregating or Marginalizing. Immigrants orient
their own acculturation process through their level
of involvement with members of other [local] cultures. The decisions made by immigrants in this regard are heavily influenced by the level of acceptance
from the receiving society (Nauck 2001).
The terms assimilation and integration used in
acculturation models require definition. Assimilation
refers to a displacement of an original ethnic identity
and the adoption of characteristics of the host culture.
Integration implies that the immigrant possesses
knowledge and understanding of the host country
but does not relinquish aspects of their own ethnic
identity (Kurman & Ronen-Eilon 2004).
Berrys model assumes a linear path in which immigrants are willing to discard their previous culture.
However a more recent Unique Behaviour Model
proposes that unique cultural styles can emerge
through a blending of the immigrants old culture and
their host culture (Quester & Chong 2001).
A summary of acculturation studies by Berry
(2001) helps to illustrate the complexities of factors
influencing the acculturation process. Early uni-dimensional assimilation approaches to acculturation
have fallen out of favour (Birman & Tricket 2001),
with researchers preferring a more flexible approach
(Laroche et al. 1996; Laroche et al. 1998; Chung &
Fischer 2000; Knafo & Schwartz 2001; Quester &
Chong 2001; Ben-Shalom et al. & Horenczyk 2003;
Davies & Fitchett 2004). This multi-dimensional
approach purports that immigrants are likely to develop their own unique cultural styles through a
blending of their old culture and the host culture
(Wallendorf & Reilly 1983, in Chung & Fischer
2000; Quester & Chong 2001). The blending of cultural styles suggests that these consumers will respond differently to marketing approaches than other
residents of the host country.
The influence of acculturation on ethnic identity
extends beyond the immediate effects on immigrants
and into successive generations.
Transmission of Values
According to Pires (1999), some of the original cultural values of immigrants are retained in the host
country through a process of generational transmission. The degree of retention depends on parenting
styles and the type of values involved (Pires 1999).
Constructs or domains that are most likely to be
transferred include political values, religious beliefs
and lifestyle, value orientations, and general points
of view regarding social constructs (Schnpflug
2001b)
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76
Demographics,
Psychographics,
Benefits,
Usage,
Lifestyle,
Loyalty,
Image,
Situation, and
Socio-style. (Hoek et al. 1993)
Each of these domains is considered suitable criteria for segmentation as they have been proven to
be:
Conclusion
This paper has presented a synopsis of current issues
in relation to diversity, ethnicity and consumption,
in particular:
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Dr John Hall is an Associate Professor of Marketing at Deakin University Melbourne where he is a director of
the Centre for Business Research. Prior to his current appointment he was a Marketing discipline leader and
course coordinator at Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne. His research interests include market
segmentation, consumer behaviour, marketing education, social marketing and the development and application
of marketing research techniques and technology.