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The Ethnic
Avant-Garde

Modernist Latitudes
Jessica Berman and Paul Saint-Amour, Editors

Modernist Latitudes
JESSICA BERMAN AND PAUL SAINT-AMOUR, EDITORS
Modernist Latitudes aims to capture the energy and ferment of modernist studies by continuing to open up the range of forms, locations,
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The series celebrates the growing latitude (scope for freedom of acWLRQ RU WKRXJKW WKDW WKLV EURDGHQLQJ DRUGV VFKRODUV RI PRGHUQism, whether they are investigating little-known works or revisiting
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the texts and contexts of those latitudes (Africa, Latin America, Australia, Asia, Southern Europe, and even the rural United States) that have
long been misrecognized as ancillary to the canonical modernisms of
WKHJOREDO1RUWK
Barry McCrea, In the Company of Strangers: Family and Narrative in
Dickens, Conan Doyle, Joyce, and Proust, 2011
Jessica Berman, Modernist Commitments: Ethics, Politics, and
Transnational Modernism, 2011
Jennifer Scappettone, Killing the Moonlight: Modernism in Venice, 2014
Nico Israel, Spirals: The Whirled Image in Twentieth-Century Literature
and Art, 2015
Carrie Noland, Voices of Negritude in Modernist Print: Aesthetic
Subjectivity, Diaspora, and the Lyric Regime, 2015

The
Ethnic
AvantGarde
Minority Cultures and
World Revolution

STEVEN S. LEE
Columbia
University
Press
New York

Columbia University Press

Publishers Since 1893
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Copyright 2015 Columbia University Press
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
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For my parents

Contents

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1 7UDQVODWLQJWKH(WKQLF$YDQW*DUGH
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List of Illustrations

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6NHWFKRIMonument to the Third International

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A Note on Transliteration

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proper nouns in keeping with this system except in cases where the
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The Ethnic
Avant-Garde

Introduction

his is a book about minorities drawn to Soviet communism and

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and the allure of Moscow for the worlds downtrodden and opSUHVVHG 7KH %ROVKHYLNV LW VHHPHG KDG HOLPLQDWHG UDFLVP LQ WKH 8665
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the same time, a loose grouping of artists and writers sympathetic to the
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overlapping movements as futurism and constructivism, they enacted an
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I am linking here two phenomena that have each been thoroughly studLHGEXWUDUHO\LQWDQGHPWKH6RYLHW8QLRQRIWKHLQWHUZDU\HDUVDVDVLWH
of cultural innovation and the Soviet Union as a beacon of racial, ethnic,
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INTRODUCTION

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6RYLHWVDQGLQ/DQJVWRQ+XJKHVZLUHGWKHRUJDQL]HURIDQ$IULFDQ
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$VLQGLFDWHGE\-DFTXHV'HUULGDDIWHUKLVRZQYLVLWVXFKGHVFULStions can be seen as part of a rich, brief, intense, and dense tradition
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tempore DQG HVFKDWRORJLFDO PRVDLF RU PHVVLDQLF VSDFH2 My task is to
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makes little sense in our postsocialist present, accustomed as we are to
dismissing the Soviet Union as a monolith that failed to accommodate
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prescription that culture be national in form, socialist in content, which
blandly meant that Bolshevik decrees were to be published in multiple
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Thus, one basic aim of this book is to recapture the magic behind the
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a growing number of scholars have shown, these pilgrims and would-be
pilgrims were certainly looking for Moscows brand of multiculturalism
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WKHFUHDWLYHSRVVLELOLWLHVRSHQHGE\WKHOLNHVRI6HUJHL(LVHQVWHLQ9ODGLPLU
0D\DNRYVN\DQG9VHYRORG0H\HUKROGWKLVOLRQL]HGEUDQFKRIWKHLQWHUnational avant-garde that, as Slavists well know, had itself long been fasFLQDWHGE\PLQRULW\DQGQRQ:HVWHUQFXOWXUHV)URPWKHDOLJQPHQWRIDUW
and revolution emerged many striking, eccentric ways of expressing culWXUDOGLHUHQFHYLVLRQVRISROLWLFDODQGDUWLVWLFYDQJXDUGLVPWKDWGHHSened rather than erased ethnic particularism; visions of world revolution
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to unlock the suppressed utopian potential of minority and avant-garde
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garde, on the other hand, is a military term (the vanguard of a unit)
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FIGURE I.1 Long Live the Fraternal Union and Great Friendship of Peoples of the
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INTRODUCTION

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for the sake of creating new meanings, and this book employs precisely
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grouping that I call the ethnic avant-garde, which on one level refers
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Through the variety of translations and cultural productions emerging
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ethnic avant-garde as a largely unrealized utopian aspiration, one that ulWLPDWHO\H[FHHGVWKH6RYLHW8QLRQRIWKHLQWHUZDU\HDUV,WLVWKHGUHDPRI
advancing simultaneously ethnic particularism, political radicalism, and artistic experimentation, debunking the notion that particularism yields proYLQFLDOLVP0RUHWRWKHSRLQWWKRXJKWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGHIRUHJURXQGVD
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reader, makes it possible to discern unexpected connections among radiFDODUWLVWVDQGZULWHUVIURPPDQ\GLHUHQWFRXQWULHV57KHJXUHVFRYHUHG
here themselves cultivated such an optic, motivated by the similar potential of avant-garde and minority cultures to level hierarchies and bring art
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WKLVLQWHUZDUHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGHQRQHWKHOHVVVXUYLYHLQWRWKHSUHVHQWGD\

INTRODUCTION

FIGURE I.2 9ODGLPLU7DWOLQEHVLGHKLVMonument to the Third

International

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To lay this groupings historical and conceptual foundation, this introduction begins with an overview of the Soviet Unions political and artisWLFDOOXUHIRUPLQRULWLHVDQGQRQ:HVWHUQHUVDURXQGWKHZRUOG,LOOXVWUDWH
WKLVWKURXJKYDULRXVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI9ODGLPLU7DWOLQVMonument to the
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intertwined iron spirals that cut through the heavens like a telescope or a
cannon, the never-built tower positions the Soviet Union of the interwar

INTRODUCTION

years at the forefront of both world revolution and global modernism, of

both the Third Communist International (Comintern) and the internaWLRQDODYDQWJDUGH,QWKHUVWSDUWRIWKLVLQWURGXFWLRQ,PDNHXVHRIWKH
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The task here is to articulate that distinct way of seeing that is central to
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This will take us on an excursion to Soviet nationalities policy, linguistics, and ethnography, which will lead us back, in a roundabout fashion,
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MoscowCapital of Now-Time
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Moscow, the Fourth RomeUHYHDOVWKDWHYHQDPLGWKH6WDOLQLVWV0RVFRZ
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of Clark, to open Pascale Casanovas world republic of letters to Stalinist
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ambitions having long given way to urban redevelopment and monuPHQWVRIWKHERXUJHRLVLH+HKLQWHGWKDWWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\GHPDQG-

INTRODUCTION

FIGURE I.3

Sketch included in Nikolai Punin, Pamiatnik III Internatsionala

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ed new, radical alternatives to build on the ruins of the Paris Commune,

and as Clark has shown, he himself felt Moscows pull as a new potential
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Paris to Moscow, from the iron and glass of shopping arcades to the iron
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INTRODUCTION

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ZHUHVWLOOLQEULHIKDUPRQ\PDQ\VWLOOKRSHGWKDWWKHDYDQWJDUGHVSURMect of perceptual estrangement could serve the revolution, and the tower
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the iron spirals, Tatlin planned three glass structures, each spinning at difIHUHQWVSHHGV$ODUJHFXEHDWWKHEDVHZDVWRKDYHURWDWHGRQFHD\HDUDQG
hosted the organizations polyglot congresses, with representatives from
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the Mexican Communist Party, and Sen Katayama, a founder of communist
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of seemingly random trusses gathered into a coherent movement would
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monument to artistic experimentation and world revolution was to have
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8QGHUVWDQGLQJ WKLV UHTXLUHV VWULSSLQJ WKH WRZHU WR LWV WZR FRQVWLWXent spirals, which chase each other but never touch, starting and endLQJDWGLHUHQWSRLQWV2QHVSLUDOFDOOLWWKHYDQJXDUGVSLUDOHYRNHVWKH
WHQVLRQVRIIRUJLQJZRUOGUHYROXWLRQLWVEDODQFHRIFHQWULSHWDODQGFHQtrifugal movements evokes the push and pull between Soviet center and
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RI7DWOLQ10 These sensations opened the way for ever more varied underVWDQGLQJVRIUHYROXWLRQ1LNRODL3XQLQGHVFULEHGWKHVSLUDODVWKHFODVsical form of dynamics, promising liberation from all animal, earthly,
and reptile [presmykaiushchikhsia@ LQWHUHVWVWKH WRZHU DV HVFDSLQJ WKH
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INTRODUCTION

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iron and glass, the two most primitive [prosteishikh] materials, for which
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perspective, the two spirals evoked not simply a socialist future but also a
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All this points to a vision of revolution sweeping back and forth beWZHHQIXWXUHDQGSDVWDQGEHFRPLQJHYHUPRUHLQFOXVLYHDVDUHVXOW2Q
WKHRQHKDQGWKHWRZHUDQWLFLSDWHGDOLEHUDWHGXQLHGKXPDQLW\8QOLNH
traditional monuments, it eschewed a single heroic type and, in line with
6RYLHW FRQVWUXFWLYLVP DGYDQFHG D ZRUOG IUHH RI KLHUDUFK\ DQG VXSHUXLW\7URWVN\SUDLVHGLWVH[FOXVLRQRIQDWLRQDOVW\OHVLWVWUDQVFHQGHQFHRI
SDVWGLYLVLRQDQGSUHMXGLFHV12+RZHYHUDVLQGLFDWHGE\3XQLQWKHFODVsic tower also gestured to the distant past and, from the moment of its
XQYHLOLQJ ZDV VHHQ DV D YHVWLJH RI SUHPRGHUQLW\ 6HYHUDO KDYH QRWHG LWV
OLNHQHVVWRWKH*UHDW0RVTXHRI6DPDUUDFDLQSUHVHQWGD\,UDT
ZKLFK7DWOLQPD\KDYHYLVLWHGGXULQJKLV\RXWKDVDVDLORU+HFHUWDLQO\YLVited Syria, Turkey, and Egypt, and some have seen the tower as a composite
RIUXLQVIURPWKRVHSODFHV The suprematist painter El Lissitzky called it a
UHZRUNLQJRIDQFLHQW$VV\ULDV6DUJRQ3\UDPLG,QWXUQDV6YHWODQD%R\P
has emphasized, the Sargon monument was considered an inspiration for
WKH7RZHURI%DEHOZKLFKZDVLQLWVHOIDQXQQLVKHGXWRSLDQPRQXPHQW
WXUQHGP\WKLFDOUXLQ$FFRUGLQJO\MXVWDV1LPURGVWRZHUJORULHGDXQLWHGKXPDQLW\VSHDNLQJDVLQJOHGLYLQHWRQJXH7DWOLQVZDVWRKDYHMRLQHGDOO
peoples in a shared, liberated society; and arguably the result of both failed
HQWHUSULVHVZDVWKHVFDWWHULQJRIQDWLRQV14
The tower was thus read as advancing a universal form, but one with
vaguely Middle Eastern forebears; it evoked a single world civilization, but
RQHGUDZLQJIURPHYHU\SHRSOHDQGFXOWXUH7KLVLJKWRIIDQF\HQDEOHVXV
to broaden revolution beyond modern bounds to its original, astronomiFDO FRQQRWDWLRQVUHYROXWLRQ DV LQ +DQQDK $UHQGWV ZRUGV WKH UHFXUULQJF\FOLFDOPRYHPHQWRIVWDUV7KLVPDNHVWKHQRWLRQRIWKHWRZHUDV
WHOHVFRSHDOOWKHPRUHDSWZLWKWKHGLHUHQWURWDWLRQVSHHGVGD\PRQWK
\HDUFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHFHOHVWLDOUK\WKPVRIHDUWKDQGPRRQ155Hinhart Koselleck similarly expands revolution by linking it to premodern

10

INTRODUCTION

HVFKDWRORJ\ERWKPDUNHGE\H[SHFWDWLRQVRIVDOYDWLRQDQGHRUWVWRDFFHOHUDWHWLPH In short, while revolution is typically understood as a distinctly modern leap into the new, it can also refer to a perspective outside
WLPHDQGKLVWRU\,QGHHGPDQ\5XVVLDQVYLHZHGWKH5HYROXWLRQDVDQ
apocalyptic moment, as a time not of forward linear progress but of a saFUHGEUHDNLQWHPSRUDOLW\
It is understandable, even predictable that an avant-gardist like Tatlin would evoke such iconoclastic views of revolution, opening the term
WRD3DQGRUDVER[RIP\WKVDQGOHJHQGV5HPDUNDEO\WKRXJKDWOHDVWLQ
WKHHDUO\VWKHSROLWLFDOYDQJXDUGIRXQGLWQHFHVVDU\WRGRVRPHWKLQJ
similar, that is, to articulate a vision of revolution able to accommodate
DOOWKHZRUOGVSHRSOHV,IWKHWRZHUUHIHUHQFHGERWKDOLEHUDWHGIXWXUHDQG
DQFLHQWFLYLOL]DWLRQXQGHU/HQLQVJXLGDQFHWKH&RPLQWHUQQHVVHGWKH
VWDJLVPLHIURPIHXGDOLVPWRFDSLWDOLVPWRVRFLDOLVPW\SLFDOO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWK0DU[7KDWLVDWOHDVWLQLWVHDUOLHVW\HDUVWKH&RPLQWHUQHYLQFHG
DH[LEOHRSHQHQGHGDSSURDFKWRKLVWRU\DQGUHYROXWLRQVLPLODUWREXW
WR D OHVVHU GHJUHH WKDQ LWV SODQQHG PRQXPHQW $FFRUGLQJ WR /HQLQ DQG
Leon Trotsky, democratic revolution could immediately give way to socialist revolution (Trotskys theory of permanent revolution); backward
nations could combine and leap over historical stages (Trotskys theory
of combined and uneven development); and countries where capitalism
ZDV QRW IXOO\ GHYHORSHG HJ 5XVVLD LWVHOI RHUHG WKH EHVW RSSRUWXQLties for undermining the global capitalist system (Lenins weakest link
WKHRU\,QVKRUWWKHODVWFRXOGEHFRPHUVW$EDFNZDUGQDWLRQFRXOG
serve as the vanguard of world revolution without having to advance
WKURXJKFDSLWDOLVP5XVVLDSURYLGLQJWKHNH\FDVHLQSRLQW)RU7URWVN\
WKHIDFWWKDWWKHFRXQWU\KDGEHHQEDFNZDUGLHSUHGRPLQDQWO\DJUDULDQRQWKHHYHRIUHYROXWLRQZDVDYLUWXH5XVVLDVDPDOJDPRIDUFKDLF
ZLWKPRUHFRQWHPSRUDU\IRUPVPDGHSRVVLEOHWKH%ROVKHYLNVVXFFHVV
$FFRUGLQJO\LQDGYDQFHRIWKH&RPLQWHUQV6HFRQG&RQJUHVVLQ/HQin famously called for communists to support revolutionary movements
among the dependent and underprivileged nations (for example, Ireland,
WKH$PHULFDQ1HJURHVHWFDQGLQWKHFRORQLHV7KLVPHDQWWKDWWKH&RPLQWHUQZRXOGRUJDQL]HQRWRQO\WKHDGYDQFHG:HVWHUQSUROHWDULDWEXW
DOVREDFNZDUGPLQRULW\DQGFRORQL]HGJURXSVDURXQGWKHZRUOGZKDW
/HQLQFDOOHGRSSUHVVHGQDWLRQVVXHULQJXQGHUWKHUXOHRIGHYHORSHG
LPSHULDOLVWRSSUHVVRUQDWLRQV20

INTRODUCTION

11

My detour from artistic avant-garde to political vanguard points once

again to a basic congruence between the two, and indeed, Tatlin took pride
LQFRPELQLQJSXUHO\DUWLVWLFIRUPVZLWKXWLOLWDULDQJRDOV21 This is not to
VD\WKDW7DWOLQVGHVLJQZDVDFUXGHUHHFWLRQRI/HQLQLVWSROLF\EXWUDWKHU
WKDWWKLVSROLF\HQDEOHVDEHWWHUDSSUHFLDWLRQRIWKHGHVLJQ,WHQDEOHVXVWR
see Tatlins interweaving of the modern and premodern not simply as an
instance of abstract, universal form but also as an expression of the way
DQGKRZRIZRUOGUHYROXWLRQRIWKHQHHGWRDWWUDFWUHYROXWLRQDULHVRIDOO
VWULSHVFRORUVDQGVWDJHVRIGHYHORSPHQW0RUHWRWKHSRLQWDOUHDG\DW
WKHWLPHRILWV1RYHPEHUXQYHLOLQJWKHMonument to the Third International was a monument to a world revolutionary movement increasingly
RULHQWHGWRZDUG$VLDDQG$IULFD7KDW$XJXVWWKH5HG&DYDOU\VDVVDXOWRI
3RODQGPRQLWRUHGWKURXJKRXWWKH6HFRQG&RQJUHVVDQGODWHULPPRUWDOL]HGE\,VDDF%DEHOKDGEHHQQDUURZO\UHSHOOHGVKDWWHULQJKRSHVRID(XURSHDQUHYROXWLRQ22 This prompted the Bolsheviks to turn their attention
HOVHZKHUH LQ 6HSWHPEHU  WKH &RPLQWHUQ FRQYHQHG WKH )LUVW &RQJUHVVRIWKH3HRSOHVRIWKH(DVWLQ%DNX$]HUEDLMDQGUDZLQJWKRXVDQGVRI
predominantly Muslim delegates from a broad swath of land, from Turkey
WR,QGLDWR.RUHD7KHUH&RPLQWHUQFKDLUPDQ*ULJRU\=LQRYLHYSOHGJHG6Rviet support for all the worlds oppressed peoples in a holy war against
:HVWHUQLPSHULDOLVPRQHWKDWZDVDJDLQWRKDYHHPDQDWHGIURPDUHFDVW7RZHURI%DEHO7KHSROLWLFDOYDQJXDUG=LQRYLHYDQGDUWLVWLFDYDQW
garde (Tatlin) here close in on each other, both expressing similarly expanVLYHLQGHHGSUHPRGHUQYLVLRQVRIUHYROXWLRQ
Admittedly, my interweaving of vanguard and avant-garde has been a
bit heavy-handed, especially considering that Tatlin likely envisioned his
tower for Petrograd, not Moscow, and originally as a commemoration of
WKH %ROVKHYLN 5HYROXWLRQ QRW WKH &RPPXQLVW ,QWHUQDWLRQDO24 Indeed, it
may be for the best that his design was never realized given the CominWHUQVPXFKPDOLJQHGVXEVHUYLHQFHWR6RYLHWVWDWHLQWHUHVWVWKHIUHTXHQW
DFFXVDWLRQVRIZRUOGUHYROXWLRQEHWUD\HG25 Functioning as that organizations administrative center would likely have diminished the towers nostalgic appeal, and I do not care to crush the monument under the Third
,QWHUQDWLRQDOVZHLJKW5DWKHUKDYLQJQRWHGWKHPRPHQWDU\FRPSOHPHQtary congruence of vanguard and avant-garde, I will now separate them
DJDLQRUNHHSWKHPVHSDUDWHjOD7DWOLQVWZRVSLUDOVDJDLQFKDVLQJHDFK
RWKHUEXWQHYHUTXLWHWRXFKLQJ,ZLOOXVHWKHWRZHUDVDVSULQJERDUGWR

12

INTRODUCTION

yet more eccentric, inclusive visions of world revolution, related but not
ERXQGWRWKH%ROVKHYLNYDQJXDUG
7KLVIRUPXODWLRQUHODWHGEXWQRWERXQGHQFLUFOLQJEXWQRWWRXFKLQJ
allows us to see the vanguard and avant-garde neither as synonymous
QRUDVFRPSOHWHO\DWRGGV0RUHVSHFLFDOO\LWHQDEOHVXVWRVDOYDJHWKH
avant-gardes utopian surplus from the abortive histories of the BolsheYLN5HYROXWLRQDQGWKH&RPPXQLVW,QWHUQDWLRQDO$WWKHVDPHWLPHLWHQables us to draw from these histories a revolutionary political horizon that
bolstered the Soviet avant-gardes long-standing interest in other peoples
DQGFXOWXUHV7KHDYDQWJDUGHZDVREYLRXVO\WLHGWRWKHFDWDVWURSKLFKLVWRU\RIWKH%ROVKHYLNYDQJXDUG+RZHYHUDVHYLQFHGE\7DWOLQV7RZHUWKH
DYDQWJDUGHDOVRVLGHVKDGRZVDOWHUQDWLYHSRVVLEOHKLVWRULHVLQGHHGDOWHUQDWLYHZD\VRILPDJLQLQJWKHRZRIKLVWRU\
My contention is that through works like the tower, Soviet avant-gardLVWV XQVHDWHG WKH +HJHOLDQ QRWLRQ RI KLVWRULFDO GHYHORSPHQW ZKLFK KDG
ORQJSRVHG:HVWHUQ(XURSHDQVDWWKHOHDGRI:RUOG6SLULW5XVVLDQVODJJLQJDQG$IULFDQVH[FOXGHGDOWRJHWKHU Again, the Bolshevik vanguard had
FRPSOLFDWHGWKLVVWDJLVWYLHZMXVWE\VSDUNLQJVRFLDOLVWUHYROXWLRQLQ5XVVLD
EXWWKHDYDQWJDUGHZHQWPXFKIXUWKHU:HGGLQJSHUFHSWXDOHVWUDQJHPHQW
and romantic anticapitalism, it articulated visions of revolution in which
HYHQORVWFLYLOL]DWLRQVDQGDQFLHQWUHOLJLRQVFRXOGSOD\DUROH The writLQJVRIRQHRI7DWOLQVFORVHIULHQGVWKHIXWXULVW9HOLPLU.KOHEQLNRYQRZ
most famous for his zaumWUDQVUDWLRQDOSRHWU\DUHKHUHH[HPSODU\0DQ\
have discussed Khlebnikovs eccentric approach to time, namely, his effort to predict the future by measuring the intervals between past historic
HYHQWVDVZHOODVWRQGWKURXJKzaum WKHFRPPRQRULJLQRIDOOODQJXDJHV
+RZHYHUDV+DUVKD5DPKDVVKRZQVXFKHRUWVDOVROHGKLPWRHPEUDFH
QRQ:HVWHUQ FXOWXUHV DQG VSHFLFDOO\ WR LPDJLQH WKH %ROVKHYLN 5HYROXWLRQDVDQ$VLDQUHYROXWLRQ:HNQRZWKDWWKHEHOOWKDWVRXQGVIRU5XVVLDVIUHHGRPZLOOQRWWRXFK(XURSHDQHDUV.KOHEQLNRYGHFODUHVLQKLV
PDQLIHVWR$Q,QGR5XVVLDQ8QLRQ$VDUHVXOW5XVVLDPXVWHPEUDFHLWV
$VLDQQHVV:HWKHFLWL]HQVRIWKHQHZZRUOGOLEHUDWHGDQGXQLWHGE\$VLD
SDUDGHWULXPSKDQWO\EHIRUH\RX2XUSDWKOHDGVIURPWKHXQLW\RI$VLDWR
the unity of the Stars, and through the freedom of the continent to the freeGRPRIWKHHQWLUHSODQHW)RU.KOHEQLNRY$VLDVHUYHVDVWKHNH\WRPDNLQJ
WKHUHYROXWLRQJOREDODVZHOODVWLPHOHVVWKHPDQLIHVWRFUHGLWVWKHZLOORI
)DWHIRUWKHXQLRQVFUHDWLRQDQGSURFODLPVWKHXQLW\RIWKUHHZRUOGVWKH

INTRODUCTION

13

Aryan, the Indian, and the Caspian, the triangle of Christ, the Buddha and
0XKDPPDG:HKDYHSOXQJHGLQWRWKHGHSWKVRISDVWDJHVDQGFROOHFWHG
WKHVLJQDWXUHVRIWKH%XGGKD&RQIXFLXVDQG7ROVWRL,PSDUWLQJWRWKHUHYROXWLRQDQHWHUQDOUHOLJLRXVTXDOLW\WKLVFDOOIRUDQ,QGR5XVVLDQ8QLRQ
H[FHHGVZKDW5DPGHVFULEHVDVWKH%ROVKHYLNVJHVWXUDOVROLGDULW\WRZDUG
$VLDIRULQVWDQFH=LQRYLHYVKRO\ZDUDWWKH&RQJUHVVRIWKH3HRSOHVRI
WKH(DVW8QOLNH=LQRYLHY.KOHEQLNRYDFWXDOO\LGHQWLHVZLWK$VLDZKLFK
RSHQVWKHZD\IRUDPRUHLQFOXVLYHYLVLRQRIUHYROXWLRQUHVRQDQWZLWKEXW
QRWOLPLWHGWR&RPLQWHUQRXWUHDFK
This is to distinguish once again the Soviet avant-garde from the BolVKHYLN YDQJXDUG EXW DOVR WR GLVWLQJXLVK WKH 6RYLHWV IURP WKHLU :HVWHUQ
counterparts and competitors, many of whom also happened to be drawn
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anticipate Ezra Pounds Cantos LIILXXI ZKLFKFRQQHFWHG&RQIXFLDQ
&KLQDWRWKH$PHULFDQ5HYROXWLRQDQGLQWXUQIDVFLVW,WDO\2IFRXUVHVXFK
HRUWV WR KDUQHVV QRQ:HVWHUQ FXOWXUHV IRU PRGHUQLVW LQQRYDWLRQ RIWHQ
bore a racism and Eurocentrism that ultimately kept these cultures at a
GLVWDQFHDGLVWDQFHWKDW.KOHEQLNRYVRXJKWWRRYHUFRPH Indeed, the anWLLPSHULDOLVWXQGHUSLQQLQJVRIKLV,QGR5XVVLDQ8QLRQVHHPWRDOLJQKLP
PRUH FORVHO\ WR -DPHV &OLRUGV 3DULVEDVHG HWKQRJUDSKLF VXUUHDOLVWV
ZKRLQWKHVXVHGFXOWXUDOLPSXULWLHVDQGGLVWXUELQJV\QFUHWLVPVWR
GHVWDELOL]HUHFHLYHGQRWLRQVRIWKHUHDOQRUPDODQGEHDXWLIXO'UDZing inspiration from works like Pablo Picassos Les demoiselles dAvignon
WKLVJURXSVRXJKWWRXQORFNWKHIXOOKXPDQSRWHQWLDOIRUFXOWXUDO
expression through the sense that something new was occurring in the
SUHVHQFH RI VRPHWKLQJ H[RWLF 6XFK H[SHULPHQWDWLRQWKLV WDVWH IRU WKH
H[RWLFRIFRXUVHKHOSHGPDNHLQWHUZDU3DULVDYLEUDQWFXOWXUDOKXELQFOXGLQJIRUPDQ\DUWLVWVDQGZULWHUVRIFRORU+RZHYHULQFRQWUDVWWR7DWlin and Khlebnikov, the ethnographic surrealists lacked the Cominterns
revolutionary politics, directed against the very forces that made African
DUWLIDFWVVRUHDGLO\DYDLODEOHLQ3DULV$V&OLRUGZULWHVWKHHWKQRJUDSKLF
VXUUHDOLVWVVRXJKWWRGHFHQWHU(XURSHDQGRHUHGUHVLVWDQFHWRRSSUHVsion and a necessary counsel of tolerance, comprehension, and mercy
%XWWKLVJURXSVWRSSHGVKRUWRIERWKZRUOGUHYROXWLRQDQGRILGHQWLI\LQJZLWKUDWKHUWKDQMXVWHPEUDFLQJWKH2WKHU
.KOHEQLNRYLQFRQWUDVWZDVSDUWRIDORQJ5XVVLDQWUDGLWLRQRILGHQWLI\LQJZLWKWKH2WKHUDWUDGLWLRQWKDWEHDUVHODERUDWLRQJLYHQWKHKDQGOH

14

INTRODUCTION

it provides on the Soviet avant-gardes relation to minority and non:HVWHUQ FXOWXUHV 7KDW LV ZH PXVW IROORZ .KOHEQLNRY GRZQ WKH UDEELW
KROHRI5XVVLDQPRGHUQLVWVDQGDYDQWJDUGLVWVLGHQWLI\LQJLQSDUWLFXODU
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EULHIH[FXUVLRQLVDQLQXHQWLDOJURXSRISDLQWHUVIURPWKHVHFRQGGHcade of the twentieth century who called themselves the neoprimitivLVWV DQG ZKR FRXQWHG .KOHEQLNRY DQG 7DWOLQ DPRQJ WKHLU PDQ\ DOOLHV
$WUVWJODQFHWKLVJURXSVZRUNVDQGZULWLQJVVHHPWRPLPLF:HVWHUQ
chinoiserie in claiming the beautiful East as the key to disrupting perFHSWLRQDQGFRQWLQXLW\:HDUHVWULYLQJWRVHHNQHZSDWKVIRURXUDUW
EXWZHGRQRWUHMHFWWKHROGFRPSOHWHO\DQGRILWVSUHYLRXVIRUPVZHUHF-

FIGURE I.4 5XVVLDQQHRSULPLWLYLVPDQGWKH%HDXWLIXO(DVW$OHNVDQGU6KHYFKHQNR

Laundresses

INTRODUCTION

FIGURE I.5

15

Natalia Goncharova, Peasants

6WDWH5XVVLDQ0XVHXP6DLQW3HWHUVEXUJ

RJQL]HDERYHDOOWKHSULPLWLYHWKHPDJLFIDEOHRIWKHROG(DVWZURWH
WKHSDLQWHU$OHNVDQGU6KHYFKHQNRLQ Accordingly, the Asian faces
in his painting Laundresses from the same year evoke the angled African
masks of Picassos Les demoiselles +RZHYHU DV DUW KLVWRULDQ -DQH 6KDUS
has emphasized, the neo of this primitivism lay in its avowedly anti:HVWHUQVWDQFH,QWKHZRUGVRIDQRWKHURILWVOHDGHUV1DWDOLD*RQFKDURYD,WXUQDZD\IURPWKH:HVWEHFDXVHIRUPHSHUVRQDOO\LWKDVGULHG
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16

INTRODUCTION

the neoprimitivists (akin to the nineteenth-century Slavophiles) turned

WKLVLQWRDVRXUFHRIGHDQFHDQGSULGH:HDUHGDLO\LQWKHPRVWGLUHFWFRQWDFWZLWK$VLD6KHYFKHQNRERDVWHG:HDUHFDOOHGEDUEDULDQV
$VLDQV<HVZHDUH$VLDDQGDUHSURXGRIWKLVEHFDXVH$VLDLVWKHFUDGOH
of nations, a good half of our blood is Tatar, and we hail the East to come,
WKHVRXUFHDQGFUDGOHRIDOOFXOWXUHRIDOODUWV,QVKRUWMXVWDVZLWK
.KOHEQLNRYWKHQHRSULPLWLYLVWVQRWRQO\GUHZIURPEXWDOVRLGHQWLHG
ZLWKWKHSUHPRGHUQDQGQRQ:HVWHUQ7KH\FODLPHGWRUHJDUGthemselves
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WR 6KDUS FRORQL]HG E\ WKH :HVW HFRQRPLFDOO\ DQG FXOWXUDOO\ GHSHQGHQW RQ WKH SULRU FLYLOL]LQJ DFFRPSOLVKPHQWV RI (QJODQG *HUPDQ\
,WDO\ DQG )UDQFH 7KLV PHDQV WKDW LQ FRQWUDVW WR :HVWHUQ FKLQRLVHULH
neoprimitivism can be seen as something of an anticolonial discourse,
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+RZHYHU WKRXJK 5XVVLDQ DUWLVWV DQG ZULWHUV PD\ KDYH FRQVLGHUHG
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(XURSHDQYLVjYLVWKHHPSLUHVQRQ5XVVLDQSHRSOHV7KLVLVWRVD\WKDW
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QRQ5XVVLDQ VXEMHFWV DV :HVWHUQHUV FRXOG EH WRZDUG $IULFDQ SHRSOHV
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ZLWK$VLD7KDWLVDIWHUWKH%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQ5XVVLDQWXUQHG6RYLHW
artists and writers came not only to identify with but also to mobilize
WKH 2WKHU $VLD EHFDPH D UDOO\LQJ SRLQW IRU UHYROXWLRQ 3HUKDSV WKH
most striking and famous example of this is the symbolist Aleksandr
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tribe from the Black Sea steppes, reigniting an age-old battle between
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6UDVNRV\PLL]KDGQ\PLRFKDPL :LWKVODQWHGDQGJUHHG\H\HV

INTRODUCTION

17

Though far more crude and violent than Khlebnikovs manifesto, these
OLQHVRQFHDJDLQFDVWWKH%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQDVDQ$VLDQUHYROXWLRQ+HUH
the Bolsheviks-as-Scythians leap from premodern tribe to revolutionary
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$QGWKHVXOWU\GHDWKO\VFHQWRIHVK

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$V5DPQRWHVLQWKHRIWHQHPSLUHLQHFWHGWUDGLWLRQRI5XVVLDQZULWLQJ DERXW $VLD WKLV SRHP PDUNV WKH LQZDUG FROODSVH RI (DVW DQG :HVW
QRORQJHUGLFKRWRPLHVEXWSHUVSHFWLYDOWKUHVKROGVWKURXJKZKLFK5XVVLD
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the revolutionary masses as Asians, Blok came not only to contemplate
WKLVFULVLVQDPHO\DUHYROXWLRQSURFODLPLQJWKH5XVVLDQ(PSLUHVHQG
EXWDOVRWRHQGRUVHLWWRVHOILGHQWLI\DV6F\WKLDQ40 This is despite the
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had a particular predilection for looking eastward for apocalyptic renewDO42 The distinctness of this tradition makes all the more remarkable the
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7KRXJKKHDSSDUHQWO\KDGOLPLWHGSULRUH[SRVXUHWR5XVVLDQOLWHUDWXUHKH
ZULWHVLQKLVPHPRLUWKDWGXULQJKLVYLVLWWRDGGUHVVWKH&RPLQWHUQV
Fourth Congress his senses were stirred by the semi-oriental splendor
and movement of Moscow even before my intellect was touched by the
IRUFHVRIUHYROXWLRQ:KLOHWKHUHKHFRPSRVHGDVRQQHWWLWOHG0RVFRZ
WRWU\WRFDSWXUHWKLVVSOHQGRU,WFDQEHUHDGDVDQDUPDWLYHWKRXJK

18

INTRODUCTION

SUREDEO\XQLQWHQGHGUHVSRQVHWR%ORNVEDUEDULDQO\UHDUHDGLQJUHLQforced by the regular use of rhymes and iambs found in both Scythians
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And yet I saw a bright Byzantine fair,
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A glory painted on the Eastern air,
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All colours laughing richly their delight
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My memory bears engraved the high-walled Kremlin,
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And often now my nerves throb with the thrill
:KHQLQWKDWJLOGHGSODFH,IHOWDQGVDZ
7KHSUHVHQFHDQGWKHVLPSOHYRLFHRI/HQLQ

Bloks barbarian lyre here harmonizes into McKays amorous

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revolution, with the Soviet capital here becoming something from Arabian
NightsGD]]OLQJ FRORUV PL[LQJ ZLWK FRPPXQLVW UHG DQG /HQLQ KROGLQJ
FRXUWLQDJROGHQIRUWUHVV7REHVXUHMXVWDV6F\WKLDQVHPHUJHVIURPD
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2ULHQWDOLVPDQGDFFRUGLQJO\0F.D\VUK\PHVDQGLDPEVDVZHOODVFKDUacteristic) choice of the sonnet form impart to his poem a lulling, retroJUDGHTXDOLW\%XWQRWMXVW2ULHQWDOLVP0RVFRZDOVRH[HPSOLHVZKDW
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that serve to sidestep the crushing oppositional hierarchies of AmeriFDQUDFLVP44
Taking a step back, we can say that Khlebnikov, Blok, and McKay wrote
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of archaic desires and passions, and about the clash of cultures (East versus
:HVWUDWKHUWKDQFODVVHV7KRXJKQRWQHFHVVDULO\ERXQGWRWKHSDUW\RU

INTRODUCTION

19

Comintern, these estranging views, I would like to suggest, served to exWHQGWKHUHYROXWLRQVUHDFKWRPDNHLWPRUHDSSHDOLQJWRQRQ(XURSHDQV

0F.D\KHUHSURYLGLQJDFDVHLQSRLQW$JDLQKHZDVLQ0RVFRZWRDGGUHVV
WKH&RPLQWHUQVSHFLFDOO\RQWKHSOLJKWRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQGDVRWKers have shown, he helped shape the organizations views on the so-called
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)RXUWK&RQJUHVVLV0F.D\VYHU\HQFKDQWPHQWZLWK0RVFRZ$VKHUHFDOOV
in his memoir,
Never in my life did I feel prouder of being an African, a black, and
QRPLVWDNHDERXWLW8QIRUJHWWDEOHWKDWUVWRFFDVLRQXSRQZKLFK,ZDV
SK\VLFDOO\XSOLIWHG$V,WULHGWRJHWWKURXJKDORQJWKH7YHUVND\D,ZDV
suddenly surrounded by a crowd, tossed into the air, and caught a numEHURIWLPHVDQGFDUULHGDEORFNRQWKHLUIULHQGO\VKRXOGHUV7KHFLYLOLDQV
VWDUWHGLW7KHVROGLHUVLPLWDWHGWKHP$QGWKHVDLORUVIROORZHGWKHVROGLHUVWRVVLQJPHKLJKHUWKDQHYHU
From Moscow to Petrograd and from Petrograd to Moscow I went
triumphantly from surprise to surprise, extravagantly fted on every
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EODFNLNRQLQWKHHVK7KHIDPLQHKDGHQGHGWKH1HSZDVRXULVKLQJ
WKHSHRSOHZHUHVLPSO\KDSS\,ZDVWKHUVW1HJURWRDUULYHLQ5XVVLD
since the revolution, and perhaps I was generally regarded as an omen
RIJRRGOXFN<HVWKDWZDVH[DFWO\ZKDWLWZDV,ZDVOLNHDEODFNLNRQ


As others have noted, this passage combines racial pride on the one hand
DQGDZLOOLQJQHVVWREHFRPHDQLNRQWKDWLVWRDFFHSWWKH&RPLQWHUQV
ODWHQWHVVHQWLDOLVPWKHUROHRIVWDQGLQ$IULFDQDVVLJQHGWRKLP45 But I
ZRXOGDOVROLNHWRHPSKDVL]HDPRUHVXEWOHDOOXUHRSHUDWLQJKHUHKLVVSHOOing of ikon (as opposed to icon) suggests that, as he was being foisted
above Moscows streets, he imagined himself as a religious icon (ikona)
DQGKHQFHRPHQRIJRRGOXFN-DPDLFDQ$PHULFDQSRHWDV5XVVLDQ2UWKRGR[VDLQWSDLQWHGRQZRRGNLVVHGE\SDULVKLRQHUV In other words,
QRW RQO\ GLG 0F.D\ DGPLUH WKH %\]DQWLQH TXDOLWLHV RI 0RVFRZV MHZHOOHGEXLOGLQJVSLOODUVGRPHVDQGVSLUHVWKDWLV2UWKRGR[FKXUFKHVEXW
DOVR LQ D VHQVH KH KLPVHOI EHFDPH %\]DQWLQH LGHQWLI\LQJ ZLWK 5XVVLD
MXVW DV .KOHEQLNRY DQG %ORN LGHQWLHG ZLWK $VLD McKay was not alone

20

INTRODUCTION

LQGRLQJVRWKH6RYLHW8QLRQVSHUFHLYHGH[RWLFQHVVDOVRLPSUHVVHG/RYHWW
)RUW:KLWHPDQZKRLQEHFDPHWKHUVW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQWRUHFHLYH
&RPLQWHUQWUDLQLQJLQ0RVFRZ8SRQKLVUHWXUQWR&KLFDJRDVDFRPPXQLVWRUJDQL]HUKHDHFWHGD5XVVLDQVW\OHRIGUHVVVSRUWLQJDrobochka (a
mans long belted shirt) which came almost to his knees, ornamental belt,
KLJKERRWVDQGDIXUKDW%\RQHDFFRXQWKHUHVHPEOHGD%XGGKLVWPRQN
by another, a veritable Black Cossack whose high cheekbones gave him
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All this is to present Moscow and the revolution as uncannily inclusive,
DVSURPRWLQJQRWRQO\FODVVEDVHGHTXDOLW\EXWDOVRXQH[SHFWHGFURVVFXOWXUDOHQFRXQWHUV7KHVHHQFRXQWHUVKDGWKHSRZHUWRWUDQVIRUPSHUFHStion, giving rise to these feverish visions of the Bolsheviks as Asian and
EODFNQHVVEOXUULQJZLWK5XVVLDQQHVV,QGHHGWRERRVWUHFUXLWPHQWLQWKH
HDUO\VEODFNFRPPXQLVWVLQ1HZ<RUNGLVWULEXWHGEXVWVRI$OHNVDQGU
3XVKNLQDQGDXQWHGKLV(WKLRSLDQDQFHVWU\) To be sure, not all minorLW\YLVLWRUVWRLQWHUZDU0RVFRZIRXQGWKHFLW\VRZHOFRPLQJLQFLGHQWVRI
UDFLVPZHUHUHSRUWHGWRDQGSXQLVKHGE\6RYLHWDXWKRULWLHV50+RZHYHU
the point here is not to gauge the extent to which such visions corresponded with reality but to pursue the imaginative possibilities that they
RSHQHG7KHVHYLVLRQVDUHSDUWLFXODUO\XVHIXOLQXQGHUFXWWLQJUHFHLYHGQRWLRQVRIWKH6RYLHW8QLRQDVFROGVWHUQUDWLRQDODVDJUD\SODFHZKHUH
XWRSLDQGUHDPVZHQWWRGLH51 Tatlin, Khlebnikov, Blok, and McKay highlight instead the colorful allure of revolution, the magic behind the
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&OHDUO\WKHVHDUWLVWVDQGZULWHUVKDGJRQHWRRIDULQ&RPPLVVDURI
Enlightenment Anatoly Lunacharsky asserted, Yes, we shall rise at the
KHDGRI$VLD:HVKDOOHYHQDUP$VLDZLWK(XURSHDQWKRXJKWEXWQRWIRU
WKHSXUSRVHRIFUXVKLQJKHUVNHOHWRQZLWKRXU6F\WKLDQHPEUDFH&RQtra Blok, Lunacharsky insisted that the Bolsheviks were by no means
opposed to European civilization and that the world revolution would
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FRPPXQLVWVGLVHQFKDQWHGZLWKPRGHUQLW\DIWHU:RUOG:DU,KDGJLYHQ
LQWRGHFDGHQWP\VWLFLVPVDQGSDVVLYLWLHV7KLVOHGWKHPWRSODFHPXFK
less hope in their own proletariat than in those phantom hordes which
WKHLULPDJLQDWLRQVLQYRNHRXWRI$VLD,QDGGLWLRQWREHLQJDQWL0DU[LVW

INTRODUCTION

21

WKH SUREOHP ZLWK VXFK IDQWDVLHV ZDV WKDW WKH\ ZHUH VWLLQJ UHYROXWLRQ
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Lunacharsky declared, we must absolutely establish our position in this
TXHVWLRQDQGGHVWUR\WKHP\WKWKDWZHDUHWKHEDQQHUEHDUHUVRIDQHZ
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SKDQWRPKRUGHVWRWKHZRUOGLQKLVVWXQQLQJOPThe Heir of Genghis Khan
UHOHDVHGLQ(QJOLVKDVStorm Over Asia6HWLQ0RQJROLDGXULQJWKH
5XVVLDQ &LYLO :DU LW VKRZV %ULWLVK H[SHGLWLRQDU\ IRUFHV FDSWXULQJ ZKDW
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KXQWHULQWRDSXSSHWUXOHUHQGZLWKKLPWHDULQJGRZQWKHLUKHDGTXDUWHUV
with his bare hands, riding on horseback with sword raised, and leading a
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LQ\RXUDQFLHQWVWUHQJWKDQGIUHH\RXUVHOYHVUHDGWKHOPVQDOLQWHUWLWOHV/XQDFKDUVN\VGHFODUDWLRQQRWZLWKVWDQGLQJQRWLRQVRIWKH%ROVKHYLN
5HYROXWLRQDVDQ$VLDQUHYROXWLRQSHUVLVWHG
+ + +
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VROLGDULW\WRRSSUHVVHGQDWLRQVZKDWSROLWLFDOIXQFWLRQGLGWKHVHLFRQRFODVWLFYLVLRQVVHUYH":HUHWKH\SURJUHVVLYHRUUHJUHVVLYHLQQRYDWLYHKDUbingers of a liberated culture that would unite the human race, or violent
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OHJLEO\0DU[LVWWUDGLWLRQZLWKWKHDLGRI:DOWHU%HQMDPLQDQGLQSDUWLFXODUKLVRZQLPSUHVVLRQVRIWKH6RYLHW8QLRQGXULQJKLVYLVLWWR
0RVFRZ+LVJRDOVWKHUHZHUHWRZLWQHVV5XVVLDUVWKDQGDQGH[SORUHIXWXUH
writing collaborations, but primarily to pursue a fruitless romance with his
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RFLDOFDSDFLW\DQGLQWHUDFWHGPRVWO\ZLWKIULQJHSUHGRPLQDQWO\-HZLVK
FXOWXUDOJXUHV0F.D\LQFRQWUDVWPHWWKHFUHDPRI0RVFRZVSROLWLFDO
DQG FXOWXUDO HOLWH7URWVN\ =LQRYLHY /XQDFKDUVN\ 0D\DNRYVN\54) NoneWKHOHVV%HQMDPLQVH[SHULHQFHZDVVLPLODUWR0F.D\VLQWKDWKHIRXQGD
FLW\OOHGZLWKVWUDQJHDQGXQH[SHFWHGHQFKDQWPHQWVZKLFKKHDOVROLQNHG
WRLWVVXSSRVHG$VLDQQHVV%HQMDPLQVZULWLQJVDGGWRVXFKGHVFULSWLRQVD

22

INTRODUCTION

theoretical framework that helps us to see them as both radical and porWDEOHWKDWLVQRWH[FOXVLYHWRWKHGLVWLQFWWUDGLWLRQVRI5XVVLDQPRGHUQLVP
$IUR2ULHQWDOLVPDQGWKH:HVWVUHOHJDWLRQRI5XVVLD0RUHWRWKHSRLQW
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+HGRHVVRWKURXJKKLVGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHQHZRSWLFVWKDWKHJDLQHG
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resulted in part from the astounding degree to which the exotic surges
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VXUUHDOLVP UHFDOOLQJ QHDU WKH VWDUW RI KLV  HVVD\ RQ WKH JURXS VXUrounding Andr Breton,
In Moscow I lived in a hotel in which almost all the rooms were occupied
by Tibetan lamas who had come to Moscow for a congress of Buddhist
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DOZD\VOHIWDMDU:KDWKDGDWUVWVHHPHGDFFLGHQWDOEHJDQWREHGLVWXUELQJ , IRXQG RXW WKDW LQ WKHVH URRPV OLYHG PHPEHUV RI D VHFW ZKR KDG
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LV WKH YHU\ NLQG RI MX[WDSRVLWLRQ WKDW %UHWRQ SUL]HG +H HQGRUVHG WKH
bridging of distant realities to enable new forms of expression, and acFRUGLQJO\%HQMDPLQOLNHQVWKLV0RVFRZHQFRXQWHUWRWKHVKRFNRIUHDGing Bretons NadjaERWKSURYLGLQJDQLQWR[LFDWLRQDPRUDOH[KLELWLRQLVPWKDWZHEDGO\QHHG2IFRXUVHLWZDV%HQMDPLQVSURMHFWWRKDUQHVV
such intoxication and exhibitionism for socialism, to show how the avantJDUGHV PDJLFDO H[SHULPHQWV ZLWK ZRUGV FRXOG KHOS VSDUN UHYROXWLRQ
The key was to see beyond veneers and get at the true face of a city,
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had Paris in mind, but it seems he found the inconceivable more readily
SUHVHQWLQ0RVFRZ+HDSSUHFLDWHGWKHFLW\DVDSODFHWKDWZDVDQGUHmains) spatially disorienting, with labyrinthine streets, shoving crowds,
DVZHOODVPDSQDPHVDQGERUGHUVVKLIWLQJZLWKRXWZDUQLQJ+HGHVFULEHG
LWDVDFLW\RQJXDUGDJDLQVWWKHYLVLWRU0RVFRZPDVNVLWVHOIHHVLQWULJXHVOXUHVKLPWRZDQGHULWVFLUFOHVWRWKHSRLQWRIH[KDXVWLRQ It was

INTRODUCTION

23

also disorienting in the broader sense that this was the furthest he would
HYHUYHQWXUHIURP:HVWHUQ(XURSH$VKHZURWHWRDIULHQGVRRQDIWHUKLV
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:HVWLVDFRPSOH[V\VWHPRIVPDOO5XVVLDQSHQLQVXODV8VHGLQ9VHYRORG
Meyerholds experimental production Give Us Europe (Daesh Evropu
it seems to have anticipated by several years the famous Surrealist Map
RIWKH:RUOGSXEOLVKHGLQWKH%HOJLDQPDJD]LQHVarits LQZLWKWKH
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:KDW,DPVXJJHVWLQJKHUHLVWKDW%HQMDPLQV6RYLHWVWD\LQIRUPHGKLV
VXEVHTXHQWYLHZVRQVXUUHDOLVPDYLVLWWR0RVFRZLQDVDNLQWRUHDGLQJ%UHWRQRUVPRNLQJKDVKLVK7KHVHH[SHULHQFHVRSHQHGGUHDPOLNHXQH[SHFWHGZD\VRIVHHLQJWKRXJK0RVFRZZDVXQLTXHLQWKDWWKHVRXUFHRI
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According to him, his Moscow writings concentrate less on visual than
RQUK\WKPLFH[SHULHQFHDQH[SHULHQFHLQZKLFKDQDUFKDLF5XVVLDQWHPSR
EOHQGVLQWRDZKROHZLWKWKHQHZUK\WKPVRIWKH5HYROXWLRQ+HHODERrates on this blend in his essay Moscow, where for the locals minutes
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7KXVKHUHDJDLQZHQGDQDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ5XVVLDDQG$VLDWKRXJKDW
UVWJODQFHWKLVLVPHUHO\D:HVWHUQHUVFRPSODLQWDERXW6ODYLFEDFNZDUGQHVVEDHPHQWWKDWWKHUHYROXWLRQFRXOGKDYHXQIROGHGKHUH
6LPLODUWR7URWVN\WKRXJK%HQMDPLQZDVDEOHWRWUDQVIRUPWKLVVHHPLQJGHFLHQF\LQWRDYLUWXH,Q0RVFRZKHZDVDEOHWRUHWKLQNWKHPRYHment of time, to stretch and imbibe minutes so that time itself became an
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would deliver his morning wake-up knock (presumably he kept his door
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The real unit of time is the seichas7KLVPHDQVDWRQFH<RXFDQKHDULW
ten, twenty, thirty times, and wait hours, days, or weeks until the promise

24

INTRODUCTION

LVFDUULHGRXW%\WKHVDPHWRNHQ\RXVHOGRPKHDUWKHDQVZHUQR1HJDWLYHUHSOLHVDUHOHIWWRWLPH7LPHFDWDVWURSKHVWLPHFROOLVLRQVDUHWKHUHfore as much the order of the day as remonte >EXLOGLQJUHQRYDWLRQ@7KH\

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public transport system as evincing the complete interpenetration of
technological and primitive modes of life, with conductresses standLQJIXUZUDSSHGDWWKHLUSODFHVOLNH6DPR\HGZRPHQRQDVOHLJK+H
encounters similar collisions of time in the everyday consumer goods
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side by side, and handmade wooden folk toys that captured the diverse
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GLVDSSHDULQWKHIDFHRISURJUHVV As art historian Christina Kiaer has
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OLWHUDWXUHZKDWDWWUDFWHG%HQMDPLQLQ0RVFRZZDVWKLVXELTXLWRXVLQWHUPLQJOLQJRIROGDQGQHZ+LVWRULFDOSRVVLELOLWLHVFDPHLQWKHIRUPRI
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is this use of seichas, which, as he indicates, when spoken can be translated
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(an eccentric cousin to combined and uneven development) interrupts
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WKHSUHVHQW0RUHVSHFLFDOO\WKURXJKWKHSULVPRIWKHKLVWRULFDOSUHV-

INTRODUCTION

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HQW QRZWLPH VHHNV WR FDSWXUH WKH SUHVHQFH RI KLVWRU\ DV D ZKROHD
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,QKLVWKHVHV%HQMDPLQLOOXVWUDWHVQRZWLPHWKURXJK5REHVSLHUUHV
HPEUDFHRIDQFLHQW5RPHWKHIDFWWKDWWKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQYLHZHGLWVHOIDV5RPHLQFDUQDWH:HFDQDGGWRWKLVKLVDFFRXQWVRI$VLDWLF5XVVLDQVDQG6DPR\HGFRQGXFWUHVVHVWKHVHLQVWDQFHVRIseichas that take on
UHYROXWLRQDU\VLJQLFDQFHZKHQUHFDVWDVJetztzeit7KURXJKWKLV%HQMDPLQian lens, they become constellations of past and present that serve to shatter the continuum of history, or as he famously calls it, homogeneous,
HPSW\WLPH
%HQMDPLQV  6XUUHDOLVP SLHFH VLPLODUO\ GHFRXSOHV WKH DYDQW
JDUGHIURPSURJUHVV,Q3HWHU2VERUQHVZRUGVRQHRIWKHHVVD\VDFKLHYHments is its reintroduction of historical time into the conceptualization
RI6XUUHDOLVWH[SHULHQFHLWVHPSKDVLVRQWHPSRUDODVZHOODVVSDWLDOHVWUDQJHPHQW 6SHFLFDOO\ %HQMDPLQ SUDLVHV %UHWRQ DV WKH UVW WR SHUFHLYHWKHUHYROXWLRQDU\HQHUJLHVWKDWDSSHDULQWKHRXWPRGHGLQWKHUVW
LURQFRQVWUXFWLRQVWKHUVWIDFWRU\EXLOGLQJVWKHHDUOLHVWSKRWRVWKHREMHFWVWKDWKDYHEHJXQWREHH[WLQFWJUDQGSLDQRVWKHGUHVVHVRIYH\HDUV
DJRIDVKLRQDEOHUHVWDXUDQWVZKHQWKHYRJXHKDVEHJXQWRHEEIURPWKHP
$FFRUGLQJWR%HQMDPLQHPEHGGHGLQVXFKUHOLFVDUHGHVWLWXWLRQWKZDUWHG
GHVLUHVDQGWKXVUHYROXWLRQDU\QLKLOLVP,QVKRUWKHSUDLVHVVXUUHDOLVP
IRULWVGLVUXSWLYHLQYRFDWLRQVRIWKHSDVWPRUHVSHFLFDOO\LWVDELOLW\WR
VXEVWLWXWHDSROLWLFDOIRUDKLVWRULFDOYLHZRIWKHSDVWZKLFKIRUKLPLV
ZKDWPDNHVWKLVEUDQFKRIWKHDYDQWJDUGHUHYROXWLRQDU\+RZHYHU%HQMDPLQHODERUDWHVRQWKLVRQO\PXFKODWHULQWKHWKHVHVDVZHOODVLQ
3DULV&DSLWDORIWKH1LQHWHHQWK&HQWXU\WKURXJKKLVQRWLRQRIWKHGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJHZKLFKKHGHQHVDVLPDJHVLQWKHFROOHFWLYHFRQVFLRXVness in which the new and the old are intermingled, and more cryptically
DVWKHLQYROXQWDU\PHPRU\RIUHGHHPHGKXPDQLW\:KLOHZHFDQODEHODV
VXUUHDODQ\LPDJHWKDWEULGJHVGLVWDQWUHDOLWLHV%HQMDPLQVGLDOHFWLFDOLPage is more ambitious, running across the whole horizon of the past like
ball lightning in order to arrest historical progress, in order to capture
QRZWLPH
In the dream in which every epoch sees in images the epoch which is to
VXFFHHGLWWKHODWWHUDSSHDUVFRXSOHGZLWKHOHPHQWVRISUHKLVWRU\WKDW
LVWRVD\RIDFODVVOHVVVRFLHW\7KHH[SHULHQFHVRIWKLVVRFLHW\ZKLFKKDYH

26

INTRODUCTION

their store-place in the collective unconscious, interact with the new to

JLYHELUWKWRWKHXWRSLDVZKLFKOHDYHWKHLUWUDFHVLQDWKRXVDQGFRQJXUDWLRQVRIOLIHIURPSHUPDQHQWEXLOGLQJVWRHSKHPHUDOIDVKLRQV

2QH YLYLG LOOXVWUDWLRQ RI WKLV FRXSOLQJ LV %HQMDPLQV MX[WDSRVLWLRQ RI WKH
PRGHUQERPEHUSODQHZLWK/HRQDUGRGD9LQFLVGUHDPRIDLUSODQHVWKDW
ZRXOGGHOLYHUPRXQWDLQVQRZRQWRVZHOWHULQJFLWLHVLQWKHVXPPHU7KDW
is, the dialectical image refers not to an actual image but to a particular
ZD\RIVHHLQJRUUHDGLQJRQHDEOHWRGHWHFWSDVWWKZDUWHGXWRSLDVLQD
WKRXVDQG FRQJXUDWLRQV RI SUHVHQWGD\ OLIH IURP 3DULVLDQ DUFDGHV WR
6DPR\HGFRQGXFWUHVVHVWRZRRGHQWR\V7KHGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJHUHYHDOVLQ
these fragments of the everyday traces of a communistic society at the
GDZQRIKLVWRU\,WFDSWXUHVKLVWRU\VGLVDSSRLQWPHQWVEXWDOVRWKHXQIXOOOHGKRSHVWKDWSHUVLVWDORQJVLGHWKHPGUHDPVLQ0LFKDHO/|Z\VZRUGV
RIDORVWSUHKLVWRULFSDUDGLVH
6HYHUDOKDYHQRWHGWKHDYDQWJDUGLVWXQGHUSLQQLQJVRI%HQMDPLQVGLDOHFWLFDO LPDJHLWV PRQWDJHOLNH MX[WDSRVLWLRQ RI SUHVHQW DQG SDVW LWV UHOLDQFHRQGLVFRQWLQXRXVPXOWLSOLFLW\LWVH[SHULPHQWDOHRUWWRXQFRYHU
ZKDWLVWUXO\QHZLQWKHSUHVHQW At this point, though, it is necessary
WRSUHVHQWDPRUHSUHFLVHGHQLWLRQRIDYDQWJDUGHYLVjYLVJetztzeit and
WKH GLDOHFWLFDO LPDJH 2I FRXUVH WKH PRVW SURPLQHQW GHQLWLRQV RI WKLV
WHUPWXUQRQWKHDOLHQDWLRQRIDUWLVWVDV5HQDWR3RJJLROLKDVLWWKHWHDULQJ
down of art institutions (Peter Brger), and the dismantling of high-low diYLGHV$QGUHDV+X\VVHQ+RZHYHULQKLVGLVFXVVLRQRI%HQMDPLQ2VERUQH
DGGVDQRWKHUGHQLWLRQWKDWFRPSOHPHQWVUDWKHUWKDQUHSODFHVWKRVHWKDW
ZHQWEHIRUHDQGWKDWKHUHSURYHVXVHIXOWKHDYDQWJDUGHDVWKDWZKLFKLQ
WKHDVKRIWKHGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJHGLVUXSWVWKHOLQHDUWLPHFRQVFLRXVQHVV
RISURJUHVVLQVXFKDZD\DVWRHQDEOHXVOLNHWKHFKLOGWRGLVFRYHUWKH
QHZDQHZDQGDORQJZLWKLWWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIDEHWWHUIXWXUH In short,
2VERUQHGHQHVDYDQWJDUGLVPDVWKHDEDQGRQPHQWRIHPSLULFDOKLVWRU\
WKDWLVRIWKHFKURQRORJLFDOVXFFHVVLRQIURPROGWRQHZ,QLWVSODFHWKLV
avant-gardism reimagines the movement of time, indeed, imagines the
FHVVDWLRQRIWLPHRUDWWKHYHU\OHDVWNHHSVDOLYHPHPRULHVRIWKRVHSDVW
WKZDUWHGXWRSLDVIRUWKHVDNHRIIXWXUHUHGHPSWLRQ7KLVUHTXLUHVRSHQLQJ
QRWLRQVRIWKHDYDQWJDUGHWRERWKQHZDQGROGVSHFLFDOO\WRSUHPRGHUQ
QRQOLQHDUXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIWLPHDV6XVDQ%XFN0RUVVSXWVLWWKHXU
ROGWKHRORJLFDOP\WKRIZRUOGO\XWRSLDDVWKHRULJLQDQGJRDORIKLVWRU\

INTRODUCTION

27

7KXV2VERUQHVFRQQHFWLRQRIGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJHDQGDYDQWJDUGHHQDEOHV
XVWRUHFRQFLOHWKHODWWHUWRWKHDUFKDLFDQGWUDGLWLRQDO
%ULQJLQJWKLVEDFNWR0RVFRZ%HQMDPLQVHQFRXQWHUZLWKWKH7LEHWDQ
ODPDVQRZDVVXPHVDGGHGVLJQLFDQFH1RWRQO\LVWKLVDVXUUHDOHQFRXQWHU
but with the lamas refusal of closed doors, it also hints at that communisWLFVRFLHW\DWWKHGDZQRIKLVWRU\ODWHUUHIHUHQFHGE\KLP+HUHZHQGD
FRQVWHOODWLRQRISDVWDQGSUHVHQWROGHUIRUPVRIFRPPXQLVPLQWKHKHDUW
RIWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\FRPPXQLVP,QGHHG%HQMDPLQQRWHVLQKLVGLDU\WKH
ODPDVUHGDQG\HOORZFRDWVWKHVDPHFRORUVDVWKH6RYLHWDJ:HFDQ
DSSO\DVLPLODUUHDGLQJWR0F.D\V0RVFRZ(YHQWKRXJKLWVVRQQHWIRUP
is not discernibly experimental, it can still be considered avant-gardist
LQ2VERUQHVVHQVHRIWKHWHUP%OXUULQJ%\]DQWLQHKXHVZLWKFRPPXQLVW
UHGWKHSRHPKDVWKHHHFWRIXQGHUFXWWLQJHPSLULFDOKLVWRU\DQGLQGHHG
from this perspective, McKays traditional use of form only accentuates
WKHSRHPVFRPELQDWLRQRIDUFKDLFOHJHQGDQGVRFLDOLVWUHYROXWLRQ6LPLODU
UHDGLQJVFDQEHDSSOLHGWR%ORNV6F\WKLDQV.KOHEQLNRYV,QGR5XVVLDQ
8QLRQDQGRIFRXUVH7DWOLQV7RZHU7KRXJKKDLOLQJIURPGLVWLQFWDUWLVWLF
WUDGLWLRQV5XVVLDQV\PEROLVPIXWXULVPDQGFRQVWUXFWLYLVPUHVSHFWLYHO\
each of these examples constellate past and present so as to estrange but
DOVRDGYDQFHWKHSURMHFWRIZRUOGUHYROXWLRQ,QVKRUW%HQMDPLQVGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJHHQDEOHVXVZLWK2VERUQHVKHOSWRJURXSWKHVHYHU\GLHUHQW
JXUHV LQWR D VKDUHG DYDQWJDUGH 2ULHQWHG WRZDUG ERWK IXWXUH DQG SDVW
WKLVZDVDQDYDQWJDUGHWKDWZDVRSHQWRFXOWXUDOGLHUHQFHLQGHHGRQH
LQZKLFK$VLDWLF5XVVLDQVDQG7LEHWDQODPDVFRXOGSOD\OHDGLQJUROHV

American Ethnicity, Soviet Nationality

It would be premature to call this shared avant-garde the ethnic avantJDUGH5DWKHUWKHSRLQWVRIDUKDVEHHQWROD\RXWWKHQRWLRQVRIUHYROXWLRQDQGDYDQWJDUGLVPXQGHUJLUGLQJWKLVJURXSLQJ7KHWDVNQRZLVWRXQpack the accompanying notion of the ethnic, which up to this point I have
YDJXHO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKRSSUHVVHGQDWLRQVDQGSUHPRGHUQFXOWXUHV7KH
challenge now is to arrive at a more precise understanding of this term so
DVWREHWWHUIXVHLWZLWKWKHDYDQWJDUGH0RUHVSHFLFDOO\,ZRXOGOLNHWR
VXJJHVWWKDWMXVWDVLWLVSRVVLEOHWRUHWKLQNQRWLRQVRIDYDQWJDUGLVPYLD
WKH6RYLHW8QLRQWKHVDPHFDQEHGRQHIRUHWKQLFLW\

28

INTRODUCTION

$V QRWHG D JURZLQJ QXPEHU RI VFKRODUVSUHGRPLQDQWO\ $PHULFDQLVWVKDYHVKRZQKRZ0RVFRZVSURPLVHVRIHTXDOLW\DSSHDOHGWRDYHULtable whos who of black activists and intellectuals, including McKay,
+XJKHV3DXO5REHVRQDQG:(%'X%RLV/DUJHO\PLVVLQJIURPWKLVZRUN
KRZHYHUKDVEHHQDQHPSKDVLVRQWKHMDUULQJDQG,WKLQNSURGXFWLYHJDSV
EHWZHHQ$PHULFDQDQG6RYLHWFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQVRIGLHUHQFH,QWKLVVHFond part of the introduction, I highlight these gaps in order to arrive at a
QHZGHIDPLOLDUL]HGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIHWKQLFLW\RQHDOVRRULHQWHGWRZDUG
both past and future and therefore well suited to the avant-gardism spelled
RXWLQWKHSUHFHGLQJ0DNLQJWKLVFODLPUHTXLUHVDGHWRXUIURPDYDQWJDUGLVWGLVFRXUVHVWRWKRVHRIUDFHHWKQLFLW\DQGQDWLRQDOLW\7REHVXUHWKHUH
is historical overlap among these discourses, beginning with the fact that
WKHQRZXELTXLWRXVWHUPHWKQLFDQGWKHHWKQLFLW\SDUDGLJPFDPHLQWR
formation in the early decades of the twentieth century, that is, at roughly
WKHVDPHWLPHWKDWWKHOLNHVRI7DWOLQDQG%HQMDPLQVRXJKWQHZZD\VRI
VHHLQJ+RZHYHUWKHHWKQLFLW\SDUDGLJPHPHUJHGLQDYHU\GLHUHQWSODFH
QDPHO\WKH8QLWHG6WDWHVZKLFKH[SODLQVWKLVERRNVSDLULQJRIWKH86
DQGWKH86657KURXJKPXFKRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\WKHVHYDVWGLYHUVH
countries laid competing claims to global preeminence by touting domesWLFLQFOXVLRQDQGDVVDLOHGHDFKRWKHUVIDLOXUHVWROLYHXSWRVWDWHGLGHDOV
)URPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHSRVW&ROG:DUSUHVHQW$PHULFDQFLYLOULJKWV
and multiculturalism apparently prevailed over Soviet nationalities
policy and multinationalness (mnogonatsionalnost1RQHWKHOHVV6RYLHW
approaches to countering racism still provide useful, estranging counterSRLQWVWRWKHQRZJOREDOL]HGGLVFRXUVHRI$PHULFDQHWKQLFLW\
Simply because it does seem so familiar today, my starting point is ethQLFLW\'XULQJWKHLQWHUZDU\HDUVLWUHPDLQHGDPDOOHDEOHDQGRSHQHQGHG
FRQFHSWHPHUJLQJIURPWKHHRUWVRIVRFLDOVFLHQWLVWVWRXQVHDWWKHQRtion that biological racial divides were intractable and that races could
EH UDQNHG DV VXSHULRU RU LQIHULRU (WKQLFLW\ LQVWHDG HPSKDVL]HG FXOWXUDO
GLHUHQFHV WKDW ZHUH VRFLDOO\ UDWKHU WKDQ ELRORJLFDOO\ DFTXLUHG %H\RQG
WKLVDQWLUDFLDOLVWVWDQFHKRZHYHUWKHUHZDVPXFKURRPIRUYDULDQFH7KH
anthropologist Franz Boas, for instance, valorized distinct cultures and
VRXJKWWRDSSUHFLDWHWKHPRQWKHLURZQWHUPV$JDLQVWWKHOLQHDUHYROXtionist notion that some were advanced and others backward, he inVWHDGGLVSHUVHGGLHUHQWJURXSVVSDWLDOO\LQDVLPXOWDQHRXVSUHVHQWWKDW
DOORZHG IRU FXOWXUDO LQWHUPL[WXUH +RZHYHU VHYHUDO KDYH QRWHG D ODWHQW

INTRODUCTION

29

assimilationism in his work, with Johannes Fabian charging Boass synchronic, culturalist emphasis with simply ignoring rather than remedyLQJWKHSUREOHPRI:HVWHUQDQWKURSRORJ\VGHQLDORIFRHYDOQHVV The
VRFLRORJLVW5REHUW3DUNRQWKHRWKHUKDQGHPSKDVL]HGWKHDELOLW\RIFXOtures to adapt and transform, especially in urban settings, and viewed asVLPLODWLRQDVDPHDQVRIVRFLDOSURJUHVV+LVDVVLPLODWLRQLVPLQFRQWUDVW
to Boass, was overt, though several have noted a latent nostalgia for culWXUHVORVWLQWKHSURFHVV7KXVDV0LFKDHO2PLDQG+RZDUG:LQDQWKDYH
QRWHGIURPLWVHDUOLHVWDUWLFXODWLRQVLQWKHVDQGVWKH$PHULFDQ
ethnicity paradigm has been marked by tensions between pluralism and
DVVLPLODWLRQLVPRUZKDW5H\&KRZKDVPRUHUHFHQWO\FDOOHGSDUWLFXODULVWLFSUDFWLFHVDQGXQLYHUVDOLVWDVSLUDWLRQV&KRZGHVFULEHVWKLVWHQVLRQLQ
WHUPVRIWLPHHYHQWRGD\LQWKHH\HVRIWKHGRPLQDQWVRFLHW\WKHHWKQLF
2WKHULVFRQQHGWRDQHDUOLHUWHPSRUDOO\DUFDQHFRQGLWLRQRIKXPDQity but also cast as politically avant-garde and future-oriented, always
looking ahead to the time when the United States will have fully realized
LWVXQLYHUVDOLGHDOV
Chows use of avant-garde emphasizes the terms typical, forwardlooking connotation, something I have complicated through the dialecWLFDOLPDJHDQG%HQMDPLQLQ0RVFRZ+RZHYHUVKHDOVRXQGHUVFRUHVWKH
GLHUHQWWHPSRUDOLWLHVRIHWKQLFLW\ZKLFKKHUHJHVWXUHVWRZDUGERWKGHscent-based identities and forward-looking politics, to both past and fuWXUH7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDWRQHZD\WROLQNHWKQLFLW\DQGDYDQWJDUGLVPDV
framed in the preceding) would be to emphasize their similarly variegated
WHPSRUDOLWLHV+RZHYHUIRU&KRZWKLVDVSHFWRIHWKQLFLW\LVQRWVRPHWKLQJ
WRFHOHEUDWHEXWDQH[SUHVVLRQRILWVFRQWUDGLFWRU\LUUDWLRQDOQDWXUH+HU
SURMHFWLVWRFRUUHFWWKLVE\VLWXDWLQJHWKQLFLW\YLVjYLVFODVVLQDJOREDOL]HGSUHVHQW7KXVLQRUGHUWROLQNHWKQLFLW\DQGDYDQWJDUGLVPGXULQJWKH
LQWHUZDU\HDUV,QGLWQHFHVVDU\WRIROORZDGLHUHQWURXWHWRWXUQDZD\
from American discourses of ethnicity and to channel this term through
0RVFRZMXVWDV,GLGZLWKWKHDYDQWJDUGH0RUHVSHFLFDOO\LQWKHIROORZLQJ,MX[WDSRVHWKH$PHULFDQHWKQLFLW\SDUDGLJPZLWKLWV6RYLHWDQDORJXH
6RYLHWQDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\
If American ethnicity was wrought by tensions between pluralism and
assimilationism, the particular and universal, the past and future, what I
would like to suggest is that the Soviet concept of nationality allowed for,
LIQRWUHVROYHGWKHVHWHQVLRQV)RU$PHULFDQPLQRULWLHVGUDZQWRWKH8665

30

INTRODUCTION

WKLVFRQFHSWPDGHLWSRVVLEOHWRORRNERWKEDFNZDUGDQGIRUZDUGWRHPEUDFHGHVFHQWEDVHGSDUWLFXODULVPLQDZD\WKDWDGYDQFHGXQLYHUVDOHTXDOLW\7KLVLVHYLGHQWIRULQVWDQFHLQ5LFKDUG:ULJKWVPXFKFLWHGHQFRXQWHU
with the writings of Joseph Stalin, himself a minority (Georgian) who served
DVWKH%ROVKHYLNVUVWFRPPLVVDUIRUQDWLRQDOLWLHVDDLUV,Q&KLFDJRRIWKH
HDUO\V6WDOLQVHVVD\VRQWKHQDWLRQDODQGFRORQLDOTXHVWLRQSURPSWHG
:ULJKWVFRQYHUVLRQWRFRPPXQLVPEXWDOVRLQ:LOOLDP0D[ZHOOVZRUGV
KLVPRYHPHQWIURPIHDUWRUHODWLYHIDLWKRQWKHVXEMHFWRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQIRONFXOWXUH7KDWLVZKHUHDV:ULJKWXQGHU3DUNVLQXHQFHKDG
previously disdained both this culture and his own southern roots, Stalins
ZULWLQJVSURPSWHGDUHFRQVLGHUDWLRQ$VKHUHFDOOVLQDHVVD\
I had read with awe how the Communists had sent phonetic experts into
WKHYDVWUHJLRQVRI5XVVLDWROLVWHQWRWKHVWDPPHULQJGLDOHFWVRISHRSOH
RSSUHVVHGIRUFHQWXULHVE\WKHWVDUV,KDGPDGHWKHUVWWRWDOHPRWLRQDO
commitment of my life when I read how the phonetic experts had given
WKHVHWRQJXHOHVVSHRSOHDODQJXDJHQHZVSDSHUVLQVWLWXWLRQV,KDGUHDG
how these forgotten folk had been encouraged to keep their old cultures, to see in their ancient customs meaning and satisfactions as deep
DVWKRVHFRQWDLQHGLQVXSSRVHGO\VXSHULRUZD\VRIOLYLQJ$QG,KDGH[FODLPHGWRP\VHOIKRZGLHUHQWWKLVZDVIURPWKHZD\LQZKLFK1HJURHV
ZHUHVQHHUHGDWLQ$PHULFD

7REHVXUH:ULJKWQHYHUPDGHWKHPDJLFSLOJULPDJHPHDQLQJKLVJUDVS
of Soviet nationalities policy was limited largely to Stalins word; he was
IDUIURPDQDXWKRULW\RQWKHWRSLF+RZHYHU0RVFRZGLGLQGHHGGHSOR\
teams of linguists and ethnographers to make sense of the diverse peoples
LWKDGLQKHULWHGIURPWKH5XVVLDQ(PSLUHDVZHOODVWREROVWHUWKHFXOWXUDO
GHYHORSPHQWRILWVPLQRULWLHV3DUWLFXODUO\LQWKHVWKH6RYLHWVWDWH
SURPRWHG D UHPDUNDEOH GHJUHH RI FXOWXUDO GLYHUVLW\LQ KLVWRULDQ <XUL
Slezkines words, a feast of ethnic fertility, an exuberant national carniYDO7KLVZDVGRQHSDUWO\WRFRQYLQFHWKHZRUOGRIWKH%ROVKHYLNVDQWL
imperialist credentials but also to rush their own backward minorities
WKURXJKKLVWRULFDOVWDJHVIURPIHXGDOWULEHVWRFDSLWDOLVWQDWLRQVZKLFK
ZRXOGSDYHWKHZD\IRUVRFLDOLVWXQLW\ That is, in contrast to Boass synchronic emphasis, Soviet nationalities policy was diachronic and, indeed,
XQDEDVKHGO\HYROXWLRQLVW,WVORQJWHUPDLPZDVDVVLPLODWLRQLQWRD6RYLHW

INTRODUCTION

31

whole, but it also claimed to preserve national particularities and to erase

FXOWXUDOKLHUDUFKLHV-XVWDVWKH&RPLQWHUQZRUNHGWRHQIROGGLVWLQFWOLEHUDWLRQPRYHPHQWVLQWRDXQLHGZRUOGUHYROXWLRQWKH6RYLHWVWDWHVRXJKW
to embrace both particularism and communism, both old cultures and a
OLEHUDWHGIXWXUH
,VXEVHTXHQWO\KLJKOLJKWWKHVKRUWFRPLQJVRI6RYLHWQDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\
EXWWKHSRLQWIRUQRZLVWKDWLQWKHVDQGVLWVHHPHGWRSURYLGH
DQ DOWHUQDWLYH WR $PHULFDQ DSSURDFKHV WR GLHUHQFHDQG LQ SDUWLFXODU
WR%RDVVODWHQWDQG3DUNVRYHUWDVVLPLODWLRQLVP7KLVEHFRPHVPRUHHYLdent by turning to another of the architects of the ethnicity paradigm, the
SKLORVRSKHU+RUDFH.DOOHQZKRLQGLGPDNHWKHPDJLFSLOJULPDJH
to the Soviet Union, named it one of two frontiers of hope for all Jewish
people (the other being Palestine), and today is regarded as a forefather of
ODWHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\OLEHUDOPXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP+DLOLQJIURPD*HUPDQ
Jewish immigrant family, Kallen is now best known for coining the term
cultural pluralism, which has come to be associated with the antiassimLODWLRQLVWVWUDQGRIWKHHWKQLFLW\SDUDGLJP:KDW,ZRXOGOLNHWRVXJJHVW
LVWKDWWKH6RYLHWFRQFHSWRIQDWLRQDOLWLHVZDVTXLWHFRPSDWLEOHZLWKWKLV
VWUDQGWKDWLVFRPSDWLEOHZLWK.DOOHQVQRWLRQRISOXUDOLVP7KLVEHFRPHV
HYLGHQWE\MX[WDSRVLQJWZRVHPLQDOWH[WVWKDWZHUHZULWWHQMXVWWZR\HDUV
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4XHVWLRQ  7KH SRLQW KHUH LV QRW LQXHQFH EXW GHIDPLOLDUL]DWLRQ
Placing into dialogue the fathers of American cultural pluralism and Soviet nationalities policy reopens a historical moment in which concepts of
UDFHHWKQLFLW\DQGQDWLRQDOLW\UHPDLQHGXQIRUPHGDQGFRQWLQJHQW
$FFRUGLQJO\WKHWKUXVWRIERWKHVVD\VLVWKHLUFRPPRQHRUWWRZRUN
through terms that, in the second decade of the twentieth century, were
VWLOO XS IRU JUDEV 3URQRXQFLQJ WKH IDLOXUH RI $QJOR6D[RQ $PHULFDQL]DWLRQLQWKHIDFHRISULPDU\HWKQLFGLHUHQFHVWKH.DOOHQHVVD\FODLPHG
WKDW ZKDW DSSHDUHG WR EH DVVLPLODWLRQ ZDV DFWXDOO\ WKH UVW VWHS WRZDUG
GLVVLPLODWLRQQHZLPPLJUDQWVOHDUQHG(QJOLVKLQRUGHUWRDWWDLQHFRQRPic independence, but once this was achieved, the solitary spiritual unit of
HDFKHWKQLFJURXSH[SUHVVHGLWVHOIWKURXJKDUWVOLIHDQGLGHDOV
(WKQLF DQG QDWLRQDO GLHUHQFHV FKDQJH LQ VWDWXV IURP GLVDGYDQWDJHV
WRGLVWLQFWLRQV$OOWKHZKLOHWKHLPPLJUDQWKDVEHHQXVLQJWKH(QJOLVK

32

INTRODUCTION

language and behaving like an American in matters economic and poOLWLFDODQGFRQWLQXHVWRGRVR7KHLQVWLWXWLRQVRIWKH5HSXEOLFKDYHEHcome the liberating cause and the background for the rise of the cultural
consciousness and social autonomy of the immigrant Irishman, German,
6FDQGLQDYLDQ-HZ3ROHRU%RKHPLDQ2QWKHZKROH$PHULFDQL]DWLRQKDV
QRWUHSUHVVHGQDWLRQDOLW\$PHULFDQL]DWLRQKDVOLEHUDWHGQDWLRQDOLW\

In short, one could become both more American and more ethnic, though as
many commentators have noted, this vision relied on a latent racialist logic
WKDWZLOOIXOO\LJQRUHGEODFNV3XWGLHUHQWO\.DOOHQIDLOHGWRGLVHQWDQJOHKLV
vision of culture from race,DIDLOXUHWKDWLVUHHFWHGLQKLVLQFRQVLVWHQWXVH
RIWHUPV$VVHHQLQWKLVSDVVDJHKHSUHVHQWHGHWKQLFDQGQDWLRQDODV
synonyms, and elsewhere used national group in place of ethnic group
+HDOVRHYLGHQWO\OLQNHGQDWLRQWRDFRPELQDWLRQRIEORRGDQGFXOture, and in the same essay coined the term natio to identify each groups
LUUHGXFLEOHNHUQHOWKHUHVXOWKHZURWHRIELRORJLFDOSURFHVVHVDQGPDQV
SV\FKRSK\VLFDO LQKHULWDQFH   $FFRUGLQJ WR .DOOHQ H[WHUQDO
factors, such as economic and political ties, only masked the internal
constant of the natio, expressed in inevitable aesthetic and intellectual
IRUPV WKDW LV SDUWLFXODU FXOWXUHV DQG ODQJXDJHV ,Q UHVSRQVH $PHULFD
should strive to be a symphony of civilization that combined harmony
DQGGLVVRQDQFHVDQGGLVFRUGVLQWRDQRUFKHVWUDWLRQRIPDQNLQG
0RUH WKDQ KLV SVHXGRVFLHQWLF HVVHQWLDOLVP .DOOHQV ZDYHULQJ EHWZHHQHWKQLFDQGQDWLRQDOZRXOGKDYHLUNHG6WDOLQZKRVHHVVD\
VRXJKWSUHFLVHO\WRGLVWLQJXLVKDQGFKDPSLRQWKHODWWHUWHUP3XEOLVKHG
ZKHQ WKH %ROVKHYLNV ZHUH MXVW D EUDQFK RI WKH ODUJHU (XURSHDQ OHIW DQG
directed against an Austrian social democrats endorsement of culturalQDWLRQDODXWRQRP\WKHHVVD\GHQHGWKHQDWLRQDVDVWDEOHKLVWRULFDOO\
constituted community of people with a shared (1) language, (2) territory,
HFRQRPLFOLIHDQGSV\FKLFDOGLVSRVLWLRQPDQLIHVWHGLQDFRPPXQLW\RIFXOWXUH According to him, neither a tribe nor a race (which
KH UHJDUGHG DV SUHPRGHUQ JURXSLQJV FRXOG IXOOO DOO IRXU FULWHULD WKH
PRVWLPSRUWDQWEHLQJWHUULWRU\(DFKQDWLRQDPRGHUQJURXSLQJZDVWR
EHJUDQWHGLWVRZQ[HGWHUULWRU\DOWKRXJKKHDGGHGWKDWYDULRXVQDWLRQV
VKRXOGEHUHTXLUHGWRFRH[LVWZLWKLQODUJHUDXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQVWKDWLV
such crystallized units as Poland, Lithuania, the Ukraine, the Caucasus,
HWFHDFKZLWKLWVRZQQDWLRQDOPLQRULWLHV&RH[LVWHQFHZLWKLQDVLQJOH

INTRODUCTION

33

UHJLRQZRXOGVSXUWKHJUDGXDOGLVSODFHPHQWRIQDWLRQDOE\FODVVGLYLVLRQV
+RZHYHU6WDOLQVHPSKDVLVRQWHUULWRU\GLGQRWPHDQDFRPSOHWHGLVPLVVDO
RIFXOWXUHDQGSV\FKLFDOGLVSRVLWLRQZKHQOD\LQJRXWWKLVSDUWRIKLVGHIinition, he noted that while national character changed with the conditions of life, nonetheless it exists at every given moment, it leaves its
LPSUHVVRQWKHSK\VLRJQRP\RIWKHQDWLRQ7KXV6WDOLQLPSDUWHGWR
HDFKQDWLRQD[HGLQQHUHVVHQFHRUHWKQRVDV6RYLHWHWKQRJUDSKHUV
ODWHUFDOOHGLW
,QVKRUW.DOOHQDQG6WDOLQERWKDOORZHGIRUWKH[HGQHVVRIGHVFHQW
based identities (natio and ethnos, respectively), and both stressed the
SHUVLVWHQFHRIODQJXDJH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGDVQRWHG.DOOHQGRZQSOD\HG
WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIHFRQRPLFOLIHWKRXJKLQWHUHVWLQJO\LQDUHSXEOLFDWLRQRI'HPRFUDF\9HUVXVWKH0HOWLQJ3RWKHVXEWO\UHYLVHGKLVHDUOLHU
GLVPLVVDORIFODVVYLVjYLVQDWLR This leaves the fourth and most imSRUWDQWSDUWRI6WDOLQVGHQLWLRQWHUULWRU\ZKLFKDQWLFLSDWHGWKH6RYLHW
8QLRQV GLYLVLRQ DQG XOWLPDWH GLVVROXWLRQ LQWR QDWLRQDO UHSXEOLFV HJ
5XVVLD8]EHNLVWDQ$UPHQLDDQGZLWKLQHDFKUHSXEOLFVPDOOHUQDWLRQDOPLQRULW\UHJLRQVHJ&KHFKQ\D7DWDUVWDQ:LWKLQWKHVHWHUULWRULHV
PHPEHUVRIWKHWLWXODUQDWLRQDOLW\HJWKH8]EHNVLQ8]EHNLVWDQZHUH
given preferential treatment in government hiring and university admisVLRQVDSROLF\NQRZQDVQDWLYL]DWLRQkorenizatsiia) and described by one
KLVWRULDQDVDSUHFXUVRUWR86DUPDWLYHDFWLRQ Stalins emphasis on
WHUULWRU\DOVRDQWLFLSDWHGWKH&RPLQWHUQVDQGFDOOVIRUDQDXtonomous African American republic stretching from Maryland to ArkanVDVWKH VRFDOOHG %ODFN %HOW HHULO\ VLPLODU LQ VKDSH WR 8]EHNLVWDQ 5Hmembered today mostly as a historical oddity, this assertion that African
Americans constituted a Stalinist nationality might seem to emphasize
WKHJXOIVHSDUDWLQJ$PHULFDQDQG6RYLHWFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQVRIGLHUHQFH
+RZHYHU.DOOHQVSOXUDOLVWYLVLRQDOVRHPSKDVL]HGWHUULWRU\VLWXDWLQJGLIIHUHQWJURXSVJHRJUDSKLFDOO\WKH,ULVKLQ0DVVDFKXVHWWVDQG1HZ<RUN
WKH*HUPDQVLQ:LVFRQVLQWKH6FDQGLQDYLDQVLQ0LQQHVRWD$FFRUGLQJWR
him, each group settled not in small, diverse units but in a series of stripes
or layers, which made it possible to delineate discrete ethnic territories in
ERWKUXUDODQGXUEDQVHWWLQJV
To be sure, Kallen did not then conclude that each American ethnicity
VKRXOGEHJUDQWHGLWVRZQUHJLRQRUUHSXEOLF1RQHWKHOHVVZKHQKHYLVLWHG
WKH 8665 LQ  KH LPPHGLDWHO\ VHL]HG RQ WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI WHUULWRU\

34

INTRODUCTION

SDUWLFXODUO\IRU6RYLHW-HZV$FFRUGLQJWRKLPDQDXWRQRPRXVUHJLRQZRXOG
enable them to cease being an alien minority among suspicious neighbors
DQGWRLQVWHDGEHFRPHIDUPHUVRUDV6OH]NLQHKDVVLQFHSXWLW WRWUDQVIRUPIURPURRWOHVV0HUFXULDQVWRURRWHG$SROORQLDQV In Kallens words,
the granting of territory would mark the emergence of a Soviet Promised
/DQGPDUU\LQJFRPPXQLVPDQG=LRQLVP
7KH KRPHODQG RI ,VUDHO VD\ WKH 5XVVLDQ -HZLVK &RPPXQLVWV LV ZKHUH
FROOHFWLYH,VUDHOFDQKROGODQGDQGEXLOGLWVHOIKRPHV7KLVDOVRLVWREH
OLNH3DOHVWLQHDQDJULFXOWXUDOKRPHODQG7RPDNHIDUPHUVRI,VUDHO
was not merely the aspiration of Jews who inherited this aspiration from
their fathers and their fathers fathers, to whom it had been an article of
religion since nomad days in the Arabian desert; to make farmers of the
Jews was a program of Lenins and a plan of the Central Executive Committee of the Communist Party early in the development of revolutionDU\5XVVLD

The promise of this new homeland is what prompted Kallen to declare the
6RYLHW8QLRQD-HZLVKIURQWLHURIKRSH$WWKHWLPHRIKLVYLVLWLWVORFDtion had not yet been established, but Kallen visited a few new agricultural settlements in Ukraine established with the aid of a Jewish AmeriFDQSKLODQWKURSLFRUJDQL]DWLRQ+HUHKHZLWQHVVHGWKHHPHUJHQFHRID
new kind of Jew, one who combined revolutionary ideology and the
QDWXUDOVFHQH
,QWKH\RXQJLWVHHPHGOLEHUDWLQJ7KH\LPSUHVVHGPHZLWKDFKDUPLQJ
HDJHUQHVV7KH\KDGVRPHWKLQJRIWKDWKHDOWKLQHVVDQGEXR\DQF\RIWRQH
WKDWRQHFRXOGREVHUYHLQWKHFKDOXW]LPLQ3DOHVWLQH,IHOWLQWKHSUHVence of the children and the young Jews on the farms of the new settlePHQWVDV,KDGKDGRFFDVLRQWRIHHODJDLQDQGDJDLQLQ5XVVLDWKH-HZV
are being transformed more radically, more completely than any of the
RWKHUVXEMHFWVRIWKH&RPPXQLVW3DUW\)RUWKHPPRUHWUXO\WKDQIRUDQ\
SHRSOHXQGHUWKH6RYLHWVDQHZOLIHLVEHJLQQLQJ

+RZHYHUHYHQDPLGWKLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ.DOOHQLQVLVWHGWKDW6RYLHW-HZV
would maintain their distinctness, their natio, thanks to the wise naWLRQDOLVWSROLF\RIWKH6RYLHW5HSXEOLF

INTRODUCTION

35

Each nationality is encouraged to develop its own language and literaWXUHLWVRZQDUWVDQGFUDIWVDQGWRFRQGXFWLWVDDLUVLQLWVRZQPHGLXP

Even primitive folk who as yet have no written language are provided
with a congruous alphabet and solicited to create a literature and to keep
UHFRUGV RI WKHLU SXEOLF DDLUV 7KH ZKROH HQWHUSULVH LV H[SHQVLYH DQG
inconvenient, but it is regarded as a valuable investment, for it releases
JUHDW FRPSOH[HV DQG UHSUHVVHG LQWHUHVWV DQG LGHDOV DQG VDWLVHV ORQJ
VWDQGLQJDVSLUDWLRQVDQGKHDOVPDQ\RIWKHZRXQGVRIWKHSDVW

Thus, according to Kallen, the Bolsheviks had achieved his vision of culWXUDOSOXUDOLVP6RYLHW-HZVZHUHSRLVHGWREHFRPHRQHPRUHXQLTXHFRQtributor to Moscows own symphony of civilization (451), which he himVHOIVHHPHGWRHQY\.DOOHQDQWLFLSDWHGWKDWWKHQHZ5XVVR-HZLVKZRUOG
would be far more Jewish than the Jewry of America and to be the matrix
RIFXOWXUDOO\IDUPRUHVLJQLFDQW-HZLVKYDOXHVWKDQWKH-HZU\RI$PHULFD
Jewish religion, though prohibited, would remain a part of this worlds
moral and intellectual climate, traditions would continue through secularized memories of the past, and the predominant language would be
<LGGLVK
The rather sensational conclusion to be drawn from Kallens travelogue
is that the founder of American cultural pluralism himself looked to StalinLVW QDWLRQDOLWLHV SROLF\ DV D SRVLWLYH PRGHO :LWK WKHLU IRXUSDUW GHQLtion of the nation and emphasis on territorial autonomy, the Bolsheviks
seemed to him well suited to the task of reconciling universalism and parWLFXODULVPRIPDNLQJ6RYLHW-HZVERWKPRUH6RYLHWDQGPRUH-HZLVK7KH
fact that Jews were proportionally overrepresented among the Bolsheviks ranks, unmentioned by Kallen, may have lent credence to this conFOXVLRQ$FFRUGLQJO\KLVWRULDQ)UDQFLQH+LUVFKKDVKHOSIXOO\GHVFULEHG
6RYLHW QDWLRQDOLWLHV SROLF\ DV SURPRWLQJ GRXEOH DVVLPLODWLRQ WKH DVsimilation of a diverse population into nationality categories and, simultaneously, the assimilation of those nationally categorized groups into the
6RYLHWVWDWHDQGVRFLHW\ Thus, the Soviets could have their cake and eat
LWWRRPDLQWDLQ[HGQDWLRQDOLGHQWLWLHVZLWKLQDPHOWLQJSRWVW\OHZKROH
$VQRWHGWKHRFLDOFXOWXUDOH[SUHVVLRQRIWKLVEDODQFHZDVQDWLRQDO LQ IRUP VRFLDOLVW LQ FXOWXUH 7KLV ZDV WKH ULJLG SUHVFULSWLRQ WKDW IRU
instance, plays staged in Moscow be translated into Uzbek and adorned
ZLWK$VLDWLFFRORXULQJDVDGLVDSSRLQWHG/DQJVWRQ+XJKHVHQFRXQWHUHG

36

INTRODUCTION

GXULQJKLVVWD\LQ7DVKNHQW7KHVWDWHGHOLQHDWHGDQGHQVKULQHGORcal languages, folk styles, and literary forebears, but in a programmatic,

WRSGRZQPDQQHUWKDWSDUDO\]HGWKHPLQWLPH More pressingly, howevHU:ULJKW.DOOHQDQGWKHPDQ\RWKHUIRUHLJQHUVGUDZQWR6RYLHWQDWLRQalities policy missed (at least initially) the fact that double assimilation
FRXOGEHERWKKLJKPLQGHGDQGYLFLRXVFRXOGDGYDQFHERWKPLQRULW\
XSOLIWDQGVWDWHWHUURU,QGHHGDV+LUVFKKDVVKRZQWKHHRUWVRI6RYLHW
linguists, ethnographers, and census takers to demarcate local identities
FDPHWRDVVLVWWKHVWDWHLQWKHPDQDJHPHQWDQGSXQLVKPHQWRISHRSOHV
IRUH[DPSOHLQWKHODWHVWKHPDVVGHSRUWDWLRQVRIHQWLUHQDWLRQDOLWLHV
GHHPHGHQHP\RUXQUHOLDEOH7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDW:ULJKWDQG.DOOHQZHUH
TXLWHVLPSO\ZURQJDERXWWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ,QGHHGZKHQ0RVFRZQDOO\
GLGHVWDEOLVKD-HZLVK$XWRQRPRXV5HJLRQLQZLWKFRQVLGHUDEOH-HZLVK$PHULFDQEDFNLQJLWOLWHUDOO\FKRVHDIURQWLHUDUHPRWHVWUHWFKRIODQG
LQWKH5XVVLDQ)DU(DVWWKDWIDLOHGWRGUDZPDQ\SHUPDQHQWVHWWOHUV$VDQ
aside, those who did make the trek eastward met a group that would soon
EHVHQWZHVWZDUG.RUHDQIDUPHUVZKRKDGPLJUDWHGWRWKHVDPHUHJLRQ
IURPWKHODWHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\RQZDUGKDGEHQHWHGIURP6RYLHWVSRQsored cultural institutions, and had championed the Cominterns stance
DJDLQVW-DSDQHVHLPSHULDOLVP,Q6WDOLQGHSRUWHGWKHPHQPDVVHWR
&HQWUDO$VLDIHDULQJWKH\PLJKWVHUYHDV-DSDQHVHVSLHV
$Q\HRUWWRUHYLVLW6RYLHWQDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\LQFOXGLQJLWVUHOHYDQFH
IRU $PHULFDQ HWKQLFLW\PXVW FRQIURQW VXFK FRQWUDGLFWLRQV KHDGRQ
:KLOH GRXEOH DVVLPLODWLRQ PLJKW KDYH SURYLGHG DQ DOWHUQDWLYH WR WKH
ethnicity paradigms universalism-particularism tension, this came at the
FRVWRIDQHZPRUHWURXEOLQJVHWRIWHQVLRQVEHWZHHQRQWKHRQHKDQG
minority uplift and world revolution and, on the other, state terror and
6WDOLQLVWDXWDUFK\+RZHYHUMXVWDVLWZDVSRVVLEOHERWKWRFRQQHFWDQGGLVtinguish the Comintern and avant-garde, the same can be done with MosFRZVQDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\YLVjYLVDGLVWLQFWO\5XVVLDQDQG6RYLHWZD\RI
VHHLQJWKH2WKHU0RUHVSHFLFDOO\GHVSLWHWKHEHWUD\DOVDQGGLVDSSRLQWments of this policy, it is possible to distill from it a certain practice of SoviHWHWKQRJUDSK\WKDWLVIDVFLQDWLQJLIQRWTXLWHUHGHHPDEOHWKDWKLJKOLJKWV
DQHZDSURGXFWLYHJDSEHWZHHQWKH8665DQGWKH:HVWDQGWKDWEULQJV
WKLVDOOEDFNWR7DWOLQV7RZHUDQGWKHDYDQWJDUGH
The key here is, in Slezkines words, a linguist, archaeologist, histoULDQIRONORULVWDQGHWKQRJUDSKHUQDPHG1LNRODL0DUURQHRIWKHPRVW

INTRODUCTION

37

SURPLQHQWDQGSRZHUIXO6RYLHWDFDGHPLFVRIWKHVDQGV This
is despite the fact that his eccentric theories have long been discredited,
and indeed, as Slezkine, Clark, and others have shown, it might be best to
FKDUDFWHUL]H0DUUPRUHDVDSRHWRUIDQWDVLVWWKDQDVFKRODU+DLOLQJIURP
Georgia and dismayed by the dearth of linguistic research on the Georgian
language, he claimed to discover a new, ancient family of languages that
happened to originate in Georgia and that found its purest contemporary
PDQLIHVWDWLRQV LQ *HRUJLDQ DQG $UPHQLDQ 7KLV -DSKHWLF ODQJXDJH
named after the biblical Noahs third son (according to legend, the ancesWRU RI *HRUJLDQ NLQJVZDV PHDQW WR XQVHDW :HVWHUQ OLQJXLVWLFV DQG LWV
HPSKDVLVRQ,QGR(XURSHDQODQJXDJHV2YHUWLPHWKHVFRSHRIWKHWKHRU\
JUHZ EROGHU DQG EURDGHU 0DUU SURFHHGHG WR GLVFRYHU -DSKHWLF WUDFHV LQ
all the languages of the world, from Native American tongues to Chinese,
and asserted the existence of a previously unknown Japhetic civilization
that, in ancient times, spanned from the Iberian Peninsula to the Caucasus
WR$VLD0LQRU$V0DUUKLPVHOIVXJJHVWHGLQWKLVXQLHGFLYLOL]DWLRQ
which superseded racial, ethnic, and national divides, was comparable to
WKDWZKLFKFXOPLQDWHGLQWKH7RZHURI%DEHO7KHELEOLFDOWDOHZDVLQKLV
words, the tale of Japhetic reality, though according to him, the Japhetic
civilization was scattered not by the hand of God but by Indo-European
LQYDGHUVWKH IRUHEHDUV RI FRQWHPSRUDU\ :HVWHUQ (XURSHDQV ZKRP KH
QHYHUIDLOHGWRFRQGHPQDVRSSUHVVRUVDQGLPSHULDOLVWV This was proYLQFLDOL]LQJ(XURSHSDUH[FHOOHQFHLQUHVSRQVHWRWKHSHUFHLYHGVOLJKWLQJ
RI*HRUJLDE\WKH:HVW0DUUFODLPHGWKH&DXFDVXVDVWKHVHDWRIDZRUOG
FLYLOL]DWLRQWKDWSUHFHGHG,QGR(XURSHDQEDUEDULVP
If Marr had what we would now call a subaltern perspective, one of its
distinguishing features was the expectation that Soviet power would reVWRUHWKLVORVWFLYLOL]DWLRQZRXOGUHVWRUHWKH%DEHOOHJHQGVVLQJOHGLYLQH
ODQJXDJH$OUHDG\DUHVSHFWHGVHQLRUDFDGHPLFE\DIWHUWKHUHYROXWLRQ
KLVYLHZVUHFHLYHGRFLDOHQGRUVHPHQWDQGZHLJKHGKHDYLO\RQDOOVFKRODUO\
HRUWV WR WKLQN DERXW PLQRULW\ ODQJXDJHV DQG FXOWXUHV +LV PRQXPHQWDO
success resulted from his ability to align his theories with the new politiFDOODQGVFDSHLQWKHVKHZHGGHGKLV-DSKHWLFWKHRU\WRDFUXGH0DU[ist evolutionism positing that languages were mere superstructure, which
meant that class and economic base determined language more than race,
HWKQLFLW\RUQDWLRQDOLW\%\WKLVORJLFLWZDVEHFDXVHRIHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQW WKDW WKH HDUOLHVW VRXQGV HQXQFLDWHG E\ SULPLWLYH PDQZKLFK 0DUU

38

INTRODUCTION

LGHQWLHGLQDVsal, ber, yon, and roshKDGHYROYHGLQWRPRUHFRPSOLFDWHGODQJXDJHVDQGZRXOGFRQWLQXHHYROYLQJWKURXJKLQWHUPL[WXUH7KXV

languages did not belong to discrete families but followed a set path determined by economic stages, though with each intermixture, the original
VRXQGVDVZHOODVHOHPHQWVIURPHYHU\ODQJXDJHZRXOGUHPDLQLQWDFW7KLV
HYROXWLRQDU\SURFHVVZRXOGFRQWLQXHXQWLOWKHQDOHFRQRPLFVWDJHVRFLDOism, was achieved, and the result would be a new world language based, in
KLVZRUGVRQWKHQDODFFRPSOLVKPHQWVRIPDQXDODQGVRXQGODQJXDJHV
DQHZDQGXQLHGODQJXDJHZKHUHLQVXSUHPHEHDXW\ZLOOPHUJHZLWKWKH
KLJKHVWGHYHORSPHQWRIPLQG1DWLRQDOLWLHVDQGHWKQLFFXOWXUHVDOVR
PHUHVXSHUVWUXFWXUHDFFRUGLQJWR0DUUZRXOGOLNHZLVHJLYHULVHWRDXQLHGKXPDQLW\DNLQWRWKHORVWFLYLOL]DWLRQSRVLWHGE\KLV-DSKHWLFWKHRU\UHEUDQGHGLQWKHODWHVDVKLV1HZ7KHRU\RI/DQJXDJHZKLFKLQWXUQ
HYRNHGWKH%RRNRI*HQHVLV
For my purposes, the most salient aspect of Marrism is its alignment with the Tower of Babel legend, which provides an unexpected
OLQNEHWZHHQ0DUUDQG7DWOLQ%RWKFDQEHVHHQDVXSGDWLQJWKHOHJHQG
both incorporated it into their eccentric visions of the socialist world
WR FRPH +RZHYHU 0DUU XQGHUVFRUHG PRUH H[SOLFLWO\ WKDQ 7DWOLQDQG
PRUH YLYLGO\ WKDQ KLV IHOORZ *HRUJLDQ 6WDOLQWKH QRWLRQ WKDW HYHQ LQ
this future world, each language and culture from the past would be preVHUYHG+HUHZDVDGLDFKURQLVPWKDWSRVLWHGWKHH[LVWHQFHRIEDFNZDUG
and advanced peoples (against Boass synchronic emphasis) but vehePHQWO\ UHMHFWHG SODFLQJ WKHP LQ DQ\ KLHUDUFKLFDO UHODWLRQVKLS DJDLQVW
WKHELRORJLFDOUDFLVPRIWHQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVXFKHYROXWLRQLVWVFKHPHV100
Indeed, in his pursuit of both socialist unity and Japhetic forebears, Marr
insisted that one could be both backward and advanced simultaneRXVO\ D VLQJOH SHRSOH FRXOG HQFRPSDVV ZLWKLQ LW HYHU\ HSRFK RI WKH
FXOWXUDO KLVWRU\ RI PDQNLQG LQFOXGLQJ HYHQ RXU RZQ PRGHUQLW\101 In
OLQH ZLWK %HQMDPLQV FRQVWHOODWLRQV RI SDVW DQG IXWXUH 0DUU DGYDQFHG
D FODVVEDVHG HYROXWLRQLVP EXLOW RQ SUHPRGHUQ UXLQV 7KDW LV KH VLWXated all peoples in a class-based evolutionary track that paradoxically
UHPDLQHG GLVWLQFW IURP QRWLRQV RI OLQHDU SURJUHVVDQ HYROXWLRQLVP DW
RGGVZLWKKRPRJHQHRXVHPSW\WLPH$FFRUGLQJO\0DUUZDVDOHDGLQJ
promoter of one of the more bizarre (and enduring) practices of Soviet
QDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\WKHV\VWHPDWLFDVVLJQPHQWRIDQFLHQWFXOWXUDOIRUHEHDUVWRHDFKSHRSOH102

INTRODUCTION

39

To be sure, this counterintuitive, contradictory evolutionism may have

been pure fantasy, dreamed up by Marr to serve various professional and
SROLWLFDOQHHGV$QGZKLOH0DUUDQG7DWOLQPD\KDYHFRQYH\HGVLPLODUO\
iconoclastic takes on time and history, it is important to note that while
7DWOLQV7RZHUQHYHUJRWRWKHJURXQG0DUUVWKHRULHVHQMR\HGRFLDO
VWDWHVDQFWLRQIURPWKHVWKURXJKWKHV8QWLOKLVGHDWKLQ
Marr himself prominently served on several key commissions and institutions that both informed and were informed by Soviet nationalities polLF\+LVFORVHDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKWKHUHJLPHFRXSOHGZLWKWKHSURIHVVLRQDO
and physical harm that befell his detractors, has cast a long shadow on
KLV OHJDF\ +RZHYHU KLV DJDLQ URXQGO\ GLVFUHGLWHG WKHRULHV GLG EHDU
some salvageable fruit in the form of an ethnographic practice that emSKDVL]HGHPSDWK\DQGFORVHFROODERUDWLRQDVWULSSLQJDZD\RIWKHGLYLGH
EHWZHHQ VFKRODU DQG VXEMHFW 0DUUV JRDO ZDV WR VHUYH WKH SHULSKHU\ WR
VKRZLQ9HUD7RO]VZRUGVWKDWPLQRULWLHVZHUHQRWSHRSOHVRXWVLGHKLVtory but central to understanding the origins of European civilization and
NH\SOD\HUVLQLWVGHYHORSPHQW104 As Tolz has shown in her recent study
RI 5XVVLDQWXUQHG6RYLHW 2ULHQWRORJLVWV LQFOXGLQJ 0DUU WKH UHVXOW ZDV
a commitment to valorizing and preserving minority cultures as well as
WR WUHDWLQJ ORFDO LQIRUPDQWV DV HTXDOV 7KLV JURXS RI VFKRODUV FULWLFL]HG
WKHLU:HVWHUQFROOHDJXHVFRPSOLFLW\ZLWKLPSHULDOLVPDQGYLHZRI$VLDQ
UHOLJLRQVDVWH[WERXQGDQGVWDWLF,QDGHSDUWXUHIURP:HVWHUQDQWKURSROogys denial of coevalness, these Soviet scholars denied altogether the
HVVHQWLDOGLHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHWUDGLWLRQVRI(XURSHDQGWKH(DVWIRU
instance, asserting Buddhism and Islams compatibility with Marxism and
PRGHUQLW\7KH\HPEUDFHGWKH$VLDQ2WKHUEXWLQZD\VWKDWDYRLGHGWKH
SLWIDOOV RI :HVWHUQ 2ULHQWDOLVP DQG LQGHHG 7RO] KDV VXJJHVWHG WKDW (GZDUG6DLGVYHU\QRWLRQRI2ULHQWDOLVPRZHVDQLQGLUHFWLQWHOOHFWXDOGHEWWR
6RYLHW2ULHQWRORJ\105
Through this turn to Soviet nationalities policy and then to Marr and
KLVFROOHDJXHVZHKDYHYHQWXUHGDORQJZD\IURP$PHULFDQHWKQLFLW\$V
outlined here, in contrast to the then still-emergent ethnicity paradigm,
6RYLHWDSSURDFKHVWRGLHUHQFHLQWKHVDQGVPDGHLWK\SRWKHWically possible for all nationalities to evolve into a single socialist people
EXWUHPDLQERWKVSDWLDOO\DQGWHPSRUDOO\GLVSHUVHG7KURXJK0RVFRZV
QDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\RQHFRXOGEHURRWHGRQDFOHDUO\GHQHGSORWRIODQG
HJ8]EHNLVWDQWKH%ODFN%HOWDQGVLPXOWDQHRXVO\UHFRQFLOHSDVWDQG

40

INTRODUCTION

IXWXUHWUDGLWLRQDQGVRFLDOLVP7KHZULWLQJVRI1LNRODL0DUUSXVKHGWKLV
IXUWKHULPDJLQLQJGLHUHQFHLQVXFKDZD\WKDWVKDWWHUHGUHFHLYHGQRtions of time and history, combining visions of ancient past and liberated
IXWXUH7KLVH[SDQVLYHDSSURDFKWRWLPHVKRXOGULQJDIDPLOLDUEHOOJLYHQ
its resonance with the modernists and avant-gardists discussed earlier
LQ WKLV LQWURGXFWLRQIRU H[DPSOH WKH QHRSULPLWLYLVWV LGHQWLFDWLRQ
ZLWK$VLDDQGWKHQRWLRQRIWKH%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQDV$VLDQ:KDWWKLV
SRLQWVWRLVDFRQYHUJHQFHRIDYDQWJDUGLVPDQGHWKQRJUDSK\ERXQGE\
HVWUDQJLQJ\HWHPSDWKHWLFYLHZVRIWKH2WKHUDQGWKHVXQGHULQJRIKRPRJHQHRXV HPSW\ WLPH ,QGHHG %HQMDPLQ KLPVHOI ZDV GUDZQ WR ZKDW
he called Marrs generally rather strange ideas, which he saw as invalidating the concept of race, and indeed of peoples, in favor of a history
RI ODQJXDJH EDVHG RQ WKH PRYHPHQWV RI FODVVHVEXW DOZD\V ZLWK DQ
H\HWRZDUGWKHSDVW%HQMDPLQVRXJKWWRXVH0DUUDQGRWKHUOHIWLVWOLQguists to unlock the ancient truth of languages inherently expressive
character, its physiognomic powers, the goal being to articulate a new,
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/LNHZLVHDV&ODUNSRLQWVRXW0DUUKLPVHOIIUHTXHQWO\IRUHJURXQGHGWKH
Scythians in his work at a time when Scythianism was a dominant litHUDU\ PRYHPHQW LQ WKH 6RYLHW 8QLRQD PRYHPHQW WKDW LQFOXGHG RI
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And, as one more instance of Marrism converging with the avant-garde,
WKHUHDUHFOHDUDQLWLHVEHWZHHQKLVWKHRULHVRIDXQLHGODQJXDJHDQG
futurist zaum SRHWU\ Marrs four original, prelogical sounds (sal, ber,
yon, rosh) themselves seem to echo zaum HJ $OH[HL .UXFKHQ\NKV IDPRXV'\UEXOVKFK\OIURP
:KLOHWKHUVWSDUWRIWKLVLQWURGXFWLRQWLHGWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGHERWKWR
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2WKHUWKLVVHFRQGSDUWKDVHPSKDVL]HGKRZ6RYLHWSROLF\DQGVFLHQFHFRQFHSWXDOL]HG QDWLRQDO OLQJXLVWLF DQG FXOWXUDO GLHUHQFH , KDYH FRPSOHPHQWHG9ODGLPLU7DWOLQV7RZHURI%DEHOLWHUDWLRQZLWK1LNRODL0DUUVYHUVLRQ
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JDUGHYLVjYLVYDQJXDUGWRWKHVSLUDOVDVDYDQWJDUGHYLVjYLVHWKQRJUDSK\
In any case, the goal here has been to articulate new ways of seeing both the

INTRODUCTION

41

DYDQWJDUGH DQG WKH HWKQLF WKH IRUPHU DV HPEUDFLQJ DQFLHQW FXOWXUHV WR
bolster artistic innovation and political revolution (itself recast as historical
arrest), the latter as pressing national homelands for the sake of socialist
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together, these alternative understandings of ethnicity and avant-gardism
SURYLGHWKHFRQFHSWXDOVFDROGLQJIRUWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGH7KH\DOORZXV
to group together the transnational, cross-ethnic encounters covered in this
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$UJXDEO\WKHVHLFRQRFODVWLFZD\VRIVHHLQJVLPSO\FRXOGQRWKROG$V
Buck-Morss has suggested, the Bolshevik regime ultimately had little use
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VR IRU VWDWH EXLOGLQJDQG LQ  HQVKULQHG VRFLDOLVW UHDOLVP DV RFLDO
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DVDQHPEOHPIRUWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGH%HFDXVHWKHWRZHUZDVQHYHUUHDOL]HGLWWRGD\HYRNHVWKHHHWLQJDVSLUDWLRQWKDWDUWLVWLFH[SHULPHQWDWLRQ
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VRPHZKRFODLPHGWKDWWKHWRZHUFRXOGQHYHUKDYHEHHQEXLOWWKDWLWOLNH
0DUUVWKHRULHVZDVXQVRXQG/LNHZLVHWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGHDVDKLVtorical formation was momentary and stunted, but as will be seen, it perVLVWHGDQGSHUVLVWVDVDXWRSLDQDVSLUDWLRQORQJDIWHUWKHLQWHUZDU\HDUV
To varying extents, each of the chapters draws from the tower in order
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that his fragmented, staircase lines (visually reminiscent of Tatlins Tower) and irregular rhymes and rhythms could incorporate minority voices
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IROORZLQJ0D\DNRYVN\RQKLVYLVLWWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVYLD&XEDDQG
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SRHPV LQ 0RVFRZ LQ  GLVFDUGLQJ 0D\DNRYVN\V VLJQDWXUH IRUP DQG

42

INTRODUCTION

LQGRLQJVRWKURZLQJLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHIXWXULVWVDELOLW\WRVSHDNIRUWKH
2WKHU+RZHYHUE\KLJKOLJKWLQJWKHJDSVVHSDUDWLQJ5XVVLDQDQG(QJOLVK
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HRUWVWRFURVV\HWPDLQWDLQOLQJXLVWLFGLVWLQFWLRQV'UDZLQJIURPYDULRXV
theories of translation, I argue that the two poets are best seen as collaboUDWRUVLQZKDW:DOWHU%HQMDPLQFDOOHGWKHWDVNRIWKHWUDQVODWRUQDPHO\
WKHLQWHJUDWLRQRIPDQ\WRQJXHVLQWRRQHWUXHODQJXDJHZLWKRXWVDFULFLQJWKHIUHHGRPRIOLQJXLVWLFX[
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This self-critical open-endedness allowed for innovative representations
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Roar ChinaDQLQGLFWPHQWRI:HVWHUQLPSHULDOLVPDQGH[RWLFLVPLQV
&KLQD'UDZLQJIURPDFWXDOHYHQWVLWZDVRQHRIWKHPRVWVXFFHVVIXODQG
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a close examination of the play, however, reveals factographys contradicWLRQV IRU H[DPSOH GHVSLWH 7UHWLDNRYV LQWHQW WR IUHH &KLQD IURP EDFNZDUGQHVVZKHQZULWLQJWKHVFULSWKHSUHVFULEHGDQDQWLTXDWHGQDWXUDOLVWLFVW\OHIRUWKHDFWRUVLQ&KLQHVHUROHV,Q1HZ<RUNKRZHYHUWKH$VLDQ
$PHULFDQDFWRUVUHIXVHGWKLVLQVWUXFWLRQ7KURXJKDFRPELQDWLRQRIODFNRI
experience and (South Brooklyn) accented English, these actors exceeded
the roles assigned to them, proving the most vivid and alienating aspect of
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:KLOHFKDSWHUVDQGIRUHJURXQGWKHXWRSLDQSURPLVHRIWKHHWKQLF
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HPEHGGHG LQ GRPLQDQW GLVFRXUVHV RQ OLWHUDWXUH DQG LGHQWLW\ &KDSWHU 

INTRODUCTION

43

tracks the ethnic avant-gardes recalibration into the language of cultural

DXWKHQWLFLW\DQGLQDXWKHQWLFLW\$XWKHQWLFLW\W\SLFDOO\SRLQWVWRWKHSROLFing of cultural boundaries, the notion that understanding a community reTXLUHVPHPEHUVKLSLQWKDWFRPPXQLW\$VVXFKLWXQGHUJLUGHGDSRVWZDU
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SHUIHFWO\ OHJLEOH WR WKH LQWHUZDU HWKQLF DYDQWJDUGHWKRXJK WKLV JURXS
HPEUDFHGDYHU\VSHFLFNLQGRIDXWKHQWLFLW\SUHPLVHGRQDQWLFDSLWDOLVP
UDWKHU WKDQ GHVFHQW 2QH FRXOG EH DXWKHQWLFDOO\ EODFN E\ UHVLVWLQJ PDVV
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and White DIWHU RQH RI 0D\DNRYVN\V $IUR&XEDQ SRHPV +XJKHV KDG
WUDYHOHG WR WKH 6RYLHW 8QLRQ LQ  WR VHUYH DV D VFULSW FRQVXOWDQW EXW
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IDXOW\IDFWV,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHVFULSWZDVIDWDOO\LQDXWKHQWLFDQDFFRXQW
,GLVSXWHWKURXJKDGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHDFWXDO5XVVLDQODQJXDJHVFULSW
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IDFWRJUDSK\WKH5XVVLDQVFUHHQZULWHULQVLVWHGWKDWLWZDVEDVHGHQWLUHO\
on real facts, borrowed from literary and newspaper sources, and I show
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DFFRXQWIRU+XJKHVVGLVPLVVDOE\DUJXLQJWKDWKLVGHSOR\PHQWRIFXOWXUDODXWKHQWLFLW\HQDEOHGKLPWRVDWLVI\$PHULFDQDQWLFRPPXQLVPLH
E\WKURZLQJLQWRTXHVWLRQ6RYLHWRXWUHDFKWREODFNVZKLOHFRQFHDOLQJWKH
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authentically black, and the East that he was authentically black and soFLDOLVWWKHODWWHUSURYHQE\KLVVWHDGIDVWUHIXVDOWRFRQGHPQ0RVFRZ
,IFKDSWHUVKRZV+XJKHVPDVWHUIXOO\QDYLJDWLQJGXHOLQJDXWKHQWLFLties, chapter 4 shows how notions of the authentic came to heighten the
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didacticism; versus the United States as a place where authenticity could

44

INTRODUCTION

RXULVKLQWKHIRUPRIHWKQLFGLYHUVLW\DQGDUWLVWLFLQQRYDWLRQ,QVKRUW
WKLVQDOFKDSWHUWUDFHVKRZWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGHFDPHWREHRYHUVKDGRZHG E\ IDPLOLDU &ROG :DU ELQDULHV 7KH IRFXV KHUH LV RQ WKH 1HZ <RUN
Intellectuals articulation of a Jewish cultural authenticity that advanced
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was partly in response to the emergence of Stalinist anti-Semitism after
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WKDW-HZLVKDUWLVWVZULWHUVDQGWKLQNHUVSOD\HGLQLQWHUZDUOHIWLVWFXOWXUH
+RZHYHUDPLGWKLVWXUQ,QGWUDFHVRIDPHVVLDQLF6RYLHW-HZLVKDYDQW
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of the author Sholem Aleichem as someone able to bridge Jewish identity
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revive one fragment of the ethnic avant-garde, here again smuggled into
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Such tragedies, present throughout the book, highlight the bloodstained
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temporalities and languages, the desire to bring art into life, and notions
of the authentic versus inauthentic, but also by a shared confrontation
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the rise-and-fall narratives typically applied to the Soviet avant-garde and
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such schemes by tracing renewed, postwar iterations of the ethnic avantJDUGHLQSDUWLFXODUWKHHPHUJHQFHRI&KLQDDVDQHZUHYROXWLRQDU\FHQWHU
Maoism expanded European Marxist discourse through its focus on local
FRQWH[WVDQGWKHFRQVFLRXVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIHYHU\GD\OLIHWKHSHUVRQDODVSROLWLFDOZKLFKSURYHGFRQGXFLYHWRLGHQWLW\SROLWLFVDQGWRUDGLFDO UHDUWLFXODWLRQV RI FXOWXUDO DXWKHQWLFLW\ +RZHYHU XQGHU 0DR WKHUH
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novel I Hotel, traces of it can still be found in contemporary minority writ-

INTRODUCTION

45

LQJ)RFXVLQJRQFURVVHWKQLFDFWLYLVPLQWKH%D\$UHDRIWKHVI Hotel
WUDYHUVHVUHYROXWLRQDU\FLUFXLWVIURP0RVFRZWR%HLMLQJ&XEDWR9LHWQDP
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into account revolutionary failures and defeats, it resuscitates many of the
features of the interwar ethnic avant-garde, adding to it a host of formal
innovations as well as heightened emphases on local resistance and genGHUHTXDOLW\
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garde for new constellations of identity, art, and politics, the book provides
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survived the transition, and also through an enduring sense of hope coupled with failure, of revolutionary pathos, that still resonates around the
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1
Translating the Ethnic Avant-Garde
Da bud ia
And if I
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i to,
even then,
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chto im
Lenin conversed
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Vladimir Mayakovsky (from To Our Youth [Nashemu iunoshestvu]

he introduction presented two visions of the Tower of Babel risLQJIURPWKH6RYLHW8QLRQRIWKHV9ODGLPLU7DWOLQVMonument to the Third International and Nikolai Marrs New Theory of
/DQJXDJH7RJHWKHUWKH\SRLQWHGWRWKHUHVWRUDWLRQRIDXQLHGKXPDQLW\
through socialist revolution, a revolution linking ancient past to liberated
future, and in doing so appealing to every people at every stage of historiFDOGHYHORSPHQW7KLVFKDSWHUIRFXVHVRQWKHSODFHRIODQJXDJHDQGWUDQVODWLRQLQFUHDWLQJWKLVXQLW\
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Dantes elaboration of the legend, Nimrods hubris prompted the replacement of a single divine language with a multiplicity of tongues that corUHVSRQGHGWRWKHGLHUHQWVNLOOVRIWKHWRZHUVEXLOGHUV*RGKDGWKHDUchitects speak one language, stone carriers another, and so on for all the
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the enterprise, so many were the languages by which the human race was
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UXGLPHQWDU\ DQG EDUEDULF WKH ODQJXDJH WKH\ QRZ VSRNH1 Dante thus
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48

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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transcending human divisions but also to the origins of linguistic confuVLRQDQGPLVFRPSUHKHQVLRQ$VDZULWHU'DQWHKLPVHOIVRXJKWWRUHFODLP
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to theorize a new, socialist language of supreme beauty that would unite
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VSHFLFSRHWLFIRUPWKDWVHHPHGDEOHWRFURVVQDWLRQDODQGHWKQLFERXQGDULHVDQGLQGHHGVHUYHDVDPRGHOIRUPLQRULW\ZULWLQJ7KLVZDVWKHIXWXULVWIRUPGHYHORSHGE\9ODGLPLU0D\DNRYVN\DQRWKHUWRZHULQJLFRQRI
the Soviet avant-garde, whose stature and voice elicited rapt admiration
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This chapter unearths not only Mayakovskys imprint on minority and
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ZULWHUVRIFRORUEXWDOVRKRZKLVHQFRXQWHUVZLWKWKHVHJXUHVDQGWKHLU
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United States via Cuba and Mexico and his accounts of these places in
ERWKDWUDYHORJXHSXEOLVKHGLQDVMy Discovery of AmericaDQGSRHWU\'XULQJWKHWULSKHZURWHSRHPVLQDQ$IUR&XEDQYRLFHDGPLUHG
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IDQVKDSSHQHGWREH5XVVLDQDQG-HZLVKpPLJUpVDOOXQH[SHFWHGGHYHOopments for the futurist author, who made the trip primarily to witness
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bask in American technology and industry, but as I show, Mayakovskys
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+LV $IUR&XEDQ SRHPV LQ SDUWLFXODU OD\ RSHQ WKH SRVVLELOLW\ WKDW KLV
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UK\PHDQGUK\WKPFRXOGLQFRUSRUDWHPLQRULW\YRLFHVZLWKRXWVDFULFLQJWKHLUVSHFLFLWLHV
:KDW,VXJJHVWLVWKDW0D\DNRYVN\SUHVHQWVXVZLWK\HWDQRWKHULWHUDtion of the Tower of Babel, namely, with an avant-gardist form capable
RIMRLQLQJPXOWLSOHODQJXDJHVFXOWXUHVDQGSHRSOHVZLWKLQD6RYLHWRUELW+RZHYHULQNHHSLQJZLWKWKH%DEHOOHJHQGKHDOVRSUHVHQWVXVZLWK
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TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

49

UVWSDUWRIWKLVFKDSWHUSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRI0D\DNRYVN\DVDPRGHO
IRU PLQRULW\ ZULWLQJ 7KH PDLQ WDVN KHUH LV WR DOLJQ KLP ZLWK WKH YLVLRQV RI DYDQWJDUGLVP DQG GLHUHQFH VSHOOHG RXW LQ WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ
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RIWKH8665,WKHQXVH0D\DNRYVN\VMRXUQH\WRDSSO\VXFKHRUWV
WRQRQ6RYLHWSHRSOHV0\IRFXVLVRQWKHJD]HWKDWKHDSSOLHGLQSDUWLFular to Cuba and Mexico, where, I argue, he articulated a new, progresVLYHNLQGRIH[RWLFLVPRQHXQGHUJLUGHGE\&RPLQWHUQDQWLLPSHULDOLVP
DQG WKDW LQ WXUQ XQGHUJLUGHG WKH 6RYLHWFHQWHUHG HWKQLF DYDQWJDUGH
The chapters second part then tests Mayakovskys ability to transcend
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to Mayakovsky as a model for balancing proletarian internationalism
ZLWKDGLVWLQFWQDWLRQDO>LHEODFN@DWPRVSKHUH+RZHYHU+XJKHVGHparts drastically from the originals and in doing so highlights the limits
RI0D\DNRYVN\VYRLFHDQGIRUP,H[SODLQWKLVE\HPSKDVL]LQJWKHLQevitable gaps that emerge from translation, which, as will be seen, ultimately opened a space for the ethnic avant-garde to balance multiple
ODQJXDJHVDQGFXOWXUHV
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grouping within the historical avant-garde, its connection to the past, deVFHQWDQGWKHHWKQLFVHHPVFRXQWHULQWXLWLYH)70DULQHWWLVIRXQGLQJ
IXWXULVWPDQLIHVWRGURYHDZD\WKHVPHOO\JDQJUHQHRISURIHVVRUV
archaeologists, ciceroni DQG DQWLTXDULDQV YLD VSHHGLQJ DXWRPRELOHV DQG
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 WKUHZ 3XVKNLQ 'RVWRHYVN\ 7ROVWR\ HWF HWF RYHUERDUG IURP WKH
Ship of Modernity, thus enabling poets to achieve the Summer Lightning
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50

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of chaos, motion, and simultaneity, the larger goal being to tear down canRQVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGWRDGGUHVVWKHPDVVHVGLUHFWO\ The futurists, of
FRXUVHHPEUDFHGWKHPDFKLQHDQGLQGXVWU\QRWWKHSUHKLVWRULFSDUDGLVHV
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3HUORVIXWXULVWH[HPSODU%ODLVH&HQGUDUVDQG6RQLD'HODXQD\VYHUEDO
visual La prose du Transsibrien et de la petite Jehanne de FranceWUDLQ
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evokes Arabian Nights; Siberia menaces with Mongol hordes; and the North
3ROHLVFDVWDVWKHKRPHRISUHKLVWRULFDQFHVWRUV,QOLQHZLWK%HQMDPLQV
revolution as messianic arrest, Cendrars explicitly anticipates the coming
RIWKHJUHDWUHG&KULVWRIWKH5XVVLDQ5HYROXWLRQ5 The indication here is
that the futurist moment, which found its most powerful expressions in
WKHHFRQRPLFDOO\EDFNZDUGFRXQWULHVRI,WDO\DQG5XVVLDDFWLYHO\LQFRUSRUDWHGH[RWLFVHHPLQJO\UHWURJUDGHFXOWXUHV$V3HUORSXWVLWORFRPRtive technology could paradoxically go hand in hand with an insistence
on GLHUHQFH 7KXV HYHQ ZKLOH ZDUGLQJ R 0\WKRORJ\ DQG WKH 0\VWLF
Ideal, Marinetti also pushed poets to swell the enthusiastic fervor of the
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KLVWDVNV,WZDVDQDPHSUHJQDQWZLWKSRHWLFVXJJHVWLRQWRWKHLQLWLDWRUV
of a trend in art and literature who looked back to prehistory in order to
EXLOGWKHIXWXUH Indeed, in place of the foreign term futurist, KhlebQLNRYKLPVHOIFRLQHGDQGSUHIHUUHGWKH5XVVLDQbudetliane (people of the
future), which one critic described as distinct from futurism in its embrace
RIWKHSDVWLWVFUHDWLRQRIQHZWKLQJVJURZQRQWKHPDJQLFHQWWUDGLWLRQVRI5XVVLDQDQWLTXLW\ This was in line with Khlebnikovs stated goal
of enabling the human brain to grasp the ever-elusive fourth dimension,
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independent nation of timeIUHHIURPHYHU\GD\OLIHDQGFRQVXPHULVP
Such eccentric understandings of time made it possible for Soviet futurLVWVWRHPEUDFHIDUXQJWUDGLWLRQVDQGFXOWXUHV+RZHYHUWKH\GLGVRLQ

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

51

ZD\VWKDWFRXQWHUHGWKHKLHUDUFKLHVRIUDFHDQGHPSLUHOXUNLQJLQ:HVWHUQ
IXWXULVPIRULQVWDQFHLQ0DULQHWWLVPDQLIHVWRZKHUHKHDVVRFLDWHV
his memory of the blessed black breast of my Sudanese nurse with the
QRXULVKLQJVOXGJHRIDIDFWRU\GUDLQ10 Against this repellent mixture of
primitivism, misogyny, and industry, the Soviet futurists concocted a way
RIHPEUDFLQJWKHQRQ:HVWHUQ2WKHUZLWKRXWUHOHJDWLQJKHURUKLP$JDLQ
WKHNH\JXUHKHUHLV0D\DNRYVN\ZKRDWUVWJODQFHZRXOGVHHPDQXQOLNHO\FDQGLGDWHIRUDQ\EDFNZDUGORRNLQJIXWXULVP$PRQJWKH+\ODHDQV
.KOHEQLNRYZDVWKHRQHPRVWLQWHUHVWHGLQSUHKLVWRU\DQG5XVVLDVFRQQHFWLRQWR$VLD0D\DNRYVN\LQFRQWUDVWZDVWKHJURXSVXUEDQLVWZKRHYHQ
EHIRUHWKHUHYROXWLRQSUHVVHGWKHDEROLWLRQRIQDWLRQDOGLHUHQFHVLQKLV
VHDUFKIRUWKHODQJXDJHRIWKHIXWXUH,Q9ODGLPLU0DUNRYVZRUGVKHKDG
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2QWKHRWKHUKDQG0D\DNRYVN\ZDVERUQLQ*HRUJLDDQGRFFDVLRQDOO\LQWHUVSHUVHG KLV GUDPDWLF UHDGLQJV ZLWK *HRUJLDQD FRLQFLGHQWDO HFKR RI
0DUUVRZQ-DSKHWLFLQHFWHGODQJXDJHRIWKHIXWXUH$QGGHVSLWHKLVXUbanist, cosmopolitan stance, Mayakovsky was also able to advance toward
WKHIXWXUHZLWKDQH\HWUDLQHGRQWKHSDVW)RUH[DPSOHDV&KULVWLQD.LDHU
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curly-headed Negroes in order to imply a connection between the BolVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQDQGXQVSRLOHG$IULFDQFXOWXUH12 The suggestion here
LVWKDWOLNH%HQMDPLQ0D\DNRYVN\JUDVSHGUHYROXWLRQDVWKHFHVVDWLRQRI
WLPHDQGDFFRUGLQJWRKLVIULHQG5RPDQ-DNREVRQKHORRNHGWRSRHWU\DVD
means of overtaking both time and death, poetry as springing from some
SULPRUGLDOP\VWHULRXVIRUFH7KXVLQKHZURWHDQGSHUIRUPHGLQD
play in verse titled 0\VWHU\%RXHZKLFKUHLPDJLQHGWKH%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQDVD1RDKVDUNMRXUQH\IURPDRRGHGEURNHQZRUOGWKURXJKDQLQQRFXRXVKHOOWKHQDQLQVLSLGKHDYHQDQGQDOO\WRDUHGHHPHGZRUOGWKH
heroes inspired by the brief appearance of a new Messiah walking on water
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This messianic futurism becomes clearer when turning to the actual
YRLFHRI0D\DNRYVN\ZKLFKSURMHFWVERWKKLVDELOLW\DQGLQDELOLW\WRWUDQVFHQGFXOWXUDODQGOLQJXLVWLFGLYLGHV7ZRDFFRXQWVRIWKLVIDPRXVO\SRZHUIXOUHVRQDQWYRLFHSURYHLQVWUXFWLYH7KHUVWFRPHVIURP'LHJR5LYHUD
one of Mayakovskys hosts in Mexico City (though the poet stayed at the
6RYLHWHPEDVV\+HUHFDOOHGWKDWZKHQJXQVZHUHGUDZQLQDPHHWLQJRI
Mexican artists, writers, and political types, Mayakovsky

52

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(YHU\RQH VWRSSHG LQ WKHLU WUDFNV DQG ORRNHG DW KLP +H EHJDQ UHFLWLQJ>KLVSRHP/HIW0DUFK@ZKLFKJRWORXGHUDQGORXGHU7KH0H[LFDQVUHPDLQHGTXLHWDQGZKHQWKHSRHWKDGQLVKHGEXUVWLQWRDODUJH
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scene (which seemed more like the actions of madmen than the sane),
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7KHVHFRQGDFFRXQWFRPHVIURPWKHUHFROOHFWLRQVRI:LOOLDP&DUORV:LOliams, who attended an apartment reading that Mayakovsky gave soon

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Odyssey LWVHOIZHUHEHLQJGHOLYHUHGE\VRPHLPSDVVLRQHG*UHHN15 Thus,
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speak was to hear echoes of Greek mythology as well as, perhaps, BaEHOV ORVW FLYLOL]DWLRQ DQG 0DUUV LQWHUPL[HG ODQJXDJH WR FRPH 0RUH WR
WKH SRLQW WKHVH DFFRXQWV RI 0D\DNRYVN\V YRLFH XQGHUVFRUH 5XVVLDQ IXWXULVPV FRPPLWPHQW WR DV WKH HSRQ\PRXV  zaum pamphlet put it)
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that could be felt, if not understood, and that could thus cross cultural and
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SUHVHQWHGE\VXFKGLYLGHV0D\DNRYVN\FRPPDQGHGRQO\5XVVLDQDQGDELW
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fragmented form, which accommodated multiple, often contradictory

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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puts it, continuing the interrupted tradition of troubadours and minVWUHOV +LV VLJQDWXUH VWHSODGGHU OLQHV SURYH ZHOO VXLWHG WR FDSWXULQJ
movement from Moscow to Ukraine and then the Caucasus, as well as the
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Snegov i papakh sedny,

Gray streaks of snows and papakhas,

Szhimaia kinzhaly, stoiat ingushi,

Ingushes stand, gripping daggers,

slediat

watching

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A papakha is a Caucasian fur hat, and elsewhere in the poem MayaNRYVN\OLNHQVWKHVLOYHU\'RQ5LYHUWRDQRWKHUNLQGRIWUDGLWLRQDOKHDGgear (kubanki) and also references colorful, straw-roofed Ukrainian huts
(mazanki +RZHYHU WKHVH REYLRXV HRUWV DW LQFOXVLRQ DUH FRXQWHUHG E\
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0D\DNRYVN\VVSHHGLQJWUDLQYDQWDJHDRUGVKLPRQO\DHHWLQJJODQFH
at these peoples, and his lines seem poised to scatter amid the movePHQWDQGLUUHJXODUUK\WKPV$VLQDOPRVWDOOKLVSRHWU\WKHSODFHPHQW
RIDFFHQWVLVH[LEOHHJ6QHJ2YLSDS$NKVHG,Q\DQGWKHQXPEHURI
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PDUNHUVEOXUULQJWRJHWKHU+RZHYHU0D\DNRYVN\VRZQRYHUULGLQJSUHVHQFHKLV :KLWPDQLQXHQFHG ,21DV ZHOO DV KLV XVH RI UK\PH VHUYH
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54

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Accordingly, the poem later focuses on language as a distinguishing markHUWKURXJKWKHLQVHUWLRQRIQRQ5XVVLDQWRQJXHV:HDUHWROGWKDWHYHU\RQH
learns the alphabet in their own way (po-svoemu), and the poet declares
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UHFDOOVWKLVHQFRXQWHUIURP8NUDLQH
2GQD]KG\

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zabyl,

I forgot,

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Ia

I asked

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khokhol DQVZHUHG

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Kogda zh perekhodiat

Turning now

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Ne chuiu.
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9LVXDOO\HYRNLQJWKHVSLUDOVRI7DWOLQVMonument to the Third International,

these lines on linguistic confusion, I would like to suggest, illustrate the
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building material here is language itself, as opposed to Tatlins iron and
JODVV7KHVFDWWHUHGZRUGVFRPELQHLQWRDVWUXFWXUHWKDWKRXVHVDPL[RI
5XVVLDQ 8NUDLQLDQ DQG )UHQFK D PL[ PDUNHG E\ PXWXDO LQFRPSUHKHQVLRQ DQG SHUKDSV HYHQ LQWROHUDQFH WKH REVWUHSHURXV khokhol is a crude
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,GRQWKHDU+RZHYHU0D\DNRYVN\RQFHDJDLQFUHDWHVDVHQVHRIRUGHU
through his own presence, as well as through rhymes that enfold Ukrai-

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

55

QLDQDQG)UHQFKLQWR5XVVLDQNKODPNKRNKOD1HFKXLXQDXFKQRL
~]NLIUDQWVX]VNL 7KHVH OLQHV WKXV FRQYH\ D FRQWUDGLFWRU\ SXVK DQG
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previously without alphabets should use the freedom of Soviet power
WR)LQG\RXUURRWDQG\RXUYHUEHQWHUWKHGHSWKVRISKLORORJ\7KXV
Mayakovsky presents to us a fast-paced, futurist form that emphasizes the
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on its resonance with non-Soviet peoples, including, as it happens, blacks
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rather unfortunately fell in line with the Soviet policy of double assimilaWLRQWKDWLVDVVLPLODWLQJLQWRERWKQDWLRQDOXQLWVDQGD6RYLHWZKROH7KLV
DGYLFHDOVRDQWLFLSDWHV0RVFRZVHPSKDVLVEHJLQQLQJLQWKHHDUO\V
RQ5XVVLFDWLRQDQGRQ5XVVLDLWVHOIDVWKHUVWDPRQJHTXDOV,QWKHGHFDGHVDIWHU0D\DNRYVN\VVXLFLGHVXFKDSSDUHQWDOLJQPHQWVZLWKRIFLDOSROLF\OHG6RYLHWFULWLFVWRHQVKULQHKLPDVDVWDQGDUGEHDUHUIRUWKH
VWDWHV IULHQGVKLS RI SHRSOHV KLV ZLGHUDQJLQJ LQXHQFH DV SURYLGLQJ
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in the development of the socialist-in-content, national-in-form cultures
RIWKHSHRSOHVRIWKH8665 In other words, there is a dubious precedent
for reading Mayakovsky as a model for minority writers, one bearing the
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was transformed by his American travels, as well as by encounters with the
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FXOWXUDOSRWHQWLDORIWKHIXWXULVWSRHWVZULWLQJ

Mayakovsky Discovers America

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tale giant named Ivan who encompassed the entire Soviet population and

56

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work as double-dyed stupidity and pretentiousness, though the fortunes
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the revolution the futurists had reorganized as the Moscow-centered Left
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ULYDOPRUHDFFHVVLEOHJURXSRISUROHWDULDQZULWHUV24 Thus, he was ambassador of an avant-garde movement that was increasingly embattled, someWKLQJKLVRYHUVHDVDXGLHQFHVWHQGHGWRPLVV
If his American audiences had little sense of what was happening in the
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sense of distance between himself and his surroundings that we previously
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RI0DF25 This is an outsiders perspective, grasping at outlandish claims absent intimate knowledge, and accordingly, a sense of bemused estrangement
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idiosyncratic and amazing way of life (12), places that prompted for him
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Mayakovsky developed an exoticist interest in preserving traditional cultures

FIGURE 1.1 Mayakovskys travel sketches of Mexico and Cuba, published with his
poem Tropics in KRASNAIA NIVA, 1R

58

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,QOLJKWRIWKHXQKHVLWDWLQJLJKWLQ7R2XU<RXWKDFURVVOLQJXLVWLFDQG
national boundaries, this rebuke of the poet, this admission of ignorance
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KRPHRI.XWDLV*HRUJLDWRWKH$PHULFDV:LWK+DZNV&ODZVGHURJDtory terms for Spaniards and Americans, Mayakovsky likewise brings in a
IRUHLJQWRQJXHWKRXJKRWKHUZLVHLWLVXQFOHDUZKLFKODQJXDJHWKHSRUWHUVSHDNV,WFRXOGEH0D\DNRYVN\VRZQDWRQHSRLQWWKHWUDYHORJXHGHVFULEHV&XEDQSLQHDSSOHYHQGRUVFXUVLQJWRRQHDQRWKHULQ5XVVLDQ+RZHYHULPPHGLDWHO\DIWHUWKHVHOLQHVWKHSRUWHUSURFHHGVWRUHEXWKHSRHWV
fantasies by relating how those not killed were ravaged by alcoholism and
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7KXVLQKLVHQFRXQWHUZLWKWKLVLQGLJHQRXVJXUHWKHIXWXULVWSRHWFRQcedes the limits of his perspective, but as the poem proceeds, he is able to
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not only 0\VWHU\%RXHDQG.KOHEQLNRYEXWDOVR:LOOLDP&DUORV:LOOLDPVV
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to the ancient past, what distinguishes the Soviet futurist is his choice to
identify with the defeated Aztecs after he describes the death of one of their
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his travelogue, particularly his observations from his two-day stay in Cuba
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In a completely blue, ultramarine night, the black silhouettes of the
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Such dazzled responses were, again, unexpected given that Mayakovsky

made the trip to witness American industry, with Cuba and Mexico intendHGDVPHUHZD\VWDWLRQV,Q3DULVKHKDGEHHQZDUQHGWKDW0H[LFDQDUWLV
an outgrowth from the ancient, variegated, primitive, folkloric Indian art,
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marriage of a primordial paradise with the construction of the world
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the travelogue shows him learning to distinguish between imperialist and
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by American tourists, who condemn Mexicans to the exotica of starvaWLRQZKLOHSXUFKDVLQJVRXYHQLUVMXPSLQJEHDQVJODULQJO\EULJKWVHUD-

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with printed Aztec calendars, postcards of parrots from real parrot feathHUV7KLVLVWKHH[RWLFDVNLWVFKERXQGWR86H[SORLWDWLRQZKLFK
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Everything to do with traditional exoticism is colourfully poetic and nonSURWDEOH$QH[DPSOHLVWKHYHU\EHDXWLIXOFHPHWHU\RIWKHPXOWLWXGLnous Gomez and Lopez breeds, with its dark alleys, even in daytime, of
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contrast between old and new is a notion of the former that exists beyond
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The futurist poet thus gained from his time in Cuba and Mexico an ability
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as instances of primitive futurism, a (for him) repellent combination of
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language, preserving these through the decades in unadulterated puULW\    $Q HQLJPDWLF SLFWXUH ZKRWKHQHVVHQWLDOO\ DUH WKH $PHULFDQV
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ambivalence toward industry, this was the other unexpected aspect of his
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TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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visit proved a sensation and moral boost for the vibrant writing circles
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Mayakovskys, sponsored his lectures and ran newspaper reports on
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To escape New Yorks primitive futurism, he thrice visited a Frayhaytsponsored summer camp, where he indefatigably read his poems before an attentive workers auditorium, his lions voice often resounding
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and the third in Yiddish), it featured a wide range of pieces on American

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and Soviet life and culture, including Mayakovskys never-before-published

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FDSWXUHWKHPL[HGYHUQDFXODURIKLVLPPLJUDQWKRVWV The poem centers
DURXQGDFWLRQDOSUHVXPDEO\-HZLVKFKDUDFWHUQDPHG.DSODQWU\LQJWRDUUDQJHDPHHWLQJZLWKDIHOORZpPLJUpYLDDK\EULGRI5XVVLDQDQG(QJOLVK
WKH5XVVLDQLQWHUPL[HGZLWKSKRQHWLF&\ULOOLFUHQGHULQJVRIDSSRLQWPHQW
(apointman), good-bye (gud baiMREdzhab), and bootlegger (butleger
$ORQJVLGHWKHVH(QJOLVKZRUGVWKHSRHPLQFOXGHVQHZ5XVVLDQDFURQ\PV
emerging from the bourgeoning Soviet bureaucracy (TsUP and TsUS), and
DW OHDVW RQH 5XVVLDQ ZRUG VSRNHQ E\ .DSODQ LV UHQGHUHG ZLWK D <LGGLVK
DFFHQWtudoi, an adaptation of the standard tuda (thither), which MayaNRYVN\SHUIRUPHGDORXGLQDQH[DJJHUDWHGSHUKDSVVWHUHRW\SHGPDQQHU40
,QVKRUWWKHSRHPVKRZVWKH5XVVLDQODQJXDJHFUHROL]LQJLQERWKWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGWKH8665WKHODQJXDJHDEVRUELQJ$PHULFDQLVPV6RYLHWLVPV
DQGGLHUHQWDFFHQWVDQGEHFRPLQJLQFUHDVLQJO\LQFRPSUHKHQVLEOHWRWKH
SRHW7KHUHVXOWKHFRQFOXGHVLVDQHZDOOGHYRXULQJODQJXDJHWKDWOLNH
Spartak/SpartacusFRPELQHV5XVVLDQ(QJOLVKDQG<LGGLVK
Gorlanit

Across this very America

SRHWRL$PHULNHVDPRL

\HOOV

stoiazykii

a hundred-tongued

QDURGRJROWHWV

SHRSOHIUHQ]LHU

Uzh esli

If already

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WR1LX,RUN

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2GHVVDRWHWV

2GHVVDLVWKH2GHVVDPDPD
WKH2GHVVDIDWKHU41

These lines further substantiate the notion of a Mayakovskian Tower of

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WRQJXHVLWMRLQV2GHVVDDFHQWHURI(DVWHUQ(XURSHDQ-HZLVKFXOWXUHDQG
1HZ<RUNWKHFHQWHURI5XVVLDQDQG-HZLVK$PHULFDQLPPLJUDWLRQ,Qdeed, Mayakovsky came to imagine the United States precisely as a Tower
RI%DEHOKLVWUDYHORJXHGHVFULEHVWKHODQJXDJHRI$PHULFDDVWKHLPDJLQDU\ODQJXDJHRIWKHSDQGHPRQLXPRI%DEHOZLWKMXVWRQHGLHUHQFH

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TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

that there the languages were mixed so that no one understood them,
ZKHUHDV KHUH WKH\ DUH PL[HG VR WKDW HYHU\RQH XQGHUVWDQGV WKHP 
America thus enables Mayakovsky to imagine a new iteration of the legend
DQGLQWXUQDQHZPHDQVRIFURVVLQJOLQJXLVWLFGLYLGHV,IRULJLQDOO\%DEHO
UHIHUHQFHGDXQLHGODQJXDJHIROORZHGE\PXWXDOPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJPLVunderstanding here gives way to an intermixture that yields comprehenVLRQ7RSXWWKLVGLHUHQWO\0D\DNRYVN\VHHPVWRUHJLVWHU:LOOLDP&DUORV
:LOOLDPVV DYRZHG DELOLW\ WR PDNH VHQVH RI WKH 5XVVLDQ SRHW $FFRUGLQJ
WRWKHWUDYHORJXH$PHULFDQVDUHQRWDWDOOID]HGE\LQGHHGWKULYHRQD
PXOWLSOLFLW\RIODQJXDJHV
But Mayakovsky himself was ID]HG+HUHWXUQHGWRWKH8665HDJHUWREH
VXUURXQGHGRQO\E\5XVVLDQVSHDNHUVDJDLQDIWHUZKLFKKHLPPHGLDWHO\
HPEDUNHGRQWKHVSHDNLQJWRXUWKDWUHVXOWHGLQ7R2XU<RXWK+RZHYHU
as he describes in an essay about his return, relief soon gave way to confuVLRQDQLQDELOLW\WRUHODWHZLWKIHOORZWUDLQSDVVHQJHUVDQGDKRWHODWWHQGDQWVXVSHFWLQJKLPRIPDNLQJVH[XDODGYDQFHV42+LVOLPLWHGFRPPXQLcation abilities in the Americas, it seems, somehow followed him home, a
development he anticipated in a poem that he wrote while crossing back
RYHUWKH$WODQWLF&DOOHG+RPHZDUGLWRULJLQDOO\FRQFOXGHG
Ia khochu byt poniat moei stranoi, I want to be understood by my country,
$QHEXGXSRQLDW

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FKWR]K

ZKDWRILW

Po rodnoi strane

Through my native country

SURLGXVWRURQRL

,OOSDVVWRWKHVLGH

Kak prokhodit

As passes

NRVRLGR]KG

WKHVODQWLQJUDLQ

$WUVWJODQFHWKHVHOLQHVVHHPWRFRQYH\0D\DNRYVN\VDZDUHQHVVDERXW
the embattled position of LEF, something he could momentarily forget
ZKLOHLQWKH$PHULFDV:KDW,ZRXOGOLNHWRVXJJHVWWKRXJKLVWKDWWKH\
DOVRVLJQDO0D\DNRYVN\VDGRSWLRQRIDQRXWVLGHUVSHUVSHFWLYHWKHSHUVSHFWLYH RI D 5XVVLDQVSHDNLQJ pPLJUp LQ 1HZ <RUN GRXEWIXO DERXW KLV
DELOLW\WRPDNHKLPVHOIXQGHUVWRRG7KDWLVLQWKH$PHULFDVKHFDPHWR
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of his language and poetry to overcome his sense of distance and alienDWLRQ3HUKDSVQRVWDOJLFIRUKLV5XVVLDQ-HZLVKKRVWVLQ1HZ<RUNDVSDUW

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

67

RIKLVUHWXUQWRXUKHYLVLWHG2GHVVDEXWKHUHWRRKHZDVXQDEOHWRVKDNH
WKLV VHQVH RI DOLHQDWLRQ 2QH RI WKH SRHPV KH UHDG WKHUH ZDV $PHULFDQ
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HDUV%\RQHUVWSHUVRQDFFRXQWZKLOHWKHSRHPSURYRNHGODXJKWHUHYHU\ZKHUHLQ2GHVVDWKLVZDVQRWWKHFDVH7KHUHLWGLGQRWKDYHVXFFHVV
VXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKLVSDUWLFXODUODUJHO\-HZLVKDXGLHQFHLIQRWWKHRQHLQ
1HZ<RUNZDVQRWDWDOODWWHUHGE\0D\DNRYVN\VDWWHPSWVDWLPLWDWLRQ44
$VZHVDZ7R2XU<RXWKDGGUHVVHVSUHFLVHO\VXFKWKZDUWHGHRUWVWR
cross linguistic boundaries, which in turn evoke Mayakovskys often frusWUDWLQJHQFRXQWHUVZLWKWKH$PHULFDQ%DEHO+RZHYHULQDGHSDUWXUHIURP
KLVHDUOLHU$PHULFDQZULWLQJV7R2XU<RXWKHQGVZLWKKLVFRQGHQWDVVHUWLRQRI5XVVLDQDVWKH6RYLHWOLQJXDIUDQFDDQDVVHUWLRQWKDWDJDLQDQWLFLSDWHGWKH6RYLHWVWDWHVRZQSHQGLQJWXUQWR5XVVLFDWLRQ0D\DNRYVN\
LQWKH$PHULFDVZDVQRWVRFRQGHQWDQGLQIDFWWKHUHDUHLQGLFDWLRQVWKDW
DIWHU  KH VRXJKW WR GHYHORS D PRUH WHQGHQWLRXV VW\OH RI ZULWLQJ $V
he wrote to a young poet in a letter, this is precisely why he chose, someWLPHEHWZHHQKLVUHWXUQDQGWRH[FLVH+RPHZDUGVTXRWHGFRQFOXVLRQLQKLVZRUGVDSDUDGLVLDFDOWDLO>raiskii khvostik] that was too facilely plaintive [noiushchii@45 Prior to this turn, however, Mayakovskys
American writings accentuated the Soviet futurists tentativeness, his
DFFHSWDQFHRIFRQIXVLRQDQGPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJLQVKRUWWKDWZKLFKHQDEOHGKLPWRHPEUDFHEXWQRWTXLWHHQFURDFKXSRQWKHGLHUHQWFXOWXUHV
WKDWKHHQFRXQWHUHG$V,VKRZEHORZ+XJKHVVWUDQVODWLRQVIXUWKHUDFFHQWXDWHGWKHVHTXDOLWLHVUHYHDOLQJLQWKHSURFHVVWKDWWKHHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGH
ZDVQRWVLPSO\DERXWHPXODWLQJJXUHVOLNH0D\DNRYVN\EXWUDWKHUZDVD
WZRZD\VWUHHW

Blek end Uait / Black and White:

Hughes Translates Mayakovsky
,Q'LHJR5LYHUDKLPVHOIPDGHZKDW&ODXGH0F.D\FDOOHGWKHPDJLFSLOJULPDJHWRWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ8SRQKLVDUULYDOKHZDVVXUSULVHGWRQGWKDW
almost everyone within Moscows intellectual and cultural community, it
appeared, as well as many ordinary citizens, had heard of him and his work
EHFDXVHRI0D\DNRYVN\:KLOHWKHUHKHSDUWLFLSDWHGDFWLYHO\LQGHEDWHV
DERXWWKHUROHRIROGWHFKQLTXHVDQGWUDGLWLRQVLQQHZUHYROXWLRQDU\DUW

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IRUPVEXWKHOHIWLQ0D\GLVLOOXVLRQHGE\WKHVWDWHVJURZLQJFRQWURO
of the arts, as well as the increasing prominence of what would become
VRFLDOLVWUHDOLVP Indeed, LEF found itself ever more embattled through
WKHODWHV$VSUHYLRXVO\DOOXGHGWRLWVMRXUQDOORVWVWDWHVXSSRUWDQG
FHDVHGSXEOLFDWLRQLQDQGWKRXJKLWZDVUHODXQFKHGWZR\HDUVODWHUDW
WKDWSRLQWWKHJURXSGHFODUHGDQHQGWRLWVSDVWLFRQRFODVPLQIDYRURIMRXUQDOLVWLFZULWLQJDQGIDFWRJUDSK\DWXUQFRYHUHGLQFKDSWHU0D\DNRYVN\
FRPPLWWHGVXLFLGHLQSHUKDSVEHFDXVHRIWKHLQFUHDVHGFXOWXUDOFRQVWUDLQWVWKRXJKKLVQDOQRWHSRLQWHGPRUHWRWKZDUWHGORYH7KLVKRZever, did not mark the end of the Soviet avant-garde, nor its engagement
ZLWKPLQRULW\DQGQRQ:HVWHUQFXOWXUHV'XULQJKLV0RVFRZVWD\5LYHUD
LQ DGGLWLRQ WR UHXQLWLQJ ZLWK 0D\DNRYVN\PHW WKH OP GLUHFWRU 6HUJHL
Eisenstein, of Battleship PotemkinIDPHDQRWKHUPHPEHURI/()7KHLUPHHWLQJUHVXOWHGLQ(LVHQVWHLQVRZQSURORQJHGYLVLWWR0H[LFRIURPWR
WRVKRRWKLVQHYHUFRPSOHWHGQue viva M[LFR which I discuss at the
HQGRIWKLVFKDSWHU7KH\HDUZDVDOVRWKH\HDUWKDW+XJKHVPDGHKLV
RZQPDJLFSLOJULPDJHWR0RVFRZ7KHUHKHDVVLVWHGZLWKWKHSURGXFWLRQ
RIDQRWKHUQHYHUFRPSOHWHGOPBlack and White, a Soviet dramatization of
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVWUXJJOHVDQGWKHIRFXVRIFKDSWHU
6XFHLWWRVD\IRUQRZ%ODFNDQG:KLWHRUPRUHSUHFLVHO\%OHN
HQG XDLW    WKH SKRQHWLF &\ULOOLF UHQGHULQJ RI WKHVH
ZRUGVZDVDOVRWKHWLWOHRIRQHRI0D\DNRYVN\VWZR$IUR&XEDQSRHPVZKLFK+XJKHVWUDQVODWHGGXULQJKLVYLVLW0\JRDOLQWKHUHPDLQGHU
RIWKLVFKDSWHULVWRMX[WDSRVHWKHRULJLQDOVDQGWUDQVODWLRQVLQRUGHUWR
WHVW0D\DNRYVN\DVDPRGHOIRUPLQRULW\ZULWLQJ,QWKHSUHFHGLQJWKH
key to this model was a fragmented, irregular form that incorporated
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GLHUHQW YDULHWLHV RI WKH H[RWLF +RZHYHU , SDLUHG WKLV SRWHQWLDO ZLWK
0D\DNRYVN\VGLVWDQFHIURPKLVVXUURXQGLQJVDQGDXGLHQFHVDQHQGXUing iconoclasm that might seem contrary to his appeal across racial, ethQLFDQGQDWLRQDOOLQHV$FFRUGLQJO\E\WXUQLQJWR0D\DNRYVN\V$IUR
&XEDQ SRHPV DQG +XJKHVV WUDQVODWLRQV RI WKHP ZH JHW D VWURQJHU
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racial and linguistic barriers between Mayakovsky and persons of AfriFDQGHVFHQW1RQHWKHOHVVE\MX[WDSRVLQJ%OHNHQGXDLWDQG+XJKHVV
%ODFNDQG:KLWHZHFDQXOWLPDWHO\UHDGWKLVSRHPDVDFROODERUDWLYH
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TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

69

are able to hear hints of that transcendent, unifying voice described by

5LYHUDDQG:LOOLDPV
2IFRXUVHDOOWUDQVODWLRQVRSHUDWHZLWKLQWKHLQWHUVWLFHVEHWZHHQODQguages, and as several scholars have shown, it is in these interstices that
TXHVWLRQVRIQDWLRQDOLVPDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVPFRPHWRWKHIRUH$FFRUGLQJ
WR/DZUHQFH9HQXWLHYHQVHHPLQJO\WUDQVSDUHQWWUDQVODWLRQVKLJKOLJKWQDWLRQDOGLHUHQFHVVLQFHERWKODQJXDJHVLQYROYHGLQWKHSURFHVVEHDUWKHLU
RZQKLVWRULHVFRQWUDGLFWLRQVDQGVWUXJJOHV7KLVPHDQVWKDWLQRUGHUWR
make a foreign text legible, the translator must impart to it a domestic
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and representations linked to historical moments and social positions in
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asymmetries makes it possible to discern translations utopian undercurrent, namely, the dream of a future reconciliation of linguistic and culWXUDOGLHUHQFHV That is, translation highlights the gaps between lanJXDJHVDQGFXOWXUHVEXWDOVRWKHGHVLUHWRRYHUFRPHWKHPWUDQVODWLRQDV
DFRQFUHWHVWHSWRZDUGQHZ7RZHUVRI%DEHODQG0DUUVXQLHGODQJXDJH
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WKHLQWHJUDWLRQRIPDQ\WRQJXHVLQWRRQHWUXHODQJXDJH From
this perspective, translation can serve as the basis of new communities
DQGJURXSLQJVDQGLQGHHGLQGLVFXVVLQJ+XJKHVYLVjYLV0D\DNRYVN\,
seek to use translation as a tool for binding together the internationalist,
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that do not aim for transparency but that self-consciously add elements to
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That is, such translations use domestic remainders to convey the original
texts foreignness, and as a result, they override the notion that cultural
GLHUHQFHVDUH[HGRUHVVHQWLDOWKH\RSHQWKHSRVVLELOLW\RIGHIDPLOLDUL]LQJDQGUHLQYHQWLQJWKHGRPHVWLFFXOWXUHDQGODQJXDJH My literal translations of Mayakovsky have not attempted to do this, though I have resistHGWUDQVSDUHQF\E\MX[WDSRVLQJP\UHQGHULQJVZLWKWKHRULJLQDOOLQHVDV
ZHOODVE\UHYHUWLQJWRWKH5XVVLDQWRLOOXVWUDWHDFFHQWVDQGUK\PHV0\
goal has been to convey the poets bare meaning and layout, but also to
PDLQWDLQDVHQVHRIWKHJDSVEHWZHHQWKH5XVVLDQRULJLQDOVDQGP\(QJOLVK
UHQGHULQJV,QFRQWUDVW+XJKHVVPRUHDPELWLRXVXQGHUWDNLQJVDFFHQWXDWHSUHFLVHO\WKHJDSVEHWZHHQFXOWXUHVDQGODQJXDJHVDQGDWUVWJODQFH

70

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WKH\ WKXV WKURZ LQWR TXHVWLRQ 0D\DNRYVN\V DSSOLFDELOLW\ WR WKH EODFN
GLDVSRUD+RZHYHU,SUHVHQW+XJKHVVWUDQVODWLRQVDVQRWRQO\GLYHUJLQJ
IURPEXWDOVRVXSSOHPHQWLQJ0D\DNRYVN\([DPLQLQJWKHWUDQVODWLRQVYLV
-vis the originals makes it possible to imagine the two authors as part of a
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/HWVEHJLQZLWKWKHWZR0D\DNRYVN\SRHPV%OHNHQGXDLWIROORZV:LOOLHDEODFNVZHHSHUDWDQ$PHULFDQFLJDUFRPSDQ\LQ+DYDQDDV
KHVORZO\JDLQVDZDUHQHVVRIUDFLDOLQHTXLW\+RZHYHUZKHQKHGHPDQGV
WRNQRZIURPKLVHPSOR\HU0U%UDJJZK\EODFNVSHUIRUPDOOWKHODERUIRU
ZKLWHV%UDJJEHDWVKLPXQFRQVFLRXV6\SKLOLVGHVFULEHVDEODFN
LWLQHUDQWQDPHG7RPDWKLUGFODVVERDWSDVVHQJHUZKRLVTXDUDQWLQHGLQ
+DYDQDVKDUERUZKLOHDZHDOWK\ZKLWH$PHULFDQIURPUVWFODVV6ZLIW
WKHV\SKLOLWLFSLJNLQJGLVHPEDUNV(QFRXQWHULQJ7RPVVWDUYLQJEHDXWLful wife, Swift propositions her, and thinking she has been abandoned by
KHUKXVEDQGVKHDJUHHVWRSURVWLWXWHKHUVHOI7KHDQWLLPSHULDOFRQWHQW
WKHSOLJKWRI$IUR&XEDQVLVREYLRXVLQERWKSRHPV0RUHLQWHUHVWLQJLV
the way in which Mayakovsky conveys this message, namely, through his
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Esli

If

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DW+DYDQD

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rai-strana,

paradise-country,

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Pod palmoi

Under a palm

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Tsvetet

Callario

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SRYVHL9HGDGR

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These lines convey a now familiar push and pull between past and presHQWWKHIXWXULVWSRHWRQFHDJDLQEDVNLQJLQDSUHPRGHUQH[RWLFVHWWLQJ
7KH\ DOVR FRQYH\ DQ HTXDOO\ IDPLOLDU SXVK DQG SXOO EHWZHHQ RUGHU DQG
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TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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5HPDUNDEO\WKLVDELOLW\WRUHFRQFLOHH[WUHPHVZDVH[SOLFLWO\SUHVHQWHG
WR+XJKHVDVVRPHWKLQJWRHPXODWH,QDQDUWLFOHSXEOLVKHGLQWKH0RVFRZ
EDVHGMRXUQDOInternational LiteratureZKLOHKHZDVVWLOOLQWKH8665/\GLD
Filatova, a young Soviet critic of African American literature, applauded
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+RZHYHUVKHIROORZHGWKLVSUDLVHZLWKDIDVFLQDWLQJFDYHDW
Yet there is danger here of lacking proportion, of falling into schematism
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FRQYLQFLQJ WKDQ DEVWUDFW V\PEROV 7KH DELOLW\ WR JLYH JHQHUDOLVDWLRQV
while retaining the concrete individual substance may be seen in the
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impregnated with the spirit of proletarian internationalism, which
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obliterating national boundaries and to some extent destroys the speFLFQDWLRQDODWPRVSKHUHRIKLVSRHWU\LQWKLVVHQVHLWLVDVWHSEDFNZDUGLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKKLVHDUOLHUZRUNV:HDUHIRUDQDUWWKDWLVQDWLRQDOLQIRUPDQGVRFLDOLVWLQFRQWHQW+XJKHVUVWRIDOOLVDSRHWRIWKH
1HJURSUROHWDULDW7KHIRUFHRI+XJKHV>sic] poems will be stronger,
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WKHLUODQJXDJH52

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proletarian internationalism can be summed up with the slogan naWLRQDO LQ IRUP DQG VRFLDOLVW LQ FRQWHQWEDVLFDOO\ SRHPV WKDW SRUWUD\
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KHULQYRFDWLRQRI0D\DNRYVN\SRLQWVWRDPRUHVXEWOHVROXWLRQDSRHWLF
form that can balance individual substance and generalization, which
Filatova here implicitly analogizes to the particular and universal, black
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two poems within Mayakovskys oeuvre, namely, their depictions of black

72

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depictions in his translations, which he produced with Filatovas assisWDQFH0RVWQRWDEO\WKHIUDJPHQWHGTXDOLW\RI0D\DNRYVN\VZULWLQJVDOORZV WKH SRHPV WR EH VLPXOWDQHRXVO\ H[RWLFLVW DQG DQWLH[RWLFLVW )RU LQVWDQFHKHGLVWDQFHVDQGREMHFWLHVWKHZLIHVERG\LQ6\SKLOLVOLNHQLQJ
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in a fetish for black, female bodies, but then provides a detailed, repellent
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A misteru Sviftu

And Mister Swifts

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razdula

was swelled by

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Thus, for Mayakovsky, the exotic serves as a source of both allure and
GLVJXVWDQGE\WKHHQGRIWKHSRHPWKHVSHOORIWKHIHWLVKLVEURNHQ7RP
returns, contracts syphilis himself, and he, his wife, and future children
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I slazilo

And the rot

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s gnilykh

from rotting

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diminutive chernenkogo miastsaKHUHEHFRPHVQHXWUDOEODFNHVKFRQveyed through the nondiminutive chernogo miasa 7KHRXWFRPH RI FRORQLDODQGFDSLWDOLVWH[RWLFLVPRSHUDWLQJXQGHUWKHJXLVHRIFLYLOL]DWLRQ
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though he does not translate nuances like diminutive versus nondiminuWLYHVX[HVKHGLOLJHQWO\SURYLGHVHDFKRI0D\DNRYVN\VGHWDLOV55+HYRLFHVQRREMHFWLRQWRWKHVRFLDOLVWFRQWHQWRIWKHRULJLQDOSRHPV

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need to be made

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Chernaia sigara

A black cigar

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ona dlia negra

its for a Negro

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ZLWKEODFNPRXVWDFKH

A esli vy

And if you

OLXELWH

ORYH

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to sakhar

then sugar

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EHJ \RXU SDUGRQ 0U %UDJJ ,W LV XQFOHDU LQ ZKDW ODQJXDJH :LOOLH SURFHHGVWRDVNKLVTXHVWLRQKHFRXOGHLWKHUEHFRQWLQXLQJLQ(QJOLVKRUHOVH
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before switching to Spanish, I beg your pardon (as opposed to, say,
+HOORVHHPVWRRIRUPDOIRUWKLV0\VHQVHLVWKDW0D\DNRYVN\LVSUHsenting Afro-Cubans as English speakers, which in turn suggests an erroQHRXVFRQDWLRQRIWKLVJURXSDQG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV+RZHYHUWKHPRUH
SUHVVLQJSUREOHPLVWKDWZKHWKHU:LOOLHSURFHHGVLQ6SDQLVKRU(QJOLVK
KLVYRLFHLVLQGLVWLQJXLVKDEOHIURP0D\DNRYVN\VRZQ7KHVZHHSHUVVSRken lines maintain the poets use of rhyme, alliteration, and fragment

74

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translate IURP HLWKHU (QJOLVK RU 6SDQLVK LQWR 5XVVLDQ LV WRR WUDQVSDUHQW
Aside from the ambiguous insertion of transliterated English, the poet fails
to capture the linguistic and cultural distinctions between Soviet poet and
$IUR&XEDQZRUNHU$OOZHNQRZRI:LOOLHLVWKDWKLVVSHHFKDQGSHUVSHFWLYH
DUHVHYHUHO\OLPLWHG$VDUHVXOW0D\DNRYVN\VIRUPKHUHVHHPVFRQVWUDLQing and, indeed, infantalizing, a problem borne by the poems content as
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punches him in the face, leaving the poet to conclude,
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+RZFRXOGKHNQRZ

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nado obrashchatsia

you need to turn

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does Mayakovsky deny his character a distinctive voice and a developed
PLQGEXWKHDOVRGHQLHV:LOOLHDQ\PHDQVRIORFDOUHVLVWDQFH7KLVLVDOOWR
reveal the limits of Mayakovskys fragmented form and, in turn, political
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DQWLLPSHULDORULHQWDWLRQWKHH[RWLFLVWJD]HWKDWWKHSRHPDSSOLHVWR:LOlie here seems retrograde and disempowering, asserting a clear hierarchy
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(QWHU/DQJVWRQ+XJKHV,I0D\DNRYVN\VJXUDWLYHWUDQVODWLRQVRIWKLV
FKDUDFWHUORVHWKHFXOWXUDODQGOLQJXLVWLFVSHFLFLW\VHSDUDWLQJWKH6RYLHW
8QLRQDQG&XED+XJKHVVRZQWUDQVODWLRQVDGGSUHFLVHO\WKLVVSHFLFLW\
7KDWLVKLVWUDQVODWLRQVZRUNWRNHHS0D\DNRYVN\LQFKHFNWRUHZRUNWKH
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TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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translation, but compare them with another, more transparent translation
IURPZKLFKEHWWHUFDSWXUHVWKHRULJLQDOVWRQH
:KHQRYHU+DYDQD
<RXFDVW\RXUJODQFH
3DUDGLVHFRXQWU\
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Under palm
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LVPLVVLQJ
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.HUQDQZULWHVWKDWIRUPXFKRIKLVFDUHHU+XJKHVHPEUDFHGFROODERUDWLYH
literal translations as the best way to avoid limiting the poetic potential
of the source text in translation and the ethical pitfalls of speaking for the
2WKHU7KXVDV-RKQ3DWULFN/HDU\KDVVKRZQKLVHRUWWRWUDQVODWHWKH

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the original poems locality points to the gaps, contradictions, and strugJOHVLQKHUHQWWRGLDVSRULFLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVPVDQGDFFRUGLQJO\ZKHQ+XJKHV
KLPVHOIYLVLWHG&XEDLQDQGKHIHWLVKL]HG$IUR&XEDQFXOWXUHOLNHDKXQJU\WRXULVWVHHNLQJVRPHORFDOGLVK7KHVHDFFRXQWVDUP
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GLDVSRULFDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVWIRUPDWLRQVLQWKHFDVHRI%ODFNDQG:KLWH
WKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQERWK+XJKHVDQG0D\DNRYVN\DQG+XJKHVDQG&XED
-XVWDVZLWK0D\DNRYVN\&XEDZDVIRU+XJKHVDQH[RWLFSODFHWKHFRQQHFtion between the African American poet and his Afro-Cuban colleagues was
IDUIURPVHDPOHVV,QGHHGLQDFRLQFLGHQWDOHFKRRI0D\DNRYVN\VMX[WDSRVLWLRQRI+DYDQDFHPHWHU\DQGWHOHJUDSKRFH+XJKHVVSRHP7R
WKH/LWWOH)RUWRI6DQ/D]DURRQWKH2FHDQ)URQW+DYDQDEHJLQVZLWKWKH
romantic past of the eponymous stone fortress repelling pirates and ends
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both poets could present Cuba only from the outside, and both applied to
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Given their limited perspectives on Cuba, what I would like to suggest
LVWKDW+XJKHVVXSSOHPHQWHG0D\DNRYVN\VHRUWVWRUHSUHVHQWWKLVSODFH
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sense of the distance between the Soviet Union and Cuba, the second
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([FXVHPH0U%UDJJ
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$EODFNFLJDUGRQWJRZLWK\RXUPRXVWDFK>sic]
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:K\GRQW\RXJULQGWKHVXJDU\RXUVHOI"

,WZRXOGEHDEVXUGWRVD\WKDW+XJKHVKHUHSUHVHQWVZKDWDQ$IUR&XEDQ
laborer might actually say, for of course an actual Afro-Cuban would use

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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6SDQLVK 5DWKHU +XJKHV VHHPV WR FRQIHU XSRQ :LOOLH DQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQYRLFH$EODFNFLJDUGRQWJRGHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWKHKLPVHOIUHVLVWHGXVLQJVXFKGLDOHFWZKHQVXEVHTXHQWO\WUDQVODWLQJ*XLOOpQ Dialect
KHUHIXQFWLRQVDVDQ(QJOLVKGRPHVWLFUHPDLQGHUGHSOR\HGE\+XJKHVWR
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+XJKHVOLNH0D\DNRYVN\LVVLPSO\LPSDUWLQJKLVRZQYRLFHWR:LOOLH+RZHYHUWKHFUXFLDOGLHUHQFHLVWKDW+XJKHVVYHUVLRQJUDQWV:LOOLHDSRWHQF\
DQDJHQF\WKDWLVODFNLQJLQWKHRULJLQDO,QSODFHRI0D\DNRYVN\VERXQFLQJSOD\IXOQHVV+XJKHVLPSDUWVWRKLPDVLPPHULQJUHVHUYH7KHRULJLQDOV
PDQLFWUDQVOLWHUDWHG$LEHJ\RUSDUGRQPLVWHU%UHJJEHFRPHVDWHUVH
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the Comintern and Moscow, and portrays his brain as housing few furURZV/LWWOHVRZQOLWWOHKDUYHVWKLVYRLFHJDLQVDIRUWKULJKWQHVVDQG,
WKLQNDVRSKLVWLFDWLRQODFNLQJLQWKHRULJLQDO
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UHIXVHG0D\DNRYVN\VYRLFHDQGIRUPLQ:LOOLHVVSHHFK+XJKHVQRWRQO\
maintains the originals bubbly repetition (white, white) but also adds
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+XJKHVEXLOGVXSRQUDWKHUWKDQFRXQWHUV0D\DNRYVN\+HHQDEOHVWKH6RYLHWSRHWWRUHDOL]HWKHSRWHQWLDOLGHQWLHGE\)LODWRYDQDPHO\E\HQKDQFing, in Blek end uait, the balance of generalizations and individual
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\HDUVDIWHU0D\DNRYVN\VVXLFLGH,QWKLVSRVWKXPRXVOLWHUDU\HQFRXQWHU
translation provides a means of connecting cultures and languages withRXWREOLWHUDWLQJWKHLUGLHUHQFHV

78

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translation as a tangent touching a circle, the original, and, by this light
WRXFKWKHWUDQVODWLRQSURFHHGLQJLQWRLQQLW\IROORZLQJLWVRZQFRXUVHDFFRUGLQJWRWKHODZVRIGHOLW\LQWKHIUHHGRPRIOLQJXLVWLFX[2QHODQguage does not impose on the other, but the two remain discrete, supplementing and estranging each other by this touch but still pursuing their own
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translation reveals the innermost kinship of languages (255) and thus
VHUYHVWRUHJDLQSXUHODQJXDJHIXOO\IRUPHGLQWKHOLQJXLVWLFX[
In translation the original rises into a higher and purer linguistic air, as
LWZHUH,WFDQQRWOLYHWKHUHSHUPDQHQWO\WREHVXUHQHLWKHUFDQLWUHDFK
WKDWOHYHOLQHYHU\DVSHFWRIWKHZRUN<HWLQDVLQJXODUO\LPSUHVVLYHPDQQHULWDWOHDVWSRLQWVWKHZD\WRWKLVUHJLRQWKHSUHGHVWLQHGKLWKHUWRLQDFFHVVLEOHUHDOPRIUHFRQFLOLDWLRQDQGIXOOOPHQWRIODQJXDJHV

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%HQMDPLQ DOPRVW EXW GRHV QRW TXLWH UHIHUHQFH WKDW WRZHU KHUHWDQJHQW
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and circle (Mayakovskys Blek end uait) approximate some of the comSRQHQWVSLUDOVDQGWUXVVHVRI7DWOLQV7RZHU
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takes Mayakovskys iconoclastic form and perspective as a starting point
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LQ+XJKHVVSRHP&XEHVSXEOLVKHGLQWKHNew Masses soon after his
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God
Knows why the French

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

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Amuse themselves bringing to Paris

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Its the old game of the boss and the bossed,
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Behind the cubes of black and white,
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boulevards of Paris, contracts venereal disease from three French prosWLWXWHVQDPHG/LEHUW\(TXDOLW\)UDWHUQLW\DQGWKHQWUDQVPLWVWKHGLVHDVHWR$IULFD7RVSUHDGDPRQJWKHEODFNJLUOVLQWKHSDOPKXWV,QOLQH
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GDUNQHVV)URPWKHERVVWRWKHERVVHG
Beyond these obvious readings, I would like to suggest that Cubes
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of each word, though if Mayakovskys lines seem to approximate Tatlins

80

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this parting word works well with the Monument to the Third International
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the poem adopts Mayakovskys combination of exoticism and anti-imperiDOLVPDQGDSSOLHVLWVFULWLFDOJD]HHOVHZKHUH

Hughes in Central Asia, Eisenstein in Mexico

This gaze redirects our attention from language to a way of seeing that
FRQQHFWHGWKHVHWZRSRHWVDVLPLODUZD\RIXQGHUVWDQGLQJGLHUHQWFXOWXUHV5HDG0D\DNRYVN\VSRHPBlack and White, or Syphilis, if you dont
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Titled A Negro Looks at Soviet Central AsiaLWFRQWUDVWHGWKH$PHULFDQ
6RXWKDQGWKH6RYLHW(DVWDQGVSHFLFDOO\WKHWUHDWPHQWRIPLQRULWLHV
LQERWKSODFHV$V QRWHG+XJKHV KDGDUULYHGLQ0RVFRZLQWKHVXPPHU
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KHVSHQW&KULVWPDVRILQDUHPRWHkolkhoz in Uzbekistan settled by a
JURXSRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVKHOSLQJWKH6RYLHWVWRFXOWLYDWHFRWWRQ

TRANSLATING THE ETHNIC AVANT-GARDE

81

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I walk through the streets of Bukhara, eastern city of song and story, place
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how, as a boy in far-away Kansas, I dreamed of seeing this fabulous city of
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of a Soviet newspaper throughout Central Asia, and seeing for myself all
the dusty and wonderful horrors that feudalism and religion created in the
GDUNSDVWDQGWKDWKDYHQRZEHHQWDNHQRYHUE\VRFLDOLVP

7KHVHOLQHVHFKR&ODXGH0F.D\V$IUR2ULHQWDOLVWSRHPRQ0RVFRZGLVcussed in the introduction), as well as Mayakovskys criticism but also emEUDFHRIWKHH[RWLFKHUHWDNLQJWKHIRUPRIWKHIHXGDODQGUHOLJLRXVSDVW
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instances of the exotic in harmony with revolution, beyond the limits of
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WKHSHRSOHVRI8]EHNLVWDQWRSHUIRUPRQDSXEOLFVWDJH%HIRUHWKH
revolution, he explains, women were forbidden to dance, and several unveiled theater performers were murdered in the early days after the revoOXWLRQ,QVWHDG\RXQJER\VSOD\HGWKHUROHVRIZRPHQDQGDV.DWH%DOGZLQ
KDVHODERUDWHG.KDQXPVSHUIRUPDQFHVWKXVHQDEOHG+XJKHVWRUHFDVWWKH
YHLORIUDFHLQWHUPVRIIHPDOHDJHQF\DQGVH[XDOLW\ In the travelogue
Khanum enables him to trouble the boundaries between new and old, SoYLHWSRZHUDQG8]EHNWUDGLWLRQPDOHDQGIHPDOH6KHKDVWDNHQRYHUWKH
best of the old dances of the former boy-dancers, and has created new patWHUQVRIKHURZQ
This synthesis of new and old is precisely what Mayakovsky found in
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82

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wandered the Central Asian steppe Eisenstein was in the Mexican desert,
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elaborated, This is a remarkable Mexican day, when Mexicans recall the
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IRUWKDQGGHDWKUHWUHDWVIDGHVDZD\,QVKRUWMXVWDV+XJKHVIRXQGKLQWV
of a new Uzbekistan in traditional Uzbek dance, Eisenstein sought to harness this vestige of pre-Columbian culture to usher in a new growing
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politics; ethnic identity with socialist internationalism; exoticism with
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namely, the constant dilemma of mutual misunderstanding and misrepreVHQWDWLRQDGLOHPPDWKDW/()VWXUQWRIDFWRJUDSK\VRXJKWWRUHPHG\DV
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makes it possible to at least begin to discern the visions and languages of
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2
The Avant-Gardes Asia
Factography and Roar China
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there cofounding the Far Eastern futurist group Tvorchestvo (Creation),
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literature at Peking University and wrote several works based on his obVHUYDWLRQVWKHUH2QHRIWKHPDSOD\FDOOHGRoar China, is the focus of this
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84

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

More broadly, though, Roar China reveals an ethnic avant-garde that, in

tandem with the Soviet avant-garde, was forced to adapt to the increasLQJO\UHVWULFWLYHSROLWLFDOFOLPDWHRIWKHODWHVDQGHDUO\V,QWKH
case of Tretiakov and his fellow futurists at LEF, adaptation came in the
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marked the Soviet avant-gardes gradual turn from iconoclasm, that is,
from eccentric works like Tatlins Tower and Mayakovskys American writLQJV)URPWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHWKHFKDSWHUPDUNVWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHHQGRI
ERWKWKHHWKQLFDQG6RYLHWDYDQWJDUGHV+RZHYHULQOLQHZLWKWKHYDULRXV
Towers of Babel that we encountered in the previous chapter, factography
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sure, the lens opened by this turn from iconoclasm to factography is not
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Roar China presents another avant-gardist path not taken, one that reveals
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The chapter begins by describing the emergence of factography withLQ 6RYLHW DYDQWJDUGH FLUFOHV RI WKH PLG WR ODWH V XVLQJ WKH YDULRXV
manifestations of Roar ChinaWRLOOXVWUDWHWKLVWHFKQLTXH-XVWDVLQWKHLQtroduction and chapter 1, I draw both contrasts and connections between
the avant-garde and vanguard, in particular, between Roar China and the
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EHJDQ WR IDGH IURP PHPRU\ $IWHU GLVFXVVLQJ DGGLWLRQDO HFKRHV RI Roar
ChinaWKURXJKWKHV,XVH/DQJVWRQ+XJKHVVSRHPE\WKHVDPH
name to mark the abandonment of factography in the face of socialist realLVPDQG6WDOLQLVWWHUURU
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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

85

VXSSUHVVHGIRUJRWWHQWHFKQLTXH6SHFLFDOO\Roar China presents an antiexoticist iteration of the Moscow-centered ethnic avant-garde, here bearLQJDFOHDUHUSROLWLFDOYLVLRQWKDQLQWKHSUHYLRXVFKDSWHU$JDLQWKLVFDQ
be attributed to growing political and aesthetic constraints in the Soviet
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+XJKHVZHZLOOQGQRQ6RYLHWDUWLVWVFODLPLQJDQGDGDSWLQJ6RYLHWFXOWXUH7KURXJKWKHLUPDQ\UHZRUNLQJVRIRoar China and factography, these
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LQWRWKHSRVWZDU\HDUV

The Facts of Roar China

Tretiakov arrived in China soon after Sun Yat-sen announced that his
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:HVWHUQLPSHULDOLVP,QUHVSRQVHWKH&RPLQWHUQVHQWQDQFLDODQGPLOLWDU\DLGWREROVWHU6XQVSURMHFWRIQDWLRQDOFRQVROLGDWLRQ,WDOVRVHQWD
wave of military and political advisers, and though not a formal Comintern agent, Tretiakov can be regarded as part of this Soviet outreach to
&KLQD4 After the prospects for European revolution dimmed, Moscow and
the Comintern increasingly looked eastward, and given its precarious,
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Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to ally itself with Suns Nationalist Party,
or Guomindang, and to maintain this alliance with Suns vehemently antiFRPPXQLVWVXFFHVVRU&KLDQJ.DLVKHN7KHUHVXOWZDVWKHQHDUOLTXLGDWLRQ
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novel La condition humaine5
As spelled out in the introduction, the Soviet avant-garde can be seen
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86

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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similar in concept to Que viva M[LFR As might be expected in light of the
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instance, he celebrated how Chinese ideograms created meaning through
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shown, for him Chinese ideograms also pointed to the overcoming of linJXLVWLFGLYLGHVGHPDQGHGE\D0RVFRZFHQWHUHGZRUOGRUGHU,QKLVZRUGV
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land must be poured into the hearts and emotions of the millions of naWLRQVVSHDNLQJGLHUHQWODQJXDJHV2IFRXUVHWKLVH[RWLFLVWHPEUDFHRI
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both Ezra Pounds own embrace of Chinese as well as the ethnic avantJDUGHVVHDUFKIRUDXQLHGODQJXDJHYLDSDVWSUHVHQWFRQVWHOODWLRQV
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Eisensteins exoticism, that is, Eisensteins emphasis on Chinese backZDUGQHVV,QKLVZULWLQJVRQ&KLQD7UHWLDNRYVJRDOZDVWRSUHVHQW&KLna as it really was, eschewing the exotic and revealing the most pressLQJLVVXHIDFLQJWKHFRXQWU\DFFRUGLQJWRKLP:HVWHUQLPSHULDOLVP,Q
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ethnic avant-garde, one that broke from fanciful, mythological notions
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was on contemporary China, and accordingly, Roar China was based on acWXDOHYHQWVWKDWRFFXUUHGLQ:DQ[LDQDVPDOOWRZQRQWKH<DQJW]H5LYHU
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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

87

Despite this seeming transparency, Tretiakov endeavored, in Devin

Fores words, not simply to depict life, but to create it anew in the proFHVV7KDWLVKHZDVDVWHDGIDVWDYDQWJDUGLVWLQ3HWHU%UJHUVVHQVHRI
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substantiates through, for example, cubisms incorporation of newspaSHUVLQWRSDLQWLQJ$FFRUGLQJO\7UHWLDNRYGHVFULEHGRoar China as an article, only it reaches the audiences consciousness not from the pages of a
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garde abandoned organicity in favor of fragments, the aim being to highlight the principles of construction that determine the constitution of the
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IRUKLPWKHUHVXOWRIDFWLRQSURFHVVDQGRSHUDWLRQ It is this self-critical
open-endedness that keeps factography interesting amid its muted iconoclasm, allowing for innovative presentations of workers, peasants, and ChiQHVHSHRSOH7UHWLDNRYVVXEMHFWVRIFKRLFH
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DJDLQFRPHVLQKDQG\,QD3DULVOHFWXUHWLWOHG7KH$XWKRUDV3URGXFer, he singled out Tretiakov as exemplifying the ability to overcome the
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WR7UHWLDNRYVVWLQWDWDkolkhoz, where he called mass meetings, colOHFWHGIXQGVIRUWUDFWRUVDQGHGLWHGDVPDOOQHZVSDSHU%XW7UHWLDNRYV
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such as writing and photographs, turning readers and spectators into collaborators, and, in the case of theater, employing montage and interrupWLRQ%HQMDPLQXVHV%UHFKWKHUHDVDQH[DPSOHDQG7UHWLDNRYKDSSHQHG
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literary tendency, and the latter, in turn, as a matter of progressive or reJUHVVLYHOLWHUDU\WHFKQLTXH11

88

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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factography is best understood as a defensive measure that had sought to
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The paradox and historical irony of Lissitzkys work was, of course,
that it had introduced a revolution of the perceptual apparatus into an
otherwise totally unchanged social institution, one that constantly reafUPV ERWK WKH FRQWHPSODWLYH EHKDYLRU DQG WKH VDQFWLW\ RI KLVWRULFDOO\
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This paradox complemented the contradiction that had become apparent several years earlier when Lissitzky had placed a suprematist
painting, enlarged to the size of an agitational billboard, in front of a facWRU\HQWUDQFHLQ9LWHEVN7KLVXWRSLDQUDGLFDOLVPLQWKHIRUPDOVSKHUH
ZKDWWKHFRQVHUYDWLYH6RYLHWFULWLFVODWHUZRXOGSHMRUDWLYHO\DOOXGHWRDV
IRUPDOLVPLQLWVIDLOXUHWRFRPPXQLFDWHZLWKDQGDGGUHVVWKHQHZDXdiences of industrialized urban society in the Soviet Union, became increasingly problematic in the eyes of the very groups that had developed
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E\DSHUFHLYHGJXOIEHWZHHQWKHPDQGWKHPDVVHV7KHLUIRUPDOLQQRYDWLRQVVHHPHGLQFUHDVLQJO\DWRGGVZLWK6RYLHWDXGLHQFHVDQGUHDOLWLHV,Q
UHVSRQVHWHFKQLTXHVOLNHIDFWRJUDSK\ZHUHDLPHGDWDFFHVVLELOLW\DQGWKH
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group remained opposed, in Tretiakovs words, to art in its aesthetic-stuSHI\LQJIXQFWLRQ14 That is, the factographers were still intent on defamiliarization, on creating works that would change how the masses perceived
DSRVWUHYROXWLRQDU\ZRUOG7KH\ZHUHSDUWLFXODUO\DJDLQVWDUWDVPHUHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRUDV/HDK'LFNHUPDQSXWVLWWKHUHHFWLRQPRGHORIUHDOLVPSUHVXSSRVLQJDVWDEOHDQGWUDQVKLVWRULFDOFRQFHSWRIWUXWKZKLFK

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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LQWXUQSRLQWHGWRDQHPHUJHQWPRGHORIVRFLDOLVWUHDOLVP15 Tretiakov
and his circle sought a middle ground of sorts, art that was legible to workers, but that also destabilized perception and undercut received notions of
WKHUHDO
)DFWRJUDSK\ZDVLQWHQGHGWRVHUYHWKHVHHQGV)RUWKHYLVXDODUWVLWV
emphasis on precise facts translated to a shift from painting to photograSK\ PRUH VSHFLFDOO\ IURP QRQUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDO ZRUNV WKDW KLJKOLJKWHG
their own constructedness to iconic photos that seemed to render aspects
RIUHDOLW\YLVLEOHZLWKRXWLQWHUIHUHQFHRUPHGLDWLRQ For writing, the litHUDWXUHRIIDFWVSHOOHGDUHMHFWLRQRIFWLRQLQIDYRURIUHSRUWDJH7KXVLQ
7UHWLDNRYSURFODLPHG
Now the maximum of the left movement has transferred over to the
OLQHRIWKHDVVHUWLRQRIGRFXPHQWDU\OLWHUDWXUH7KHSUREOHPRIWKH[Dtion of fact; raising the interest of the activists in reality; the assertion of
WKHSULPDF\RIUHDOQHVVRYHUFWLRQWKHSXEOLFLVWRYHUWKHEHOOHWULVWWKLV
LVZKDWLQ/HILVQRZPRVWEXUQLQJDQGLPPHGLDWH
The memoir, travel notes, the sketch, articles, feuilletons, reportage,
LQYHVWLJDWLRQVGRFXPHQWDU\PRQWDJHRSSRVHGWRWKHEHOOHWULVWLFIRUPV
RIQRYHOVQRYHOODVDQGVKRUWVWRULHV
7KHJKWIRUIDFWDJDLQVWFWLRQGLYLGHVWRGD\VIXWXULVWVIURPWKH
SDVVpLVWV

:HVHHKHUHWKHEURDGJHQHULFUDQJHRIWKHOLWHUDWXUHRIIDFWZKLFK7UHWLDNRY
envisioned not as a new genre itself but as a method of utilitarian publicisWLFZRUNRQSUHVHQWGD\VRFLDOLVWSUREOHPV7KDWLVWKHOLWHUDWXUHRIIDFWZDV
WRFDSWXUHWKHUHDOLW\RIVRFLDOLVWOLIHLQDVREMHFWLYHDPDQQHUDVSRVVLEOH
QRWUHDOLW\DVLWZDVVXSSRVHGWREHWKHSUHURJDWLYHLQWKHQHDUIXWXUHRI
VRFLDOLVWUHDOLVP7UHWLDNRYFDOOHGIRUUHSRUWDJHRQVXFKWDVNVDVUDLVLQJOLWeracy, doubling the harvest, collectivization of agriculture, raising the proGXFWLYLW\RIODERUDQGRWKHUHYHU\GD\PDWWHUV Likewise, he pressed for
new books with titles like Forest, Bread, Coal, Iron, )OD[, Cotton, Paper, Locomotive, FactoryHVFKHZLQJKDJLRJUDSKLHVRIUHYROXWLRQDU\KHURHV
Factography was to enable art and literature to catch up to enormously developing reality, namely the massive transformations brought by SoYLHWLQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ20 It was to allow the viewer or the reader to experiHQFHWKHH[WHQGHGPDVVLYHQHVVRIUHDOLW\LWVDXWKHQWLFPHDQLQJ21 Again,

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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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but rather the disruptive combination of facts that themselves were unGHUVWRRGDVHPHUJLQJIURPDFWLRQDQGSURFHVV4XRWLQJ9LNWRU6KNORYVNLL
Dickerman notes that the role of the factographic author was to return
WRDVWDWHRIUVWVLJKWWRVHHWKLQJVDVWKH\KDYHQRWEHHQGHVFULEHG22
$FFRUGLQJO\WKLVWHFKQLTXHSULYLOHJHGWKHIUDJPHQWORVWGHWDLOVDQGOLPLWHGSRLQWVRIYLHZVWKXV7UHWLDNRYVHDUOLHUQRWHGSUHIHUHQFHIRULQFRPSOHWHZULWLQJVHJWKHWUDYHOQRWHDQGVNHWFK,QDGGLWLRQWKLVWHFKQLTXH
combined various forms, styles, and genres; for instance, the literature of
fact was to be an explicitly photographic mode of writing, and Tretiakov
SUHVHQWHGKLPVHOIDVERWKDZULWHUDQGSKRWRJUDSKHU+RZHYHUWKHIDFWRJUDSKLFSKRWRJUDSKZDVRIWHQSURYLVLRQDOSDUWLDORUEOXUUHG
To help illustrate these claims and intents, let us now turn to Roar China,
ZKLFKDSSURSULDWHO\DVVXPHGPXOWLSOHIRUPV7KHSOD\ZDVSUHFHGHG
E\DIXWXULVWSRHPFDOOHG5RDU&KLQDZKLFK7UHWLDNRYGHVFULEHVLQ
KLVLQWURGXFWLRQWRLWDVDUVWHQFRXQWHUZLWK&KLQDRUPRUHDFFXUDWHO\
ZLWKD3HNLQJVWUHHW7KHEDVLVRIWKHSRHPVVRQJVLVDVRXQGVLJQboard of the vagrant artisans and sellers of Peking, that is, either hawker
FDOOVRUWKHVRXQGVRIGLHUHQWLQVWUXPHQWV24+HWKHQSURYLGHVDSDUWLDO
LQGH[RIWKHVHVRXQGVDVZHOODVLPDJHVDQGWHUPV
The knife grinder makes himself known with a long, thin pipe, the
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The axle of a water-carriers wheelbarrow is rubbed with rosin and
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RQWKHJURXQG
Manure collectors with particular ladles on long handles gather every
grain of manure from the Peking streets and khutings (alleys), which is
GHIWO\WKURZQRYHUWKHVKRXOGHULQWRWXEVRUEDVNHWVFDUULHGRQWKHEDFN
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92

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7VXEDGRZQ6FUDP
5HGGHYLOVQLFNQDPHJLYHQE\&KLQHVHWR(XURSHDQV
.DNLIUXLWVDNLQWRVZHHWWRPDWRHV25

+HUHZHQGDPRQWDJHRIVHHPLQJO\UDQGRPGHWDLOVSUHVHQWHGLQERWK
short sentences and sentence fragments, the aim being to capture the exSHULHQFHRIZDONLQJGRZQD%HLMLQJVWUHHW,QNHHSLQJZLWK%HQMDPLQV$Xthor as Producer, Tretiakov inserts himself into the world he depicts, and
WRHPSKDVL]HREMHFWLYLW\KHNHHSVHPEHOOLVKPHQWVWRDPLQLPXP:HQG
MXVWRQHXVHRIVLPLOHOLNHDEDWWOHVLJQDODQGQRFOHDUDJLWDWLRQDOFRQWHQWDVLGHIURPWKDWUHIHUHQFHWRUHGGHYLOV
The poem itself bears similar features, though with more emphasis on
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Chtoby koles

So that the rumble of wheels

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I zelenyi risovyi mekh

And the green rice fur

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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

93

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IRUHLJQHUV,QUHVSRQVHWRWKLVH[RWLFLVWWURSHKHSUHVHQWVPXQGDQHDJULFXOWXUDOVFHQHVWKHPRYHPHQWRIUHVHUYRLUZKHHOVDQGR[FDUWVWKHVORZ
JURZWKRIULFH
7KHVH H[DPSOHV SRLQW WR WKH SURPLVH RI WKH OLWHUDWXUH RI IDFW
7UHWLDNRYVHRUWWRUHWXUQWRDVWDWHRIUVWVLJKWLVHYLGHQWLQWKHRSHQing indexs unconnected details and sounds, as well as in the poems short
lines, evocative of Mayakovskys American writings taken up in the previRXV FKDSWHU 2QFH DJDLQ IUDJPHQWV DUH XVHG WR FDSWXUH DUULYDO LQ D QHZ
SODFHEXW7UHWLDNRYHVFKHZV0D\DNRYVN\VDOOHQFRPSDVVLQJSRHWLFYRLFH
:KDWZHQGKHUHLQVWHDGLVWKHDXWKRUVRZQVHQVHRIGLVRULHQWDWLRQDVKH
tries to remove the barrier between self and reader, relaying his immediate
LPSUHVVLRQVRIDUULYLQJE\FDUWDQGZDONLQJGRZQWKHVWUHHW8QOLNHZLWK
Mayakovskys Cuba and Mexico, there are no traces of a premodern utoSLD7KHFRXQWU\VLGHLVH[KDXVWHGUDWKHUWKDQDOOXULQJSURPLVHOLHVLQWKH
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a place that is distant and estranging, for him it becomes comprehensible
WKURXJKWKLVDVVHPEODJHRIIDFWV
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factography, namely, its claim but inability to overcome artistic mediaWLRQ2IFRXUVHWKHLQGH[VVHOHFWLRQRIGHWDLOVWRVLJQLI\&KLQDLVLWVHOIDQ
LQVWDQFHRIOLWHUDU\HPEHOOLVKPHQWWKDWLVPHWRQ\P\/LNHZLVHWKHSRHP
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DQGNDWDL.LWDLLQWKHSUHFHGLQJH[FHUSW$VKHIXUWKHUGHYHORSHGIDFWRJUDSK\DQGWKHOLWHUDWXUHRIIDFWWKURXJKWKHPLGWRODWHV7UHWLDNRY
FDPHWRGLVDYRZVXFKSRHWLFRXULVKHVDQGLQGHHGSRHWU\HQWLUHO\LQIDvor of photography, newspaper reportage, and kolkhozVRMRXUQV,QD
manifesto, he noted a sharp decline in the readers appetite for verse and
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$V 0D\DNRYVN\ ZDV UHDGLQJ LQ WKH 5HG +DOO RI WKH 0RVFRZ .RPVRPRO
the young organization members knowing him by heart and loving him,
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94

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

FIGURE 2.2

FRYHURIWKHSOD\Roar China

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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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WLPH7UHWLDNRYKDGDOUHDG\UHZRUNHG5RDU&KLQDWKHSRHPLQWRRoar
ChinaWKHSOD\ZKLFKDJDLQKHHQYLVLRQHGDVDQHZVSDSHUDUWLFOHRQVWDJH
+RZHYHULQLWVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQIURPSRHPWRSOD\Roar China maintained
LWVVHQVHRIERWKSURPLVHDQGFRQWUDGLFWLRQDWHQVLRQEHWZHHQHVWUDQJLQJDQGUHHFWLQJUHDOLW\7KLVZDVSDUWLFXODUO\WKHFDVHLQLWVGHSLFWLRQVRI
QRQ:HVWHUQSHRSOHVDQGFXOWXUHV

The Moscow and New York Productions

The play consists of nine scenes, with action alternating between the BritLVK VKLS DQG :DQ[LDQV ZKDUI WKH &KLQHVH DQG :HVWHUQHUV NHSW ODUJHO\
VHSDUDWHXQWLOWKHQDOH[HFXWLRQVFHQH7KHSORWIROORZVWKHVHTXHQFHRI
events as laid out above, though the death of the businessman Ashlay is
UHQGHUHGDQDFFLGHQWKHIDOOVLQWRWKHULYHUDIWHUKDJJOLQJZLWKDERDWPDQ
RYHUIWHHQFRSSHUV7KLVSURPSWVWKHWRZQV:HVWHUQFRORQ\LQFOXGLQJ
D)UHQFKPHUFKDQWIDPLO\FDPHUDZLHOGLQJWRXULVWVDQGDMRXUQDOLVWZLWK
DWDVWHIRUFKLOGSURVWLWXWHVWRVHHNUHIXJHRQWKHCockchafer until the capWDLQFDUULHVRXWKLVXOWLPDWXP,QWKHPHDQWLPHDVDZD\RISURWHVWWKH
ships Chinese servant boy commits suicide above the captains bridge, a
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D EXVLQHVVPDQ VWDWHV ZRXOG PDNH D PDUYHORXV SKRWRJUDSK  %DFN
on the shore, the man involved in Ashlays death is nowhere to be found,
forcing members of the boatmens union to draw straws to determine who
DPRQJWKHPZLOOEHKDQJHG,PPHGLDWHO\DIWHUWKHH[HFXWLRQZKLFKRFFXUVRQVKRUHWKHMRXUQDOLVWDWWHPSWVWRSKRWRJUDSKWKHWZRFRUSVHV,WOO
EHTXLWHDVFRRSKHVD\VVSDUNLQJDSURWHVWDPRQJWKH&KLQHVH7KH
wife of one of the executed boatmen tells her young son to look at the capWDLQDQGWRJURZXSTXLFNO\WRNLOOKLP$QRWKHU&KLQHVHFKDUDFWHU
FDOOHG6WRNHULHWKHIXUQDFHVWRNHUDWWKHORFDOUDGLRVWDWLRQZKRHDUOLHU
XUJHVWKHERDWPHQWRGUDZKRSHIURPWKH5XVVLDQ5HYROXWLRQUHYHDOVKLPVHOIDVDPHPEHURIWKH&DQWRQ:RUNHUV0LOLWLDZLWKKLVEOXHXQLIRUPDQG
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96

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&RPLQWHUQWKLVLVDSOD\DERXWPDNLQJ&KLQDYLVLEOHH[SOLFLWO\UHMHFWLQJ
WKHIHWLVKLVWLFHRUWVRI:HVWHUQHUVWRFDSWXUHWKLVSODFHRQOP
7UHWLDNRYV VWDJHG QHZVSDSHU VWRU\ UHSRUWV WKH  LQFLGHQW DV WKH
EDVLVIRULPPLQHQWUHYROXWLRQWKHIDFWVRIWKHLQFLGHQWSUHVHQWHGVRDVWR
EROVWHUWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIUHDOLW\,QGHHGLQWKHVDPH\HDUWKDW
WKHSOD\GHEXWHGDW0H\HUKROGDUWDQGOLIHVHHPHGWRPHUJHWZR%ULWLVK
gunboats (including the CockchaferGHVWUR\HGWKHWRZQRI:DQ[LDQNLOOLQJ
KXQGUHGVRIFLYLOLDQV7KHGLUHFWFDXVHRIWKHLQFLGHQWZDVWKH%ULWLVKDWtempt to retrieve forcibly two merchant ships that, blamed for crushing two
sampans carrying Chinese soldiers across the Yangtze, had been commanGHHUHGE\WKH&KLQHVHLQODWH$XJXVW Roar China thus assumed a prophetic
TXDOLW\ZKLFKEROVWHUHGLWVVXFFHVVERWKDWKRPHDQGDEURDG,WZDVSDUWLFXlarly popular among foreigners in the Soviet Union, with one Englishman
calling it the leading show piece of Moscow to which every visitor who
GHYRXWHGO\EHOLHYHGLQWKHSULQFLSOHRIWKH1HZ5XVVLDZHQWWRSD\KRPDJH$V.RQVWDQWLQ5XGQLWVN\UHFRXQWV7UHWLDNRYVDLPZDVDFKLHYHG
Instead of exotic chinoiserie the audience saw unusually lifelike tabOHDX[7KHFURZGVFHQHVUHFDOOHGWKRVHRIWKHHDUO\>0RVFRZ$UW7KHDWHU@
and in the reviews the word naturalism cropped up accompanied by
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scene of the execution of the two Chinese, shown in all its repugnant
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VWULNLQJLPSUHVVLRQWKDQWKHVKDUSO\FDULFDWXUHG(XURSHDQHSLVRGHV

5XGQLWVN\KHUHWRXFKHVRQWKHSOD\VWHQVLRQEHWZHHQQDWXUDOLVPDVVRFLated with Stanislavsky and the Moscow Art Theater) and caricature (for
ZKLFKWKHH[SHULPHQWDO0H\HUKROG7KHDWHUZDVIDPRXVPRUHVSHFLFDOO\EHWZHHQMRXUQDOLVWLFGHSLFWLRQVRIWKH&KLQHVHDQGVW\OL]HGGHSLFWLRQV
RIWKH(XURSHDQV,GHOYHLQWRWKLVWHQVLRQEHORZEXWVXFHLWWRVD\IRU
now, one of the plays innovations was indeed its nonexoticist depictions
RIWKH&KLQHVHFKDUDFWHUV$OWKRXJKDOOWKHUROHVZHUHSOD\HGE\QRQ$VLDQ
actors, the production incorporated such ethnographic details as musiFDOLQVWUXPHQWVFRVWXPHVULFNVKDZVDQGIDQYHQGRUV$FFRUGLQJWR5XGQLWVN\DJUHDWYDULHW\RIJHQXLQHREMHFWVZDVEURXJKWIURP&KLQD&KLnese students in Moscow were invited to rehearsals and asked to check

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

97

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the same time, Tretiakov sought to avoid chinoiserie by insisting that the
stage must not be decorated with pretentious curved roofs, screens, dragRQVRUODQWHUQV7KH0RVFRZSURGXFWLRQEHJDQZLWKDIXOOWHQPLQXWHVRI
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This brings us to Roar China as a departure from the avant-gardist repUHVHQWDWLRQV RI WKH 2WKHU SUHVHQWHG LQ FKDSWHU  $JDLQ WKH NH\ KHUH LV
Tretiakovs abandonment of exoticism, something he lays out in the plays
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:HVWHUQKDWVWKLVLVWKHWUXH&KLQDZKLFKPXVWEHRSSRVHGWRWKHROG
false and exotic ideas about China, with its wonderful vases, embroidered
NLPRQRV SKRHQL[HV GUDJRQV SDJRGDV SULQFHVVHV UHQHG FRXUWHVDQV
cruel mandarins, dancers (who, by the way, do not exist in China, as China
LVQRWDFTXDLQWHGZLWKWKHDUWRIGDQFLQJRSSRVHGLQDZRUGWRDOOWKH
KDUPIXOWRPIRROHU\ZKLFKLVVWLOOEHOLHYHGLQWKH:HVW

Particularly interesting here is the absurd notion that dancing did not exist
LQ&KLQD7KLVLVDIDUFU\IURP(LVHQVWHLQVVXEVHTXHQWHPEUDFHRI0H[LFDQ
GDQFHDVZHOODV+XJKHVVHPEUDFHRI8]EHNGDQFH$VZHVDZERWKVRXJKW
to harness these exotic traditions for socialist revolution, and arguably
Tretiakov pushes too hard here against exoticism and any ensuing denial
RIFRHYDOQHVV)RULQVWDQFHWKHSOD\LQFOXGHVDPRQNZKRWULHVWRVHOOWR
the boatmen holy silk, promising that the prayer written on it will proWHFWWKHPIURPEXOOHWV:KLOH0F.D\0D\DNRYVN\(LVHQVWHLQDQG
+XJKHVPLJKWKDYHDFFHQWXDWHGWKLVVFUDSRISUHPRGHUQXWRSLDQLVPWKLV
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98

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

wears a traditional gray gown on top of European trousers and shoes,

horn-rimmed glasses and a Trilby hat (51), details indicating that what
drew Tretiakovs attention were precisely intermixtures of modern and
SUHPRGHUQ(DVWDQG:HVW+HXVHGVXFKLQWHUPL[WXUHWRGLVUXSWWKHH[RWLFLVPRIKLVFRQWHPSRUDULHV:HVWHUQZULWHUVZKRLQKLVZRUGVXVHG&KLQDDVDSLTXDQWH[RWLFVSLFHIRUFWLRQVRDVWRIHQGRWKHVWHQFKRISRYHUW\LOOQHVVKDWUHGDQGKXPDQHVKJURXQGLQFRORQLDOPLOOVWRQHVEXW
DOVR WKH H[RWLFLVP RI KLV DYDQWJDUGH FRPSDWULRWV That is, Tretiakovs
V\QFUHWLVP ZDV GLVWLQFW IURP 0D\DNRYVN\V WKURXJK IDFWRJUDSK\ RQH
could be an ethnic avant-gardist without harking back to some exotic,
P\VWHULRXVSDVW,QDGGLWLRQWRLWVMXPEOHRIFORWKLQJVW\OHVRoar Chinas
VXGGHQOHDSVEHWZHHQ%ULWLVKZDUVKLSDQG&KLQHVHZKDUI:HVWHUQHUVDQG
&KLQHVHSRLQWWRDYRODWLOHPL[RIFXOWXUHVDQGWHPSRUDOLWLHVDQWLFLSDWLQJ
postmodernist pastiche, but also echoing Trotskys notion of combined
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The plays resonance with this theory of revolution indicates its propagandistic thrust, raising the possibility that political tendency here
RYHUVKDGRZHGDUWLVWLFTXDOLW\,QGHHGLQDUHWURVSHFWLYHHVVD\7UHWLDNRY
makes clear Roar Chinas alignment with Comintern policy or, as he refers
WRLWWKH6RYLHWSRLQWRIYLHZRQ&KLQDDJDLQWKDWWKHFRXQWU\VSULPDU\ SUREOHP ZDV LPSHULDOLVP $V KH H[SODLQV WKLV YLHZWKH EDVLV RI
0RVFRZVLQVLVWHQFHRQWKHLOOIDWHG&&3*XRPLQGDQJDOOLDQFHOHGWRWKH
plays emphasis on the theme of how foreigners foster Chinese hatred
WRZDUGVWKHPDQGQRWRQWKHRWKHUPDMRUSUREOHPVKHQRWLFHGLQ&KLQD
5HYROXWLRQDU\ QDWLRQDOLVWV DQG JHQHUDOV IDWWHQHG E\ IRUHLJQHUV /DERU
DQGFDSLWDO)DWKHUVDQGFKLOGUHQ7KDWLVKHFRQVFLRXVO\FKRVHWRHOLPLQDWHVWUDWLFDWLRQDPRQJWKH&KLQHVHPDVVHVDQG&KLQDIURPWKHORDGHUWRWKHJRYHUQRULVSODFHGLQRSSRVLWLRQWRLPSHULDOJXQVDVDXQLHG
OXPS7KLVZDVGLFWDWHGE\GHVLJQ To be sure, this conscious design can
be read as indicating the failure or duplicity behind factography and the
OLWHUDWXUHRIIDFWXOWLPDWHO\EHKROGHQWRDSROLWLFDOSURJUDPDQGSURYLGLQJRQO\WKHLOOXVLRQRIXQPHGLDWHGUHDOLW\$QG\HWDVLQGLFDWHGHDUOLHU
factographers were never so naive as to believe in unmediated facts but
DOZD\VYLHZHGWKHPDVDHVWKHWLFSKHQRPHQD)RUWKHPIDFWVZHUHQHYHU
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deliberate occlusions and emphases, facts could be construed so as to
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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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%XWQRWMXVWSROLWLFDOHQGVWKLVH[LEOHDSSURDFKWRIDFWVDOVRRSHQHG
DHVWKHWLFSRVVLELOLWLHV6WULNLQJO\Roar China, particularly as it was staged in
0RVFRZIXOOOHG%HQMDPLQVSUHVFULSWLRQVIRUDWHFKQLTXHRYHUULGLQJWKH
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RXWUDWKHUWKDQRHUDVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGVHTXHQFHRoar China relies instead
on discontinuities, including retardation, reverse chronology, overlapSLQJDQGHFKRLQJ For instance, Ashlays drowning is presented in two
VHSDUDWHVFHQHVIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIERWKZKDUIDQGVKLSDQLQVWDQFH
RIWKHDWULFDOPRQWDJH,QGHHGVHYHUDOIDFWRJUDSKHUVKDGEHHQWUDLQHGLQ
cinematic montage, and Tretiakov himself had worked closely with Eisenstein on Battleship PotemkinWKHSLRQHHULQJH[HPSODURIWKLVWHFKQLTXH,Q
turn, Eisenstein, who had directed three of Tretiakovs earlier plays, was
originally slated to direct Roar ChinaV0RVFRZSURGXFWLRQ
7KHVFULSWVPRQWDJHHHFWZDVKHLJKWHQHGE\LWVVWDJLQJDW0H\HUKROG
which, as an experimental space, famously lacked a proscenium and esFKHZHGUHDOLVP$VRQH$PHULFDQFULWLFGHVFULEHGLW
1RZWKHUHZDVWKHEDWWOHVKLSHUFHO\VW\OL]HGWKDWVWRRGRQ0H\HUKROGV
stage as a symbol of imperialism, and the scene itself was divided into three
GLVWLQFWXQLWVZKLFKZHUHXVHGVHSDUDWHO\:KHQWKHVWRU\PRYHGIURPWKH
ship to the pier and occasionally into a tank of water, blackouts gave the
single episodes a greater emphasis; the settings stood bare upon the stage,
DQGWKHSHUIRUPDQFHZDVGLUHFWHGOLNHDSROHPLFDWWKHDXGLHQFH40

&OHDUO\WKLVZDVQRSDVVLYHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIIDFWVEXWDQHRUWWRVKRFN
DQGGLVRULHQWWKHDXGLHQFH7KHWUDQVLWLRQVEHWZHHQVKLSDQGZKDUIHPSKDVL]HGLQWHUUXSWLRQWKXVIXUWKHULQJWKHFRQWUDVWEHWZHHQ:HVWHUQHUV
DQG &KLQHVH ,Q DGGLWLRQ ZULWHV .ROFKHYVND 7UHWLDNRY FDOOHG IRU DFWLQJ
WKDWZDVK\SHUEROLFVW\OL]HGDQGDOLHQDWLQJIRUWKHIRUHLJQHUVVRPHthing easily accomplished at Meyerhold given the directors innovation of
a bio-mechanical acting style that, in Alaina Lemons words, aimed to
deactivate those forms of realism that stimulated sympathy too habitually,
WRDOORZQHZZD\VWRVHHVRFLDOUHDOLW\,QFRQWUDVWDQGDVDOOXGHGWRHDUlier, Tretiakov suggested that the Chinese characters be presented using a
QDWXUDOLVWLFVREHUDQGSRLJQDQWDFWLQJVW\OHLQVKRUWDPRUHV\PSDWKHWLFVW\OHQRWDWDOODVVRFLDWHGZLWK0H\HUKROGRUDYDQWJDUGLVP41

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Roar China 

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0XVHXP0RVFRZ

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eschewed exoticism and the denial of coevalness, namely, by allowing for
FXOWXUDOLQWHUPL[WXUHDQGLPSXULW\$QG\HW7UHWLDNRYVDFWLQJGLUHFWLRQV
VXJJHVWWKDWWKH&KLQHVHFRXOGEHSRUWUD\HGRQO\LQDGDWHGVW\OH)RUDOO
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as the Comintern deemed China itself still too backward for a Soviet-style
UHYROXWLRQ42 This problem is compounded by the mentioned fact that the
Chinese roles were performed by non-Asian actors, which raises the posVLELOLW\ WKDW WKH SOD\ ZDV DQ LQVWDQFH RI ZKLWH PRGHUQLVW PLQVWUHOV\ 0\
VHQVHKRZHYHULVWKDWVXFKMXGJPHQWVRIRoar China would be too hasty, and
that Tretiakov was not interested in the spectacle of whites performing in
EODFNIDFHRU\HOORZIDFH5DWKHUWKHXVHRI$VLDQDFWRUVZDVOLNHO\QRWDSRVsibility in Moscow, and the naturalistic acting may have served precisely to
GRZQSOD\UDFLDOFURVVLQJ Also, in context this acting style was not merely
UHWURJUDGHEXWDJDLQKHLJKWHQHGWKHPRQWDJHHHFWRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHDV
DZKROH,QDQ\FDVHLQVXEVHTXHQWSURGXFWLRQVWKHSOD\ZRXOGIHDWXUHQRW
MXVWSRUWUD\DOVof Asians but also by$VLDQVWKDWLVWKH&KLQHVHDQG.RUHDQ
American actors who performed in Roar Chinas New York production, as
well as the Chinese actors who staged the play in China, both before and

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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DOVRLQWHQGHGWRKDYHDQDWXUDOLVWLFHHFWZKLFKLVDGGLWLRQDOO\SUREOHPatic given the strained historical relationship between Asian Americans
DQGOLWHUDU\LIQRWGUDPDWLFQDWXUDOLVP44+RZHYHUWKHXVHRI$VLDQDFWRUV
there proved avant-gardist in ways that neither the plays American diUHFWRUQRU7UHWLDNRYKLPVHOIFRXOGKDYHDQWLFLSDWHG
+ + +

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DQG UHYLHZV EHWWLQJ D ODUJH %URDGZD\ SURGXFWLRQ 6HUJHL (LVHQVWHLQ
who would be in Mexico by years end, was in the audience, and Langston
+XJKHVDSSDUHQWO\DWWHQGHGWKH1RYHPEHUSHUIRUPDQFH452QVWDJHWKH
EXGGLQJSOD\ZULJKW&OLRUG2GHWVZDVDPRQJWKHDFWRUV7KHGLUHFWRUZDV
+HUEHUW%LEHUPDQZKRKDGVHHQWKH0RVFRZSURGXFWLRQPXOWLSOHWLPHV
LQDQGZKRZRXOGJRRQWROHDGDVXFFHVVIXOOPFDUHHU+HLV
EHVWNQRZQQRZDVDOHDGHURIWKH+ROO\ZRRG7HQDJURXSRILQGXVWU\
OHIWLVWVZKRZHUHEODFNOLVWHGDQGEULH\LPSULVRQHGDIWHUUHIXVLQJWRDQVZHU TXHVWLRQV EHIRUH WKH +RXVH 8Q$PHULFDQ $FWLYLWLHV &RPPLWWHH LQ
,QVKRUWRoar China was very much part of the Cultural Front that
HPHUJHGLQV$PHULFDWKH1HZ<RUNSURGXFWLRQDQWLFLSDWLQJWKHODboring of American culture that arose during the Popular Front years and
WKHQGHFOLQHGXQGHU0F&DUWK\LVP,QGHHGDVRQHPLJKWH[SHFW7UHWLDNRY
was a writer for the living newspapers staged by Moscows Blue Blouse
WURXSHIURPWKHHDUO\VDWKHDWHUIRUPWKDWPDGHLWVZD\IURPWKH
6RYLHW8QLRQWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVLQWKHHDUO\VDQGWKDWEHFDPHFHQWUDOWRWKH1HZ'HDOV)HGHUDO7KHDWUH3URMHFWRI Biberman, in
WXUQVHUYHGDVDFRQGXLWEHWZHHQ6RYLHWDQG$PHULFDQWKHDWHU+HZDVRQH
of the many Jewish Americans who made the magic pilgrimage to the
6RYLHW8QLRQLQWKHVDQGVDQGDV7KHDWUH*XLOGIRXQGHU/DZrence Langer recounts, he came into the Guild replete with such words as
'\QDPLF$JLWSURSDQGVRPHRWKHUUHVRXQGLQJQHZZRUGV FactograSK\DQGOLWHUDWXUHRIIDFWZHUHOLNHO\DPRQJWKHP
+RZHYHUZKDWZDVPRVWLQQRYDWLYHDERXWRoar China in New York was its
XVHRISUHGRPLQDQWO\$VLDQ$PHULFDQDFWRUVVL[W\HLJKWRXWRIDWRWDORI
QLQHW\WZR$V:DOWHU-DQG5XWK,0HVHUYHZULWHWKHSURGXFWLRQZDV
WKHUVWWLPHLQWKH$PHULFDQWKHDWUHWKDW&KLQHVHZHUHUHPRYHGIURP
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102

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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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ZHUH DOVR SUHVHQW For the most part, these actors were nonprofessionals, selected by Biberman with the assistance of the Chinese Dramatic and
%HQHYROHQW$VVRFLDWLRQ$PRQJWKHPZDV+77VLDQJZKRODXQFKHGKLV
long acting career with the play and would go on to write the pioneering
Asian American proletarian novel And China Has Hands 2WKHUDFWRUV
LQFOXGHGUHVWDXUDQWDQGODXQGU\ZRUNHUVVKRSNHHSHUVDQGMRXUQDOLVWV$Fcording to the New York Times, ten of the actors did not understand English,
IRUFLQJ%LEHUPDQWRGHOLYHULQVWUXFWLRQVWKURXJKDQLQWHUSUHWHU
The use of amateur actors blurred the boundary between art and life,
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sympathetic reviewers from the left press, this made the play all the
PRUHFRPSHOOLQJNew Masses called the acting superb, asserting that
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Myra Page, writing for the Daily Worker, praised the sincerity and inWHQVHHDUQHVWQHVVRIWKH$VLDQDFWRUV7RWKHP>WKHSOD\@LVHYLGHQWO\
a living embodiment of the wrongs and struggles of the four hundred
PLOOLRQVRI&KLQHVHWRLOHUVZKRDUHWRGD\JKWLQJRQWRYLFWRU\50 AcFRUGLQJO\LQDOHWWHUWR7UHWLDNRYVZLGRZDERXWWKHSURGXFWLRQ
Biberman recalls,
7KH&KLQHVHDQG.RUHDQVIHOWWKHPHDQLQJDQGVLJQLFDQFHRIWKHSOD\
not only as actors, but as an oppressed people, and this faithfulness to the
theme and orientation of the play created such a solidity, such a group
cohesion, which made any member of this group much higher than any
of the white actors, and the professional cohesion of the group of European actors could not oppose the mastery borne from the depths of pasVLRQDQGKXPLOLDWLRQ51

7REHVXUHWKHUHLVDKLQWRIZHOOPHDQLQJFRQGHVFHQVLRQKHUHWKH$VLDQ
actors were passionate, not necessarily talented, and certainly rough
DURXQGWKHHGJHV/HVVSDUWLVDQSXEOLFDWLRQVZHUHQRWQHDUO\DVJORZLQJ
Time, which praised the New York staging but expressed skepticism about
Tretiakovs claim to factuality, recognized Biberman for capably managing
KLVPRERIPRVWO\$VLDQDFWRUV7KHNew York Times was more skeptical
still, calling the play a failure as an expression of drama, and the Asian actors the most unwieldly [sic] element in the production, throttling down
&KLQDVURDUWRDPXUPXU52

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Still, there are clear indications that, thanks to the Asian actors, the
SURGXFWLRQZDVDEOHWRIXOOOVRPHRIWKHGLVRULHQWLQJLQWHUUXSWLYHDLPVRI
IDFWRJUDSK\,QGHHGLWVHHPVWKDWWKHDFWRUVSHUIRUPDQFHVZHUHLQWHQGed to be unwieldly for mainstream audiences, with the New York script
rendering, for instance, very as velly in scenes featuring the Chinese
FKDUDFWHUVXVLQJ(QJOLVKZLWKWKH:HVWHUQHUV That is, though certainly
many of the actors were nonnative English speakers, the script sought to
DFFHQWXDWHUDWKHUWKDQKLGHWKLVDJHVWXUHDUJXDEO\WR7UHWLDNRYVHWKnographic precision, and likewise, the Moscow production used gramPDWLFDOO\ LQFRUUHFW 5XVVLDQ WR VLPXODWH WKH &KLQHVH FKDUDFWHUV EURNHQ
(QJOLVK54 +RZHYHU LQ OLJKW RI 7UHWLDNRYV LQWHUHVW LQ LQWHUPL[WXUH LW
VHHPVPRUHWWLQJWKDWDFFRUGLQJWRWKHNew York Americans reviewer, the
$VLDQDFWRUVZHUHGLFXOWWRXQGHUVWDQGEHFDXVHRIWKHLUJULHYRXV6RXWK
%URRNO\Q VRUW RI (QJOLVK VSHHFK%URRNO\Q QRW &KLQHVH DFFHQWV55 This
wonderful, stereotype-defying detail provides a perfect distillation of facWRJUDSK\VDLPWRSUHVHQWIDFWVWKDWXQGHUPLQHGUDWKHUWKDQDUPHGUHFHLYHGQRWLRQVRIDUWDQGUHDOLW\$VDQRWKHUUHYLHZHUQRWHGWKHSOD\JDYH
the Asian actors an opportunity to belie traditions concerning the stolid
2ULHQWDODQGLQGHHGDIWHUWKHOLJKWVZHQWXSDWWKHSUHPLHUHVHYHUDORI
WKH$VLDQDFWRUVVWHSSHGDFURVVWKHSURVFHQLXPFU\LQJ5RDU&KLQDWR
KHLJKWHQHGDSSODXVHDPDUNHGGHSDUWXUHIURPRWKHUW\SLFDOO\VWUDLWHQHG
H[DPSOHVRIHDUO\$VLDQ$PHULFDQSHUIRUPDQFH
7KLV FURVVLQJ RI WKH SURVFHQLXPDJDLQ VRPHWKLQJ ODFNLQJ DW 0H\HUKROGSRLQWVWRWKH1HZ<RUNSURGXFWLRQVSDUWLDOGHOLW\WRIDFWRJUDSK\
$FFRUGLQJO\MXVWDVLQ0RVFRZWKH%URDGZD\SURGXFWLRQIHDWXUHGWKHHYHU\GD\WDVNVRID&KLQHVHSRUW'XULQJWKHLQWHUPLVVLRQVHYHUDORIWKHDFtors remained on the proscenium to perform these tasks, and curious audiHQFHPHPEHUVZHUHDOORZHGWRFOLPEXSDQGVSHDNZLWKWKHP+HUHDJDLQ
ZHVHHWKHGLYLGHEHWZHHQVWDJHDQGZRUOGEUHDFKHG0RUHQRWDEOHDERXW
%LEHUPDQVSURGXFWLRQKRZHYHUZHUHWKHDJUDQWGHSDUWXUHVIURPIDFWRJUDSK\EHJLQQLQJZLWKWKRVHHYHU\GD\SRUWVFHQHVZKLFKZHUHVLJQLFDQWO\DEULGJHG7KH1HZ<RUNSURGXFWLRQUDQMXVWWZRKRXUVFRPSDUHG
with three and a half in Moscow, and the redactions were primarily those
interludes of local color that Biberman regarded as stunning and rich
EXWXOWLPDWHO\GLVWUDFWLQJ,QDIXUWKHUEUHDNIURPIDFWRJUDSK\WKHQDPH
RIWKH%ULWLVKVKLS+06CockchaferZDVFKDQJHGWR+06EuropaLQHHFW
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105

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3HUIRUPLQJ$UWV

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In contrast to the Moscow productions use of montagelike interruption to
separate ship and wharf, in New York the movement between the dock,
WKHGHFNDQGWKHZDWHULVLQWHUUHODWHGDQGFRQWLQXRXV Biberman was
aided here by an elaborate stage design in which the British ship moved
forward and backward atop a large pool of water, looming over the plays
DFWLRQ 7KH &KLQHVH ZKDUI PHDQZKLOH ZDV VHW RQ WKH SURVFHQLXP DQG
OLJKWLQJHHFWVZHUHXVHGWRHVWDEOLVKWKHWZRORFDWLRQV)RUVFHQHVRQWKH
VKLSWKHSURVFHQLXPFRXOGEHVXEPHUJHGLQGDUNQHVV)RUVFHQHVRQWKH
wharf, the EuropaFRXOGEHOLNHZLVHVXEPHUJHGZLWKVDPSDQVRDWHGLQ
IURQWWRFRQFHDOWKHVKLSVSUHVHQFH)RUWKHQDOVFHQHWKHVKLSPRYHG
IRUZDUGLWVFDQQRQVSRLQWHGGRZQWRZDUGWKHSURVFHQLXP7KHWZRVHWtings thus merged into one, setting the stage for the concluding execution
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Lighting for the wharf; EuropaFRQFHDOHG

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The seamlessness of the New York production would have struck Tretiakov
DVKHLJKWHQLQJUDWKHUWKDQGLVPDQWOLQJDHVWKHWLFLOOXVLRQWKHSOD\DVDVHOI
FRQWDLQHGZRUNFXWRIURPWKHZRUOG7KHYHU\SUHVHQFHRIDSURVFHQLXPLQ
1HZ<RUNSRLQWVWRWKLVGLVFRQQHFW%LEHUPDQVRoar China could be and often
ZDVDSSUHFLDWHGDVDFODVKEHWZHHQWZRPHUHO\WKHDWULFDOVSDFHVXSSHUEuropaYHUVXVORZHUZKDUIZLWKWHFKQLFDOZL]DUGU\HQDEOLQJWKHLUQDOFRQIURQWDWLRQ7KHIDFWRJUDSKHUVVXVSLFLRQVZRXOGKDYHEHHQIDQQHGE\WKHIDFW
WKDW/HH6LPRQVRQVXLGDQGPXOWLOHYHOGHVLJQJDUQHUHGSUDLVHHYHQDPRQJ
WKRVHZDU\RIWKHSOD\VDQWLLPSHULDOLVWVFULSW-%URRNV$WNLQVRQFDOOHGLWD
triumph of representational scenery, while Times reviewer conceded, Any
spectator will probably be moved by the scenic grandeur, the bold theatrics
RIWKHSURGXFWLRQ7KXVWKH1HZ<RUNSURGXFWLRQFRXOGEHHQMR\HGIRULWV
VSHFWDFOHLQGHSHQGHQWO\IURPLWVSROLWLFV%LEHUPDQLQIDFWWRQHGGRZQWKH
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Thus, Biberman removed many of the estranging touches that were the
KDOOPDUNVRIWKH0H\HUKROGSURGXFWLRQIRUH[DPSOHWKHFRQWUDVWLQJDFWLQJVW\OHVDOLHQDWLQJYHUVXVQDWXUDOLVWLFXVHGLQWKHRULJLQDO+HH[SOLFLWO\
GLGWKLVWRGHHFWFKDUJHVWKDWRoar China was mere propaganda, which as
he later explained to Tretiakovs widow was also why he originally chose
WRZRUNZLWK$VLDQDFWRUV
It occurred to me that in order for this play to touch [New York] viewers,
on the whole representatives of the ruling class, it was necessary to make
WKHSHUIRUPDQFHDVQDWXUDOLVWLFDVSRVVLEOH,JXUHGWKDWWROOWKH&KLnese roles with Europeans wearing wigs and speaking with accents would
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Interestingly, this concession to local taste gels with Tretiakovs suggesWLRQWKDWWKH&KLQHVHUROHVEHDFWHGLQDQDWXUDOLVWLFZD\WKRXJKDJDLQ

Tretiakovs use of naturalism served to heighten the original productions
PRQWDJHHHFWDQGSHUKDSVWRPLQLPL]HWKHVSHFWDFOHRI5XVVLDQVSOD\LQJ
&KLQHVHUROHV,QFRQWUDVWWKH1HZ<RUNSURGXFWLRQDSSDUHQWO\SUHVFULEHG
QDWXUDOLVWLF DFWLQJ IRU ERWK WKH &KLQHVH DQG :HVWHUQ UROHV 1DWXUDOLVP
KHUHKDGDDWWHQLQJHHFWJHDUHGWRZDUGPDNLQJWKHSOD\HDVLHUWRGLJHVWDQGDV*HRUJH/LSVLW]KDVQRWHGWKLVZDVRQHRI%LEHUPDQVIDXOWV
WKURXJKRXW KLV FDUHHU KLV YLHZ RI PDVV DUW ZDV OLPLWHG WR WKDW ZKLFK
[spoke] to great numbers of people, not what involve[d] them in changing
WKHLURZQZRUOGV In short, by following the play from Moscow to New
<RUNZHDUHDEOHWRWUDFHWKHSDUWLDOSDVVLQJRIIDFWRJUDSK\-XVWDVZLWK
WKH /() JURXS %LEHUPDQ ZDV FRQFHUQHG DERXW DFFHVVLELOLW\EXW LQ KLV
FDVHIRUUXOLQJFODVVWKHDWHUJRHUVUDWKHUWKDQ6RYLHWZRUNHUV+HWKXV
kept some of Tretiakovs factographic touches but dropped or downplayed
others, and the result was a production that lost much of the originals exSHULPHQWDOHGJH+RZHYHUWKHXVHRI$VLDQ$PHULFDQDFWRUVZHQWDJDLQVW
Bibermans concessions to accessibility, at least as indicated by the impresVLRQWKH\OHIWRQWKH1HZ<RUNUHYLHZHUV7KURXJKDFRPELQDWLRQRIODFNRI
experience, (South Brooklyn) accented English, and passion about the subMHFWPDWWHUWKH\HVFDSHGWKHERXQGVRIQDWXUDOLVPDQGVREULHW\UHVHUYHG
for them, becoming the most memorable, unusual aspect of what was, at
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reworking Mayakovsky, these actors exceeded the roles assigned to them
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Roar New Mexico

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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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tify with the worker, Foster writes that the postmodern artist seeks to
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that the other, here postcolonial, there proletarian, is somehow in reality,
in truth, not in ideology, because he or she is socially oppressed, politiFDOO\WUDQVIRUPDWLYHDQGRUPDWHULDOO\SURGXFWLYH It would be simple
WRDSSO\WKLVSRVWVWUXFWXUDOLVWFULWLTXHWR7UHWLDNRYZKRXQEHNQRZQVW
to Foster aspired to be both producer and HWKQRJUDSKHUDQG FRQFOXGH
that he was beholden to this realist assumption; that he fetishized (if not
exoticized) both kolkhozniki and Chinese, which perhaps explains his actLQJ LQVWUXFWLRQV IRU WKH &KLQHVH UROHV +RZHYHU WKLV FULWLTXH ZRXOG RFclude the strange afterlife of Roar China, which ultimately transcended
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American actors in New York, the ethnic avant-garde was able to advance
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This last section of the chapter proceeds as a factographic experiment
RIVRUWV,WMX[WDSRVHVDGGLWLRQDOHFKRHVDQGIUDJPHQWVRIRoar China so as
WRHQDEOHXVWRVHHDQHZERWKPLQRULW\QRQ:HVWHUQFXOWXUHVDQGWKH6RYLHWDYDQWJDUGHWRGUDZDGGLWLRQDOXQH[SHFWHGOLQNVEHWZHHQWKHWZR
:HDUHKHOSHGKHUHE\KRZPXWDEOHDQGZHOOWUDYHOHGWKHSOD\SURYHGWR
EH$IWHU1HZ<RUNLQWKHVLWZDVVWDJHGLQ-DSDQ(VWRQLDZKHUHRQH
critic called it the greatest event in the theatrical world), England, PoODQGDQG&DQDGD,QLWZDVSURGXFHGLQ,QGLDZKHUHLWZDVDGDSWHGWR
expose the persecution of the peaceful Chinese by the Japanese and the
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'XULQJ:RUOG:DU,,WKHSOD\DSSHDUHGDJDLQLQ3RODQGWKLVWLPHLQ<LGdish at Tzchenstochov concentration camp, primarily a labor camp for the
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The commandant of this camp permitted a drama club and a theatre in a
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FRXOG KROG UHKHDUVDOV LQ WKH HYHQLQJV 'HVSLWH WKH LQH[SOLFDEOH OLEHUDOness of the camp commandant, Roar ChinaZDVDSOD\RISURWHVW:KHQWKH
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FIGURE 2.8 /L+XDRoar, China!5HSULQWHGIURPAnthology of Lu Xuns

Collection of Modern Chinese Woodcarvings,19311936%HLMLQJ3HRSOHV)LQH$UWV
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the eve of the second anniversary of the Mukden Incident (which led to
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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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SURGXFWLRQ SURFODLPHG :LWK WKH DSSURDFK RI D VHFRQG ZRUOG ZDU WKDW
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&KLQD" In an apparent reply to this call, it was around this time that
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$VDUWKLVWRULDQ;LDRELQJ7DQJWUDFHVWKURXJKRXWWKHV5RDU&KLQD
VHUYHGDVWKHWLWOHIRUVHYHUDOQHZVSDSHUDQGMRXUQDOLPDJHVWKDWPL[HG
SRSXOLVWDSSHDODQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQDOUHDOLVP7DQJGHVFULEHVWKHVHSULQWV
DVDWWHPSWVWRYLVXDOO\UHQGHUDYRLFHWRSURMHFWLWDQGWKHQWRHOLFLWDQ
H[SUHVVLYHUHVSRQVHIURPWKHYLHZHU7KH\LPDJLQDWLYHO\WUDQVJUHVVWKH
boundary between the visual and the aural for the sake of turning the
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DUWLVWVFRQVFLRXVO\FURVVWKHERXQGDULHVRIJHQUHDQGIRUPIURPSOD\WR
LPDJHLQRUGHUWRWUDQVIRUPZRRGEORFNSULQWVLQWRUDOO\LQJFULHV
+RZHYHUWKH&KLQHVHLWHUDWLRQVRIRoar China depart from factography
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woodblock prints lack markers and representational details of social, cultural, or national particularities, even as they press for national action
DJDLQVW:HVWHUQDQG-DSDQHVHLPSHULDOLVP To follow Fosters line of reasoning, this apparent post-ethnic turn eschews Tretiakovs reliance on
Asianness as a source of agency, and perhaps this is why Roar China assumed
DSRWHQF\LQ&KLQDWKDWLWODFNHGHOVHZKHUH:KHUHDVHYHQLQ0RVFRZWKH
SOD\NHSWWKH&KLQHVHFKDUDFWHUVLQFKHFNDJDLQWKURXJK7UHWLDNRYVLQstruction that they be presented in a naturalistic, sober, and poignant
PDQQHUWKLVZDVHYLGHQWO\QRWWKHFDVHLQ&KLQDZKHUHWKHSULQWVDQG
VWDJLQJVUHSHDWHGO\XUJHGLPPHGLDWHDFWLRQDPLGWKHWXPXOWRIWKHV
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Roar China was again staged, this time in the Canidrome of Shanghai in
a large open-air set with rapid scene changes made possible by lighting
WHFKQLTXHV:LWKWKLVSURGXFWLRQRoar China perhaps found its ultimate appeal among the people whose sad plight originally stimulated
6HUJHL7UHWLDNRYZKLOHKHZDVLQ3HNLQJ

By this account, the Shanghai production restored some of the originals sense of interruption, namely, through its unorthodox setting and

112

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From this perspective, Roar China ushers in a new chapter in the ethnic
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LQWKHDIWHUZRUG
+RZHYHUZHFDQXQVHDWWKLVWHOHRORJLFDOQDUUDWLYHDVHQGSRLQW
ZLWKDQRWKHUPRUHGLVLOOXVLRQLQJRQHSLHFHGWRJHWKHUWKURXJKDGLHUHQW
VHWRIIUDJPHQWV:KLOHFRYHULQJWKHDQWLIDVFLVWPRYHPHQWDVDQHZVSDSHU
FRUUHVSRQGHQWLQ6SDLQ/DQJVWRQ+XJKHVSXEOLVKHGDSRHPWLWOHG5RDU
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Since when did you ever steal anything
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Sleepy wise old beast
Known as the porcelain-maker,
Known as the poem-maker,
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A long time since you cared
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present of an enormous poster, showing a gigantic Chinese coolie breaking
his chains, and he gave me a copy of Roar ChinaLQVFULEHGLQ(QJOLVK:KHQ
,OHIWIRUWKH)DU(DVWKHDQGKLVZLIHFDPHWRVHHPHRDWWKHVWDWLRQ
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and image, the Volunteer for Liberty SODFHG +XJKHVV SKRWR DORQJVLGH WKH
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no lofty claims to present China as it really is, despite his travels there after
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114

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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uses such ready-made tropes to form agitational slogans, which follow
WKHFRUUHFWSROLWLFDOWHQGHQF\EXWPDUNDGHFOLQHLQDUWLVWLFTXDOLW\2I
course, we can read these tropes as reverting to another iteration of Soviet
futurism, covered in chapter 1, in which the exotic referenced premodHUQ XWRSLDV DQG IRUZDUGHG DQ DQWLLPSHULDO SROLWLFV 0LVVLQJ IURP WKHVH
lines, however, is the estranging enchantment of Mayakovskys American
writings, as well as that poets subversion of tropes like Black Lion (in his
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GUDJRQ RI WKH (DVWZRXOG KDYH UHSHOOHG ERWK IXWXULVWV 7KXV WKH 
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WHUURURI,ZRXOGOLNHWRVXJJHVWDPRUHVXEWOHURXWHIRUIDFWRJUDSK\
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WKHOPVSURGXFWLRQLVZHOONQRZQ$IWHUEHLQJVKXQQHGE\WKHPDMRUVWXdios as a communist, Biberman formed an independent company made up
RIRWKHUEODFNOLVWHG+ROO\ZRRGW\SHVDQGDPXOWLUDFLDOFUHZLQFOXGLQJ$Irican Americans, who had long been excluded by the industrys discriminaWRU\SUDFWLFHV,QWKH\VKRWSalt of the Earth in Silver City, New Mexico,
despite sometimes violent harassment by local red-baiters; edited it at variRXVVHFUHWORFDWLRQVLQ6RXWKHUQ&DOLIRUQLDDJDLQVWVWXGLRDQGXQLRQHRUWV
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OPSUR6RYLHWSURSDJDQGDVW\PLHGZLGHVSUHDGGLVWULEXWLRQ
:KDW,ZRXOGOLNHWRVXJJHVWLVWKDWSalt of the EarthRHUVDPRUHDXVSLFLRXVEXWQRQHWKHOHVVIUDXJKWHFKRRIRoar ChinaWKDQ+XJKHVVUHQGLWLRQ RI LW 7KH OP ZDV EDVHG RQ D UHFHQW SURORQJHG VWULNH WKDW KDG LQvolved predominantly Mexican American workers at a zinc mine near

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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Silver City, and many of the strikers served as both script consultants and
DFWRUVZLWKVRPHSOD\LQJWKHPVHOYHV7KDWLVOLNHRoar ChinaWKHOPZDV
torn from newspaper headlines and featured predominantly amateur,
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dynamic presentation of the facts, explicitly eschewing both hackneyed
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resonance with Italian neorealism, which, as Masha Salazkina has shown,
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DLP IRU D UDGLFDO FRQJXUDWLRQ RI IDFWV UDWKHU WKDQ SDVVLYH UHSUHVHQWDtion also points to his factographic credentials, which are most evident in
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China, he presents this community in a respectful but nonpatronizing way
and, indeed, granted the workers and their families veto power over the
VFULSW The result is a remarkably subtle depiction of the culture that esFKHZVH[RWLFLVP$V'HERUDK6LOYHUWRQ5RVHQIHOWZULWHV
7KH6SDQLVKODQJXDJHLVZRYHQLQWRWKHWH[WXUHRIWKHOP5HIHUHQFHV
to the RULFDQWRRZHUDQGVRQJDGGDSRHWU\WRWKHVFUHHQSOD\ZKLOH
HYRNLQJWKH/DWLQREDFNJURXQGRIWKHSHRSOH6LPLODUO\6RO.DSODQVPXsical score conveys the Mexican heritage by using variations of la AdeliWDDVRQJRIZRPHQLQWKH0H[LFDQ5HYROXWLRQ

,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHOPWULHVWRFDSWXUH&KLFDQDRFXOWXUHEXWQHYHUUHGXFHVLWWRDQH[RWLFVSHFWDFOHMXVWDVZLWK7UHWLDNRYVWUHDWPHQWRI&KLQHVHFXOWXUH,QVWHDGORFDOODQJXDJHDQGFXOWXUHVHUYHWRGLVWLQJXLVKWKH
VWULNHUVIURPWKHZKLWHRZQHUVWKHIDFWRIHWKQLFGLHUHQFHPRVWSHUvasively, the main characters lightly accented English) bolsters class moELOL]DWLRQDQGWKHUHIRUHWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIUHDOLW\7KHOPOLNHZLVH
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with ethnicity, Salt of the Earth presents gender as dynamic and transforPDWLYH7KHOPVUHVSHFWIXOGHSLFWLRQVRIGLHUHQFHVHUYHWRUHVROYHWKH
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can potentially use SaltDVD7URMDQKRUVHRIVRUWVVPXJJOLQJIDFWRJUDSK\
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WUHDWPHQW RI &KLQD LW ZRXOG EH GLFXOW WR GHVFULEH WKH OP DV D ZKROH
DV IDFWRJUDSKLF RU PRUH EURDGO\ DYDQWJDUGLVW 7KH IDXOW KHUH OLHV RQFH
PRUH LQ %LEHUPDQV HPSKDVLV RQ DFFHVVLELOLW\ LQ OLQH ZLWK KLV HRUWV WR
mitigate Roar ChinaV H[SHULPHQWDO WRXFKHV $V 5RVHQIHOW QRWHV WKH OP
QHYHUXVHVWKHPHGLXPFDPHUDDQGHGLWLQJURRPVRXQGWUDFNDQGYLVXDOLPDJHVWRFRPSOLFDWHUDWKHUWKDQHPSKDVL]HLWVXQGHUO\LQJWKHPHV
It is, ultimately, a well made story with a tightly, carefully organized
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which prompts the lead male to thank the lead female for her perseverDQFH That is, Salt of the Earth is marked by a seamlessness similar to that
in Bibermans Roar China$QGWKRXJKWKDWSURGXFWLRQVFODLPWRIDFWRJUDphy was saved by the disruptive use of Asian American amateur actors, and
although Biberman again used amateur actors based on his favorable Roar
China experience, the SaltDFWRUVLQFRQWUDVWZHUHUHPDUNDEOHIRUMXVWKRZ
SROLVKHGDQGSURIHVVLRQDOWKH\VHHPHG This was likely because they were
playing themselves, as opposed to Chinese and Korean Americans playing
coolies in China; a less-pronounced language barrier may have been anRWKHUIDFWRU,QDQ\FDVHWKLVUHVXOWHGLQPRUHSODXVLEOHDFWLQJEXWDFRPplete absence of Roar ChinaVXQLQWHQGHGVXEYHUVLRQRIQDWXUDOLVP7KLV
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Nonetheless, SaltGRHVDEHWWHUMREWKDQ+XJKHVV5RDU&KLQDRIFDUU\LQJ IRUZDUG IDFWRJUDSK\V SURPLVH IRU PLQRULW\ QRQ:HVWHUQ FXOWXUHV
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THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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to hold the various iterations and echoes of Roar ChinaLQMX[WDSRVLWLRQ
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exercise in factography, I would like to suggest that we look at each of
these iterations as discrete facts that, taken together, can be seen as unGHUJLUGLQJDQHZXQH[SHFWHGJURXSLQJRIDUWLVWVDQGZULWHUV&URVVLQJ
multiple places, times, and backgrounds, this grouping is made up of all
those who performed in, translated, or adapted Roar ChinaDJURXSLQJ
bound by Tretiakovs multifaceted work as well as by varying degrees of
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LV DOVR ERXQG E\ DQ XQGHUO\LQJ VHQVH RI WUDJHG\ DQG ORVVWKH SDVVLQJ
RIIDFWRJUDSK\DQGPRUHSUHVVLQJO\WKH6RYLHWDYDQWJDUGHVJXUDWLYH
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Factographys commitment to reporting the facts and combining disSDUDWHIUDJPHQWVWKHPRUHGLVRULHQWLQJWKHEHWWHULVZHOOVXLWHGWRWKH
FRPELQDWLRQRIDOOXUHDQGWUDJHG\WKDW,KDYHLQPLQG7KHMX[WDSRVLtion of, on the one hand, the international circulation of Tretiakovs Roar
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sense of loss but also endurance in the face of the failed utopias of the
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and when he wrote this letter, he was in the middle of a ten-year lawsuit
against the studios over their coordinated assault on Salt+HXOWLPDWHO\
ORVWDQGPDGHRQO\RQHPRUHOPEHIRUHG\LQJLQ2OJD7UHWLDNRYD

118

THE AVANT-GARDES ASIA

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Like many persecuted during the terror, her husband was posthumously
H[RQHUDWHGGXULQJWKH.KUXVKFKHYWKDZ,QVKRUWKHUHZHQGWZRSHRple corresponding in the wake of, respectively, McCarthyism and StalinLVPWREHVXUHWZRLQFRPSDUDEOHLQVWDQFHVRIVWDWHUHSUHVVLRQ+RZHYHU
in the wake of Roar China and Salt of the Earth %LEHUPDQV HRUW WR OLQN
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his closing words to Tretiakova, we can discern an attempt to salvage past
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measure, to pay a very old debt of gratitude, in fact, several debts, which
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SHRSOHIURP0RVFRZWKHDWHURIWKHVZKRHYHU\GD\JHQHURXVO\SUHsented me with warmth and inspiration from that great richness and diYHUVLW\IRUZKLFKWKHLQVSLUHGWKHDWHURIWKDWWLPHZDVIDPRXV6HFRQGO\
I am deeply grateful to the colossal creative genius of Meyerhold, for the
countless number of the brilliant theatrical achievements of our time,
ZKLFKDUHDVIUHVKLQP\PHPRU\DVWKH\ZHUHWKLUW\\HDUVDJR7KLUGly, I want to express my gratitude to Sergei Tretiakov for his play, which
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against terror and persecution strikes me as a model for reexamining
the ruins of the Soviet-centered ethnic avant-garde; for carrying forward
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3
From Avant-Garde to Authentic
Revisiting Langston Hughess Moscow Movie

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toured Uzbekistan to witness Moscows elimination of czarist-era discrimiQDWLRQ +RZHYHU RQO\ +XJKHV HOHFWHG WR DOVR VHH 7XUNPHQLVWDQ DQG DIWHUDEDQGRQLQJWKHRWKHUVHQGHGXSLQ$VKJDEDWLQDUXQGRZQRFLDO
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autobiography, Koestler claims he did so because he heard Sophie Tuckers
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GLVSXWHWKLVDFFRXQWFODLPLQJKHQHYHURZQHGWKHUHFRUG1 They agreed,
though, that they became travel companions in Central Asia and, along
with a Turkmen poet and Ukrainian ex-sailor, formed an impromptu tourLQJ,QWHUQDWLRQDO3UROHWDULDQ:ULWHUV%ULJDGH2
I begin with this uncanny episode because of the discrepancies beWZHHQ.RHVWOHUDQG+XJKHVVUHFROOHFWLRQVWKHGLHUHQWZD\VLQZKLFK
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at Noon XVHVKLVDXWRELRJUDSK\WRUHSXGLDWHKLVGD\VDVD\RXQJ

120

FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

FRPPXQLVW+XJKHVVRZQDXWRELRJUDSK\I Wonder as I WanderKDV

a more conciliatory tone toward the Soviet Union, as discussed in the folORZLQJ7KHPRUHVWULNLQJGLVVRQDQFHKRZHYHULVLQKRZWKHWZRDXWKRUV
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ORRNHG GRZQ RQ 5XVVLDQV DQG &HQWUDO $VLDQV DV XQFOHDQ ,Q FRQWUDVW
+XJKHV VDZ 6RYLHW $VLD ZLWK Negro eyes, leading him, for instance, to
partake in the Central Asian custom of sharing tea bowls, which the fasWLGLRXV.RHVWOHUFDOOHGDEORRG\GLVJXVWLQJOWK\KDELWHPSKDVLV
LQRULJLQDO+XJKHVZULWHV7R.RHVWOHU7XUNPHQLVWDQZDVVLPSO\
a primitive ODQGPRYLQJLQWRWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\FLYLOL]DWLRQ7RPHLWZDV
a colored ODQGPRYLQJLQWRRUELWVKLWKHUWRUHVHUYHGIRUZKLWHVHPSKDVLVLQRULJLQDO7KXV.RHVWOHUODFNHGWKHLQVLJKWSURYLGHGE\1HJUR
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the Soviet avant-garde, and McCarthyism had done the same for AmeriFDQ UDGLFDOV %XWLQWKHZULWLQJVRI+XJKHVDQG.RHVWOHUZHJHW DFOHDU
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Crisis of the Negro Intellectual
This chapter unpacks the terms used to break from the Soviet-oriented
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121

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authenticity is better seen as a recalibration, for in fact the interwar ethQLFDYDQWJDUGHZDVFRQYHUVDQWLQFXOWXUDODXWKHQWLFLW\DOEHLWDQRWLRQRI
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see, the terms of the ethnic avant-gardes replacement (by discrete, auWKHQWLFFXOWXUHVZHUHLQIDFWWKHWHUPVRILWVSRVWZDUVXUYLYDODOEHLWLQD
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I show this by trying to solve a puzzle, one that emerges from a part of
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Black and White (Chernye i belyeZKLFKDJDLQZDVWKHUHDVRQZK\+XJKHV
WUDYHOHG WR WKH 8665 LQ  ,W ZDV TXLFNO\ FDQFHOHG WKDW VXPPHU RVWHQVLEO\EHFDXVHRIVFULSWGLFXOWLHVEXWLWZDVRQO\LQI Wonder as I Wander WKDW +XJKHV ZKR VHUYHG DV D VFULSW FRQVXOWDQW SURYLGHG D GHWDLOHG
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authenticity traced in this chapter and to thereby satisfy both sides of the
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Nested within this argument is the more basic point that Black and
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it undoubtedly would have opened new ground for both African AmeriFDQFRPPXQLVPDQGWKHFLQHPDWLFSRUWUD\DORIEODFNV7KHVFULSWSRLQWV
to paths not taken, inviting us to reconsider established historical narUDWLYHVLQWKLVFDVHWKHRQHSURYLGHGE\+XJKHV0RUHVSHFLFDOO\WKLV
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122

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Long Live Moscow.... Long Live Soviet America

Set in the contemporary South, Black and White ZDVWRKDYHEHHQWKHUVW
authentic picture of Negro life in America, according to materials prepared
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and instead trace the development of the Negro people in America, their
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had garnered world-wide acclaim for new technical and artistic develRSPHQWVDQGWKXVZHUHZHOOHTXLSSHGWRUHQGHUWKHWUXHFKDUDFWHURI
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more prominent avant-gardist, Sergei Eisenstein, was slated to direct Black
and White5$VGHVFULEHGLQFKDSWHUKHKDGMXVWVSHQWWZR\HDUVLQ0H[LFR
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the New York Herald Tribune, which portrayed the travelers as duped by SoYLHWSURPLVHVRIHTXDOLW\DQGVWDUGRP,QDVWDWHPHQWIRXUJURXSPHPEHUV FDOOHG WKH FDQFHOODWLRQ D FRPSURPLVH ZLWK WKH UDFLDO SUHMXGLFH RI
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123

YLD $VLDGHVFULEHG LW DV DUWLVWLFDOO\ ZHDN DQG XQVRXQG PLUHG E\ GHfects of the plot and continuity and thus failing to pass the muster of the
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WKHQ WR ODXJKHU WKHQ WR WHDUV &OHDUO\ WKH 5XVVLDQ VFHQDULVW had never
been to America, resulting in a pathetic hodgepodge of good intentions
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DQG$UWEHDUVQRQHRIWKHJODULQJLQDFFXUDFLHVVSHFLHGE\+XJKHV1Rwhere does a hot-blooded white aristocrat at an upscale party proposiWLRQDEODFNVHUYDQWZLWKWKHZRUGV+RQH\SXWGRZQ\RXUWUD\FRPHOHWV
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comes to this is a drunken white man assaulting a black woman by a river at
QLJKW7KHUHDUHQR1HJURFDSLWDOLVWVZKRRZQUDGLRVWXGLRVDQGEURDGFDVWWRZHUVXVHGWRFDOOWRWKH1RUWKIRUKHOS,QVWHDGEODFNZRUNHUVLQD
boardinghouse have access to a shortwave radio and for a brief moment
UHFHLYH5DGLR0RVFRZ$FFRUGLQJWR+XJKHVWKHOPZDVWRFOLPD[ZLWK
a race riot in which the poor whites attack both rich and poor Negroes
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fact, black workers remain hostile to the black bourgeoisie throughout the
OPDQGWKHFOLPD[LVDPXOWLUDFLDOZRUNHUVGHPRQVWUDWLRQSURWHVWLQJD
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and Klansmen prevail, shooting dead a handful of main characters and arUHVWLQJPRVWRIWKHRWKHUV

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FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

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EHWZHHQ$XJXVWDQG)HEUXDU\*UHEQHUVQDOVRXQGYHUsion, which is the focus of this chapter; and an English-language sound
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ask a black servant woman to dance with them, she complies, and one of
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RI*UHEQHUVODFNVWKHDEVXUGFOLPD[DQGUHVROXWLRQGHVFULEHGLQI Wonder
as I Wander12
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QRWDFFRXQWIRUZK\KHUHPHPEHUHGLWDVKHGLGZLWKVXFKYLYLGGHWDLO
,WZRXOGKDYHORRNHGZRQGHUIXORQWKHVFUHHQVRZHOOGRWKH5XVVLDQV
KDQGOHFURZGVLQOPV,PDJLQHWKHZKLWHZRUNHUVRIWKH1RUWKFODVKing with the Southern mobs of Birmingham on the road outside the city,
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The momentary allure of the passage points to what I think is the corUHFWH[SODQDWLRQIRUWKHIDEULFDWHGDFFRXQW+XJKHVVRXJKWWRGLVWDQFH
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125

montage of white workers and militant Negroes evokes the pioneerLQJ OP WHFKQLTXHV RI 6HUJHL (LVHQVWHLQ DQG WKH RSHQLQJ MDE DW 6RYLHW
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the closing dismissal of the script as both too forward and backward can
be read as echoing the multiple temporalities of Tatlins Tower, another
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These readings become less far-fetched when we turn to the actual
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Grebner proposes a montage for the sake of both visual and auditory
defamiliarization [ostraneniia@HYRNLQJKHUH(LVHQVWHLQDQG9LNWRU6KNORYVNLL7KLVLVIRUDVFHQHLQZKLFKZHUVWVHHWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHUVOLYLQJ
TXDUWHUV(DFKFRUQHURIWKHHPSW\URRPLVPDUNHGE\GLVWLQFWVRXQGVDQG
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of Lenin hangs in the third; and a large radio receiver and technical books
OOWKHQDOFRUQHU$VLGHIURPDUJXDEO\WKHEDQMRQRQHRIWKHVHREMHFWV
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logical and intriguing revelation [raskrytiia] of the main characters, suggesting that Grebner indeed sought to harness Soviet technical and artisWLFGHYHORSPHQWVWREUHDNIURPSDVWFDULFDWXUHV14
*UHEQHUVHRUWVWRGRVRUHVRQDWHZLWKDVSHFLFLWHUDWLRQRIWKH6Rviet avant-garde, namely, Sergei Tretiakovs futurist emphasis on facts
WKHIRFXVRIWKHSUHYLRXVFKDSWHU7KDWLVZKLOHRoar China was a factographic rendering of China, Black and White can be seen, at least in part,
DVDIDFWRJUDSKLFUHQGHULQJRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV7KHVFHQDULVW*UHEQHU
ZDVQRWDPHPEHURI/()EXWZDVDSSDUHQWO\MXVWDVFRPPLWWHGWRDFFXUDF\DV7UHWLDNRY$OOHYHQWVDUHEDVHGRQUHDOIDFWVERUURZHGIURP
OLWHUDU\DQGQHZVSDSHUVRXUFHV*UHEQHUZULWHVLQKLVQRWHV15 Countering
+XJKHVVFODLPWKDWWKHVFULSWZDVEDVHGRQWKHYHU\IHZERRNVDERXW1HJUROLIHLQRXUFRXQWU\WKDWKDGEHHQWUDQVODWHGLQWR5XVVLDQWKHVFHQDULVWVSDSHUVPHQWLRQDWOHDVWWZRRIWKHVHVRXUFHVWKHOHIWLVWHarlem Liberator and the New MassesZKLFKLQWKHVGHYRWHGFRQVLGHUDEOHDWWHQWLRQ
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126

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and the script itself is interspersed with several asides detailing African
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music, to the tendency of black pastors to address God directly in their sermons, to the founding and rise of the KKK, to the number of lynchings in
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In short, Grebner did not take lightly his stated task of presenting for the
UVWWLPH in world cinema blacks as people rather than tearful and sugDU\ RU WKH IDLWKIXO VHUYDQW RU KDOI LGLRWV ,Q KLV LQVWUXFWLRQV WR WKH
director, he insists on the integration of statistical, historical, and other
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This is all to say that Grebner viewed Black and White as a vehicle not only
IRUSROLWLFDODJLWDWLRQEXWDOVRIRUDUWLVWLFLQQRYDWLRQQDPHO\WKHFRPELQDWLRQRIIDFWDQGFWLRQWR\LHOGQHZUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV7REHVXUH*UHEQHUXQGHUVWRRGIDFWVGLHUHQWO\IURPWKHIDFWRJUDSKHUVXQOLNH7UHWLDNRYKHGLGQRWVHHNWRSUHVHQWDVLQJOHDFWXDOHYHQW
DQGKHODFNHG7UHWLDNRYVLQWHUHVWLQOLPLWHGSRLQWVRIYLHZ+LVVFHQDULR
KDVDFRKHVLRQDQGVHDPOHVVQHVVLQFRQJUXRXVZLWKWKH6RYLHWDYDQWJDUGH
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FRORUDVWKH\UHDOO\ZHUHZDVDWWKHWLPHUDGLFDOLQLWVHOI2QWKLVVFRUH
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an ocean straining to break through storm clouds, followed by a close-up
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VKLSZLWKWKHOLYHFDUJRSDFNHGVRWLJKWO\WKDWQRRQHFDQPRYHZRPHQ
and children begging for water, and corpses thrown overboard by white
VDLORUV7KHVHFRQGIUDJPHQWLVD1HZ2UOHDQVVODYHDXFWLRQZKHUHZHVHH
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labor, including overseers cracking whips, after which we are returned to
WKHVODYHDXFWLRQZKHUHWZRQHDUO\ZKLWHVLVWHUVDUHXSIRUVDOH*UHEner here informs the director, There is an entire gamma of shades from
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127

TXHQWO\LUNHGWKHBlack and WhiteJURXS) The third fragment is a nightWLPHXSULVLQJDWDSODQWDWLRQ,QWKHGLPUHHFWHGOLJKWE\DQLUULJDWLRQ

GLWFKDSDOHIDFHGODQGRZQHULVEHVLHJHGE\DPDVVRIGDUNSHRSOHOOHG
ZLWK KDWUHG 1H[W WKRXJK ZH KHDU WKH VRXQGV RI DWWDFNLQJ KRUVHPHQ
VHHWKHEULHIVNLSRIDFDYDOU\OLQHZKLFKLVIROORZHGE\GD\EUHDNRUGHU
UHVWRUHGWKURXJKWKHLPDJHRIDEODFNFRUSVHURWWLQJLQWKHVXQ*UHEQHU
WKXVRSHQVZLWKDQRUJ\RIYLROHQFHDJURWHVTXHHYHQIHWLVKLVWLFIRFXVRQ
DEMHFWEODFNERGLHV7KLVLVKLVVKRWDFURVVWKHERZRI+ROO\ZRRGGHFRUXP
his awakening of Soviet-audience sympathies, his starting point for a new,
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Again, in contrast to Roar China, Black and White is not based on a sinJOHKLVWRULFDOHYHQWEXWQRQHWKHOHVVKDVDSODXVLEOHSORW7KHOPFHQWHUVDURXQGDQDQLOLQHG\HQRWVWHHOIDFWRU\LQDQXQVSHFLHGVRXWKHUQ
city, with management plotting to pit black workers against their white
FRXQWHUSDUWV $FFRUGLQJO\ DOWKRXJK WKH ZRUNHUV DSSHDU LGHQWLFDOO\
EODFN EHVLGH WKH DQLOLQH ERLOHUVWKHLU VNLQ FRORUV UHYHDOHG RQO\ DIWHU
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UHIXVHVWRDGPLWEODFNV:KHQDQ,ULVKPDQ2*UDG\DFFLGHQWDOO\SXVKHV
DEODFNZRUNHUWRKLVGHDWKPRVWZKLWHVSD\QRKHHG+RZHYHUWKURXJK
WKHHRUWVRIWKHOPVPDLQFKDUDFWHUVDQLQWHUUDFLDOPL[RIFRPPXQLVWVDQDOOLDQFHLVHYHQWXDOO\IRUJHGDIWHUWKHEODFNZRUNHUVUHIXVHWR
FURVVDZKLWHSLFNHWOLQH0HDQZKLOHDVDVXESORWWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHUV
VWXPEOH XSRQ 6LGQH\ %URRNHU D WHHQDJHU XQMXVWO\ DFFXVHG RI YLRODWLQJWKHKRQRURIDZKLWHZRPDQ7KHIDFWRU\PDQDJHPHQWWULHVWRXVH
this charge to divide the workers again, but after Brooker is caught and
O\QFKHGE\WKH...EODFNVDQGZKLWHVMRLQHGDORQJWKHZD\E\&KLQHVH
ODXQGU\ZRUNHUVGHPRQVWUDWHWRJHWKHUUHVHPEOLQJZKDW*UHEQHUFDOOV
DQDYDQWJDUGHFROXPQDVWKH\ZHQGWKHLUZD\WKURXJKWKHVWUHHWV
$V PHQWLRQHG WKH OP HQGV ZLWK WKH ...V UHWDOLDWRU\ DVVDXOW RI WKH
EODFN JKHWWR DQG GHVSLWH D YDOLDQW GHIHQVHZLWK WKH FOLPDFWLF EDWWOH
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YLFWRU\IRUDIXWXUHGDWH$VWKHVXUYLYLQJEODFNDQGZKLWHFRPPXQLVWV
PDUFKWRSULVRQLQPL[HGUDFHFROXPQVWKH\VLQJ:HZLOOUHWXUQIRUD
QHZJKW
5HYLVLRQLVWVFKRODUVKLSRQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQUDGLFDOLVPZKLFKWHQGV
to emphasize local agency and downplay top-down, center-periphery
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FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

in Kelley, for instance, has shown that the Communist Party of the USA
&386$PDGHVLJQLFDQWJDLQVDPRQJVRXWKHUQEODFNVLQWKHV,Q
WKHSDUW\HVWDEOLVKHGDUHJLRQDOKHDGTXDUWHUVLQ%LUPLQJKDPDQG
though led by white northerners, it attracted black workers through
FDOOVIRUVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFHTXDOLW\DVZHOODVE\WUXPSHWLQJWKH&RPLQWHUQVHQGRUVHPHQWRI%ODFN%HOWVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ%\$XJXVW
RYHUYHKXQGUHGZRUNLQJSHRSOHSRSXODWHGWKH3DUW\VPDVVRUJDQL]DWLRQVRIZKRPEHWZHHQDQGSHUFHQWZHUHEODFN20 These numbers swelled further following the CPUSAs defense of the Scottsboro
%R\VQLQH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQPHQZURQJO\FRQYLFWHGLQRIUDSLQJ
WZRZKLWHZRPHQDERDUGDWUDLQ,QBlack and White, the Brooker subplot,
called a second Scottsboro at one point in the script, clearly evokes
this case, which received considerable attention in the presses of both
WKH $PHULFDQ OHIW DQG WKH 6RYLHW 8QLRQ21 To be sure, revisionist work
DOVRUHYHDOVWKHOPVIDXOW\RSWLPLVPVHHQSDUWLFXODUO\LQLWVDEUXSWO\
IRUPHGZRUNHUVDOOLDQFH,QIDFWWKH&386$VVXFFHVVZLWKEODFNVODUJHO\
alienated white workers, who occasionally accused the party of a proEODFN ELDV ,Q FRQWUDVW WR WKH VFULSW EODFNZKLWH DOOLDQFHV ZHUH RIWHQ
UHOXFWDQWDQGFRXOGHYHQOHDYHUDFLVWDWWLWXGHVLQWDFW0RUHRYHUYLROHQW
confrontations involving black communists were rare, far outweighed
E\HYDVLYHFXQQLQJIRUPVRIUHVLVWDQFH22 Nevertheless, Grebners deSLFWLRQVRIEODFNVDUHIDUIURPWKHOXGLFURXVQHVVGHVFULEHGE\+XJKHV
DQG PLUURU WKH MRXUQDOV DQG QHZVSDSHUV RI WKH $PHULFDQ OHIW ,QGHHG
WKHVFHQDULVWZULWHVWKDWKHERUURZHGWKHOPVSDUWLQJVKRWIURPWKH
0D\FRYHURINew Masses
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skewed source on southern blacks, and the cover cited by Grebner, featuring two perfect lines of demonstrating workers, now conveys an unVHWWOLQJXQLIRUPLW\([FHSWIRUWKHLUHYHQO\DOWHUQDWLQJEODFN DQGZKLWH
heads, the workers are identical, with the same black pants, white shirts,
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that the foremost worker on Grebners New Masses cover has a black face
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simple oversight, it is possible to read this incongruity as acknowledgLQJZKDW5DOSK(OOLVRQKDVFDOOHGWKHLQWHUUHODWHGQHVVRIEODFNQHVVDQG
ZKLWHQHVVWKH QRWLRQ WKDW WKH FDWHJRULHV EODFN DQG ZKLWH GR QRW
H[LVWREMHFWLYHO\EXWKDYHGHQHGDQGUHGHQHGHDFKRWKHUWKURXJKRXW

FIGURE 3.1

0D\FRYHURI New Masses

130

FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

$PHULFDQKLVWRU\24 Accordingly, in a scene from Grebner reminiscent of

the New Masses FRYHU WKH ,ULVKPDQ 2*UDG\ GULYHQ WR KXQJHU DQG GHVSHUDWLRQDIWHUEHLQJUHGIURPWKHIDFWRU\DSSHDUVRQDFDEDUHWVWDJHLQ
EODFNIDFH$IWHUZDUGLQIXULDWHGE\WKHGUXQNHQDXGLHQFHRI.ODQPHPEHUVKHUHVSRQGVWRDGDQG\VPRFNHU\ZLWKWZRSXQFKHVRQHVWZKLWH
WKH RWKHU VWDLQHG EODFN ZLWK VKRH SROLVK 8OWLPDWHO\ KH GLHV LQ GHIHQVH
RIWKHJKHWWR25 Grebner, it seems, perceived the ambiguity of American
race relations in the early twentieth century, which often cast Irish imPLJUDQWVDVEODFNRUVHPLZKLWH$OVRLQFOXGHGLQWKHVFULSWLVDEXGGLQJ
URPDQFHEHWZHHQDEODFNPDQDQGD-HZLVKZRPDQ
7KLVIDFWFKHFNLQJLVQRWPHDQWMXVWWRGLVSURYH+XJKHVVDFFRXQWEXW
DOVR WR EULQJ EDFN LQWR IRFXV WKH VFULSWV IDFWRJUDSKLF WUDFHV 7KRXJK
Grebner was, again, not a formal member of LEF, he clearly had exposure
WR LWV GRFXPHQWDU\ LQQRYDWLRQV +LV LQFRUSRUDWLRQ RI $PHULFDQ QHZVpapers into the script evokes Tretiakovs own blurring of theater and
UHSRUWDJH7KHHPSKDVLVRQUDFLDOLQWHUPL[WXUHHYRNHV7UHWLDNRYVUHMHFWLRQRIH[RWLFLVPLQIDYRURIHWKQRJUDSK\7KHWZRWRQHGVWVDORQJ
with the interracial romance and triangulation of black, white, and Irish,
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GHWDLOVWKHVH GLVUXSWLYH IDFWVVHUYH WR XQVHWWOH UHFHLYHG QRWLRQV RI
race in a way similar to Roar ChinaZLWKLWVHPSKDVLVRQ&KLQHVH:HVWHUQ
LQWHUPL[WXUH+RZHYHULQDGGLWLRQWR*UHEQHUVJHVWXUHVWRIDFWRJUDSK\
I would also like to highlight his ability to subvert the cultural convenWLRQV RI KLV WLPH LQ WKLV FDVH EODFNIDFH PLQVWUHOV\ DQG PDVTXHUDGH
WKHFURVVLQJRIFRORUOLQHVWKDWSURYHGVRVHPLQDOIRUWKHOLNHVRI':
*ULWKDQG(]UD3RXQGEXWWKDWDOVRUHLQIRUFHGUDFLDOKLHUDUFKLHV In
contrast, the Black and White script provides an instance of racial crossing that levels hierarchies, that serves as a vehicle not solely for modernLVWLQQRYDWLRQRUPDVVHQWHUWDLQPHQWEXWDOVRIRUFURVVUDFLDOVROLGDULW\
'HVSLWHWKHOLPLWVRI*UHEQHUVVFULSWGLVFXVVHGIXUWKHULQWKHIROORZLQJLWKROGVRXWWKHKRSHWKDWDFRPELQDWLRQRIUHYROXWLRQDU\SROLWLFV
DQGDUWLVWLFLQQRYDWLRQFRXOGXQGRWKHGHOHWHULRXVHHFWVRISDVWUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV,WDOVRUHRSHQVWKHQRZFRXQWHULQWXLWLYHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWDQ
DXWKHQWLFSLFWXUHRI1HJUROLIHLQ$PHULFDFRXOGEHSURGXFHGE\D5XVsian writer, and before delving further into the script, it is necessary to
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QRWLRQRIDXWKHQWLFLW\

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131

Competing Authenticities
7KLVDOWHUQDWLYHDXWKHQWLFLW\LVPHDQWDVDFRXQWHUSRLQWWR+XJKHVVPRUH
IDPLOLDUXVHRILWLQKLVDXWRELRJUDSK\WKDWLVDQDXWKHQWLFLW\WKDW
JXDUGVFXOWXUDOERXQGDULHVWKDWZDUGVRRXWVLGHUVWU\LQJWRSUHVHQWRU
VSHDNIRUDSDUWLFXODUJURXS%\WKHWLPHRI+XJKHVV0RVFRZWULSWKLVIDmiliar authenticity had been forcefully articulated by African American
ZULWHUVDQGVFKRODUVSDUWLFXODUO\:(%'X%RLV)RUH[DPSOH'X%RLVV
&ULWHULDRI1HJUR$UWQRWHGKRZUDFLDOSUHMXGJHPHQWKDGOLPLWHG
white writing on blacks, writing that tended to focus on human degradaWLRQ/LNHZLVHLQThe Souls of Black Folk KHDVVHUWHGWKDWEODFNVRUURZ
songs descended from primitive African music and that debasements
DQGLPLWDWLRQVFRXOGQHYHUQGWKHUHDO1HJURPHORGLHV,QWXUQMXVWDV
'X%RLVHPEUDFHGVRUURZVRQJV+XJKHVLQKLVHVVD\7KH1HJUR$UWLVWDQGWKH5DFLDO0RXQWDLQHVWDEOLVKHG1HJURIRONVRQJVDQGWKHHWHUnal tom-tom beating in the Negro soul as the provenance of black modHUQLVP7KLVLVDOOWRVD\WKDWWKHDFFRXQWRIBlack and White must be
situated within a long-running discourse of black authenticity, a discourse
LQZKLFK'X%RLVORRPHGODUJH,QGHHG+XJKHVVGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHVFULSW
basically repeats Du Boiss claim about debasement and imitations and
DSSOLHVLWWR*UHEQHU
5REHUW *RRGLQJ:LOOLDPV KDV UHFHQWO\ XQSDFNHG WKH FRQWRXUV RI WKLV
discourse, noting how the sorrow songs chapter in The Souls of Black Folk
HPHUJHGIURP'X%RLVVRZQGLVWDQFHIURPWKHYDVWPDMRULW\RIEODFNVKRZ
he presented the songs as the basis of a racially distinctive spiritual identity in order to legitimate his claims of connection to, and thus leaderVKLS RYHU $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV DV D ZKROH ,Q VKRUW Souls deploys notions
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press for black rights solely within the framework of American democracy
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FRPPXQLVWWLHV7KHSRLQWIRUQRZWKRXJKLVWKDW'X%RLVVHDUO\DUWLFXODWLRQRIEODFNDXWKHQWLFLW\DJDLQHFKRHGLQ+XJKHVVDFFRXQWZDV
designed to be compatible with American democratic ideals, thus excludLQJDSULRULEURDGHUFULWLFLVPVRIFDSLWDOLVWPRGHUQLW\

132

FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

+RZHYHU ZLWKLQ $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ GLVFRXUVHV WKHUH H[LVWHG DQRWKHU

understanding of authenticity, one geared toward world revolution rathHUWKDQHOLWHOHDGHUVKLS5LFKDUG:ULJKWV%OXHSULQWIRU1HJUR:ULWLQJ
SRLQWVWRWKLVE\FRQQHFWLQJEODFNKRSHVDQGVWUXJJOHVZLWKWKRVH
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adds that a Negro writer must learn to view the life of a Negro living in
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here to the Soviet Union, which, as discussed in the introduction, he admired in large part for its valorization of minority cultures and languagHV 0RUH VSHFLFDOO\ DJDLQVW 'X %RLVV GHFULDO RI GHEDVHPHQWV DQG LPLWDWLRQV:ULJKWHPEUDFHGD6RYLHWHWKQRJUDSKLFSUDFWLFHWKDWDVQRWHG
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5XVVLDQRU-HZLVKUHVHDUFKHUFRXOGKHOSFROOHFW.D]DNKIRONVWRULHVEULQJ
them back to the state ethnography museum in Leningrad, and then demRQVWUDWH KRZ GLHUHQW 6RYLHW IRONORUHV ERUURZHG IURP RQH DQRWKHU ,Q
keeping with the states nationalities policy, the task was to identify and
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FRXUVHWKH8665ZDVQRWDORQHLQGLVSDWFKLQJHWKQRJUDSKHUVIURPFHQWHUWRSHULSKHU\+RZHYHUHYHQEHIRUH5XVVLDQHWKQRJUDSK\ZDV disWLQFWIURPLWV:HVWHUQFRXQWHUSDUWVLQFODLPLQJ$VLDDVDPDUNHURI5XVVLDQ
GLVWLQFWLRQDQGGHQ\LQJDOWRJHWKHUWKHHVVHQWLDOGLHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKH
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ethnography, avant-gardism, and nationalities policy a distinctive brand of
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WKDQGHVFHQWDXWKHQWLFDVVKRUWKDQGIRUXQWDLQWHGE\FDSLWDOLVP:H
HQFRXQWHUHG WKLV DXWKHQWLFLW\ LQ FKDSWHUV  DQG  LW DSSHDUHG DV 0D\DNRYVN\V UHMHFWLRQ RI 0H[LFDQ VRXYHQLUV DQG WKH H[RWLFD RI VWDUYDWLRQ
DQG7UHWLDNRYVUHMHFWLRQRIROGIDOVHDQGH[RWLFLGHDVDERXW&KLQD7R
EHVXUH0D\DNRYVN\SURFHHGHGWRQGDXWKHQWLFLW\LQDWUDGLWLRQDOH[RWLFLVPWKDWZDVFRORXUIXOO\SRHWLFDQGQRQSURWDEOHZKLOH7UHWLDNRY
UHMHFWHG H[RWLFLVP DOWRJHWKHU LQ IDYRU RI D WUXH &KLQD RI VWUHHW VFHQHV
DQGPRWOH\DWWLUH1RQHWKHOHVVWKHWZRDGYDQFHGDFOHDUSROLWLFDODQGDHVWKHWLFSUHUHTXLVLWHIRUFXOWXUHWREHFRQVLGHUHGDXWKHQWLFQDPHO\DQRSSRVLWLRQWRNLWVFKDQGFRPPRGLFDWLRQWKDWPDQ\WKHRULVWVIURP&OHPHQW
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133

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draw closer to the Negro masses and talk their language and use MayaNRYVN\DVDPRGHOIRUGRLQJVR+RZHYHUDV,HPSKDVL]HGLQP\GLVFXVVLRQ
RI +XJKHVV 0D\DNRYVN\ WUDQVODWLRQV VXFK DSSOLFDWLRQV ZHUH QRW D RQH
way street, not simply a case of Stalinist policies or Soviet discourses playLQJRXWLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV,QGHHGDQWLFDSLWDOLVWUHYROXWLRQDU\QRWLRQV
of black authenticity very much emerged in dialogue with African AmeriFDQVDQGWKH$PHULFDQOHIW-DPHV6PHWKXUVWRHUVXVHIXOFRQWH[WXDOL]Dtion here, showing how this Soviet notion of authenticity gelled with longstanding desires to free black vernacular from minstrelsy and plantation
OLWHUDWXUH 6HHNLQJ WR UHFODLP WKHLU FXOWXUH VHYHUDO $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ
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Smethurst writes,
Left oppositions of bourgeois culture, including mass culture, to workingclass and peasant cultures, however fragmentary and skeletal, could be used
to reappropriate vernacular expressive forms, including dialect, without
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IRUPVRISRSXODUPLVDSSURSULDWLRQRIYHUQDFXODUEODFNFXOWXUH

In other words, radicalism was to cleanse black folk of minstrelsys conWDPLQDWLRQ WKH LPSOLFDWLRQ EHLQJ WKDW PDUNHW LQXHQFHV ZHUH LQWULQVLFDOO\ FRUUXSWLQJ 7KURXJK WKLV OHQV EODFN YHUQDFXODU DSSURSULDWHG E\
the bourgeoisie was inauthentic, serving only to reinforce stereotypes,
ZKLOH EODFN YHUQDFXODU WKDW RSSRVHG PDVV FXOWXUH ZDV DXWKHQWLF $QWLcapitalism was to rescue black culture from inauthenticity, a construcWLRQWKDW6PHWKXUVWLOOXVWUDWHVYLD6WHUOLQJ%URZQVSRHWU\5HMHFWLQJWKH
KLJK GLFWLRQ RI QRUWKHUQ EODFNV DQG WKH ZKLWHVSRQVRUHG MD]] RI 1HZ
York, Browns Southern Road SUHVHQWVDGLVWLQFWVRXWKHUQYHUQDFXODUDSSDUHQWO\XQWDLQWHGE\PDUNHWVDQGEHQWRQUHVLVWDQFH%URZQWKXV
romanticizes the Black Belt as the authentic, anticapitalist foundation of
$IULFDQ$PHULFDQFXOWXUH
The yoking of vernacular to resistance yielded a clear criterion for
evaluating black authenticity, which led white radicals on both sides of
WKH$WODQWLFWRDVVHUWWKHLUVXSSRVHGDXWKRULW\RQWKHPDWWHU$VZHVDZ

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LQFKDSWHU)LODWRYDLQ0RVFRZEHOLHYHGKHUVHOITXDOLHGWRGHQHWKH
1HJUR PDVVHV DQG WKHLU ODQJXDJH 6LPLODUO\ New Masses editor Mike
Gold derided New York nightclubs for peddling a false black voice, spoiled
E\ ZHDOWK\ ZKLWH SDWURQV VXFK DV &DUO 9DQ 9HFKWHQ 7KH +DUOHP FDEDret no more represents the Negro mass than a pawnshop represents the
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Gold embraced spirituals as untouched by markets and, as such, promising
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later suggested, though, that in order for this to happen, religious lyrics
ZRXOGKDYHWREHUHSODFHGE\UHYROXWLRQDU\RQHVZLWKMXVWWKHPHORGLHV
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SUDLVHGEODFNZRUNHUVLQ&KLFDJRIRUWUDQVIRUPLQJ*LPPH7KDW2OG7LPH
5HOLJLRQLQWR*LPPH7KDW1HZ&RPPXQLVW6SLULW
/LNHZLVH WKURXJKRXW WKH HDUO\ V New Masses published a series
on Negro Songs of Protest, in which their white compiler, Lawrence
Gellert, emphasized southern black dialects as well as a shift from reliJLRXVWKHPHV
7KHVH QHZ VRQJV RI WKH 1HJUR GLHU IURP WKH ZHOONQRZQ VSLULWXDOV
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WKH1HJURIRUWKHUVWWLPHZLWKKLVPDVNR7KHPDVNKHKDVIRUJHQHUDtions been constrained to assume in order to pick up the crumbs from the
ZKLWHPDQVWDEOHLQSHDFH

In short, according to Gellert, the religious content of spirituals rendered

WKHPVWDWLFDQGIDOVH+RZHYHURQFHEODFNPXVLFDVVXPHGUDGLFDOFRQWHQW
LW FRXOG SURYLGH GLUHFW DFFHVV WR WKH WUXH EODFN VXEMHFW XQIHWWHUHG E\
SDVWFRQVWUDLQWVDQGWKDWPDVNZKLFK*HOOHUWDGGVLVJXUHGLQDVRQJ
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+HNLFNGHVHDWREPDKSDQWVDQGDWDLQKDOI

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135

You don know, you don know mah min

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You don know, you don know mah min
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Gellert here makes the too hasty assumption that he himself has access
to this woodchoppers mind, that the song is not being directed against
KLPDVZHOO<HWWKHVRQJKDUPRQL]HVZLWKWKHUDFLDOYHLODQGGRXEOH
FRQVFLRXVQHVVLGHQWLHGE\'X%RLVLQThe Souls of Black Folk, this sense
of always looking at oneself through the eyes of others, of measuring
ones soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and
SLW\ According to Gellert and Gold, the key to shattering this duplicity (both inward and outward) was a turn from religion to radicalism,
H[SUHVVHGLQZKDWWKH\KHDUGDVDXQLTXHO\EODFNLQHFWLRQ7KLVZRXOG
PDNHWKH$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVXEMHFWZKROHERWKLQKLVRZQH\HVDQGLQ
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In hindsight, the problems with this understanding of the authentic
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VLQJHUV DQG ZULWHUV DQG XQFULWLFDOO\ GLVPLVVLYH RI UHOLJLRQ *HOOHUWV GHOLQHDWLRQRIEODFNVSLULWXDOVDVVWDWLFDQGVRQJVRISURWHVWDVXLGVHHPV
IRUFHGDWEHVW1HYHUWKHOHVVLQVRXWKHUQEODFNYHUQDFXODUDQGPXVLF86
communists (both black and white) believed that they had located authenWLF$IULFDQ$PHULFDQFXOWXUH,QWXUQWKH$PHULFDQOHIWVHPEUDFHRIEODFN
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for a Soviet literary encyclopedia, Filatova draws from New Masses, menWLRQLQJWKHDUWLFOHVDQGVWRULHVRI(XJHQH*RUGRQDQGTXRWLQJIURP*HOOHUWV1HJUR6RQJVRI3URWHVW+HUELEOLRJUDSK\LQFOXGHVDFROOHFWLRQRI
WKHVHVRQJVWUDQVODWHGLQWR5XVVLDQ7KXV)LODWRYDVOLNH*UHEQHUVDXthority on African Americans was based, at least in part, on American comPXQLVWZULWLQJVWKDWWKHPVHOYHVGUHZLQVSLUDWLRQIURPWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ
The result was a similar understanding of black culture among AmeriFDQ DQG 6RYLHW FRPPXQLVWV &LWLQJ +XJKHV )LODWRYD GHVFULEHV $IULFDQ
American literatures most recent revolutionary examples as possessing

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FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

WKH IROORZLQJ FRPSRQHQWV  FRQWHQW WKDW KLJKOLJKWV WKH UDFLVP FRQfronting blacks, in response tending toward class consciousness and
away from religious themes; (2) form that draws from black national
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$UQROG5DPSHUVDGVXJJHVWVWKDWKHUFULWLFLVPRIKLVUHOLJLRXVUHODSVHV
SURPSWHGKLPWRZULWHIURP0RVFRZLQ0DUFK1HYHUPXVWP\VWLcism or beauty be gotten into any religious motive when used as a proleWDULDQZHDSRQ40
)LODWRYDVUHPDUNDEO\FOHDUGHQLWLRQRIODXGDEOHDXWKHQWLFEODFNFXOture was the product of a transatlantic, cross-racial leftist exchange that,
LQUHWURVSHFWEHOLHV+XJKHVVFDULFDWXUHRIXQLQIRUPHG6RYLHWV7KLVGHnition resonates well with Black and White,WDNHXSODWHU*UHEQHUVRZQ
rendering of Negritianskii narodnyi bliuz1HJURQDWLRQDOEOXHVEXWVXFH
it for now to note the scripts antireligious thrust, enacted through a Negro preacher character who, calling to mind a fox, speaks at a deceased
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DGLVWLQFWO\EODFNODQJXDJHVKHKHUVHOIRSWHGQRWWRGRVRLQKHU5XVVLDQ
translations of the spiritual Go Down, Moses and one of Gellerts protest songs, she inserts no indications of a nonstandard dialect, yielding
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VSHFLHVWKDWKLVBlack and White was to be in clean [chistom@5XVVLDQODQJXDJHDUJXLQJWKDW5XVVLDQVSHHFKGLVWRUWHGZLWKDQLPDJLQHG$PHULFDQDFFHQWVRXQGVKRUULEOH42+HUHZHQGDQXQFKDUDFWHULVWLFLQDELOity to overcome racial barriers, perhaps even an echo of Du Boiss notion
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that a shared understanding of black authenticity emerged across Soviet
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radical anticapitalism, which in turn was to purge vernacular culture of

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Grebners Blue River

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the group of twenty-two to bring plenty of records and had them rehearse
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and spaces, for broaching the boundaries between American and Soviet, black
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Grebner does not specify melody or lyrics, he states that Negroes are beautiIXOLPSURYLVHUVDQGTXLWHRIWHQWKHLUFKRUXVHVDUHFRQVWUXFWHGLQWKHIRUPRI
dialogue7KHUHIRUHWKHFKRLUOHDGHU>khoreg] can speak not only about [the
deceased] Elias individually, but about all the colored people of America5HJDUGLQJ
the choirs language, Grebner notes, There are a great number of beautiful
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FROM AVANT-GARDE TO AUTHENTIC

ZRUGV7ZRRWKHUERDUGHUVMRLQLQRQHZLWKDKDUPRQLFDDQGWKHWHPSR
TXLFNHQVWHDUVGU\XSDQGGDQFLQJFRPPHQFHVWR/L]]\VGHOLJKW*UHEner explains, This appears incredible from our point of view, but its absoOXWHO\QDWXUDOLI\RXNHHSLQPLQGWKHXQLTXHMR\RIOLIH>zhizneradostnost]
RI1HJURHV45
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Skvoz lesnoi burelom

Through forest of wind-fallen trees

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Byl korotok boi

The battle was short

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Nas neset golubaia volna

The blue wave carries us

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7KH:HDU\%OXHV Indeed, in appearance as well as its irregular
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I ostanutsia kak v skazke

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documentary Three Songs About LeninEXLOWDURXQGPRQWDJHVRI&HQWUDO
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My aim here is to underscore Grebners innovative use of music as
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that his blue river refers to the famously brown Mississippi, adding,
7KHUHOLNHO\H[LVWDIHZVRQJVDERXWWKHEOXHULYHU,SHUVRQDOO\KDYH
KHDUG,WKLQNWKUHHEXW,YHWKRXJKWRIWKLVP\VHOI52 To be sure, this
howler, as well as Grebners essentialist descriptions of African AmeriFDQVDVLPSURYLVDWLRQDOPXVLFDODQGKDSS\JROXFN\DUHGLVFRQFHUWLQJ
In his defense, it is necessary to remember that while Grebner was not
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and Whites more fatal shortcoming, one emerging not so much from
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provides for cultural diversity and an anticapitalist authenticity, but as
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sing among themselves to mark the funeral of one of their own, then
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EHWZHHQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGWKH8665DQGQDOO\WKHPXVLFRI5Ddio Moscow magically folds the struggle for black freedom into a SovietFHQWHUHG UHYROXWLRQ 2I FRXUVH 0D\DNRYVN\V %ODFN DQG :KLWH OLNHZLVHLQVWUXFWVWKH$IUR&XEDQ:LOOLHWRORRNWR0RVFRZDQG7UHWLDNRYV
Roar ChinaWHOOV&KLQHVHERDWPHQWRGUDZKRSHIURPWKH%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQ+RZHYHUZLWK*UHEQHUVBlack and White, Moscow
has a far more active, controlling presence, with the African American

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was meant to see, and upon his return to the United States, he had no way
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vagueness, presenting them as two interpretations of my feeling about
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Such political delineations can be seen as analogous to this chapters
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145

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former communist connections, suggesting a link between lapsed leftism
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HPSKDVLVLQRULJLQDO7KHDXWRELRJUDSK\WKHQVXJJHVWVWKDWWKLVDLFtion emerges from racial and ethnic inauthenticity, manifested as black
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hours later, this brings to mind both Jewish and African Americans who
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from such neuroses (further explored in chapter 4), loyal to the United
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many people of color from around the world who once sought hope from
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clothing that gave him the appearance of a Buddhist monk and veriWDEOH%ODFN&RVVDFNDQLQVWDQFHRI$IUR2ULHQWDOLVPDNLQWR&ODXGH
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to support the Black Belt thesis, disputing the idea that African Americans
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mentioned in I Wonder as I Wander, he greeted the Black and White delegation
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not have been surprised, well aware that he had been assisting with the
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and seems to have supported those who called the cancellation a political
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turns out to be an awful person and such a person that one can only have
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he worked as a teacher, but this sentence was changed to hard labor in May
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this scholarship, which makes it all the more admirable that Glenda Gilmores recent 'HI\LQJ'L[LH places him at the forefront of African American
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as she concludes, the study of historical failures leaves open the possibility
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of an alternative, anticapitalist authenticity, sought to fuse revolutionary

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ability to discern this ethnic avant-garde in the ruin of the past would, at
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4
Cold War Pluralism
The New York Intellectuals Respond to
Soviet Anti-Semitism

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Isaac Babel, Gedali

ewish artists, writers, and thinkers have been present in each of the
preceding chapters, serving as an implicit vanguard within the SoviHWFHQWHUHGHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGH,QWKHLQWURGXFWLRQZHVDZ:DOWHU
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Roar China was one of the many Jewish American intellectuals who made the
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OLWHUDU\VFHQH1 I have yet to emphasize the central presence of Jews as ethQLFDYDQWJDUGLVWVSDUWO\EHFDXVHWKLVLVVXFKZHOOWURGGHQJURXQG$PRQJ
Americanists, Slavists, and Jewish studies scholars alike, it is now widely accepted that Jews had a prominent place in the interwar left, and that Soviet
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far more Jewish than the Jewry of America and be the matrix of culturDOO\IDUPRUHVLJQLFDQW-HZLVKYDOXHVWKDQWKH-HZU\RI$PHULFD0RVFRZ
emerged as the center of what might be called a Yiddish world republic of
OHWWHUVRYHUVKDGRZLQJ1HZ<RUNDQG:DUVDZ2 In addition to English-language authors like Gold and Freeman, Moscow also drew Yiddish-language
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New Yorks Frayhayt (Freedom), which we encountered hosting Mayakovsky
at Camp Nit Gedaige, enabled Yiddish poets to explore both revolutionary
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LQJKWLQJLQ<LGGLVKOLWHUDU\FLUFOHVIROORZHGE\SXUJHVDQGH[HFXWLRQVIRU
PDQ\RIWKRVHFDXJKWLQWKH8665GXULQJWKHODWHVWHUURU5 Thus, the
history of Jews and the Soviet Union tends to follow a well-trodden track
from illusion to disillusion, one marked by several key dates for New Yorks
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chapter is that the ethnic avant-garde has granted us a new way of seeing,
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Just as in the previous chapter, the key here is competing notions of auWKHQWLFLW\,I+XJKHVVDFFRXQWRIBlack and White shows him navigating
the authenticities of both ethnic identity and anticapitalism, in this chapter
ZHZLOOVHHKRZWKHVHFDPHWRKHLJKWHQWKH&ROG:DUGLYLGHEHWZHHQWKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ7KHFKDSWHUPDUNVWKHZHDSRQL]LQJRI
FXOWXUDODXWKHQWLFLW\KRZWKURXJK-HZLVK$PHULFDQUHVSRQVHVWR6WDOLQLVW
DQWL6HPLWLVPDQH[SOLFLWO\DQWL6RYLHWDXWKHQWLFLW\HPHUJHG6XEVHTXHQWO\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVWKH8665FDPHWREHVHHQDVKRVWLOHWRERWKSDUWLFXlarism and experimentation, as a place where authentic cultural and ethnic
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8QLWHG6WDWHVZDVDSODFHZKHUHDXWKHQWLFLW\FRXOGRXULVKYLDFXOWXUDOH[SHULPHQWDWLRQDQGHWKQLFGLYHUVLW\7KLVGLVWLQFWLRQ,DUJXHRSHQHGRQHRI
WKHPDQ\IURQWVRIWKHFXOWXUDO&ROG:DUGXULQJZKLFKVHJUHJDWLRQLQWKH
American South remained a favorite topic for Soviet propaganda, to which
American lawmakers could respond by highlighting anti-Semitism in the
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HTXDOLW\ OLEHUDO SOXUDOLVP YHUVXV VRFLDOLVW LQWHUQDWLRQDOLVP And in fact,
much good emerged from this back-and-forth, namely, global scrutiny of
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try to see beyond these binaries by identifying traces of the interwar ethQLF DYDQWJDUGH LQ SRVWZDU DUWLFXODWLRQV RI -HZLVK $PHULFDQ DXWKHQWLFLW\
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order to describe the attraction of the Soviet-oriented left for Jews in both
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avant-garde, which in the second and third decades of the twentieth century

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utopian allure of this interwar moment against the rocks of postwar StalinLVWDQWL6HPLWLVP$IWHUGHWDLOLQJWKLVGHYHORSPHQW,H[DPLQH-HZLVK$PHULFDQUHVSRQVHVWRLWIRFXVLQJRQWKHPLGGOHJHQHUDWLRQRIWKHLQXHQWLDO
group now known alternately as the New York Intellectuals and the New
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points to the ethnic avant-gardes postwar survival as well as to a shared experience of illusion, disillusion, and compromise that traversed but also reLQIRUFHGGHVFHQWEDVHGGLYLGHV

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these students, because, they said, the Soviets did not believe in anti6HPLWLVPDQGWKDWWKHUHZHUH-HZVKLJKLQWKHJRYHUQPHQWQRZ+LV
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Jews were indeed well represented in the Bolsheviks ranks and were
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many Jewish Americans looked to the Soviet Union with zeal and longing;
they envied their Soviet relatives transformation from persecuted miQRULW\WRUHYROXWLRQDU\YDQJXDUG11 This is, of course, dangerous ground
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and communism was a topic to be avoided, but more than twenty years
after the Soviet collapse, worries about red-baiting and stereotyping have
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this participation was caused by something else, such as a peculiarly JewLVKZLOOWRSRZHU12
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and American Jews were disproportionately represented in communist
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passed the decrees on land and peace, and formed the Council of Peoples
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secret police, among the early Soviet states leading artists and propaJDQGLVWVDQGDOVRLQWKHUDQNVRI(XURSHDQDQG$PHULFDQFRPPXQLVWV
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Eastern Europe) accounted for about 40 to 50 percent of Communist
Party membership and at least a comparable proportion of the Partys
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to 50 percent of the total of those who published regularly in PartyDOLDWHG YHQXHV DQG MRLQHG 3DUW\OHG RUJDQL]DWLRQV VXFK DV WKH -RKQ
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transformed the decades-old rebellion of Jewish children into a massive

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-XGDLVP ZDV KXFNVWHULQJ DQG LWV FRQGLWLRQVWR EH DEROLVKHG E\ UHYROXtion, leading to the social >LHQRWMXVWOHJDO@HPDQFLSDWLRQRIWKH-HZ15 According to Slezkine, this goal led Jewish Bolsheviks to renounce their class
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The Communist movement in the United States had a solid foundation
in Eastern European Jewish immigrant families; they brought to their
country not only an abhorrence of czarist autocracy but also workingFODVV DQG VRFLDOLVW OR\DOWLHV 0RUHRYHU WKH &RPPXQLVW PRYHPHQW H[horted its members to adhere to a cultural pluralist and internationalist universalism, a stance that was attractive to young Jews emerging
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from family) to explain Jewish communism, in the process blurring togethHUWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQG(DVWHUQ(XURSHSOXUDOLVPDQGLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVP
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certainly we could go on and apply this model to other minorities drawn
to communism, that is, to the Soviet-centered ethnic avant-garde as a
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DYDQWJDUGHRIWKHZRUOG+RZHYHU,DPXQHDV\ZLWKWKHHLWKHURUUHlation that Slezkine draws between ethnicity and communism, and here
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during the interwar years, a Jew entering the Communist movement had
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hand, there were clubs and organizations immersed in Yiddishkeit; on the
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Indeed, perhaps the most striking examples of the merging of the
two can be found in the Soviet Jewish avant-garde through the early
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he also produced several illustrations that aimed to persuade the JewLVKSXEOLFRIWKHMXVWLFHRIWKH&RPPXQLVWFDXVHE\XVLQJDWUDGLWLRQDO
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a boxed scroll resembling the traditional Scroll of Esther, with ornate
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viet Jewish critic Abram Efros helps to explain this pairing of ethnicity
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The global crisis, the senseless cataclysm which is shaking the life of the
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has itself brought into being; for it is that crisis which has dislocated and
shifted all the cultural strata so as to expose the most ancient layers of
IRONH[LVWHQFH<HWLWLVDOVRWKHIRUFHZKLFKJRHVGULYLQJIRUZDUGVVKDSing the dynamic of history into completely novel modernistic archOHIWQDWLRQVWDWHDQGVRFLRHFRQRPLFDOLJQPHQWV

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apparently universal push and pull between ancient and modern, Efros exSUHVVHVFRQGHQFHWKDWHDFKJURXSZRXOGEHDEOHWRPDLQWDLQLWVXQLTXHness, that strange complexities would emerge through which sings the
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-HZLVKDYDQWJDUGHZRXOGEHFHOHEUDWHGIRURXUPRGHUQLVPRXUOHIWLVKQHVV\RXWKDVZHOODVIRURXUSRSXOLVPRXUWUDGLWLRQROGDJH
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instances of an avant-garde reimagining the movement of history and
WLPH /LVVLW]N\ UHFDVWV UHYROXWLRQ DV D PHVVLDQLF HYHQW HYRNLQJ 9ODGLmir Tatlins protoconstructivist iteration of the Tower of Babel, that is,
DYLVLRQRIUHYROXWLRQRULHQWHGWRZDUGERWKIXWXUHDQGSDVW,QWKHLQtroduction I brought to the fore precisely this notion of the avant-garde
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GHVFULEHUHYROXWLRQQRWMXVWDVDUUHVWEXWDOVRDVPHVVLDQLFDUUHVWDQG
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A genuinely messianic face must be restored to the concept of classless
society and, to be sure, in the interest of furthering the revolutionary
SROLWLFVRIWKHSUROHWDULDWLWVHOI24

This is socialism with a messianic face, drawing inspiration from preMarxist utopias and secularized religion, the goal being to reactivate the
conscious and unconscious memories, hopes, and longings banished by
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$JDLQ%HQMDPLQVSHOOHGRXWWKLV YLVLRQRIUHYROXWLRQLQKLV WKHses, making all the more remarkable the fact that the Soviet Jewish avantJDUGHH[SUHVVHGWKHVDPHYLVLRQRQO\WZHQW\\HDUVHDUOLHU7KLVLVHYLGHQW
LQ(O/LVVLW]N\VLOOXVWUDWLRQVEXWDOVRLQD<LGGLVKSOD\The End of the
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The wrath of God rolls like thunder across the world, commanding man
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loose, pursuing one another in wild fury; the storm rages and shrieks, and
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beast, half man, with distorted faces and hesitating movements, crouch
RXWRIWKHLUFDYHV,QDZHDQGIHDUWKH\VWUHWFKWKHLUWUHPEOLQJKDQGVWRZDUGRQHDQRWKHU+DOWLQJO\DWUVWWKHQZLWKJURZLQJFRQGHQFHPDQ
DWWHPSWVLQFRPPRQHRUWZLWKKLVIHOORZVWROLIWKLPVHOIRXWRIWKHEODFN
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not the proletarian but these beast-man cave dwellers who somehow surYLYHWKH*UHDW)ORRG7KHUHYROXWLRQLWVHOILVLPDJLQHGDVGLYLQHUHWULEXWLRQ
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perhaps spoken in the single divine tongue sought by Tatlin and Marr in
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DQGXQLHGSHRSOHHPHUJHVPDUNHGRQO\E\EODFNVKDGRZVDQGVKDUHGHQFRXQWHUVZLWKWKHYRLGRIMXGJPHQWGD\,QVKRUWLILQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQZH
VDZWKH%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQDVDQ$VLDQUHYROXWLRQZDJHGIRULQVWDQFH
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against Jewishness, as Slezkine would have it, but instead harnessing JewLVKPHVVLDQLVPWRDGYDQFHXQLYHUVDOHTXDOLW\
7KH SRLQW RI WKLV H[FXUVLRQ EDFN WR WKH V DQG V KDV EHHQ WR
VKRZ KRZ JXUHV OLNH /LVVLW]N\ DUWLFXODWHG D -HZLVK FXOWXUH LQ KDUPRQ\
ZLWK%HQMDPLQVVHFXODU-HZLVKPHVVLDQLVP7KLVLVDYHUVLRQRI6RYLHW-HZishness that disturbs the well-established rise-and-fall narrative alluded to
HDUOLHUWKDWDEULHI-HZLVKUHQDLVVDQFHJDYHZD\WRJURZLQJVWDWHFRQWURO
WKURXJKWKHVDQGVIROORZHGE\VWDWHVDQFWLRQHGDQWL6HPLWLVP
LQWKHV,QGHHGEDVHGRQWKLVQDUUDWLYHRQHPLJKWVD\WKDWThe End of
the WorldKDGLWZURQJWKHPRPHQWRIWHUURUKDGQRWSDVVHG+RZHYHUWKH
IRUHJURXQGLQJRIPHVVLDQLFDUUHVWLQ/LVVLW]N\VSDLQWLQJVDQG%HQMDPLQV
writings opens the possibility of using such works to derail the track to

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VWULNLQJWRGLVPLVVRUIRUJHW7KH\JHQHUDWHDFKDUJHDQHQHUJ\WKDWYLD
the writings of the New York Intellectuals, I will now try to smuggle into
WKHSRVWZDU\HDUV

Authentic and Inauthentic Jews

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DYDQWJDUGLVP,Q6OH]NLQHVDFFRXQW-HZLVKQHVVLQWKHIRUPRIKRVWLOLW\
to Jewish stereotypes) initially went hand in hand with Soviet ideology
(namely, the right to become more Soviet than Jewish), but all this changed
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ORQJHU7KHQLQWKH8665EHFDPHWKHUVWFRXQWU\WRUHFRJQL]H
the state of Israel (if only to drive the British out of the Middle East), inDGYHUWHQWO\VWULSSLQJ6RYLHW-HZVRIWKHLUVDYLQJJUDFH'XULQJWKH*UHDW
Terror, they had largely escaped persecution as a group, for there had
EHHQQRRWKHUVWDWHWRGLYLGHWKHLUOR\DOWLHV,QFRQWUDVWPDQ\RWKHUGLDVSRUDQDWLRQDOLWLHVVXFKDVWKH.RUHDQVDQGWKH3ROHVKDGVXHUHGPDVV
GHSRUWDWLRQVLQWKHODWHV:LWKWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI,VUDHOKRZHYHU
Stalin suddenly came to see Soviet Jews as yet one more ethnic Diaspora
potentially loyal to a hostile foreign state, an alien element that had
VXFFHVVIXOO\LQOWUDWHGDOOVWUDWDRIWKH6RYLHWHOLWH This yielded predictDEOHUHVXOWVDOUHDG\XQOHDVKHGRQWKRVHRWKHUVXVSHFWQDWLRQDOLWLHVWKH
executions of top Jewish party members, the purges of many more, and the
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IURPWKH8665-XVWWZRPRQWKVHDUOLHUPravda had announced the arrest

of nine doctors, mostly Jews, for assassinating two members of the PolitEXUR7KH\ZHUHUHFUXLWHGE\DEUDQFKRFHRI$PHULFDQLQWHOOLJHQFH
WKHLQWHUQDWLRQDO-HZLVKERXUJHRLVQDWLRQDOLVWRUJDQL]DWLRQFDOOHG-RLQW
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refers to the American Joint Distribution Committee, a charitable organi]DWLRQ ZLWK D ORQJ KLVWRU\ RI DLGLQJ (DVWHUQ (XURSHDQ -HZV 7KH DOOHJHG
point men in this conspiracy were two members of the Jewish Anti-Fascist
Committee (JAC), a group of prominent Soviet Jews who, at the Kremlins
EHKHVWKDGVROLFLWHGRYHUVHDVIXQGVIRU0RVFRZVZDUHRUWSDUWLFXODUO\
IURP-HZLVK$PHULFDQV The following day this Doctors Plot, as it became known, made the front page of the New York Times, which in turn conQHFWHGWKHDUUHVWVWRWKHH[HFXWLRQVRISURPLQHQW-HZLVKFRPPXQLVWV
LQ&]HFKRVORYDNLD CommentaryVOHDGDUWLFOHIRU)HEUXDU\IROORZHG
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and genocide as means of national and international policy has not only
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is also proof that totalitarian regimes, regardless of their ideological oriJLQVQGWKHPVHOYHVGULYHQDORQJWKHVDPHIDWDOFRXUVH

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This explosion of anti-Semitism spelled the end of what Slezkine calls
the special relationship between the Jews and the Soviet state, and not
RQO\IRU-HZVLQWKH8665 After all, the basis of the charges was the connections forged between Soviet Jews and Jewish Americans, in the form of
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Moscow, Jewish American leftists were not to be trusted, that they were inWHOOLJHQFHDJHQWVEHQWRQVDERWDJHWKURXJKWKHLU6RYLHW-HZLVKFRQWDFWV
To be sure, by this point many Jewish Americans had already parted ways

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the Doctors Plot, most had agreed that, at the very least, Soviet power had
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spotty and incomplete, it suddenly became clear that anti-Semitism was
DOLYHDQGZHOOLQWKH6RYLHWVWDWH,QGHHGWKH'RFWRUV3ORWHYRNHGWKHUXPRUVRIEORRGULWXDOWKDWKDGIDQQHGSRJURPVEHIRUHWKHUHYROXWLRQ:KLOH
QRRQHLQ1HZ<RUNIXOO\XQGHUVWRRGZKDWKDGJRQHZURQJ+RUDFH.DOOHQVIURQWLHURIKRSHKDGPRVWFHUWDLQO\SURYHQDPLUDJH$QGJUDGXDOO\
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The new line became that the Soviet Union was (and perhaps always
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the key word here is authenticity, usefully bearing ethnic, political, and
DHVWKHWLF FRQQRWDWLRQV 5HSUHVHQWHG E\ VXFK LQXHQWLDO SRVWZDU WKLQNHUVDV'DQLHO%HOO6LGQH\+RRNDQG,UYLQJ+RZHDOPRVWDOOWKH1HZ<RUN
,QWHOOHFWXDOVFRYHUHGKHUHKDG(DVWHUQ(XURSHDQLPPLJUDQWURRWV+RZever, they were distinct from other Jewish American writers in that they
UHMHFWHG Yiddishkeit, choosing instead to declare themselves citizens of
the world and to look upon social problems in terms extending beyond
ORFDORUHYHQQDWLRQDOLQWHUHVWV In doing so, they followed the lead of
7URWVN\ZKROLNHWKHPZDVERWK-HZLVKDQG5XVVLDQDQGSURYLGHGD
model for combining a life of action with belief in the power and puULW\ RI WKH ZRUG40 That is, in addition to a model for being discreetly
Jewish, Trotsky provided political and aesthetic guidance, bolstering this
JURXSV FRPPLWPHQW WR ERWK VRFLDOLVW UHYROXWLRQ DQG KLJK PRGHUQLVP
7KLVOHGWRWKHIRXQGLQJRIWKHMRXUQDOPartisan Review, envisioned as
an alternative to Mike Golds New Masses and its turn to socialist realism
E\WKHHDUO\V,QDIXUWKHUGHSDUWXUHIURPNew Masses, Partisan Review
ZDVLPSOLFLWO\DQGDIWHUWKH0RVFRZ7ULDOVH[SOLFLWO\DQWL6WDOLQLVW
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6WDOLQDQG7URWVN\FRXOGEHRSHQO\H[SUHVVHG41
The New York Intellectuals can be regarded as outlier members of the
LQWHUZDUHWKQLFDYDQWJDUGH8QOLNHIRULQVWDQFHWKHZULWHUVDURXQGFrayhayt and despite their focus on Moscow, they were never so enamored with
Mayakovsky and LEF but instead shared Trotskys belief that a truly socialist culture would be achieved only after the realization of a socialist so-

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163

FLHW\7KH\DOVRVKDUHG7URWVN\VYLHZRIOLWHUDWXUHDVLQWULQVLFDOO\KRVWLOH
WRLGHRORJLFDOFRQWURO)URPWKLVSHUVSHFWLYH0D\DNRYVN\DQGKLVFRKRUW
ZHUHWRRKDVW\LQWKHLUFDOOVWRPHUJHDUWLQWROLIHWRRTXLFNWRGHQRXQFH
WKHDUWDQGOLWHUDWXUHRIWKHSDVWDVSDVVp42 Thus, though one New York
Intellectual, Clement Greenberg, was an early American theorist of the
avant-garde, he detached this term from revolutionary politics and the exWHUQDOZRUOG+HLQVWHDGIRUZDUGHGDUDUHHGDYDQWJDUGLVPWKDWSXUVXHG
DUWIRUDUWVVDNHUHMHFWLQJDVNLWVFKPDVVDUWDQGVRFLDOLVWUHDOLVP$Fcordingly, this group remains known for its commitment to high modernLVPRYHUUHYROXWLRQDU\DUWDQGSROLWLFV
In other words, one would be hard-pressed to describe this group as
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York Intellectuals because, after news of Stalinist anti-Semitism descended on the most interesting part of the Soviet Union, this group won the
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the Frayhayt JURXSIRUH[DPSOHQHYHUIXOO\UHFRYHUHGIURPWKH'RFWRUV
3ORWDQGODWHU.KUXVKFKHYV6HFUHW6SHHFKRQ6WDOLQVH[FHVVHV44
In contrast, the standard narrative for the New York Intellectuals goes as
IROORZV$IWHU:RUOG:DU,,WKLVJURXSFDPHWRHPEUDFHWKHLU$PHULFDQDQG
-HZLVKLGHQWLWLHVDQGWRXVHWKHPWRUHLQIRUFHWKHLUDQWL6WDOLQLVWSRVLWLRQV
7KLVGHYHORSPHQWZDVWKHUHVXOWRIWKH+RORFDXVWEXWDOVRRIDSHUFHLYHG
IDLOXUHRIUDGLFDOLVPWKDWZDVKLWKRPHE\WKH'RFWRUV3ORW45 In short,
this group helped to set the terms for a postwar turn from Soviet-centered
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VRFLDOLVPDQGHWKQLFLW\ZHUHLQFRQJUXRXVZLWKHDFKRWKHUMXVWDV+DUROG
Cruse would go on to do in his The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual
Let us now unpack this (paradoxically cross-ethnic) turn from socialLVW LQWHUQDWLRQDOLVP WR HWKQLF SDUWLFXODULVP $ JRRG VWDUWLQJ SRLQW LV D
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intellectual who feels no sense of kinship with Jewish activities but also
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As a result, he feels all of the restless, agonizing rootlessness that is the
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otherwise, preferring radical politics instead but nonetheless cannot help
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this continuity by coediting A Treasury of Yiddish Stories, featuring English

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translations of Sholem Aleichem, David Bergelson, and other Jewish writHUV IURP (DVWHUQ (XURSH +RZHYHU LQ 7KH /RVW <RXQJ ,QWHOOHFWXDO KH
concludes that the solution to his alienation rests not in Jewish introspecWLRQEXWLQVRFLHW\DWODUJH
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alleviation in individual psychotherapy, but even that can only ease indiYLGXDOSUREOHPVZLWKRXWWRXFKLQJWKHFDXVH8OWLPDWHO\WKHSUREOHPFDQ
only be solved if an American society appears in which both the Jewish
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American society is still rife with racism and anti-Semitism and that the
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Indeed, earlier that same year, Jean-Paul Sartre had cast a simiODUPROGLQDQDUWLFOHPRVWFHUWDLQO\UHDGE\+RZH5pH[LRQVVXUOD
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remarkable in that it provided a socialist internationalist explanation
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the lower-middle class and denigrates Jews in order to feel less insecure;
DQWL6HPLWLVPLVDSRRUPDQVVQREEHU\50 From this perspective, there is
nothing distinctive about anti-Semitism; in other contexts, the anti-Semitic
type will make use of the Negro or the man of yellow skin in order to persuade himself that his place in the world has been marked out in advance,
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Sartres second type, the good democrat, tries to respond to this situation
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the solution to anti-Semitism is beyond the reach of Jews, even the brave
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It is necessary to elaborate what Sartre means by authentic, for it is
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Authenticity, Sartre writes, consists in having a true and lucid consciousness of the situation, in assuming the responsibilities and risks that
it involves, in accepting it in pride or humiliation, sometimes in horror
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attendant persecution have destroyed Jewish history, culture, and tradiWLRQREYLDWLQJDVWKH\RXQJ+RZHSXWVLWDUHWXUQWRWKHZD\VRIRQHV
SHRSOH$PLGVXFKGHVWUXFWLRQWKHLQDXWKHQWLF-HZWULHVWRHH-HZLVKness, but this leads only to self-loathing and hyperrationalism, traits the
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Jew only reinforces anti-Semitic stereotypes, which in turn reinforce the
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situation as one in which anti-Semitism is merely the displacement of
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cramped authenticity better than the postwar Soviet Jewish commuQLVWVXUYLYRUE\WKHQRIPXOWLSOHPHVVLDQLF(QGVRIWKH:RUOGDQGVWLOO
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established by those acts that arise from his internal cohesion with his ulWLPDWHEHJLQQLQJVLQZKLFKKLVIXWXUHLVFRQWDLQHGDVSRVVLEOHGHVWLQ\
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not deducible from his surroundings, make the Jews situation and reveal
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In contrast to Lissitzkys Had Gadya and The End of the World, this is a kinder,
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future crises to be remedied via recourse to the nation, that is, the newly
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The Jew who wills to make himself nothing-but-a-Jew (and as a Jew nothing) does not thereby become more authentic than the Jew who wills not
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transform themselves from what they are, as given, into what they conFHLYHWKHVLWXDWLRQWRGHPDQGWKHPWREH

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singular (but implicitly secular) Jewish identity to override Sartres blurry
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Four months later in the Partisan ReviewSKLORVRSKHU6LGQH\+RRNIXUWKHUFULWLTXHG6DUWUHVDXWKHQWLFLQDXWKHQWLFGLVWLQFWLRQEXWZLWKRXW
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In describing the psychology of what he calls the inauthentic Jew among
Gentiles, Sartre does not distinguish between the psychology of what I call
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as a Gentile, and the psychology of what I call the authentic Jew who acFHSWVKLPVHOIDVD-HZIRUDQ\UHDVRQZKDWVRHYHU7KHLQDXWKHQWLF-HZ
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No matter how impeccable his conduct, he is always on guard in predomiQDQWO\QRQ-HZLVKFRPSDQ\H[TXLVLWHO\FRQVFLRXVRIWKHSRVVLELOLW\WKDWDW
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essentializing Jewishness and thereby capitulating to the muddy metaSK\VLFVRIWKHDQWLVHPLWH+HRHUVRQO\WKLVJXLGHOLQH
Far wiser, it seems to me, is to recognize the historic fact of Jewish exLVWHQFHWKHSOXUDOVRXUFHVRI-HZLVKOLIHDQGLWVSOXUDOSRVVLELOLWLHV1R
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in which together with their fellowmen [sic] they strive collectively to
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,Q HHFW -HZLVKQHVV LV WR EHFRPH V\QRQ\PRXV ZLWK GLYHUVLW\ IRU GLYHUsitys sake; the authentic Jew is to be Sartres good democrat, only
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GHPRFUDWLFVRFLDOLVP+RRNFDOOVWKLVDGUHDPWKDWVWLOOKDVLWVXVHVDVD
JXLGHLQVRPHZD\VEXWQRWDVDKRPH$QGGHVSLWHSDVWWLHVDQGWUDYHOVKRPHRIFRXUVHLVWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVZKHUHDOOFDQHQMR\WKHGHPRFUDWLFZD\RIOLIH7REHDQDXWKHQWLF-HZPHDQVWREHDOR\DO$PHULFDQ
ZKLFKLQWXUQPHDQVWRHPEUDFH-HZLVKDQGQRQ-HZLVKFXOWXUHVDVVXPLQJWKDWWKHVHDUHGHPRFUDWLFDQGVHFXODU In contrast, to be a Sartrean
authentic Jew, one must perceive the economic causes of anti-Semitism
and continue to wait for socialist revolution, drawing meager hope from
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the road, a choice between Soviet socialist internationalism and American
OLEHUDOSOXUDOLVP%\WKHV+RRNVHPEUDFHRIWKHODWWHURYHUWKHIRUPHUVHHPHGYLQGLFDWHGE\DOOWKDWZDVKDSSHQLQJLQWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ,Qdeed, at one point in his article, he chides his opponents ignorance of the
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As disturbing reports continued to emerge from Moscow, particularly
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evident in American responses to Soviet anti-Semitism, which was typically
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The elimination of Yiddish schools, publications, and theaters; the fact that
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the fact that most of those executed were Communist true believers who
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artists like El Lissitzky and plays like The End of the World"
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schools and publications notwithstanding, the determination was that
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had become Neanderthal party literature, yielding party propaganda
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Jewish Labor Committee asserted, Soviet-Yiddish literature was not and
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these writers were actually no longer able to construct a Yiddish sentence;
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I mean eternal happiness,
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Jews who escaped persecution were denounced as traitors and lackeys in
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American liberal pluralism over Soviet socialist internationalism, another

prominent member, Lionel Trilling, was arguing for the need to disaggreJDWH FXOWXUH IURP SROLWLFV 7KH OHDG HVVD\ RI KLV  YROXPH The Liberal
Imagination asserted that the form of [a cultures] existence is struggle, or
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likely to be certain artists who contain a large part of the dialectic within
themselves, their meaning and power lying in their contradictions; they
contain within themselves, it may be said, the very essence of the culture,
and the sign of this is that they do not submit to serve the ends of any one
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though as others have observed, his vision of culture was itself ensconced
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the totalitarian Communist regimes oppress all national and religious miQRULWLHVEHFDXVHLQWKHLUGULYHIRUWRWDOLWDULDQJOHLFKVFKDOWXQJ>WKH1D]L
term for bringing into line] and world expansion they cannot tolerate
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brutality and formal precision, Jewish spirituality and socialist revoluWLRQ ERRNLVK -HZ DQG &RVVDFN VROGLHU )RU 7ULOOLQJ KHUH HFKRLQJ (IURV
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see, however, traces of this avant-gardist third way could still be found
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criticized this explanation, countering Sartres socialist internationalist
notion of Jewishness (stripped of history and culture) with a liberal pluUDOLVWQRWLRQRI-HZLVKQHVVVHFXODUFXOWXUHSOXV$PHULFDQGHPRFUDF\

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8665DQGWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDVDVWUXJJOHEHWZHHQVRFLDOLVWLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVPDQGOLEHUDOSOXUDOLVP+RZHYHUKDYLQJUDLVHGLWXSZHFDQQRZSLFN
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these ties no longer served Soviet interests, they became potential sourcHVRIGLVOR\DOW\,QVKRUWWKHGDUN\HDUVIURPWRKDGOLWWOHWR
do with authentic and autonomous culture and everything to do with
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Indeed, Stalin would have disagreed with Sartre on exactly the same
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their responses, Stalin declared before a Finnish delegation that
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this sense all nations, both small and large, are in the same position, and
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nature of national character, these words marked a sea change in SoviHWQDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\XQNQRZQWR-HZLVK$PHULFDQLQWHOOHFWXDOVJLYHQ
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identities were primary, trumping any class or ideology; nationhood proYLGHGWKHEDVLVIRULQGLYLGXDOLGHQWLW\DQGDFFHVVWRZRUOGFXOWXUH2Q
the ground, what this meant was that anyone who denied their national
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cosmopolitan here implying foreign contamination leading to disloyDOW\ Jews could readily be targeted as such since their status as a Soviet
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particularity but also for being so active in defunct, cosmopolitan bodLHVOLNHWKH&RPLQWHUQ
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the New York Intellectuals opposed anticosmopolitanism without
JUDVSLQJ RU HYHQ GLVDJUHHLQJ ZLWK RQH RI LWV EDVHVD EHOLHI LQ GLVFUHWH
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forty-kopeck postage stamp, a commemorative collected works series
LQVL[WRPHVSOXVDYROXPHRIKLVZRUNVLQ<LGGLVKWKHUVW6RYLHW<LGGLVKSXEOLFDWLRQVLQFH Arguably these were half-hearted gestures
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after the New York Intellectuals set about reclaiming Jewish culture, the
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In the United States and the Soviet Union, Jewish culture assumed very
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a primary emphasis on class, as evident in a critical study of Sholem
$OHLFKHPE\,$6HUHEULDQ\L3XEOLVKHGGXULQJWKHFHQWHQQLDODQG
dedicated to Serebrianyis family members who perished during the war,
the books opening pages chide American Yiddishists for their aesthetiFLVWDSSURDFKHVWRWKHZULWHU6HUHEULDQ\LFLWHVIRUH[DPSOHWKLVSDVVDJH
from Maurice Samuels The World of Sholom Aleichem:KHQ6KRORP
Aleichem becomes the satirist, as in his descriptions of new Kasrielevky,
KHLQYLWHVXVWRORRNGRZQRQRWKHUVDQGKHLVWKHOHVV6KRORP$OHLFKHP
:KHQKHLVWKHKXPRULVWDQGLGHQWLHVXVZLWKKLVFKDUDFWHUVKHLVKLPVHOIDQGLQFRPSDUDEOH According to Serebrianyi, American Yiddishists
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to credit Soviet literary scholars for

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discovering Sholem Aleichem as one of the most democratic and best

Jewish folk [narodnykh@ZULWHUUHDOLVWVDVDGHIHQGHURIWKHLQWHUHVWVRI
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This echoes the Sartrean approach to Jewishness, here combined with an

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FRQWUDVWWRWKH$PHULFDQ6KROHP$OHLFKHPDPHUHKXPRULVW
Indeed, a few years later, this second Sholem Aleichem debuted on
Broadway, his Tevye the Milkman stories adapted into the hit musical
Fiddler on the Roof $FFRUGLQJWR6HWK:ROLW]Fiddler Americanizes Tevye, transforming him from a patriarch resistant to but swept
along by modern life into a progressive grandfather figure who accepts his wayward daughters individual rights and freedom of asVRFLDWLRQ0HDQZKLOHWKHFODVVFRQIOLFWVZKLFKULGGOHGWKHshtetl and
which Sholem Aleykhem considered destructive of Jewish communal
LQWHUHVWVDUHVLGHVWHSSHGLQWKHPXVLFDOFiddler posits, in fact, Jewish
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identical with the democratic way of life and bearing no relation
either to class or to the occasional criticisms of American society in
Sholem Aleichems Tevye
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marketable Jewishness, helping us to confound further the socialist
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KLVVFDWKLQJUHYLHZRIFiddler on the Roof6KROHP$OHLFKHPLVGHprived of his voice, his pace, his humane cleverness and boxed into the
formula of a post-Oklahoma PXVLFDO 7HY\HV $QDWHYNDD SUHGRPLQDQWO\5XVVLDQYLOODJHLQWKHRULJLQDOVWRULHVLVWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRWKH
cutest shtetl ZHYHQHYHUKDG
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Likewise, though intended as touches of realism, the musicals Jewish elHPHQWV6DEEDWKFDQGOHVZHGGLQJGDQFHV7HY\HVWDONVZLWK*RGVWULNH

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cusp of revolution, serving as a bridge between Jewish identity and leftLVWLGHRORJ\
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and the appearance of modern ideologies, between the past of traditional
Judaism and the future of Jewish politics, between a totally integrated
culture and a culture that by a leap of history would soon plunge into the
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history progresses through stages but is also capable of leaping and plungLQJLQWRFKDRV+HJRHVRQWRVXJJHVWWKDW-HZVDUHSDUWLFXODUO\VXLWHGWR
resolve this crisis through their distinct view of history, one we have enFRXQWHUHGERWKLQWKLVDQGSUHYLRXVFKDSWHUV
Sholom Aleichem believed in Jews as they embodied the virtues of powHUOHVVQHVV DQG KHDOLQJUHVRXUFHV RI SRYHUW\ DV WKH\ VWRRG UP DJDLQVW
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from the apocalyptic future and inward toward a living people, cannot
understand Sholom Aleichem or the moment in Jewish experience from
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Sholem Aleichem to carry forward the ambitions of the interwar ethnic
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If he presented Sholem Aleichem as a precursor to this avant-garde,
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turned from Marxism to neoconservativism, he founded the left-liberal
MRXUQDO Dissent, anthologized Trotsky, and wrote critical histories of the
$PHULFDQOHIW$WWKHVDPHWLPHKHEHFDPHDOHDGLQJWUDQVODWRUDQWKROogist of Yiddish literature and poetry and went on to win a National Book
Award for World of Our Fathers, a study of Jewish American immigrants from
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Nonetheless, this balance of ideology, identity, and modernism was
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would later comment that
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,ZRXOGOLNHWRFRQFOXGHE\VXJJHVWLQJWKDWKDG+RZHKLPVHOIEHHQDWtuned to the existence of the interwar, Soviet-centered ethnic avant-garde,
he would have been able to provide less-condescending advice to Baldwin
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ethnic particularism, political radicalism, and artistic experimentation,
which would have allowed him to see Jewish and black literature as part of
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this undertaking was foreclosed by Stalinist terror and socialist realism, leading to similar experiences of illusion and disillusion that reverberated both
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To be sure, there are important distinctions to be made between Jewish
American and African American encounters with the Soviet Union and the
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IDUPRUHZLOOLQJWKDQWKHLU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQFRXQWHUSDUWVWRIDYRU:DVKLQJWRQRYHU0RVFRZDVWKH&ROG:DULQWHQVLHG This makes perfect sense
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DQG<LGGLVKOHIWPDGHRQHRIVHYHUDOYLVLWVWR0RVFRZLQGXULQJWKH
KHLJKWRIWKHDQWLFRVPRSROLWDQFDPSDLJQ There, alarmed by rumors and
indications of Soviet anti-Semitism, he demanded to see his good friend
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was in serious trouble, and many of the most outstanding Jewish cultural
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had tears in their eyes, because they knew that they were probably seeing
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United States, he denied the existence of Soviet anti-Semitism, maintaining
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Soviet anti-Semitism was over (though it would never disappear completely),
KHDUULYHGMXVWLQWLPHIRUWKH6KROHP$OHLFKHPFHQWHQQLDOVWDWLQJDWRQHFHOebration, The life-span of Sholem Aleichem paralleled that of my father, and
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,QWKH&ROG:DUVZDNHLWLVQRZSRVVLEOHWRGLVFHUQDIXUWKHUSDUDOOHOHQFRPSDVVLQJ)HHU5REHVRQDQGDOOWKRVHDURXQGWKHZRUOGZKRRQFHORRNHG
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WKHIDLOHG7RZHUVRI%DEHORIWKHLQWHUZDU\HDUV$PLGWKHUXLQVRIWKHLUHIforts to enact historical cessation, this becomes a people connected through
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Afterword
Chinese Communism, Cultural Revolution,
and American Multiculturalism

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Soviet Union collapsed along the very lines demarcated by Moscows nationalities policy and that Stalin himself had insisted on the persistence of
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Nonetheless, the collapse buried once and for all the notion of a Soviet
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enclaves and fail to see how fragmented a society we in the United States
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upon the Soviet and Yugoslavian collapses to bolster national unity over
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of subaltern identities by the universal and the resulting vacillation beWZHHQWKHSROLWLFVRIHTXDOGLJQLW\WKHULJKWWREHLQFOXGHGLQWKHXQLYHUVDODQGWKHSROLWLFVRIGLHUHQFHWKHULJKWWRPDLQWDLQXQLTXHLGHQWLWLHV4 0RUH FRQFUHWHO\ WKRXJK PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP LV MXVW WKH ODWHVW LQ
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for its own sake, while Bournes call for a beloved community was used
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both authors focused on white immigrants as opposed to racial minoriWLHVWKURZLQJLQWRTXHVWLRQWKHLUDSSOLFDELOLW\WRWKHFXOWXUHZDUVRI
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Beyond these debates, multiculturalism has changed into something
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FRXQWULHV More broadly, multiculturalism has become, in Pierre Bourdieu
DQG/RwF:DFTXDQWVZRUGVSDUWRIDJUHDWQHZJOREDOYXOJDWHXQGHUJLUGLQJ86OHGJOREDOL]DWLRQ This points to a leftist criticism of multicul-

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turalism (rounding out the dated, rightist criticism touched upon in the
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has demarcated a new global elite that asserts superiority by claiming to
respect multiple cultures; the multiculturalist possesses a privileged uniYHUVDOSRVLWLRQRYHUWKH2WKHUZKRLQWXUQLVFRQQHGWRDVHOIHQFORVHG
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That is, while in some contexts multiculturalism does indeed serve global
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about racial and ethnic Balkanization, The Ethnic Avant-Garde has refuted
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The book has delineated an avant-garde grouping that cuts across racial,
HWKQLFDQGQDWLRQDOERXQGDULHVDJURXSLQJERXQGE\SROLWLFDODQGIRUmal commitments and, as the book has proceeded, a shared revolutionary
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has been to reinvigorate categories like African American, Asian American, and Jewish American by revealing the common forms, politics, and
WUDJHGLHVWKDWKHOSHGWRFRQVWLWXWHHDFK&RQQHFWLQJWKHVHJURXSVYLD0RVcow points to a new model for the comparative study of minority cultures,
one that gets around the various binaries that have thus far dominated the
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The notion that multiculturalism might replicate or bolster global capitalism is a particular concern for scholars pursuing the transnational and
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that has emerged since the end of history, that is, since the collapse of
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these alternatives, members of the interwar, Soviet-centered ethnic avantJDUGHPLJKWVHHPMRLQHGPRUHWKDQDQ\WKLQJHOVHE\SRRUGHFLVLRQVPRtivated by unrealistic expectations about the merging of art and life and
WKHHUHFWLQJRIQHZ7RZHUVRI%DEHO7KHRQO\ZD\WRFRXQWHUWKLVFRQFOXsion is to prove that, in fact, the ethnic avant-garde survived its apparent
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The following reinforces both the endurance and mutability of this
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with the aim of consolidating power and countering Soviet-style bureauFUDWLVP7KHVH$PHULFDQVZHUHORRNLQJIRUDQRWLRQRIZRUOGUHYROXWLRQ
attentive to peoples of color, the liberation of women, and the cause of deFRORQL]DWLRQPRUHDWWHQWLYHWKDQWKH6RYLHW8QLRQDQGLWVORQJGHIXQFW
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to disillusion, an arc that would have us believe that revolution and avantJDUGLVPDUHVRPHKRZSUHSURJUDPPHGWRIDLO
My goal here is to challenge this schematic view of history through a
reading of the novel I HotelE\.DUHQ7HL<DPDVKLWD7KHSURGXFWRIRYHUD
GHFDGHRIUHVHDUFKDQGD1DWLRQDO%RRN$ZDUGQDOLVWI Hotel recovers
the radical legacy of Asian American culture and activism, using as its base
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centers on the San Francisco Bay Area but draws connections to the broadHU7KLUG:RUOGPRYHPHQWZLWKVHFWLRQVVHWLQ&KLQDWKH3KLOLSSLQHVDQG
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My argument is that Yamashitas ambitious novel on revolutionary
memory resuscitates the ethnic avant-garde, adding to it a host of formal
innovations as well as heightened emphases on local resistance and genGHUHTXDOLW\7KLVDIWHUZRUGKDVWZRSDUWV7KHUVWSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZ
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LPSDFWEH\RQG$VLD7KHVHFRQGSDUWWKHQWXUQVWRI Hotel, focusing on its
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this perspective, the novel reinforces the notion of an inevitable arc from
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interwar, Soviet-centered ethnic avant-garde, it disrupts linear understandings of history; it enables us to unseat the notion that state socialLVPVFROODSVHEURXJKWKLVWRU\WRDQHQG11

From Moscow to Beijing

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+RZHYHULQWKHVDQGV%HLMLQJXQOLNHVD\+DYDQDRU+DQRLDFtively promoted itself as a new center of world revolution, bolstering Maoism as, in Fredric Jamesons words, the richest of all the great new ideoloJLHV%\VHYHUDODFFRXQWV0DR7VH7XQJ7KRXJKWEHFDPHV\QRQ\PRXV
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level, though, Maoism expanded Marxist discourse through its criticism
of mechanical materialism (with base determining superstructure) and
its focus instead on local contexts and the conscious transformation of
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opened the way for a whole new political space articulated by the slogan

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QGLQJJHQGHUHTXDOLW\WKHUH14 The seeds for this turn could already be
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delineate between principal and nonprincipal contradictions, someWKLQJWKDWYDULHGIURPFRQWH[WWRFRQWH[W:KDWVPRUHLQDJLYHQFRQWH[W
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This helps us to understand Maoisms draw for peoples of color around
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unity of revolutionary political content and the highest possible perfecWLRQRIDUWLVWLFIRUP7KH<HQDQVSLULWUHYHUEHUDWHGWKURXJK%ODFN$UWV
conferences, for instance, in participants calls for an art and literature

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that can awaken and arouse the masses to unite and struggle to change
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of San Franciscos Chinatown were modeled more on the Black Panthers
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applied to at least some of the various American minority activists who
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The Communists were not simply after property; they wanted the people
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they memorized fast and sang loud, but still they had to kneel on ground
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one of Maoisms central goals, not simply the vulgar economism of prop-

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has shown us that in order to study the radical, transnational roots of
American race and ethnicity, we must confront head-on both the promLVH DQG IDLOXUH RI WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\ FRPPXQLVPERWK LWV KRUURU DQG
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some relation to Freudian melancholia, that is, the failure to mourn a loss,
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passes only after he visits her grave in China, despite fears that the FBI
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of the narrators uncles, Uncle Bun, who has a more troubling but also more
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case born not from a deceased relative but from a lingering unhappiness
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In short, Bun is unable to let go of past hurts prompted by his white superYLVRUKLVZRXQGHGPDVFXOLQLW\VXJJHVWVWKDWKHKDVVXHUHGZKDW'DYLG
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to present an instance (one of many in Kingstons novels) of what Anne
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the case of Uncle Bun, an understandable grief and resentment, followed
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The turn from melancholia to communism thus gives way to renewed loss,
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is that Uncle Bun replaces racial melancholia with what I have been calling
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of pathos is born from the perceived excesses and failures of twentieth-cenWXU\FRPPXQLVPDIHHOLQJWKDWFRQQHFWVVXFKIRUPHUKRWEHGVRIUHYROXWLRQDV0RVFRZ%HLMLQJDQG6DQ)UDQFLVFRV,QWHUQDWLRQDO+RWHO
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novel as a whole can be seen as an attempt to come to terms with the revolutionary, indeed Maoist undercurrents of the Asian American movement
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scholar at the Sorbonne, the widower of an Austrian baroness, and friends
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teaches Maos call for a cultural front alongside a military front, as well as
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same time, Chen recognizes that
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and revolutionary politics, with the latter dominating the former, the poOLWLFDOYDQJXDUGFUXVKLQJWKHDUWLVWLFDYDQWJDUGH,QGHHGGXULQJD
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old teacher, once considered progressive, has been tortured and humiliDWHGE\0DRV5HG*XDUGV7KHWHDFKHUKDVEHHQGLVSODFHGE\ZULWHUVZKR
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where Chairman Mao declares that there is no such thing as art for arts

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a model village, a group of sister-comrades from the delegation is surprised to learn that their Chinese counterparts still conduct household
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Soviet-centered ethnic avant-garde conveys critical awareness about the
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more such echoes in I Hotels overriding pathos, the sense of revolution as
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a low-income residence for mostly Chinese and Filipino elderly bachelors
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schooled on the latters insistence on the correct theoretical line and thus
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the various youth organizations (each with its own acronym) instead turn
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from the perspective of the postradical present, recounting lost innocence
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confused revolutionary history, a sense of disillusion underscored by reFHQWUHSRUWVWKDW5LFKDUG$RNLWKHPRVWSURPLQHQW$VLDQ$PHULFDQ%ODFN
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To reinforce this elegiac tone, Yamashita intertwines failed radical
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Chen regards as parochial Pauls English-only compilation of Asian American literature (a clear reference to Aiiieeeee!); Paul learns that his mother
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time and space, the novels organization into ten separate novellas, or hoWHOV(DFKEHJLQVZLWKDGLDJUDPRIDDWWHQHGER[LWVFRPSRQHQWVXUIDFHV
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Multiple novellas allowed me to tell parallel stories, to experiment with
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radicalism as a whole, underscoring the fact that I Hotel is not solely about
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lefts multiple, interconnected struggles, which the novel scrupulously

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paintings from the Japanese internment camp where she and Sen spent
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and nationality; new communities based on shared encounters with the
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The Department of English at the University of California, Berkeley, has
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Ellis, Eric Falci, Keith Feldman, Catherine Flynn, David Landreth, David
Marno, Namwali Serpell, and Emily Thornbury for seeing me through mulWLSOHUHZULWHV,DPDOVRJUDWHIXOWRP\FROOHDJXHVIURP%HUNHOH\V6ODYLF
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My deep appreciation goes to Philip Leventhal at Columbia UniversiW\3UHVVIRUSXVKLQJIRUZDUGZLWKWKLVSURMHFW:KLWQH\-RKQVRQDQG5R\
Thomas for guiding it to completion, and Mike Ashby for his expert copy-

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Notes

Introduction
  &ODXGH0F.D\A Long Way from Home1HZ<RUN+DUFRXUW0RLVKH1DGLU
Moyde Ani1HZ<RUN1DUD\HYWUDQVODWHGDQGTXRWHGLQDERRNLQSURJUHVV E\ $PHOLD *ODVHU $UQROG 5DPSHUVDG The Life of Langston Hughes 1HZ <RUN
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  -DFTXHV'HUULGD%DFNIURP0RVFRZLQWKH8665LQPolitics, Theory, and Contemporary CultureHG0DUN3RVWHU1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
  5HFHQWVFKRODUVKLSRQWKHEODFNUHGWKUHDGLQFOXGHV.DWH%DOGZLQBeyond the
&RORU/LQHDQGWKH,URQ&XUWDLQ5HDGLQJ(QFRXQWHUV%HWZHHQ%ODFNDQG5HG
'XUKDP'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV-R\*OHDVRQ&DUHZBlacks, Reds, and Russians: Sojourners in Search of the Soviet Promise1HZ%UXQVZLFN1-5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV*OHQGD(OL]DEHWK*LOPRUH 'HI\LQJ'L[LH7KH5DGLFDO5RRWVRI
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Left: African-American Writing and Communism Between the Wars 1HZ <RUN &ROXPELD 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV  'DYLG &KLRQL 0RRUH &RORUHG 'LVSDWFKHV IURP
the Uzbek Border, CallalooQRIDOO$QL0XNKHUML7KH$QWLFRORQLDO
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brought by modernity, which broke all the links between artisan and artist,

204

 
 

 
 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

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between American ethnic and avant-garde poetry; by Yus account, both are expressions of alienation, both seek a kind of community no longer imaginable
within bourgeois culture (Timothy Yu, 5DFH DQG WKH $YDQW*DUGH ([SHULPHQWDO
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Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line
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1.3@.DWHULQD&ODUNQRWHVHOVHZKHUHWKDWWKHUHYROXWLRQSURYLGHGWKH6Rviet avant-garde with a trump card in their campaign against Paris (Katerina
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%HUOLQ1DSOHVVHH6XVDQ%XFN0RUVVThe Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the
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Morsss account, the Soviet vanguard ultimately prevailed over the avant-garde,
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INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

 

 
 
 
 

205

(Susan Buck-Morss, Dreamworld and Catastrophe: The Passing of Mass Utopia in East and
West>&DPEULGJH0DVV0,73UHVV@
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/HRQ7URWVN\Literature and RevolutionHG:LOOLDP.HDFKWUDQV5RVH6WUXQVN\&KLFDJR+D\PDUNHW0DULD*RXJKThe Artist as Producer: Russian Constructivism in Revolution%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV7KLVDLP
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Baker, Anne Cheng notes the proclivity of modernist architects like Le Corbusier
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connections between modernist surface and racial skin, in part to arrive at a noWLRQRIUDFHQRWFRQQHGWRLQGLYLGXDOLQWHQW[HGPHDQLQJVRUFRPPRGLFDWLRQ
Likewise I provide an ethnic reading of Tatlins Tower, albeit with an emphasis
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+DQQDK$UHQGWOn Revolution1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ0LOQHUVladimir Tatlin,

5HLQKDUW.RVHOOHFNFutures Past: On the Semantics of Historical TimeWUDQV.HLWK7ULEH
1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
0DUN6WHLQEHUJProletarian Imagination: Self, Modernity, and the Sacred in Russia
,WKDFD&RUQHOO8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
$V3HUU\$QGHUVRQSRLQWVRXW0DU[KLPVHOIVXEVFULEHGWRDFRPSOH[DQGGLHUHQtial temporality, in which episodes or eras were discontinuous from each other, and
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out, Trotsky based the notion of permanent revolution on Marxs observations
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the urgent need (particularly in the face of fascism) to reconceptualize Marxist
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INTRODUCTION

FRQVFLRXVQHVV(FKRLQJ7URWVN\VXQHYHQGHYHORSPHQW%ORFKSURSRVHVOLEHUDWing the still possible future from the past only by putting both in the present
(UQVW%ORFK1RQV\QFKURQLVPDQGWKH2EOLJDWLRQWR,WV'LDOHFWLFVNew German
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that primitive Utopianism (lacking authentic class consciousness) could be a
IDFWRULQWKHSUROHWDULDWVVWUXJJOHIRUIUHHGRPDQGWKDWLWZDVLPSRUWDQW
WR DFFHSW WKH SUROHWDULDWV GLYHUVH VWDJHV RI FRQVFLRXVQHVV  *HRUJ /XNiFV
Class Consciousness, in +LVWRU\DQG&ODVV&RQVFLRXVQHVV6WXGLHVLQ0DU[LVW'LDOHFWLFV
>&DPEULGJH0DVV0,73UHVV@
/HRQ7URWVN\History of the Russian RevolutionWUDQV0D[(DVWPDQ&KLFDJR+D\PDUNHW
,Q RWKHU ZRUGV FRPPXQLVWV ZHUH WR VXSSRUW DQWLUDFLVW DQG DQWLLPSHULDOLVW
struggles, even if this meant entering into a temporary alliance with nationalLVWPRYHPHQWVOLWWOHLQWHUHVWHGLQ0DU[LVP7KHDLPKHUHZDVWRHDUQWKHWUXVWRI
oppressed nations through sensitivity toward the survivals of national sentiments, which would put the worlds colonized and exploited on the side of the
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6HH9,/HQLQ'UDIW7KHVHVRQ1DWLRQDODQG&RORQLDO4XHVWLRQVIRUWKH6HFRQG
&RQJUHVV RI WKH &RPPXQLVW ,QWHUQDWLRQDO KWWSVZZZPDU[LVWVRUJDUFKLYH
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Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction2[IRUG%ODFNZHOO
9ODGLPLU7DWOLQHWDO7KH:RUN$KHDGRI8VLQTatlinHG/DULVVD=KDGRYD1HZ
<RUN5L]]ROL
9LFWRU6HUJHMemoirs of a RevolutionaryHGDQGWUDQV3HWHU6HGJZLFN2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
-RKQ5LGGHOOHGTo See the Dawn: Baku)LUVW&RQJUHVVRIWKH3HRSOHVRIWKH(DVW
1HZ<RUN3DWKQGHU6HHDOVR0LODQ+DXQHUWhat Is Asia to Us? Russias
Asian Heartland Yesterday and Today%RVWRQ8QZLQ+\PDQ
2Q7DWOLQVVWUDWHJLFGHFLVLRQWRUHQDPHKLVRULJLQDOO\SODQQHG0RQXPHQWWRWKH
2FWREHU5HYROXWLRQVHH3DPHOD.DFKXULQ:RUNLQJIRUWKH6WDWH9ODGLPLU7DWOLQV&DUHHULQ(DUO\6RYLHW5XVVLDDQGWKH2ULJLQVRIWKH0RQXPHQWWRWKH7KLUG
International, Modernism/modernityQR-DQXDU\
$OUHDG\E\WKH&RPLQWHUQV7KLUG&RQJUHVVLQ5REHUW<RXQJGHWHFWVDQHPphasis on the Soviets need for diplomatic recognition from and trade deals with
WKH:HVW6XFKHPSKDVHVKHLJKWHQHGDIWHU6WDOLQVDVVHUWLRQRIVRFLDOLVPLQ
RQHFRXQWU\ZKLFKHHFWLYHO\PDGH6RYLHWVWDWHLQWHUHVWVV\QRQ\PRXVZLWKWKH
ZRUOGUHYROXWLRQ6HH<RXQJPostcolonialism
7KH QRWLRQ RI XWRSLDQ VXUSOXV FRPHV IURP %XFN0RUVV Dreamworld and Catastrophe  $JDLQVW HRUWV WR GLVDVVRFLDWH WKH 6RYLHW DYDQWJDUGH IURP 6WDOLQLVP%RULV*UR\VKDVDUJXHGWKDWWKHDYDQWJDUGHZDVQHYHUH[DFWO\LQQRFHQWQRW
only in its eager embrace of the political vanguard but also in its dreams of total,
transformative art (Boris Groys, The Total Art of Stalinism: Avant-Garde, Aesthetic Dic-

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tatorship, and BeyondWUDQV&KDUOHV5RXJOH>3ULQFHWRQ3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

@*DU\6DXO0RUVRQDQG0LFKDHO%HUQVWHLQVQRWLRQRIVLGHVKDGRZVDOORZV
IRUDPRUHFRQFLOLDWRU\DSSURDFKWRWKHDYDQWJDUGH%HUQVWHLQGHQHVVLGHVKDGowing against back shadowing, the tendency of historians to depict events like
WKH +RORFDXVW KLV IRFXV DV LQHYLWDEOH 6LGH VKDGRZLQJ LQ FRQWUDVW HPSKDVL]HV
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dismiss the Soviet avant-garde as doomed to failure or totalitarianism, it is possible
to understand it on its own terms, in its own time, and to acknowledge the lost
SRVVLELOLWLHVRISDWKVQRWWDNHQ6HH0LFKDHO$QGUp%HUQVWHLQForegone Conclusions:
Against Apocalyptic History%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV
'DOH3HWHUVRQUp from Bondage: The Literatures of Russian and African American Soul
'XUKDP'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
&ODUNPetersburg
+DUVKD5DP7KH3RHWLFVRI(XUDVLD9HOLPLU.KOHEQLNRYEHWZHHQ(PSLUHDQG5HYolution, in Social Identities in Revolutionary RussiaHG0DGKDYDQ3DODW1HZ<RUN
3DOJUDYH5DPWUDQVODWHVDQGSUHVHQWVLQWKLVSLHFHWKHPDQLIHVWRLQIXOO
3RXQGDQG76(OLRWH[HPSOLI\ZKDW0LFKDHO1RUWKFDOOVWKHGLDOHFWRIPRGHUQLVP
7KLVUHIHUVWR$QJOR$PHULFDQZULWHUVOLNH76(OLRWDQG(]UD3RXQGXVLQJEODFNGLDOHFWDQGUDFLDOPDVTXHUDGHWRWKZDUWFRQYHQWLRQFRXSOHGZLWKWKHDPELYDOHQWUHsponses of African American writers who saw this embrace as both restricting and
HQDEOLQJ$VPDQ\KDYHVKRZQZKLWHPRGHUQLVWLQWHUHVWLQEODFNQHVVEROVWHUHGWKH
+DUOHP5HQDLVVDQFHDQG1HZ1HJUR0RYHPHQWRIWKHV2IFRXUVHWKHGRZQVLGHRIWKLVLQWHUHVWZDVVWHUHRW\SLQJDQGSLJHRQKROLQJEODFNVFDVWDVWKHEHDUHUV
RIYLULOLW\LQQRFHQFHDQGUHJHQHUDWLRQDQG1RUWKSUHVHQWVWKHFRPSHWLQJOLQguistic motives of white and black modernisms as ultimately irreconcilable (Michael North, The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language, and Twentieth-Century Literature
>1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV@VHHDOVR$ODLQ/RFNH7KH1HJUR3RHWV
of the United States, in Anthology of Magazine Verse and Yearbook of American Poetry,
HG:LOOLDP6WDQOH\%UDLWKZDLWH%RVWRQ%ULPPHU*HRUJH+XWFKLQVRQThe
Harlem Renaissance in Black and White&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
 DQG 'DYLG /HYHULQJ /HZLV When Harlem Was in Vogue 1HZ <RUN 3HQJXLQ
2Q3RXQGDQG&KLQDVHH-RVHSKLQH3DUNApparitions of Asia: Modernist Form
and Asian American Poetics 1HZ <RUN 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV   DQG
Steven Yao, )RUHLJQ$FFHQWV&KLQHVH$PHULFDQ9HUVHIURP([FOXVLRQWR3RVWHWKQLFLW\ (New
<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
-DPHV&OLRUGThe Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature,
and Art &DPEULGJH 0DVV +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV     2Q
Paris as a center of the Black Atlantic, see Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity
and Double-Consciousness &DPEULGJH 0DVV +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV  DQG
%UHQW+D\HV(GZDUGVThe Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of
Black Internationalism &DPEULGJH 0DVV +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV  2Q WKH
YLROHQWXQGHUEHOO\RIPRGHUQLVWSULPLWLYLVPVHH&OLRUGThe Predicament of Culture,

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INTRODUCTION

DQG'RQQD9-RQHV7KH3ULVRQ+RXVHRI0RGHUQLVP&RORQLDO6SDFHVDQG
WKH&RQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH3ULPLWLYHDWWKH3DULV&RORQLDO([SRVLWLRQModernism/
modernityQR-DQXDU\
2IFRXUVHRQHFRXOGGRDORWZRUVHWKDQIRUZDUGWROHUDQFHFRPSUHKHQVLRQDQG
PHUF\$V&OLRUGQRWHVLQThe Predicament of Culture, this group was later active in
WKH1D]LUHVLVWDQFHDVZHOODVLQSRVWZDULQVWLWXWLRQVOLNH81(6&22QWKH
RWKHUKDQGVXUUHDOLVPVWHQGHQF\WRNHHSWKH2WKHUDWDGLVWDQFHLVGLVFXVVHGLQ
0DUWLQH$QWOH6XUUHDOLVPDQGWKH2ULHQWYale French Studies-XO\
)RUV&RPLQWHUQLQVSLUHGHRUWVWRUHPHG\VXUUHDOLVPVFRPSOLFLW\ZLWKLPSHULDOLVPVHH$GDP-ROOHV7KH7DFWLOH7XUQ(QYLVLRQLQJD3RVWFRORQLDO$HVWKHWLF
in France, Yale French Studies-XO\
$OHNVDQGU 6KHYFKHQNR 1HRSULPLWLYLVP ,WV 7KHRU\ ,WV 3RWHQWLDOV ,WV $FKLHYHments, in 5XVVLDQ$UWRIWKH$YDQW*DUGH7KHRU\DQG&ULWLFLVPHGDQGWUDQV
-RKQ(%RZOW1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ2Q7DWOLQVDOOLDQFHZLWKWKHQHRSULPLtivists, see Kiaer, Imagine No Possessions
1DWDOLD*RQFKDURYD3UHIDFHWR&DWDORJXHRI2QH0DQ([KLELWLRQLQRussian Art
RIWKH$YDQW*DUGH7KHRU\DQG&ULWLFLVPHGDQGWUDQV-RKQ(%RZOW1HZ
<RUN9LNLQJ/LNHZLVHWKH6ODYRSKLOHPRYHPHQWVRXJKWWRWXUQWKLV
UHOHJDWHGVWDWXVLQWRDVRXUFHRIVWUHQJWKWKHDKLVWRULFLW\RI5XVVLDQOLIHDVDOORZLQJ5XVVLDWRPDLQWDLQLQWDFWWKHSXULW\RILWVLQQHUEHLQJ%RULV*UR\V5XVVLD
DQGWKH:HVW7KH4XHVWIRU5XVVLDQ1DWLRQDO,GHQWLW\Studies in Soviet Thought
>@6HHDOVR+DXQHUWhat Is Asia to Us3HWHUVRQUp from Bondage%DOGZLQBeyond the Color Line2Q5XVVLDDVVHPL2ULHQWDOLQWKH
(XURSHDQLPDJLQDWLRQVHH/DUU\:ROInventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment6WDQIRUG6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVDQG
Martin Malia, Russia under Western Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6KHYFKHQNR1HRSULPLWLYLVP
-DQH $VKWRQ 6KDUS %H\RQG 2ULHQWDOLVP 5XVVLDQ DQG 6RYLHW 0RGHUQLVP RQ WKH
Periphery of Empire, in Russian Art and the West: A Century of Dialogue in Painting,
Architecture, and the Decorative ArtsHG5RVDOLQG%ODNHVOH\DQG6XVDQ5HLG'H.DOE
1RUWKHUQ,OOLQRLV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV$V%RULV*UR\VFRORUIXOO\SXWVLW,I
5RXVVHDXLQGXOJHGLQGUHDPVDERXW1DWLYH$PHULFDQV>indeitsakh], German philosophy about Indians [indiitsakh], Gauguin about Polynesians, Picasso about Africans,
HWFWKHQWKH5XVVLDQLQWHOOHFWXDOSURYHGWREHDFHQWDXUFRPSRVHGRI5RXVVHDX
and the Native American, Schopenhauer and the Indian, Picasso and the African
DQGWKLVZDVWKHDFWXDOVLWXDWLRQRIWKH5XVVLDQDYDQWJDUGHZLWKLWVLQWHUHVWLQ
LFRQVPDVNV5XVVLDQEURDGVKHHWV>lubku@HWF,QKLVRZQRWKHUQHVVWKH5XVVLDQ
recognized the dream of European philosophy, in himself was the realization of
WKLVSKLORVRSK\VLGHDO%RULV*UR\V5RVVLLDNDNSRGVR]QDQLH]DSDGDLQUtopiia i
obmen>0RVFRZ=QDN@
-DQH$VKWRQ6KDUSRussian Modernism between East and West1HZ<RUN&DPEULGJH
8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2QWKHDSSOLFDELOLW\RI6DLGVFULWLFLVPWR5XVVLD

INTRODUCTION

 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 

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VHH$GHHE.KDOLG5XVVLDQ+LVWRU\DQGWKH'HEDWHRYHU2ULHQWDOLVPKritika 1,
QRIDOO1DWKDQLHO.QLJKW2Q5XVVLDQ2ULHQWDOLVP$5HVSRQVH
to Adeeb Khalid, KritikaQRIDOODQG0DULD7RGRURYD'RHV
5XVVLDQ2ULHQWDOLVP+DYHD5XVVLDQ6RXO"KritikaQRIDOO)RU
PRUH RQ WKH 5XVVLDQ DYDQWJDUGHV HQJDJHPHQW ZLWK WKH &DXFDVXV DQG &HQWUDO
$VLDVHH0LFKDHO.XQLFKLND7KH3HQFKDQWIRUWKH3ULPLWLYH$UFKDHRORJ\(WKQRJUDSK\DQGWKH$HVWKHWLFVRI5XVVLDQ0RGHUQLVP3K'GLVV8QLYHUVLW\RI
&DOLIRUQLD%HUNHOH\DQGWKHGRFXPHQWDU\The Desert of Forbidden Art'9'
directed by Amanda Pope and Tchavdar Georgiev (2010; Desert of Forbidden Art
//&
+DUVKD5DPIRULQVWDQFHQRWHVWKHRIWHQDPELYDOHQWDQGKRVWLOHVWDQFHRI5XVVLDQ
DXWKRUVWRZDUG$VLD$VLDDVDVRXUFHRIERWKWHPSWDWLRQDQGWHUURULQWKHLPSHULDOVXEOLPHRI5XVVLDQOLWHUDWXUH6HH+DUVKD5DPThe Imperial Sublime: A Russian
Poetics of Empire0DGLVRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI:LVFRQVLQ3UHVV/LNHZLVHDV'DOH
3HWHUVRQ PDNHV FOHDU V GLVFRXUVHV RI (XUDVLDQLVPDUWLFXODWHG E\ 5XVVLDQ
pPLJUpV LQ (DVWHUQ (XURSH DQG LQFUHDVLQJO\ SURPLQHQW LQ 9ODGLPLU 3XWLQV 5XVVLDFRPELQHGFXOWXUDOUHODWLYLVPDQG5XVVLDQK\EULGLW\ZLWKWKHKHDY\WUHDG
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5HYROXWLRQIURPDIDUWKH\GLGVRIRUQDWLRQDOLVWUDWKHUWKDQLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVWHQGV
anticipating, as Peterson suggests, Stalins socialism in one country (Peterson, Up
from Bondage
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0RVFRZ3UDYGD7KHVHOLWHUDOWUDQVODWLRQVDUHP\RZQ
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WKH 5HYROXWLRQ ZKHUH KH ZULWHV Remake everything. Build it so that everything
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clean, happy, and beautiful life (Aleksandr Blok, Rossiia i intelligentsia>%HUOLQ6NLI\
@HPSKDVLVLQRULJLQDO
%ORN6NLI\7KRXJKLQWHUHVWLQJO\LQ7KH,QWHUQDWLRQDOLWLVWKHUHDFWLRQDULHVZKRDUHSRUWUD\HGDVFDQQLEDOVDQGLQWKH5XVVLDQYHUVLRQYDPSLUHV
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5DPThe Imperial SublimeDQG'DYLG0%HWKHDThe Shape of Apocalypse in
Modern Russian Fiction3ULQFHWRQ3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV)RUPRUHRQ
the Scythian literary movement, see Clark, Petersburg
0F.D\A Long Way from Home
:LWKLQWKLVWUDGLWLRQ$VLDRIWHQDVVXPHVDQH[RWLFDQGXWRSLDQTXDOLW\IDUUHPRYHGIURPWKHVSKHUHVRI:HVWHUQSRZHU6HH%LOO0XOOHQAfro-Orientalism (MinQHDSROLV8QLYHUVLW\RI0LQQHVRWD3UHVV[LL
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(GZDUG+ROFRPEXVHVWRUHUHDGWKHDXWKRUWKURXJKWKHOHQVRITXHHUEODFN0DU[LVP)RULQVWDQFHDIWHUFRQQHFWLQJ0F.D\VEODFNLFRQRJUDSK\LQ5XVVLDWRWKH
P\VWLFDODXUDWKDWKLVDXWRELRJUDSK\LPSDUWVWR/HQLQ+ROFRPEVXJJHVWVWKDW
in coming close to becoming a black Lenin, McKay forms a kind of ecstatic sexuDOXQLRQZLWKWKH&RPPXQLVWOHDGHU*DU\(GZDUG+ROFRPEClaude McKay, Code
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3UHVVRI)ORULGD@
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SDLQWLQJ7DWOLQKLPVHOIGUHZIURPLFRQWUDGLWLRQVIRULQVWDQFHLQKLVSailor
6HOI3RUWUDLWZKLOH .D]LPLU 0DOHYLFKV IDPRXV Black Square was intended to be
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5RVVLLD7KLVVHHPVWREXWWUHVV+ROFRPEVDVVHUWLRQRIWKH0F.D\LNRQV
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International Journal of African Historical StudiesQR
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and the Soviet Society, African Diaspora
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Thomas Seifrid notes, Like the primitivists, Platonov saw the precultural as fertile
ground for new meanings, and both he and they canonized crudity as a source
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8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
:DOWHU%HQMDPLQ6XUUHDOLVPLQWalter Benjamin: 6HOHFWHG:ULWLQJV9ROXPH3DUW
1,HG0LFKDHO:-HQQLQJV+RZDUG(LODQGDQG*DU\6PLWK&DPEULGJH
0DVV%HONQDS3UHVVRI+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
,ELG%HQMDPLQ0RVFRZ
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,ELG%HQMDPLQMoscow Diary)RUDGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHODFTXHUER[DV
a merging of modern (consumer) and premodern fairy tales, see Kiaer, Imagine No
Possessions)RUDPRUHUHFHQWLQVWDQFHVHWLQDG\VWRSLDQHQGRIKLVWRU\
IXWXUHRI/HQLQMX[WDSRVHGZLWKLFRQVVHHWKHOPChildren of Men'9'GLUHFWHG
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country had been declared two years earlier, Stalin was consolidating power, and
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post-Soviet Moscow, see Jonathan Flatley, Moscow and Melancholia, 6RFLDO7H[W
QRVSULQJ
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&KULV7XUQHU1HZ<RUN9HUVR3HWHU2VERUQHThe Politics of Time: Modernity and Avant-Garde1HZ<RUN9HUVRQ
:DOWHU%HQMDPLQ2QWKH&RQFHSWRI+LVWRU\LQWalter Benjamin: Selected Writings,
9ROXPHHG0LFKDHO:-HQQLQJVDQG+RZDUG(LODQG&DPEULGJH0DVV
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,ELG
2VERUQHThe Politics of Time
%HQMDPLQ6XUUHDOLVP
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%XFN0RUVVDialectics of Seeing:DOWHU%HQMDPLQ-RKDQQ-DNRE%DFKRIHQ
in Walter Benjamin: 6HOHFWHG:ULWLQJV9ROXPHHG0LFKDHO:-HQQLQJVDQG
+RZDUG(LODQG&DPEULGJH0DVV%HONQDS3UHVVRI+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
TXRWHGLQ/|Z\Fire Alarm7KHUHLVRQJRLQJGLVDJUHHPHQWDERXWZKDWFRQVWLWXWHVDGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJH%XFN0RUVVZULWHVWKHUHFDQEHLQQXPHUDEOHGLDOHFWLFDO
LPDJHVLQWKHIRUPRIHYHU\GD\FRPPRGLHGREMHFWVDQGSURIDQHWH[WVWKHFULWLFV
WDVNEHLQJWRUHYHDOWKHVXSSUHVVHGXUKLVWRULFDOXWRSLDQFRQWHQWLQHDFK(OL)ULHGlander, on the other hand, argues that there can be only one dialectical image, which
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while identifying such elements are preconditions for the ultimate recognition of
the dialectical image, such work never has a direct relation to the emergence of the
LPDJHZKLFKKHOLNHQVWR3URXVWVLQYROXQWDU\PHPRU\,SUHIHU%XFN0RUVVVXQderstanding, since from a methodological perspective, it is much more portable and
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See Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing(OL)ULHGODQGHU7KH0HDVXUHRIWKH
&RQWLQJHQW:DOWHU%HQMDPLQV'LDOHFWLFDO,PDJHERXQGDU\QR
  2VERUQHThe Politics of Time)ULHGODQGHU7KH0HDVXUHRIWKH&RQWLQJHQW
/LNHZLVH3HWHU%UJHUDVVHUWVWKDW%HQMDPLQVH[SRVXUHWRDYDQWJDUGHZRUNVOHG
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canon of dialectical imagery in the seventeenth century (replaced by nouveaut in
WKHQLQHWHHQWK+RZHYHU%UJHUDUJXHVWKDWXQOLNHDOOHJRU\ZKLFKFDQSURGXFH
DQLQQLWHQXPEHURIPHDQLQJVWKHGLDOHFWLFDOLPDJHVWLHWRUHGHPSWLRQVSHFLFDOO\VRFLDOLVWUHYROXWLRQJURXQGVLWLQREMHFWLYHPHDQLQJLQERWKWKHVRFLRKLVWRUical and mystico-theological senses (Peter Brger, Theory of the Avant-GardeWUDQV
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3DULV6HHDOVR%XFN0RUVVDialectics of Seeing
  2VERUQHThe Politics of Time7REHVXUH2VERUQHVGLVUXSWLRQRISURJUHVVGRHV
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as pointed out in chapter 1, he also sought to swell the enthusiastic fervor of the
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as Christina Kiaer has shown, in his advertising collaborations with Mayakovsky,
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See Kiaer, Imagine No Possessions
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gioli acknowledges the avant-gardes attraction to prehistory but argues that this
in fact serves avant-garde antitraditionalism, precisely because the avant-garde
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can (The Theory of the Avant-Garde7KDWLVIRU3RJJLROLWKHDYDQWJDUGHFDQ
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cross (Joseph Brodsky, Flight from Byzantium, in Less Than One: Selected Essays
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Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy3ULQFHWRQ
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of coevalness refers to the tendency of anthropologists to place the referent(s) of
anthropology in a time other than the present of the producer of anthropological
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UHOHJDWHGWRWKHQDWXUDOVFLHQFHV3UDFWLFDOO\FRQFHQWUDWLRQRQFXOWXUDOFRQJXUDtions and patterns resulted in such overwhelming concern with the description of
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DWKHRU\RIXQLYHUVDOKXPDQSURJUHVVZDVDOOEXWDEDQGRQHG,QVXPIXQFWLRQDOism, culturalism, and structuralism did not solve the problem of universal human
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and the Other)RUDQRYHUYLHZRI%RDVVHH*HRUJH:6WRFNLQJ-U%Dsic Assumptions of Boasian Anthropology, in The Shaping of American Anthropology,
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Christopher Douglas, A Genealogy of Literary Multiculturalism ,WKDFD &RUQHOO 8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV'DYLG/XLV%URZQSUHVVHVWKLVSRLQWE\DUJXLQJWKDWERWK
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both took on nativism by imagining a racially homogeneous nation, and this latent racialism was at odds with their broader strategy of proposing a shift from
UDFHWRFXOWXUHLQVRFLDOVFLHQWLFWKHRU\'DYLG/XLV%URZQWaves of DecolonizaWLRQ'LVFRXUVHVRI5DFHDQG+HPLVSKHULF&LWL]HQVKLSLQ&XED0H[LFRDQGWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV
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INTRODUCTION

  0LFKDHO2PLDQG+RZDUG:LQDQWRacial Formation in the United States: From WKHV

WRWKHV1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH5H\&KRZThe Protestant Ethnic and
the Spirit of Capitalism1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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  5LFKDUG:ULJKW,7ULHGWR%HD&RPPXQLVWAtlantic MonthlyQR$XJXVW

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Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union 6WDQIRUG 6WDQIRUG
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Union,WKDFD&RUQHOO8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
  6HHIRULQVWDQFH/DZUHQFH/HYLQHThe Opening of the American Mind%RVWRQ%HDFRQ
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A Comparative Analysis, Journal of American and Canadian Studies)RU
considerations of Kallen that highlight the gap between his cultural pluralism
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would abolish Americas dualism if the economic dualism of rich and poor were

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anywhere and meant the erasure of all preexisting state and local borders; see The
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be found in Soviet ethnographic maps that divide the United States into two main
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Stalins Forgotten Zion: Birobidzhan and the Making of a Soviet Jewish Homeland; An IlOXVWUDWHG+LVWRU\HG%UDGOH\%XUPDQ%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD
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archaeologists and linguists to assist Soviet power in its task of preserving cultural
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anticipates Fabians criticism of culturalism, namely, its failure to address the probOHPRIWLPHVHHQRWH
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nationalities policys blend of primordialism and evolutionism, Soviet ethnographers conceived of natsionalnosti [nationalities] as ethnohistorical groups whose
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more sophisticated brand of Marxism) would likely disagree with Marrs evolutionLVP:KDWDUHRSSRVHGLQFRQLFWLQIDFWORFNHGLQDQWDJRQLVWLFVWUXJJOHDUHQRW
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persecution of Brooker for violating the honor of a lady is akin to the pogromist
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that even amid Stalinist centralization, Moscow remained a center for a transnational intellectual milieu, with, for instance, the African American icon Paul
5REHVRQJLYLQJ0DUFHO*UDQHWVLa pense chinoise to Sergei Eisenstein as a birthday
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of world culture in the face of state terror, even as she deftly blurs the boundaries
EHWZHHQ6WDOLQLVPDQG:HVWHUQPRGHUQLVP6HH.DWHULQD&ODUNMoscow, the Fourth
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party factionalism, see Solomon, The Cry Was Unity
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International Journal of African Historical StudiesQR
Solomon, The Cry Was Unity*LOPRUH Defying 'L[LH
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The Literatures of Russian and African American Soul'XUKDP'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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and Peterson, Up from Bondage
  *LOPRUH Defying 'L[LH2QWKHIRXQGLQJRIWKH$1/&VHH6RORPRQ The
Cry Was Unity
  +DUU\+D\ZRRGBlack Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Communist (ChiFDJR/LEHUDWRU*LOPRUH Defying 'L[LH
  6RORPRQ The Cry Was Unity)RUW:KLWHPDQZDVVHQVLWLYHWREODFNSDUWLFXODULW\EXWLQZD\VWKDWGLYHUJHGIURPWKH6RYLHWOLQH$V%DOGZLQQRWHVLQ0RVFRZ
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  +DUYH\.OHKU-RQ(DUO+D\QHVDQG.\ULOO0$QGHUVRQThe Soviet World of American
Communism 1HZ +DYHQ <DOH 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV   7KH UVWKDQG DFFRXQWRI)RUW:KLWHPDQV+XJKHVFULWLFLVPLVWDNHQIURPWKHGLVLOOXVLRQHGDXWRELRJUDSK\RI5REHUW5RELQVRQDQDXWRZRUNHUZKROLYHGLQWKH6RYLHW8QLRQIURP
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Gleason Carew, Blacks, Reds, and Russians: Sojourners in Search of the Soviet Promise
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the Left: Episodes in American Literary Communism 1HZ <RUN &ROXPELD 8QLYHUVLW\
3UHVVNew Masses editor Michael Gold is now typically regarded as an advocate of proletarian and socialist realist literature, but he too was drawn to the
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New Negro, Old Left: African-American Writing and Communism Between the Wars (New
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  ,ELG  5XWK :LVVH A Little Love in Big Manhattan: Two Yiddish Poets (Cambridge,
0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV6HHDOVR'RYLG.DW]7KH'D\V
of Proletpen in American Yiddish Poetry, introduction to Proletpen: American Rebel
Yiddish PoetsHG$PHOLD*ODVHUDQG'DYLG:HLQWUDXEWUDQV$PHOLD*ODVHU0DGLVRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI:LVFRQVLQ3UHVV$V.DW]ZULWHVDQRWKHUVXFKSXEOLFDtion was the literary magazine Yung kuznye (Young ForgeIRXQGHGLQ
  :LVVH A Little Love in Big Manhattan
  .HQQHWK%0RVVJewish Renaissance in the Russian Revolution&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV(VWUDLNK In Harness
  /LEHUDO SOXUDOLVP ZDV .DOOHQV FXOWXUDO SOXUDOLVP EXW VWULSSHG RI LWV HVVHQWLDOLVW
natio, territorial emphasis, and curious compatibility with Soviet nationalities
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credence to this liberal pluralism versus socialist internationalism divide, Perry
$QGHUVRQZULWHVWKDW6WDOLQVGLVVROXWLRQRIWKH&RPLQWHUQLQOHGWRWKHSRVWZDUELIXUFDWLRQRILQWHUQDWLRQDOLVPZLWKDFDSLWDOLVWYDULHW\IRUPLQJLQWKH:HVW
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Breviary, New Left Review0DUFK$SULO)RUD:HVWHUQLQWHUnationalism that has sought to sidestep state interference, see Akira Iriye, Cultural
Internationalism and World Order%DOWLPRUH-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
)RU H[DPSOH LQ  WKH 6RYLHW 8QLRQ VXEPLWWHG WR WKH 8QLWHG 1DWLRQV $Q $SSHDO WR WKH :RUOG $ 6WDWHPHQW RQ WKH 'HQLDO RI +XPDQ 5LJKWV WR 0LQRULWLHV LQ
the Case of Citizens of Negro Descent in the United States of America, an NAACP
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RI$PHULFDVGLUW\ODXQGU\KHOSHGZLQWKHSDVVDJHRIFLYLOULJKWVUHIRUPV,QWXUQ
VHYHUDO:DVKLQJWRQRFLDOVVRXJKWWREULQJWKHSOLJKWRI6RYLHW-HZVEHIRUHWKH
81DQGGXULQJ1LNLWD.KUXVKFKHYVYLVLWWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV'ZLJKW(LVHQhower himself expressed the concern of American Jewry about the position of
WKHLUEUHWKUHQLQWKH86656HH0DU\'XG]LDNCold War Civil Rights: Race and the
Image of American Democracy3ULQFHWRQ3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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)RUFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQ$IULFDQ$PHULFDQDQG-HZLVK$PHULFDQOLEHUDODQWLFRPmunism, see Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, Troubling the Waters: Black-Jewish Relations in
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RIWKLVFKDSWHUXQOLNH*UHHQEHUJVDQG6XQGTXLVWVGLGQRWQHFHVVDULO\WDNHOLEeral pluralism as a given, allowing us to revisit forgotten, discredited alternatives
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In Harness  .DW] 7KH 'D\V RI 3UROHWSHQ  DQG 7RQ\ 0LFKHOV A Fire
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Shores account of Polish Jews who embraced Soviet communism and the tragedies
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play was staged by Kultur-Lige, a Yiddish cultural organization that embraced poOLWLFDODQGDHVWKHWLFUDGLFDOLVPDPLGWKHSRZHUYDFXXPRIWKH5XVVLDQ&LYLO:DU
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included El Lissitzky, as well as the poet Peretz Markish, who might be described
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that the campaign to cleanse the Soviet elite of ethnic Jews began as early as May
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Greenbergs separation of avant-gardism and socialist realism has been forcefully
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realism, the two (at least in their interwar Soviet iterations) undoubtedly shared
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Soviet defenders even after the Doctors Plot and, as a result, became increasingly

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struggling to grasp the perceived failures of radicalism and to resist the postwar
RUGHUVHH$ODQ0:DOGAmerican Night: The Literary Left in the Era of the Cold War
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in the Russian Revolution
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more directly, noting his book of petty attacks against Yiddish literature abroad
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power over; also, to commit a murder) and suggests that these violent, forgotten
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Congress for Cultural Freedom, the CIA, and Postwar American Hegemony1HZ<RUN
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$SWHU*DEULHO5XWK(O/LVVLW]N\V-HZLVK:RUNV,QTradition and Revolution: The Jewish
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%HUQVWHLQ0LFKDHO$QGUpForegone Conclusions: Against Apocalyptic History%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

%XFN0RUVV6XVDQThe Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project&DPEULGJH0DVV0,73UHVV

Dreamworld and CatastropheThe Passing of Mass Utopia in East and West&DPEULGJH
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%XGLFN(PLO\0LOOHUBlacks and Jews in Literary Conversation1HZ<RUN&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
%UJHU3HWHUTheory of the Avant-Garde7UDQVODWHGE\0LFKDHO6KDZ0LQQHDSROLV8QLYHUVLW\RI0LQQHVRWD3UHVV
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&DUHZ-R\*OHDVRQBlacks, Reds, and Russians: Sojourners in Search of the Soviet Promise1HZ
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&DVDQRYD 3DVFDOH The World Republic of Letters &DPEULGJH 0DVV +DUYDUG 8QLYHUVLW\
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&KDNUDEDUW\ 'LSHVK Provincializing Europe 3RVWFRORQLDO 7KRXJKW DQG +LVWRULFDO 'LHUHQFH
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$K:LQJHWDOJournal of Transnational American StudiesQR
&KHQJ $QQH $QOLQ The Melancholy of Race: Psychoanalysis, Assimilation, and Hidden Grief
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&KRZ5H\The Protestant Ethnic and the Spirit of Capitalism1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\
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&ODUN.DWHULQDMoscow, the Fourth Rome: Stalinism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Evolution of SoYLHW&XOWXUH&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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7KH:RUOG6L[WLHV,QThe Worlding Project: Doing Cultural Studies in the Era of GlobalizationHGLWHGE\&KULVWRSKHU/HLJK&RQQHU\DQG5RE:LOVRQ%HUNHOH\

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(GZDUGV%UHQW+D\HVThe Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black
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(IURV$EUDP$ODGGLQV/DPS,Q6HP\RQ$QVN\ The Jewish Artistic Heritage: An Album,
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(VWUDLNK*HQQDG\ In Harness: Yiddish Writers Romance with Communism6\UDFXVH6\UDFXVH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

)DELDQ-RKDQQHVTime and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object 1HZ<RUN&ROXPELD8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
)DYRU-0DUWLQAuthentic Blackness: The Folk in the New Negro Renaissance'XUKDP'XNH
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)RVWHU+DOThe Return of the Real&DPEULGJH0DVV0,73UHVV
)RZOHU-RVHSKLQHJapanese and Chinese Immigrant Activists: Organizing in American and International Communist Movements, 191919331HZ%UXQVZLFN1-5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\
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*LOUR\3DXOThe Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double-Consciousness&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

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*OD]HU1DWKDQDQG'DQLHO3DWULFN0R\QLKDQBeyond the Melting Pot: The Negroes, Puerto
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*ROG0LFKDHOJews Without Money1HZ<RUN/LYHULJKW
*ROGHQ/LO\My Long Journey Home&KLFDJR7KLUG:RUOG
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+DVHJDZD 7VX\RVKL Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan &DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
+DXQHU0LODQWhat Is Asia to Us? Russias Asian Heartland Yesterday and Today%RVWRQ8QZLQ+\PDQ

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+LUVFK )UDQFLQH Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet
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The Life of Langston HughesYROV1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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5RVHQIHOW'HERUDK6LOYHUWRQ&RPPHQWDU\,QSalt of the Earth, edited by Deborah SilYHUWRQ5RVHQIHOW1HZ<RUN)HPLQLVW3UHVV
5R\2OLYLHUThe New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations1HZ<RUN1HZ<RUN8QLYHUVLW\
3UHVV
5XEHQVWHLQ-RVKXDDQG9ODGLPLU31DXPRYHGVStalins Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee7UDQVODWHGE\/DXUD(VWKHU:ROIVRQ1HZ
+DYHQ<DOH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
5XGQLWVN\.RQVWDQWLQ Russian and Soviet Theatre: Tradition and the Avant-Garde/RQGRQ
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6DPXHO0DXULFHThe World of Sholom Aleichem1HZ<RUN.QRSI
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6DXQGHUV)UDQFHV6WRQRU Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War/RQGRQ
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6D[WRQ$OH[DQGHUThe Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV
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6FKUHFNHU(OOHQMany Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America3ULQFHWRQ3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6FKXOPDQ(OLDVThe Fate of Soviet Jewry: The Jews in the Soviet Union; Soviet-Yiddish Literature,
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6FKZDU] 6RORPRQ 0 The Jews in the Soviet Union 6\UDFXVH 6\UDFXVH 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV

6FKZHULQHU$UWKXUHow Far Shall We Go?1HZ<RUN9HULWDV
6FRWW6PLWK*LOHVThe Politics of Apolitical Culture: The Congress for Cultural Freedom, the CIA,
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6HLIULG 7KRPDV 3ODWRQRY 6RFLDOLVW 5HDOLVP DQG WKH $YDQW*DUGH ,Q Laboratory of
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6HUJH9LFWRUMemoirs of a Revolutionary(GLWHGDQGWUDQVODWHGE\3HWHU6HGJZLFN2[IRUG
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269

6KDUS-DQH$VKWRQ%H\RQG2ULHQWDOLVP5XVVLDQDQG6RYLHW0RGHUQLVPRQWKH3HULSKHU\RI(PSLUH,QRussian Art and the West: A Century of Dialogue in Painting, Architecture, and the Decorative ArtsHGLWHGE\5RVDOLQG%ODNHVOH\DQG6XVDQ5HLG'H.DOE
1RUWKHUQ,OOLQRLV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
Russian Modernism between East and West: Natalia Goncharova and the Moscow AvantGarde1HZ<RUN&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6KHYFKHQNR$OHNVDQGU1HRSULPLWLYLVP,WV7KHRU\,WV3RWHQWLDOV,WV$FKLHYHPHQWV,Q
5XVVLDQ$UWRIWKH$YDQW*DUGH7KHRU\DQG&ULWLFLVP, edited and translated by
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6KRUH0DUFLAshes and Caviar: A Warsaw GenerationV/LIHDQG'HDWKLQ0DU[LVP1968
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6LQJHU,VDDF%DVKHYLV$1HZ8VHIRU<LGGLVKCommentary0DUFK
6LQJK1LNKLO3DO&ROG:DU5HGX[2QWKH1HZ7RWDOLWDULDQLVPRadical History Review
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6PHWKXUVW -DPHV The New Red Negro: The Literary Left and$IULFDQ$PHULFDQ3RHWU\
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6PLWK+RPHUBlack Man in Red Russia&KLFDJR-RKQVRQ
6ROORUV:HUQHU$&ULWLTXHRI3XUH3OXUDOLVP,QReconstructing American Literary History,
HGLWHGE\6DFYDQ%HUFRYLWFK&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6RORPRQ0DUN7KH&U\:DV8QLW\&RPPXQLVWVDQG$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV-DFNVRQ
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6SHQFH-RQDWKDQ'The Search for Modern China 1HZ<RUN1RUWRQ
6SLUD$QGUHZThe Avant-Garde Icon: Russian Avant-Garde Art and the Icon Painting Tradition
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6WHSKHQV0LFKHOOHBlack Empire: The Masculine Global Imaginary of Caribbean Intellectuals in

WKH8QLWHG6WDWHV'XUKDP'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6WRFNLQJ*HRUJH:-U7KH%DVLF$VVXPSWLRQVRI%RDVLDQ$QWKURSRORJ\,QThe Shaping of American Anthropology, 18831911HGLWHGE\*HRUJH:6WRFNLQJ-U1HZ
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6XQDGD(ULND5HYLVLWLQJ+RUDFH0.DOOHQV&XOWXUDO3OXUDOLVP$&RPSDUDWLYH$QDO\VLVJournal of American and Canadian Studies
6XQGTXLVW (ULF - Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America Cambridge,
0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6XQ\5RQDOG*ULJRUThe Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the
Soviet Union 6WDQIRUG6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
6XUL-HUHPLPower and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente&DPEULGJH0DVV
+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
7DQJ;LDRELQJOrigins of the Chinese Avant-Garde%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV

7DWOLQ9ODGLPLU$XWRELRJUDSK\,QTatlinHGLWHGE\/DULVVD=KDGRYD1HZ<RUN
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7KRPDV/DZUHQFHThe Linguistic Theories of N. Ja. Marr%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD
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7LVKNRY9$Rekviem po etnosu0RVFRZ1DXND
7RGRURYD0DULD'RHV5XVVLDQ2ULHQWDOLVP+DYHD5XVVLDQ6RXO"KritikaQRIDOO

7RNDUHY65HYLHZRIUm pervobytnogo chelovekaE\)UDQ]%RDV7UDQVODWHGE\$09RGHQ
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7RO]9HUDRussias Own Orient: The Politics of Identity and Oriental Studies in the Late Imperial
and Early Soviet Periods 2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
7UHWLDNRY6HUJHL%LRJUDLDYHVKFKL,QLiteratura faktaHGLWHGE\1)&KX]KDN
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7ULOOLQJ /LRQHO 7KH )RUELGGHQ 'LDOHFWLF ,Q Isaac Babels Selected Writings, edited by
*UHJRU\)UHLGLQ7UDQVODWHGE\3HWHU&RQVWDQWLQH1HZ<RUN1RUWRQ
5HDOLW\LQ$PHULFD,QThe Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society
1HZ<RUN9LNLQJ
Sincerity and Authenticity&DPEULGJH0DVV+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
7URWVN\/HRQHistory of the Russian Revolution7UDQVODWHGE\0D[(DVWPDQ &KLFDJR+D\PDUNHW
Literature and Revolution(GLWHGE\:LOOLDP.HDFK7UDQVODWHGE\5RVH6WUXQVN\&KLFDJR+D\PDUNHW
Problems of the Chinese Revolution(GLWHGDQGWUDQVODWHGE\0D[6KDFKWPDQ1HZ
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The Revolution Betrayed: What Is the Soviet Union and Where Is It Going? Translated by
0D[(DVWPDQ1HZ<RUN3LRQHHU
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86 &RQJUHVV +RXVH 6HOHFW &RPPLWWHH RQ &RPPXQLVW $JJUHVVLRQ Special Report No. 
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7UDQVODWLRQ&RPPXQLW\8WRSLD,QThe Translation Studies Reader, edited by LawUHQFH9HQXWL1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
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:DOG$ODQ0American Night: The Literary Left in the Era of the Cold War&KDSHO+LOO8QLYHUVLW\RI1RUWK&DUROLQD3UHVV
The New York Intellectuals: The Rise and Decline of the Anti-Stalinist Left from the VWR
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Trinity of Passion: The Literary Left and the Antifascist Crusade&KDSHO+LOO8QLYHUVLW\
RI1RUWK&DUROLQD3UHVV
:HLQEHUJ5REHUWStalins Forgotten Zion: Birobidzhan and the Making of a Soviet Jewish Homeland; $Q,OOXVWUDWHG+LVWRU\1996(GLWHGE\%UDGOH\%XUPDQ%HUNHOH\8QLYHUVLW\
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6WDQIRUG6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
:ROLQ5LFKDUGThe Wind from the East: May 68, French Intellectuals, and the Chinese Cultural
Revolution3ULQFHWRQ3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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:RURV]\OVNL:LNWRUThe Life of Mayakovsky7UDQVODWHGE\%ROHVODZ7DERUVNL1HZ<RUN

2ULRQ
:ULJKW 5LFKDUG %OXHSULQW IRU 1HJUR :ULWLQJ ,Q African American Literary Theory: A
Reader HGLWHG E\ :LQVWRQ 1DSLHU  1HZ <RUN 1HZ <RUN 8QLYHUVLW\ 3UHVV

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2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
<X5HQTLXTo Save China, to Save Ourselves: The Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance of New York
3KLODGHOSKLD7HPSOH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
<X7LPRWK\5DFHDQGWKH$YDQW*DUGH([SHULPHQWDODQG$VLDQ$PHULFDQ3RHWU\6LQFH
6WDQIRUG6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
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$YHUVLRQRIFKDSWHUDSSHDUHGLQComparative Literature (spring 2015) and is republished

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5RDU&KLQDIURP The Collected Poems of Langston HughesHGLWHGE\$UQROG5DPSHUVDGDQG'DYLG5RHVVHO$VVRFLDWH(GLWRUFRS\ULJKWE\WKH(VWDWHRI/DQJVWRQ
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bold denotes photo; f GHQRWHVJXUH

5HYROXWLRQ&KLQD
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About This (Mayakovsky), 51
DGYDQFHGSHRSOHV
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black-red thread
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American Negro Labor Congress (ANLC),

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See also black authenticity;

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and ethnography, 40; as linked to
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surrealism
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Brinig, Myron, 145
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also futurism
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Cahan, Abraham, 150

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Comintern (Third Communist
,QWHUQDWLRQDO


Commentary
Communist Party of the USA (CPUSA),

The Communist Manifesto 0DU[

277

&RQJUHVVIRU&XOWXUDO)UHHGRP
&RQQHU\&KULVWRSKHU
FRQVWUXFWLYLVPQQSee
also protoconstructivism
Contemporary Negro Writers of the USA
(Gilenson), 144
&RQWUDGLFWLRQDQG2YHUGHWHUPLQDWLRQ
$OWKXVVHU
&RRSHU+XJK
&RRSHU-DPHV)HQLPRUH
The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (Cruse),

&ULWHULDRI1HJUR$UW'X%RLV
&UXVH+DUROG
&XED+XJKHVVYLVLWWR
0D\DNRYVN\VYLVLWWR
f
&XEHV+XJKHV
FXERIXWXULVWVQ
FXOWXUDODXWKHQWLFLW\
151
Cultural Front, 101
FXOWXUDOLQDXWKHQWLFLW\
cultural nationalism, 144
FXOWXUDOSOXUDOLVPQ
Q
&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQ&KLQD

FXOWXUHLQ8665DVQDWLRQDOLQIRUP
socialist in content, 2, 3
Q
Daily Worker
'DQWH
Darkness at Noon .RHVWOHU
'DYLV$QJHOD
dcalage
GHIDPLOLDUL]DWLRQSee also
6KNORYVNLL9LNWRU
Defying 'L[LH *LOPRUH
Delaunay, Sonia, 50
'HPRFUDF\9HUVXVWKH0HOWLQJ3RW
.DOOHQ

278

INDEX

democratic revolution, 10
GHQLDORIFRHYDOQHVV
QSee also Fabian, Johannes
Den Shi-khua 7UHWLDNRYQ
'HUULGD-DFTXHV
The Destruction of Tenochtitlan
:LOOLDPV
GLDOHFWLFDOLPDJH
QQ
GLDOHFWRIPRGHUQLVPQ
'LFNHUPDQ/HDK
Dissent MRXUQDO
'RFWRUV3ORW
GRXEOHDVVLPLODWLRQ
'UDPDIRU:LQWHU1LJKW+XJKHV
'X%RLV:(%
Dzhan 3ODWRQRYQ

HWKQLFDYDQWJDUGHEORRGVWDLQHGSDVVLQJ
RIFRQFHSWXDOVFDROGLQJIRU
GLVWLQFWZD\RIVHHLQJDVFHQWUDOWR
UHVXVFLWDWLRQRI7DWOLQV7RZHUDV
emblem for, 41; use of term, 4
HWKQLFLGHQWLW\
HWKQLFLW\FRQFHSWRIDQGUHYROXWLRQ
XQGHUVWDQGLQJRI
HWKQLFLW\SDUDGLJP
HWKQLF2WKHUSee also2WKHU
HWKQLFSDUWLFXODULVP
HWKQRJUDSKLFSUHFLVLRQ
HWKQRJUDSKLFVXUUHDOLVPQ
(XUDVLDQLVPQ
HYROXWLRQLVPQ
H[RWLFLVP


(DVWPDQ0D[
(GZDUGV%UHQW+D\HV
(IURV$EUDP
(LHO7RZHU
(LVHQVWHLQ6HUJHL

(OLRW76Q
(OOLVRQ5DOSK
The End of the World SOD\

HTXDOLW\FRPPXQLVWSURJUDPVIRU
FRPSHWLQJPRGHOVRI
experiments with art and, 4; formal
HTXDOLW\RI$IULFDQ$PHULFDQV
JHQGHUHTXDOLW\0RVFRZV
SURPLVHVRI6RYLHW8QLRQDV
LVRODWHGEDVWLRQRIVWUXFWXUDO
HTXDOLW\XQLYHUVDOHTXDOLW\
8665DVEHDFRQRIUDFLDO
HWKQLFDQGQDWLRQDOHTXDOLW\8665
as champion of African American
HTXDOLW\
(VFK%HWV\
HWKQLFIRUPDWLRQRIWHUPXVHRI
term, 4

)DELDQ-RKDQQHVQQ
Q
IDFWRJUDSK\

See also literature of fact
)DQRQ)UDQW]
)HGHUDO7KHDWUH3URMHFW
)HHU,W]LN
Fiddler on the Roof PXVLFDO
)LODWRYD/\GLD

First Congress of the Peoples of the East

)ODWOH\-RQDWKDQQ
Flower Drum Song PXVLFDO
Q
)RUH'HYLQ
)RUW:KLWHPDQ/RYHWW
Forward (newspaper), 150
)RVWHU+DO
)RXULHU&KDUOHV
Frayhayt (FreedomQHZVSDSHU

Freeman, Joseph, 150
)UHXG6LJPXQG

INDEX

IURQWLHURIKRSH8665DVIRU-HZV

IXWXULVP
See also budetliane (people of the
future)
*DWHV+HQU\/RXLV-UQ
*HOOHUW/DZUHQFH
JHQGHUHTXDOLW\
*LOPRUH*OHQGD
Give Us Europe (Daesh Evropu) (Meyerhold),

JOREDOFDSLWDOLVPQ
*ROG0LNH
*ROGHQ/LO\Q
*ROGPDQ(PPD
*RQFKDURYD1DWDOLD
*RRGLQJ:LOOLDPV5REHUW
*RUGRQ(XJHQH
*RXJK0DULDQ
*UHDW0RVTXHRI6DPDUUD
*UHEQHU*HRUJLL(GXDUGRYLFK


*UHHQEHUJ&OHPHQW
*UHHQEHUJ(OLH]HU
*UHHQEODWW6WHSKHQ
*ULWK':
*XHYDUD&KH
*XLOOpQ1LFROiV
*XRPLQGDQJ1DWLRQDOLVW3DUW\
Had Gadya (Lissitzky), 156
+DOSHUQ0RLVKH/HLE
Harlem LiberatorQ
KHWHURQRUPDWLYHPDVFXOLQLVP
KLJKPRGHUQLVP
+LUVFK)UDQFLQH
KLVWRULFDOGHYHORSPHQW+HJHOLDQQRWLRQ
of, 12
+ROOLQJHU'DYLG
+ROO\ZRRG7HQ
+RPHZDUG0D\DNRYVN\

279

+RRN6LGQH\

+RXVH8Q$PHULFDQ$FWLYLWLHV
Committee, 101
+RZH,UYLQJ

+XJKHV/DQJVWRQ

113


+X\VVHQ$QGUHDVQ
+\ODHD+\ODHDQVQ
LGHRJUDPV
I Hotel <DPDVKLWD

LNRQQ
LPSHULDOLVP
See also antiimperialism
LQDXWKHQWLF-HZV
,QGR5XVVLDQ8QLRQ.KOHEQLNRY
LQWHUFXOWXUDOHGXFDWLRQ
LQWHUQDWLRQDODYDQWJDUGH
International Literature MRXUQDO
,QWHUQDWLRQDO:RUNHUV5HOLHI)LOP
0H]KUDESRPOP
142
,VUDHO
Italian neorealism, 115
I Wonder as I Wander +XJKHV

-DNREVRQ5RPDQ
-DPHVRQ)UHGULF
-DSKHWLFODQJXDJHFLYLOL]DWLRQ
Jetztzeit (QRZWLPH
-HZLVK$PHULFDQV


-HZLVK$QWL)DVFLVW&RPPLWWHH-$&


280

INDEX

-HZLVK$XWRQRPRXV5HJLRQQ
-HZLVK%ROVKHYLNV
-HZLVK/DERU&RPPLWWHH$)/&,2
-HZLVKPHVVLDQLVP
Q
-HZLVKQHVVDQGFRPPXQLVP
-HZLVK5HYROXWLRQDJDLQVW-HZLVKQHVV
Q
-HZVDXWKHQWLF-HZVsee authentic
Jews); inauthentic Jews (see
inauthentic Jews); Jewish Americans
(see Jewish Americans); Soviet Jews
(see Soviet Jews)
-LP&URZ
Junghans, Carl, 124
.DOOHQ+RUDFH

.DWD\DPD6HQ
.DW]'RYLG
.HOOH\5RELQ
.HUQDQ5\DQ-DPHVQ
.KDQJD<HOHQDQ
.KDQXP7DPDUD
.KOHEQLNRY9HOLPLU

.KUXVKFKHY1LNLWD
Kiaer, Christina, 24, 51
.LQJVWRQ0D[LQH+RQJ
.RHVWOHU$UWKXU
.ROFKHYVND1DWDVKD
.RVHOOHFN5HLQKDUW
.ULVWHYD-XOLD
Kruchenykh, Alexei, 40, 50, 51
.X.OX[.ODQ...
.XOEDN0RLVKH
.\POLFND:LOO
/DFLV$VMD
La condition humaine 0DOUDX[
Langer, Lawrence, 101
ODQJXDJHV
Q

La prose du Transsibrien et de la petite

Jehanne de France (Cendrars and
Delaunay), 50
Laundresses (Shevchenko), 14
Lawton, Anna, 50
/HDU\-RKQ3DWULFN
/HIW)URQWRIWKH$UWV/()

Left March (Mayakovsky), 52
/HPRQ$ODLQD
/HQLQ9ODGLPLU
/HRQDUGRGD9LQFL
Les demoiselles dAvignon 3LFDVVR
The Liberal Imagination 7ULOOLQJ
OLEHUDOPXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP
OLEHUDOSOXUDOLVP
QQ
Liberator PDJD]LQH
/LSVLW]*HRUJH
/LVVLW]N\(O

OLWHUDWXUHRIIDFW
Q
7KH/RVW<RXQJ,QWHOOHFWXDO$0DUJLQDO
0DQ7ZLFH$OLHQDWHG+RZH
/RZH/LVD
/|Z\0LFKDHO
Lunacharsky, Anatoly, 20, 21
PDJLFSLOJULPDJH

0DOUDX[$QGUp
0DQGHOD1HOVRQ
PDQXDOODQJXDJHQ
0DRLVP
0DULQHWWL)7Q
0DUNRY9ODGLPLU
0DUU1LNRODL
0DUULVP
Marx, Karl, 10, 155
0DU[LVP
Marxism and the National Question
6WDOLQ

INDEX

0DU[LVWGLVFRXUVH
0D[ZHOO:LOOLDP
0D\DNRYVN\9ODGLPLU
f

$IUR&XEDQSRHPV
RIDQGPLQRULW\
ZULWLQJ
0F&DUWK\-RVHSK
0F&DUWK\LVP
0F.D\&ODXGH

PHODQFKROLD
QQSee also racial
melancholia
0HVHUYH:DOWHU-DQG5XWK,
111, 112
Messenger (magazine), 145
PHVVLDQLVP-HZLVKPHVVLDQLVP
QUHYROXWLRQDU\
PHVVLDQLVP
0H[LFDQ&RPPXQLVW3DUW\
0H[LFR(LVHQVWHLQVYLVLWWR
0D\DNRYVN\VYLVLWWR
f

0H[LFR0D\DNRYVN\
0H\HUKROG9VHYRORG
0H\HUKROG7KHDWHU
0H]KUDESRPOP,QWHUQDWLRQDO:RUNHUV
5HOLHI)LOP
PRGHUQLVP

PRQWDJHSee also cinematic
montage
Monument to the Third International 7DWOLQ
See Tatlins Tower
0RVFRZ0F.D\
0RVFRZDVFDSLWDORIQRZWLPH
Moscow, the Fourth Rome &ODUN
0RVFRZ$UW7KHDWHU
0RVFRZ0RYLH+XJKHV
Moss, Kenneth, 150

281

0XOOHQ%LOO
PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP
multinationalness (mnogonatsionalnost),

My Discovery of America 0D\DNRYVN\
0\VWHU\%RXH0D\DNRYVN\
Nadir, Moishe, 2, 4, 150
Nadja (Breton), 22
QDWLRQDOFKDUDFWHU
QDWLRQDOLGHQWLW\
1DWLRQDOLVW3DUW\*XRPLQGDQJ
QDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\
Q
QQQ
QDWLRQDOLW\6RYLHWFRQFHSWRI
QDWLRQDOVHOIGHWHUPLQDWLRQ
nativization (korenizatsiia
QDWXUDOLVP
A Negro Looks at Soviet Central Asia
+XJKHV
7KH1HJUR$UWLVWDQGWKH5DFLDO
0RXQWDLQ+XJKHV
1HJUR6RQJVRI3URWHVW*HOOHUW

QHRSULPLWLYLVP
neorealism, Italian, 115
1HZ&RPPXQLVW0RYHPHQW
QHZFRVPRSROLWDQLVPQ
New Masses129

new optics, 22
1HZ7KHRU\RI/DQJXDJH0DUU
1HZWRQ+XH\Q
New York Herald Tribune, 122
1HZ<RUN,QWHOOHFWXDOV

New York Times
now-time (Jetztzeit
2GHWV&OLRUG
2PL0LFKDHO
2Q&RQWUDGLFWLRQ0DR

282

INDEX

150,000,000 (Mayakovsky), 55
RSHUDWLYLVPQ
RSSUHVVHGQDWLRQVSHRSOHV
QQ
2ULHQWDOLVPSee also Afro2ULHQWDOLVP
2ULHQWRORJLVWV2ULHQWRORJ\
2VERUQH3HWHU
2WKHU
See also
HWKQLF2WKHU
3DJH0\UD
Pamiatnik III Internatsionala (Punin), 7
3DSD]LDQ(OL]DEHWK$VWULGQ
3DULVGHFHQWHULQJRI
3DULV&DSLWDORIWKH1LQHWHHQWK
&HQWXU\%HQMDPLQQ
3DUN5REHUW
SDUWLFXODULVP
Q
SDUWLFXODULVWLFSUDFWLFHV
Partisan Review
SDWKRVSee revolutionary pathos
3DWWHUVRQ:LOOLDP
Peasants (Goncharova), 15
SHUFHSWXDOHVWUDQJHPHQW
3HUOR0DUMRULH
SHUPDQHQWUHYROXWLRQQ
3LFDVVR3DEOR
3ODWRQRY$QGUHLQ
SOXUDOLVPSee also cultural
pluralism; liberal pluralism
3RJJLROL5HQDWRQ
Q
SROLWLFDOUDGLFDOLVP
SROLWLFDOYDQJXDUG
Q
SROLWLFVRIGLHUHQFHRIHTXDO
GLJQLW\UHYROXWLRQDU\SROLWLFVsee
revolutionary politics)
Popular Front, 101
SRVWFRORQLDORULHQWDOLVP

3RXQG(]UDQ
Pravda
SUHPRGHUQXWRSLDQLVP
SULPLWLYLVPQSee
also neoprimitivism
SUROHWDULDQYDQJXDUG
SURWRFRQVWUXFWLYLVP
3XGRYNLQ9VHYRORG
3XQLQ1LNRODL
3XVKNLQ$OH[DQGHUQ
4XHYLYD0p[LFROP
TXHHUIXWXULW\Q
UDFLDOPHODQFKROLDQ
UDFLVPLQ$PHULFDQVRFLHW\
ELRORJLFDOUDFLVP
QHOLPLQDWLRQRIQLQ
8665
5DP+DUVKD
5DPSHUVDG$UQROG
5DVSEHUU\:LOOLDP
UHDOLVPVRFLDOLVWSee socialist realism
Red Cavalry %DEHO
5HG*XDUGV
5HHG-RKQ
5HHFWLRQVRQWKH-HZLVK4XHVWLRQ
+RRN
5pH[LRQVVXUODTXHVWLRQMXLYH6DUWUH

5HLG7KRPDV0D\QH
UHYROXWLRQDVWURQRPLFDOFRQQRWDWLRQVRI
%ROVKHYLN5HYROXWLRQsee Bolshevik
5HYROXWLRQ&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQ
(China) (see&XOWXUDO5HYROXWLRQ
>&KLQD@HWKQLFLW\DQG-HZLVK
5HYROXWLRQDJDLQVW-HZLVKQHVV
(see-HZLVK5HYROXWLRQDJDLQVW
Jewishness); minorities at forefront
RI5HYROXWLRQ&KLQDsee
5HYROXWLRQ>&KLQD@SHUPDQHQW
UHYROXWLRQQVRFLDOLVW
revolution (see socialist revolution)

INDEX

UHYROXWLRQDU\PHVVLDQLVP
UHYROXWLRQDU\SDWKRV
QQ
UHYROXWLRQDU\SROLWLFV

UHYROXWLRQDU\YDQJXDUG
5H]HWV&KLVHOJURXSQ
5LFK3RZHUIXODQG6PDUW-HZLVK
2YHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ6KRXOG%H
Explained Instead of Avoided or
0\VWLHG+ROOLQJHU
5LYHUD'LHJR

5RDU&KLQD+XJKHV113,

Roar, China! /L+XD110, 111
5RDU&KLQD7UHWLDNRY90
Roar China 7UHWLDNRYBlack and White
FRPSDUHGWRFRYHU
of, 94GHVFULSWLRQRI
HPSKDVLVRQLPSHULDOLVPLQ
HYRFDWLRQRILQWHUPL[WXUHRI
FXOWXUHVLQ0RVFRZSURGXFWLRQ
RI100Q1HZ
<RUNSURGXFWLRQRI102, 105,
106, 107, 112; other productions of,
SURSKHWLFTXDOLW\RI
Salt of the Earth FRPSDUHGWR
5REHVRQ3DXO
5RGFKHQNR$OHNVDQGUQ
romantic anticapitalism, 12
5RVHQEHUJ+DUROG
5RVHQIHOW'HERUDK6LOYHUWRQ
5RWK+HQU\
5R\01
5XGQLWVN\.RQVWDQWLQ
5XVVLDDVDYDQWJDUGHFRXQWU\RIWKH(DVW
%HQMDPLQVYLVLWWR
Derridas visit to, 2; Goldmans visit
WR+XJKHVVYLVLWWR
LGHQWLFDWLRQ
RIZLWK$VLD.DOOHQVYLVLWWR
0F.D\VYLVLWWR1DGLUV

283

YLVLWWR5LYHUDVYLVLWWR
5REHVRQVYLVLWWR5XVVLDQ
PRGHUQLVPSee also Asiatic
5XVVLD
6DLG(GZDUGSee also2ULHQWDOLVP
Salazkina, Masha, 115
Salt of the Earth OP
6DPXHO0DXULFH
6DUJRQ3\UDPLG
6DUWUH-HDQ3DXO

6FKZDU]6RORPRQ0Q
Scythianism, 40
6F\WKLDQV%ORN
6HFRQG&RQJUHVVRIWKH&RPLQWHUQ
10, 11
6HFUHW6SHHFK.KUXVKFKHY
seichasXVHRIWHUP
Select Committee on Communist
$JJUHVVLRQ86+RXVHRI
5HSUHVHQWDWLYHV
VHQVDWLRQDOPRGHUQLVPQ
Q
6HUHEULDQ\L,$
6KDUS-DQH
6KHYFKHQNR$OHNVDQGU
6KNORYVNLL9LNWRU
6KROHP$OHLFKHP
VLGHVKDGRZLQJQ
6LPRQVRQ/HH
6LQJHU,VDDF%DVKHYLV
6LQJK1LNKLO3DO
7KH6L[0D\DNRYVN\
$6ODSLQWKH)DFHRI3XEOLF7DVWH
6ODYRSKLOHVQ
6OH]NLQH<XUL

6PHWKXUVW-DPHV
VRFLDOLVWDXWKHQWLFLW\
VRFLDOLVWLQWHUQDWLRQDOLVP

Q

284

INDEX

VRFLDOLVWUHDOLVP
Q
VRFLDOLVWUHYROXWLRQ

VRFLDOLVWWR-HZLVKWUDQVLWLRQ
The Souls of Black Folk 'X%RLV
Southern Road %URZQ
Soviet avant-gardism, 150
6RYLHW-HZLVKDYDQWJDUGH
Q
6RYLHW-HZV

QQ
6RYLHWQDWLRQDOLWLHVSROLF\See
nationalities policy
6RYLHW8QLRQSee5XVVLD8665
8]EHNLVWDQ8]EHNV
6RYLHWYDQJXDUGLVPQ
Spartak/Spartacus MRXUQDOf
6WDOLQ-RVHSK

6WDOLQLVP
Storm Over Asia OP
VWUXFWXUDOHTXDOLW\
6XQ<DWVHQ
VXUUHDOLVPQ
6XUUHDOLVP%HQMDPLQ
6XUUHDOLVW0DSRIWKH:RUOG
6\SKLOLV0D\DNRYVN\

7DOHQWHG7HQWKHOLWLVP
7DONVDWWKH<HQDQ)RUXP0DR
7DQJ;LDRELQJ
7KH7DVNRIWKH7UDQVODWRU%HQMDPLQ

7DWOLQ9ODGLPLU5

7DWOLQV7RZHU5, 7

as interweaving of avant-garde and
ethnography, 40; as interweaving of
DYDQWJDUGHDQGYDQJXDUG

7D\ORU&KDUOHV
Tel quel JURXS
Ten Days That Shook the World 5HHG
Tevye the Milkman 6KROHP$OHLFKHP
WKHRU\RIFRPELQHGDQGXQHYHQ
GHYHORSPHQWRISHUPDQHQW
revolution, 10; weakest link theory, 10
7KHVHVRQWKH3KLORVRSK\RI+LVWRU\
%HQMDPLQ
Third Communist International
&RPLQWHUQSee Comintern (Third
Communist International)
7KLUG:RUOGLVP
7KRPSVRQ/RXLVH
Three Songs About Lenin (documentary),
140
7KXUPDQ:DOODFH
Time PDJD]LQH
7RO]9HUD
7R2XU<RXWK0D\DNRYVN\

7RZHURI%DEHO

WUDQVODWLRQ
translation gaps, 222n50
7UDQV1DWLRQDO$PHULFD%RXUQH
transnational optic, 4
transrational (zaum) poetry, 12, 40, 52
WUDYHOVNHWFKHVRI0D\DNRYVN\f
A Treasury of Yiddish Stories +RZH

7UHWLDNRY6HUJHL



7UHWLDNRYD2OJD
7ULOOLQJ/LRQHO
7URSLFV0D\DNRYVN\f
7URWVN\/HRQ

7VLDQJ+7
Tsirk OPQ
7YRUFKHVWYRIXWXULVWJURXS

INDEX

8QLWHG6WDWHVHPHUJHQFHRIHWKQLFLW\
SDUDGLJPLQ0D\DNRYVN\VYLVLWWR

XQLYHUVDOHTXDOLW\XQLYHUVDOLVW
DVSLUDWLRQV
86658QLRQRI6RYLHW6RFLDOLVW
5HSXEOLFVDVEHDFRQRIUDFLDO
HWKQLFDQGQDWLRQDOHTXDOLW\
perceived exoticness of, 20; as site of
FXOWXUDOLQQRYDWLRQSee also5XVVLD
8]EHNLVWDQ8]EHNV
utopian aspirations, 4, 41
XWRSLDQLVPSUHPRGHUQ
XWRSLDQVXUSOXVQ
8]EHNLVWDQ8]EHNV
+XJKHVVYLVLWWR
YDQJXDUGYDQJXDUGLVPDUWLVWLF
vanguardism, 1, 2; avant-garde
DQG
Q%ROVKHYLNYDQJXDUG
-HZLVKYDQJXDUGLVP
SROLWLFDOYDQJXDUG
QSUROHWDULDQYDQJXDUG
UHYROXWLRQDU\YDQJXDUG
6RYLHWYDQJXDUGLVPQ
9DQ9HFKWHQ&DUO
Varits PDJD]LQH
9HQXWL/DZUHQFH

285

9HUWRY']LJD
Volunteer for Liberty113
:DFTXDQW/RwF
:DOG$ODQQ
The Ways of White Folks +XJKHV
weakest link theory, 10
7KH:HDU\%OXHV+XJKHV
What Is to Be Done? /HQLQ
:LOOLDPV:LOOLDP&DUORV
:LQDQW+RZDUG
:ROLW]6HWK
woodblock prints (Roar, China!), 110, 111
World of Our Fathers +RZH
The World of Sholom Aleichem 6DPXHO
:ULJKW5LFKDUG

<DPDVKLWD.DUHQ7HL

<LGGLVK
Q
Yiddishkeit
<RXQJ5REHUWQ
<X7LPRWK\Q
zaum (transrational) poetry, 12, 40, 52
=LQRYLHY*ULJRU\
LHN6ODYRM