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SECTION 25
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Diameter, in
Mass, lb-sec2/in
Stroke, in
Land length, in
Radial clearance, in
Coefficient of friction
Solenoid force, lb (initial; final)
Back pressure, lb / in2
Supply pressure, lb / in2
Differential pressure, lb / in2
Port area, in2
Flow coefficient
Viscosity, CP
Density, lb-sec2/in4
Pilot Spool
Main spool
d 0.25
m 0.0002
s 0.375
FSOL 1; 8.5
p 100
p 70 (approx)
a0 0.05
0.6
80
0.000,085
D 2.5
M 0.05
S 1.5
L 6.0
C 0.0003
FR 0.04
pB 20
P 500
P 450 (approx)
AM 1.2
0.6
80
0.000,085
the same unknowns when the pilot pressure is made equal to the main operating
pressure i.e., 500 lb / in2 (3445 kPa). As a further modification, a small actuating
piston is placed at each end of the main spool, Fig. 3, to increase the longitudinal
velocity for a given pilot-fluid flow rate. Trial and error would normally be used
to calculate the most effective diameter for the actuating piston. In this procedure
we will use a diameter dx 1.4 in (3.56 cm) for this small actuating piston. If the
dimensions and operating pressures are unchanged, analyze the valve for the same
unknowns as above.
Calculation Procedure:
Spool
Dimensions
and Mass
Solenoid
Forces
Drag
Forces
Pilot
Actuating
piston
Diameter, in
dx
ap
As
Mass, lb-sec2/in
Stroke: Intermediate
Full
Sa
lp
Initial, lb
Gradient, lb/in
Final, lb
FSOL
Ratio, A/B
pB
pB
pB
dV
DV
Radial jet, lb
Prad
Prad
Coefficient of friction
FR
FR
Pax
Pzx
F ma
F Ma
Axial jet, lb
Acceleration force, lb
Oil
pressure,
flow, and
port size
Main
valve
Pressure:
Supply, psi
Pilot downstream, psi
Differential, psi
Port area, in2(effective orifice)
Flow coefficient (0.55 to 0.70)
Viscosity, centipoise
p1
p1
p1
a0
AM
V0
ta
Ta
Ta
vp
DESIGN ENGINEERING
2p
where q flow, in3 / s (mL / s); flow factor, dimensionless, ranging from 0.55
to 0.70 depending on valve type; ao cross-sectional area, in2 (cm2); of the minimum port openingusually the drilled port hole; p p p1 differential
pressure, lb / in2 (kPa) measured across the pilot inlet and outlet ports; p fluid
mass density, lb-s2 / in4, normally 0.000085 for oil. Substituting, q 0.6
(0.5)[(2)(71.5) / 0.000085)]0.5 40 in3 / s (656 mL / s), using a value of 0.6 for
this valve.
4. Determine the maximum velocity of the main spool and the viscous damping
force
The maximum velocity of the main spool, Fig. 1, V (flow rate, in3 / s / (area of
spool end, in2) 40 / 4.9 8.2 in / s (20.8 cm / s). Knowing the velocity, we can
find the damping force, DV, from
DV
DLV
C 6.9 106
25.5
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DESIGN ENGINEERING
6. Determine the main spool displacement and the energization time interval
The displacement of the main spool during the acceleration period is negligible,
being less than 1 percent of the total stroke. Time for the total stroke of 1.5 in (3.8
cm) is 1.5 / 8.2 0.182 s, and the time interval from energization of the solenoid
to completion of the main valve stroke, T 0.190 s.
7. Analyze the valve with the higher pilot pressure
Much larger flow will pass through the pilot valve because of the higher pressure.
Maximum velocity period: Pax 5.3 lb / in2 (36.5 kPa), the same as before; DV
7.7 lb / in2 (53.1 kPa)a higher estimate, proportional to the anticipated velocity;
pB 20.0 lb / in2 (137.8 kPa), the same as before. The total is 33.0 lb / in2 (227.5
kPa).
The new P 467 lb / in2 (3217.6 kPa), and Q 4.7 (467)0.5 102 in3 / s
(1671.5 mL / s); V 102 / 4.9 20.8 in / s (52.1 cm / s); DV 1.82 (20.8) 37.8
lb (168.1 N) 7.75 lb / in2 (53.4 kPa), which proves out the assumption of 7.7 lb
/ in2 (53.1 kPa).
Accelerating time, ta (0.05)(20.8) / (2280) 0.0005 s. The 1.5-in (3.81-cm)
stroke takes 1.5 / 20.8 0.072 s. Total time 0.081 s.
The flow rate of the pilot oil is more important than pressure intensity in obtaining a fast-acting valve. A slightly larger pilot valve and enlarged porting have
a marked effect on the operational speed of the main valve.
Note that increasing the pilot pressure fivefold, from 100 lb / in2 to 500 lb / in2
(689 kPa to 3445 kPa) only doubles the speed of response, from 0.19 s to 0.08 s.
Increasing the port area can result in an nearly proportional gain in speed, and no
25.7
8.2 4.9 4 80
0.0003 6l9 106 1.4
2.5 6
2 1.5
1.4
12800
15
3
2075 1.4 1.4
2k2
2(p pB)
we have
ap
3(26 60.5)
1.62 in (10.45 sq cm) [1.59 in2; 10.26 cm2 ]
2(100 20)
a a
v k1
is
2 p
k2
k3
2
p
3
p
k21k2 k21k3
3
a2p
ap
vp 4.6
80
(26 59)
2.53
4.0
15.0 in / s
(38.1 cm / s)
The total time, T 0.100 0.009 0.109 s. Using a pilot pressure of 500 pst
(3445 kPa), V 20.8 in / s (52.8 cm / s) and d 1.06 in (2.69 cm). Then:
25.8
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DV
ap
15
3 258 lb
1.06
3(26 258)
0.886 in2
2(500 20)
dz 1.06 in
vp 4.6
0.784 0.61
480
284
55 in / s
T 0.036 s
Table 3 and Fig. 4 depict the effect of actuating-piston area upon the spool shifting
velocity and shifting time.
Related Calculations. Pilot-operated flow-control valves are probably the most
common valves used in industrial hydraulic systems. Speed of response of these
valves is important during the design and operation of any hydraulic system. The
procedure given here analyzes the speed of response of a typical valve in terms of
the fluid flow rate, characteristic force-vs-airgap curve of the solenoid; shape, size,
clearance, and displacement of each spool; and the fluid viscosity.
The method given in this procedure relates the above parameters for the valve
in Fig. 1. and can be applied to any other pilot-operated spool valve. And the
procedure includes a special technique for a large spool valve, Fig. 3, actuated by
a small auxiliary piston.
In the sequence of operation of solenoid-energized pilot-operated spool valve,
here is what happens. The solenoid is energized, the pilot spool moves quickly to
the full open position, Fig. 5, and the main spool is shifted at a rate determined by
the amount of fluid that can move through the pilot ports against these five resisting
forces: (1) pilot system backpressure, lb / in2 (kPa); (2) viscous damping force, lb
(N); (3) radial jet force, lb (N); (4) axial jet force, lb (N); (5) acceleration force, lb
(N).
Pilot
pressure p,
psi
Main valve
diameter,
in
Maximum
valve
velocity,
without
piston
in/sec
100
500
2.50
2.50
8.2
20.8
Total
shift
time
T,
sec
Maximum
valve
velocity,
with
piston in
sec
Piston
diameter,
in
Total
shift
time
T,
sec
0.190
0.081
15.0
55.0
1.425
1.06
0.109
0.036
DESIGN ENGINEERING
SI Values
in./sec cm/sec
5
12.7
10
25.4
15
38.1
20
50.8
25
63.5
FIGURE 4 Effect of varying piston diameter.
in.2
1
2
3
4
5
cm2
6.45
12.9
19.4
25.8
32.3
FIGURE 5 Before energization and after full stroke of a solenoid-energized spool valve.
25.11
DESIGN ENGINEERING
25.13
Calculation Procedure:
DESIGN ENGINEERING
max D
and solve for the required area, A. Or, A 8880 / (50 5) 35.5 ft2 (3.3 m2).
Since this reservoir has only 21 ft2 (1.95 m2) of cooling surface, the tank area is
not large enough to dissipate the heat generated. Hence, a larger reservoir cooling
area must be provided for this installation.
3. Determine the heat-transfer area and cooling-water flow rate required
Use the equation
Eexch Toil Qoil 210
Twater Qwater 500
to find the heat exchanger heat load. Substituting, we have Eexch (140 125)
(12)(210) 37,800 Btu / hr (11.1 kW). The maximum temperature difference,
Tmax 125 65 60F (51.7C). Minimum temperature difference Tmin
140 85 55F (30.6C). Log-mean temperature difference, computed as shown
elsewhere in this handbook (see index) is Tmean 57.5 (31.9C). Figure 9 shows
the oil and water temperature changes in a generalized manner.
Find the required heat-transfer area from
Eexch kATmeanBtu / hr
solving for A. Or A 37,800 / (90 57.5) 7.3 ft2 (0.68 m2).
25.15
To find the required cooling-water flow rate, use Qwater Eexch / (500 gal / min),
where 500 a constant to convert gal / min to gph. Substituting, Qwater 38,800 /
(500 20) 3.78 gal / min (0.2385 L / s).
Refer to manufacturers catalogs for the size of a heat exchanger with the proper
surface area. Be certain to check the heat exchanger pressure rating if the system
pressure exceeds 150 lb / in2 (1033.5 kPa).
4. Find the heat exchanger heat load
Use the same relation as in step 1, above, to find EL 8880 Btu / hr (2601.1 W).
5. Compute the heating variables for the fluid and reservoir
The heat balance for the oil and attached heat dissipating working unit are given
by cW 0.4(444) 0.1(800) 257.6 Btu / F (489.4 kJ / C). For the tank and
working unit, the kA 4(28 5.5) 134 Btu / hrF (254.6 kJ / hrC).
6. Determine the temperature above ambient for the hydraulic fluid
Use the equation
TD
EL
t
t
(1 ekA/cW ) (initTD)ekA/cW
kA
TD
8880
(1 e134/2575 ) 20 e134/2575
134
DESIGN ENGINEERING
dersize piping, dirty or undersize filters, leakage points, and areas of turbulence
anywhere in the system.
A good measure of internally generated heat loss is the difference between
pump input power, Btu / hr (W), and system useful work, Btu / hr (W). The energy
loss, EL Ein(1 ) where system efficiency.
Figure 10 shows a typical duty cycle in an industrial hydraulic system. The
utilization pressure, measured at the inlet to the working device (fluid motor or
cylinder) will always be lower than the source pump pressure, depending on the
amount of throttling or other regulation required in the system.
The difference in energiespumped vs utilizedmust be absorbed during transients and eventually dissipated by the system. An approximate measure of overall
system efficiency, , is the ratio of the mean effective pressure, Fig. 10, to pump
pressure, where the mean effective pressure is calculated from the area under the
curve, Fig. 10, divided by the time base.
Figure 11 compares reservoir tank temperature for two different pumps: (1) a
fixed-delivery pump, with constant flow and pressure and a full-flow relief valve
for bypass flow during idling of the workload, and (2) a variable-delivery pump,
with pressure and flow automatically varied to match load requirements.
Note that in the constant-pressure system, Fig. 11, the greatest rate of heat
generation is during idling of the workload; all the flow is throttled back to the
reservoir and does no useful work. By comparison, the variable-delivery pump does
not waste energy at idle because the flow is automatically reduced to nearly zero.
Both Fig. 10 and 11 indicate that savings in energy are possible if only the
needed oil is pumped. Excess capacity is forced back to the reservoir through the
relief valve, and the energy is converted to waste heat. Auxiliary pumps are great
offenders if they are operated when not needed. Additional useful guides for reservoir selection and sizing are given below.
SI Values
psi
250
500
750
1000
MPa
1.72
3.44
5.17
6.89
25.17
SI Values
F
C
50
10
100
37.8
150
65.6
FIGURE 11 Proper pump choice can conserve energy and reduce system temperature.
Plan for a reservoir capacity that can feed the pump system for two or three
minutes, neglecting any return flow. With a tank that big, several related requirements usually are met automatically: (1) There will be enough reserve fluid to fill
the hydraulic system at startup without exposing the filter and strainer; (2) A fairly
stable oil level will be maintained despite normal fluctuations in flow; (3) Enough
hydraulic fluid will be available to sustain the system while the rotating parts coast
to a stop during emergency shutdown if a return line breaks; (4) Thermal capacity
will be available to absorb unexpected heat for short periods or to store heat during
idle periods in a cold environment; (5) Enough surface area (reservoir tank walls)
is available for natural cooling during normal operation.
If the reservoir tank volume in gallons (L) is less than twice pump flow in gallons
per min (L / min)that is, if the tank can be pumped dry in less than 2
minutesadd a heat exchanger to the system circuit to avoid excessive temperature
fluctuations. For any size reservoir tank, specify an oil-level indicator or sight glass,
in addition to whatever automatic level controls are provided.
When designing a reservoir tank, include each device shown in Fig. 7 to provide
reliable service for the system. The suction-line filter should be 12 to 34 in (1.3 to
1.9 cm) above the tank bottom. Strainer oil flow capacity should be two to four
times the pump capacity. A vacuum gage on the pump suction will show if the
strainer is clogged. A permanent-magnet filter can be specified as a drain plug or
mounted on the baffle plate in a region of concentrated return oil flow.
The main return oil flow should discharge below the reservoir oil level about
one inch (2.5 cm) above the tank bottom. Backpressure in the return line will be
5 to 10 lb / in2 (34.5 to 68.9 kPa), or higher. Atmospheric return lines, including
seal-leakage lines, are at zero pressure and should be discharged above the hydraulic
oil level.
If the atmospheric lines have high flow and a high air content, they should be
discharged above the oil level into a chute sloping gradually (5 to 10 degrees) into
DESIGN ENGINEERING
the tank fluid. The chute slows and fans out the flow, enabling the oil to free itself
of air. This is important, because oil saturated with air and operating at high pressures will run 25 percent hotter than air-free oil. This is caused partly by the heat
of compression of the air and partly by its low thermal conductivity.
Internal baffles between the return pipe and pump inlet will slow the fluid circulation, help settle out dirt particles, give air the chance to escape, and allow
dissipation of heat. The top of the baffle should be submerged about 30 percent
below the surface of the fluid.
Keep the hydraulic oil temperature between 120 and 150F (54 and
66C)preferably at the lower value for oil viscosities from 100 to 300 SSU based
on 100F (38C). Temperatures up to 160F (71C) are permissible if the hydraulic
fluid viscosity is from 300 to 750 SSU, based on 100F (38C). Higher operating
temperatures require special design.
Tank walls should be thin to permit good thermal conductivity. Make them
approximately 116 in (0.16 cm) for tank capacities up to 25 gal (95 L); 18 in (0.32
cm) for capacities up to 100 gal (379 L); 14 in (0.64 cm) for 100 gal (379 L) or
more. Use slightly heavier plate for the bottom. Give the top plate four times wall
thickness to assure vibration-free operation and to hold alignment of pump and
motor shafts. Specify a thermometer to be mounted on the tank top where the
operator can see it.
Avoid designing industrial hydraulic system machines with integral tanks. It is
better to have a separate reservoir, accessible from all sides. Small reservoir tanks
can even be mounted on castors. Tanks within the machine frame are troublesome
to maintain; be sure to work out maintenance details of such a tank before committing yourself to the design.
Equip the reservoir tank with cleanout doors and slope the bottom toward the
doors. Provide a drain cock or discharge valve at the low point of the bottom and
at other low points if needed for complete drainage. Put a manhole cover on the
tank top for removing filters and strainers. Design a connection for hooking to a
portable filtration unit.
If the reservoir tank is made of cast iron, dont paint the interior surface. Be
sure that all grit and core sand are removed before putting the tank into service.
Surfaces must be sandblasted.
This procedure is the work of Louis dodge, Hydraulics Consultant, as reported
in Product Engineering magazine. SI values were added by the handbook editor.
Heat-transfer terminology and symbols
Heat loss and efficiency
System efficiency, Eused / Ein, %
Eused Energy utilized in system, Btu / hr (W)
Ein Pump input power, Btu / hr (W)
EL Heat loss generated in system, Btu / hr (W)
EA Heat absorbed by oil, tank and components, Btu / hr (W)
ED Heat dissipated to atmosphere or coolant, Btu / hr (W)
Eexch Heat exchanger load, Btu / hr (W)
Fluid conditions and flow
t
Q
P
TD
T
Operating time, hr
Flow, gal / min (L / s)
Pump gage pressure, lb / in2 (kPa)
Temperature-over-ambient for oil, F: TD Toil Tair (values are mean) (C)
Heat exchanger only: Twater Tout Tin; Toil Tin Tout; Tmean log-mean
T, oil-to-water (C)
25.19
Equation constants
c
k
W
A
e
Calculation Procedure:
1. Determine the total bolt force and torque for these flanges
Assuming that torque wrenches will be used to check this installation, as is almost
universally done today, select the bolt-stress method to calculate the total bolt force.
This method uses the equation,
Fb NbSb Ab
where the symbols are as given below.
Material
Rubber
Vegetable fiber
Rubberized cloth
Compressed asbestos**
Metal types
Max Pi T
Max Temp, F
15,000
40,000
125,000
250,000
250,000
300
250
400
850
depends on metal
DESIGN ENGINEERING
From Table 5, the stress area for 3 / 3-10 NC bolt is 0.3340 sq in. (2.15 sq cm).
The bolt material specified can easily take a stress of 30,000 lb / in2 (206.7 MPa)
without yielding. This can be verified from
Fb 16,000Db / Ab
which gives Fb (16,000)(0.75 / 0.3340) 36,000 lb (160.1 kN).
From the bolt-stress equation, Fb 4(30,000)(0.3340) 40,080 lb (178.3 kN).
The torque required to produce this stress level at installation is given by,
T 0.2DbSb Ab
Or, T 0.2(0.75)(30,000)(0.3340) / 12 125 ft-lb (169.4 Nm). This torque will be
specified on the system assembly drawings so it is used during construction.
2. Choose a suitable gasket material
The pressure-temperature relation for this installation is 1200 180 216,000 in
USCS units and 6798 in SI units. This, from Table 4, suggests choosing a compressed-asbestos (or acceptable substitute) type gasket. This would be compatible
with industrial hydraulic fluid.
The gasket area is 4.73 sq in. (30.5 sq cm), calculated from an outside diameter
of 278 in (7.07 cm), the same as the OD of the raised flange, per ASA-B16.5, and
an ID of 1.5 in (3.8 cm). The seating stress is computed from
Fine Threads
Coarse Threads
Nominal dia, in
0.125
0.138
0.164
0.190
0.216
(No.
(No.
(No.
(No.
(No.
1
4
5
16
3
8
7
16
1
2
1
2
9
16
5
8
3
4
7
8
1
118
114
138
112
5)
6)
8)
10)
12)
Threads
per in
Stress area,
sq in
Threads
per in
Stress area,
sq in
40
32
32
24
24
20
18
16
14
13
12
12
11
10
9
8
7
7
6
6
0.0079
0.0090
0.0139
0.0174
0.0240
0.0317
0.0522
0.0773
0.1060
0.1416
0.1374
0.1816
0.2256
0.3340
0.4612
0.6051
0.7627
0.9684
1.1538
1.4041
44
40
36
32
28
28
24
24
20
20
0.0082
0.0101
0.0146
0.0199
0.0257
0.0362
0.0579
0.0876
0.1185
0.1597
18
18
16
14
12
12
12
12
12
0.2026
0.2555
0.3724
0.5088
0.6624
0.8549
0.0721
1.3137
1.5799
25.21
Sg Fb / Ag
Or, Sg 40,080 / 4.73 8470 lb / in2 (58.4 MPa).
Table 6 shows this stress will easily seat the selected compressed-asbestos (or
acceptable substitute) gasket. Tentatively choose asbestos (or acceptable substitute)
with CR (neoprene) binder for oil resistance; thickness 132 in (0.079 cm).
3. Determine the hydrostatic end force for the chosen gasket
The mean area acted upon by the pressure in the hydraulic line is defined by a
diameter of (2.875 1.5) / 2 3.74 sq in (24.1 sq cm). Selecting a safety factor
of 1.5 from Table 8, the end force is calculated and balanced against the total bolt
force by the equation,
Fb KPt Am
Or,
Thus, there is no end-force balance problem with bolts stressed to 30,000 lb / in2
(206.7 MPa).
4. Select a suitable surface finish for the flange
Table 6 shows that a concentric-serrated surface finish on the flange is best. Economy may dictate a conventional spiral-serrated surface, which Table 6 shows will
work in this case.
5. Prepare the final specification for the gasket
Include in the specifications the material type, dimensions, and bolt-torque data
computed in step 1, above. For greater torque-wrench accuracy, specify uniform fit
on all bolts and lubrication before installation.
Related Calculations. While the procedure given here is directed at industrial
hydraulic systems, the steps and data are valid for choosing gaskets for any piping
system: steam, condensate, oil, fuel, etc. Just be certain that the pressures and
temperatures are within the ranges in the tables and equations presented here.
Three main design factors govern the selection of a gasket materialwhether
sheet packing, metal, or a combination of materials. These factors are:
Fluid compatability at the pressure-temperature condition being designed for
must be checked first. Refer to data available from gasket manufacturersthere is
much of it available free to designers.
The pressure-temperature combination determines whether the gasket material
is inherently strong enough to resist blow-out. One rule-of-thumb criterion is the
product of operating pressure, Pi, and operating temperature, T. Table 4 lists values
of this product for several basic types of gasket material. These figures are based
on experience, test data, and analysis of current technical literature.
The total bolt force at installation must be sufficient to: (1) flow the gasket
surface into the flange surface to make an effective seal; (2) prevent the internal
pressure from opening the flanges. This demands careful matching of gasket material, seating area, bolt selection, and flange-surface finish. The procedure presented here gives a logical way to achieve the right balance among these factors
for the majority of gasket joint applications.
Where asbestos is the recommended gasket material in this procedure, the designer must review the environmental aspects of the design. Acceptable substitute
materials may be required by local environmental regulations. Hence, these regulations must be carefully studied before a final design choice is made.
25.22
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N
O
N
M
E
T
A
L
Folded
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Vegetable-fiber sheet
Fluorocarbon (TFE)
Virgin
Glass-filled
Flat
Flat
Flat
Flat
Rubberized cloth
CR binder
Rubber sheet
SBR (75 Durometer)
CR (60 Durometer)
Compressed asbestos**
SBR binder
Material
Type (see
Table IV)
64
32
1
16
1
8
1
64
1
32
1
16
1
8
3
32
1
64
32
1
16
1
8
1
64
1
32
1
16
1
8
2-ply
3-ply
4-ply
all
32 and up
32 and up
Thickness,
in
14,000
6,500
3,700
1,600
14,000
11,000
6,000
3,000
1,600
3,000
2,000
1,600
1,200
3,750
2,500
2,000
1,500
2,500
2,100
1,800
750
200
175
Minimum seating
stress, lb/in2
80 rms
(164 in only)
Concentricserrated
(all other
thicknesses)
Concentricserrated
1st choice
All
other
types
All
other
types
2nd
choice
Flange-surface finish
25.23
A
S
B
E
S
T
O
S
M
E
T
A
L
M
E
T
A
L
25.24
Spiral-wound
Stainless
Corrugated
jacket
Plain
metal
jacket
3,000
to
30,000
500
2,500
4,000
6,000
6,000
7,500
10,000
1
8
only
0.125
and
0.175
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
25,000
35,000
55,000
65,000
75,000
500
1,000
2,500
3,500
4,500
6,000
20,000
45,000
68,750
81,250
93,750
1
8
only
All
thicknesses
Profile
(18-in pitch)
Corrugated
and
corded
964
only
132
and
116
Corrugated
jacketmetal
filler
Flat
Lead
Aluminum
Copper
Carbon steel
Nickel
Monel
Stainless
Metal (asbestos-filler)
Aluminum
Copper
Carbon steel
Stainless
Monel
Stamped metals
Lead
Aluminum
Copper
Carbon steel
Monel
Stainless
Machined metals
Aluminum
Copper
Carbon steel
Monel
Stainless
Flat metals
Aluminum
Copper
Carbon steel
Monel
Stainless
80 rms
or
less
150 to
200
rms
80 rms
or
less
Concentricserrated
150
to
200
rms
Concentricserrated
150
to
200
rms
80
rms
or
less
25.25
*Or acceptable substitute.
Spiral-wound
Profile
Corrugated and
corded*
Corrugated metal or asbestos core enclosed by a corrugatedmetal jacket and top washer. Better than flat gaskets for
rough flangescorrugations give greater resilience.
Corrugated jacket:
metal-filled
asbestos-filled*
Folded
Description
Simplest gasket form; available in wide variety of materials for
different conditions of fluid media, temperature and pressure; most easily manufactured for nonsymmetrical shapes.
Cross-section
Flat
DESIGN ENGINEERING
92,900 VD
VD
7,740
12
v
v
25.27
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Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
DESIGN ENGINEERING
T0
T
The above relationship holds for only a relatively restricted range of temperatures and should not be extrapolated beyond the range of validity. The table, which
is part of Fig. 14, gives exponents for the hydraulic oils shown in the chart, covering
a temperature range of 70 to 130F (21 to 54C). As a fair approximation, the
viscosity of oils most commonly used in hydraulic work changes with the third
power of the temperature gradient within the normal operating range. With a commonly encountered temperature gradient of about 2:1 between cold start and maximum operating temperature, viscosities vary as 8:1.
A graph representing the value of the friction factor, , as a function of the
Reynolds number, R, is often called the Stanton chart, after its developer, who was
the first to employ this representation of the friction factor.
A chart taking advantage of the functional relationships established by research
was drawn up by Lewis F. Moody, and is reproduced in Fig. 12 in a form convenient
for the user of this handbook. In Fig. 12, the friction factor, , is shown as a function
of the Reynolds number, R, and the relative roughness, e / D, e being a linear quantity in feet or meters representing the absolute roughness. An auxiliary chart is
given in Fig. 13, from which e / D can be taken for any size and type of pipe.
The procedure given here is valid for industrial hydraulic systems used in hydraulic presses; drilling, boring, and honing machines; planers; grinders; milling,
transfer, and broaching machines; die-casting and plastic molding machines; hy-
25.29
SI Values
in.
mm
1
25.4
2
50.8
3
76.2
4
101.6
5
127.0
6
152.4
FIGURE 13 Relative roughness as a function of pipe diameter for various types of piping.
draulic steering mechanisms in ships, aircraft, trucks, etc. In each instance, the basic
approach given here is valid.
This procedure is the work of Walter Ernst, Hydraulic Consulting Engineer. SI
values were added by the handbook editor.
25.30
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Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.
25.31
FIGURE 15 Undamped cylinder experiences shock forces at, and during, reversal of mass.
DESIGN ENGINEERING
25.33
First analyze the propel power requirements. For any propel condition, hp
Tn / 63,000, where hp horsepower required; T torque, lb in, at n r / min. Thus
at maximum speed, hp (30,000)(59.2) / 63,000 28.2 horsepower (21.0 kW). At
maximum torque, hp 74,500 29.6 / 63,000 35.0 (26.1 kW); at maximum
speed and maximum torque, hp (74,500)(59.2) / 63,000 70.0 (52.2 kW).
The drive arrangement for a bulldozer generally uses hydraulic motors geared
down to wheel speed. Choose a 3000-r / min step-variable type of motor for each
wheel of the vehicle. Then each motor will operate at either of two displacements.
At maximum vehicle loads, the higher displacement is used to provide maximum
torque at low speed; at light loads, where a higher speed is desired, the lower
displacement, producing reduced torque, is used.
Determine from a manufacturers engineering data the motor specifications. For
each of these motors the specifications might be: maximum displacement, 2.1 in3 /
r (34.4 cm3 / r); rated pressure, 6000 lb / in2 (41,370.0 kPa); rated speed, 3000 r /
min; power output at rated speed and pressure, 90.5 horsepower (67.5 kW); torque
at rated pressure, 1900 lb in (214.7 N m).
The gear reduction ratio GR between each motor and wheel (output torque
required, lb in) / (input torque, lb in, gear reduction efficiency). Assuming a 92
percent gear reduction efficiency, a typical value, we find GR 74,500 / (1900
0.92) 42.6:1. Hence, the maximum motor speed wheel speed GR 59.2
42.6 2520 r / min. At full torque the motor speed is, by the same relation, 29.6
42.6 1260 r / min.
The required oil flow for the four motors is, at 1260 r / min, in3 / r 4 motors
(r / min) / (231 in3 / gal) 2.1 4 1260 / 231 45.8 gal / min (2.9 L / s). With
a 10 percent leakage allowance, the required flow 50 gal / min (3.2 L / s), closely,
or 50 / 4 12.5 gal / min (0.8 L / s) per motor.
As computed above, the power output per motor is 35 horsepower (26.1 kW).
Thus, the four motors will have a total output of 4(35) 140 horsepower (104.4
kW).
2. Determine the linear auxiliary power requirements
The dozer uses a linear power output. Two hydraulic cylinders each furnish a maximum force of 10,000 lb (44,482.2 N) to the dozer at a maximum speed of 10 in /
s (25.4 cm / s). Assuming that the maximum operating pressure of the system is
3500 lb / in2 (24,132.5 kPa), we see that the piston are a required per cylinder is:
force developed, lb / operating pressure, lb / in2 10,000 / 3500 2.86 in2 (18.5
cm2), or about a 2-in (5.1-cm) cylinder bore. With a 2-in (5.1-cm) bore, the operating pressure could be reduced in the inverse ratio of the piston areas. Or, 2.86 /
(22 / 4) p / 3500, where p cylinder operating pressure, lb / in2. Hence, p 3180
lb / in2, say 3200 lb / in2 (22,064.0 kPa).
By using a 2-in (5.1-cm) bore cylinder, the required oil flow, gal, to each cylinder (cylinder volume, in3)(stroke length, in) / (231 in3 / gal) (22 / 4)(10) / 231
0.1355 gal / s, or 0.1355 gal / s, or 0.1355 (60 s / min) 8.15 gal / min (0.5 L / s),
or 16.3 gal / min (1.0 L / s) for two cylinders. The power input to the two cylinders
is hp 16.3(3200) / 1714 30. / 4 horsepower (22.7 kW).
3. Determine rotary auxiliary power requirements
The winch will be turned by one hydraulic motor. This winch must exert a maximum line pull of 20,000 lb (88,964.4 N) at a maximum linear speed of 280 ft / min
(1.4 m / s) with a maximum drum torque of 200,000 lb in (22,597.0 N m) at a
drum speed of 53.5 r / min.
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Compute the drum horsepower from hp Tn / 63,000, where the symbols are
the same as in step 1. Or, hp (200,000)(53.5) / 63,000 170 horsepower (126.8
kW).
Choose a hydraulic motor having these specifications: displacement 6 in3 / r
(98.3 cm3 / r); rated pressure 6000 lb / in2 (41,370.0 kPa); rated speed 2500 r /
min; output torque at rated pressure 5500 lb in (621.4 N m); power output at
rated speed and pressure 218 horsepower (162.6 kW). This power output rating
is somewhat greater than the computed rating, but it allows some overloading.
The gear reduction ratio GR between the hydraulic motor and winch drum, based
on the maximum motor torque, is GR (output torque required, lb in) / (torque at
rated pressure, lb in, reduction gear efficiency) 20,000 / (5500 0.92) 39.5:
1. Hence, by using this ratio, the maximum motor speed 53.5 39.5 2110
r / min. Oil flow rate to the motor in3 / r (r / min) / 231 6 2110 / 231 54.8
gal / min (3.5 L / s), without leakage. With 5 percent leakage, flow rate 1.05(54.8)
57.2 gal / min (3.6 L / s).
4. Categorize the required power outputs
List the required outputs and the type of motion requiredrotary or linear. Thus:
propel rotary; dozer linear; winch rotary.
5. Determine the total number of simultaneous functions
There are two simultaneous functions: (a) propel motors and dozer cylinders; ( b)
propel motors at slow speed and drive winch.
For function a, maximum oil flow 50 16.3 66.3 gal / min (4.2 L / s);
maximum propel motor pressure 6000 lb / in2 (41,370.0 kPa); maximum dozer
cylinder pressure 3200 lb / in2 (22,064.0 kPa). Data for function a came from
previous steps in this calculation procedure.
For function b, the maximum oil flow need not be computed because it will be
less than for function a.
6. Determine the number of series nonsimultaneous functions
These are the dozer, propel, and winch functions.
7. Determine the number of parallel simultaneous functions
These are the propel and dozer functions.
8. Establish function priority
The propel and dozer functions have priority over the winch function.
9. Size the piping and valves
Table 9 lists the normal functions required in this machine and the type of valve
that would be chosen for each function. Each valve incorporates additional functions: The step variable selector valve has a built-in check valve; the propel directional valve and winch directional valve have built-in relief valves and motor overload valves; the dozer directional valve has a built-in relief valve and a fourth
position called float. In the float position, all ports are interconnected, allowing the
dozer blade to move up or down as the ground contour varies.
10. Determine the simultaneous power requirements
These are: Horsepower for propel and dozer (gal / min)(pressure, lb / in2) / 1714
for the propel and dozer functions, or (50)(6000) / 1714 (16.3)(3200) / 1714
205.4 horsepower (153.2 kW). Winch horsepower, by the same relation, is
25.35
(57.2)(6000) / 1714 200 horsepower (149.1 kW). Since the propel-dozer functions
do not operate at the same time as the winch, the prime mover power need be only
205.4 horsepower (153.2 kW).
11. Plan the specific circuit layouts
To provide independent simultaneous flow to each of the four propel motors, plus
the dozer cylinders, choose two split-flow piston-type pumps having independent
outlet ports. Split the discharge of each pump into three independent flows. Two
pumps rated at 66.3 / 2 33.15 gal / min (2.1 L / s) each at 6000 lb / in2 (41,370.0
kPa) will provide the needed oil. Figure 17 shows a schematic of the piping, valves
and motors for this bulldozer, while Fig. 18 shows the valving.
When the vehicle is steered, additional flow is required by the outside wheels.
Design the circuit so oil will flow from three pump pistons to each wheel motor.
Four pistons of one split-flow pump are connected through check valves to all four
motors. With this arrangement, oil will flow to the motors with the least resistance.
To make use of all or part of the oil from the propel-dozer circuits for the winch
circuit, the outlet series ports of the propel and dozer valves are connected into the
winch circuit, since the winch circuit is inoperative only when both the propel and
DESIGN ENGINEERING
the dozer are operating. When only the propel function is in operation, the winch
is able to operate slowly but at full torque.
12. Investigate adjustment of the winch gear ratio
As computed in step 3, the winch gear ratio is based on torque. Now, because a
known gal / min (gallons per minute) is available for the winch motor from the
propel and dozer circuits when these are not in use, the gear ratio can be based on
the motor speed resulting from the available gal / min.
Flow from the propel and dozer circuit 66.3 gal / min (4.2 L / s); winch motor
speed 2450 r / min; required winch drum speed 53.5 r / min. Thus, GR
2450 / 53.5 45.8:1.
With the proposed circuit, the winch gear reduction should be increased
from 39.5:1 to 45.8:1. The winch circuit pressure can be reduced to (39.5 / 45.8)
(6000) 5180 lb / in2 (35,716.1 kPa). The required size of the winch oil tubing can
be reduced to 0.219 in (5.6 mm).
13. Select the prime mover horsepower
Using a mechanical efficiency of 89 percent, we see that the prime mover for the
pumps should be rated at 205.4 / 0.89 230 horsepower (171.5 kW). The prime
mover chosen for vehicles of this type is usually a gasoline or diesel engine. Figure
19 shows the final tractor-dozer hydraulic circuits.
Related Calculations. The method presented here is also valid for fixed equipment using a hydraulic system, such as presses, punches, and balers. Other applications for which the method can be used include aircraft, marine, and on-highway
vehicles. Use the method presented in an earlier section of this handbook to
determine the required size of the connecting tubing.
The procedure presented above is the work of Wes Master, reported in Product
Engineering.
25.37
DESIGN ENGINEERING
is available at the cylinder port, there is zero initial piston velocity, and a 100-ft /
min (30.5-m / min) terminal velocity is reached after 3-in (76.2-mm) travel at constant acceleration with the rod extending? Determine the required piston diameter
and maximum fluid flow needed.
What pressure will stop a piston and load within 2 in (50.8 mm) at constant
deceleration if the cylinder is horizontal, the rod is extending, the load is 5000 lb
(2250 kg), there is a 500-lb (2224-N) friction force, the driving pressure at the head
end is 800 lb / in2 (gage) (5515.2 kPa), and the initial velocity is 80 ft / min (24.4
m / min)? The rod diameter is 1 in (25.4 mm), and the piston diameter is 1.5 in
(38.1 mm).
Calculation Procedure:
25.39
The decelerating force FA 0.5M(V 2) / S for the special case when the velocity is zero at the start of acceleration or the end of deceleration. Thus FA
0.5(155.4)(1.333)2 / 0.1667 828.2 lb (3684 N).
The total decelerating force is F FA FED 827.2 913.6 1741.8 lb
(7748 N).
6. Find the cushioning pressure in the annulus
The cushioning pressure is Pc F / A, where A differential area piston area
rod area, both expressed in in2. For this piston, A (1.5)2 / 4 (1.0)2 / 4 0.982
in2 (6.34 cm2). Then P F / A 1741.8 / 0.982 1773.7 lb / in2 (gage) (12,227.9
kPa).
Related Calculations. Most errors in applying hydraulic cylinders to accelerate
or decelerate loads are traceable to poor design or installation. In the design area,
miscalculation of acceleration and / or deceleration is a common cause of problems
in the field. The above procedure for determining acceleration and deceleration
should eliminate one source of design errors.
Rod buckling can also result from poor design. A basic design rule is to allow
a compressive stress in the rod of 10,000 to 20,000 lb / in2 (68,940 to 137,880 kPa)
as long as the effective rod length-to-diameter ratio does not exceed about 6:1 at
full extension. A firmly guided rod can help prevent buckling and allow at least
four times as much extension.
With rotating hydraulic actuators, the net accelerating, or decelerating torque in
lb ft (N m) is given by TA J MK2 rad / s2 0.1047 MK N / T WK 2
N / (307) t, where J mass moment of inertia, slugs ft2, or lb s2 ft;
angular acceleration (or deceleration), rad / s2; K radius of gyration, ft; N r /
min change during acceleration or deceleration; other symbols as given earlier.
For the special case where the r / min is zero at the start of acceleration or end
of deceleration, TA 0.0008725MK2 (N)2 / revs; in this case, revs total revolutions average r / min t / 60 0.5 NT / 60; t 120(revs / t). For the
linear piston and cylinder where the piston velocity at the start of acceleration is
zero, or at the end of deceleration is zero, t S / average velocity S / (0.5
V).
High water base fluids (HWBF) are gaining popularity in industrial fluid power
cylinder applications because of lower cost, greater safety, and biodegradability.
Cylinders function well on HWBF if the cylinder specifications are properly prepared for the specific application. Some builders of cylinders and pumps offer
designs that will operate at pressures up to several thousand pounds per square
inch, gage. Most builders, however, recommend a 1000-lb / in2 (gage) (6894-kPa)
limit for cylinders and pumps today.
Robotics is another relatively recent major application for hydraulic cylinders.
There is nothing quite like hydrostatics for delivering high torque or force in
cramped spaces.
This procedure is the work of Frank Yeaple, Editor, Design Engineering, as
reported in that publication.
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Calculation Procedure:
The final load pressure p2 lb / in2 (abs) (kPa) is found from p(n1)
2
p2(n1) / n{[Ek(n 1) / ( p1v1)] 1}, where p1 precharge pressure of the accumulator,
lb / in2 (abs) (kPa); n the polytropic gas constant 1.4 for nitrogen, a popular
/ 1.4
charging gas; v1 accumulator capacity, in3 (cm3). Substituting gives p(1.41)
2
(1.41) / 1.4
2
1000
{[22,360(1.4 1) / (1000 60)] 1} 1626 lb / in (abs) (11,213.1
kPa). Since this is within the 2000-lb / in2 (abs) limit selected, the accumulator is
acceptable from a pressure standpoint.
25.41
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Calculation Procedure:
25.43
is as follows: Control A, 500 lb / in2 (3447 kPa); control B, 100 lb / in2 (6894 kPa);
control C, 2000 lb / in2 (13,788 kPa). Determine the power loss and the cost of this
loss for each control if the cost of electricity is 15 cents per kilowatthour. How
much more can be spent on a control if it operates 3000 h / year?
Calculation Procedure:
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Calculation Procedure:
Component
Hand valve
Flow
coefficient
Defining equation
CV 1.26
CV
Pressure reducer
D0 0.25
D0
Q 60
1360
P P
33P
GTU
Control valve
F unknown
F
Air motor
Symbols
Q
q
V
P
p
P
r
G
T
A
Dc
M
W
Cv , K,
F, Do
Q
PU 8/5
1
r (r 0.43 r 0.71)
r (1 r)(3 r)
1
air flow in standard units, scfm (14.7 lb / in2 (abs), 68F) (cu m / min)
air flow at actual conditions, cfm. Q q( P / 14.7)(528 / T ) (cu m / min)
velocity, fps (average through valve)
pressure in absolute units, psia (subscript D downstream, U upstream) (kPa)
gage pressure, psi (kPa)
pressure drop, psi (kPa)
pressure ratio PD/PU
density, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
specific gravity, gas/air
absolute temperature, deg R deg F 460
Inlet pipe area, in2 (cm2)
diameter of equivalent sharp-edge orifice, in (coefficient of discharge CD 0.6)
molecular weight, lb (M 29 lb for air) (kg)
water weight flow, lb/sec (kg/sec)
typical flow coefficients (also called flow constants and flow factors) in a flow
equation
The procedure given her shows how to convert to F from CV and D0. This will
be done for each component of the pneumatic system.
2. Convert each known flow coefficient to the flow factor, F
Use the conversion equations in Table 11, correlating them with the given values
in Table 10. Thus:
Hand valve: F 0.556CV 0.556 1.26 0.7
Reducer: F 10D20 10 (0.25)2 0.625
Control valve: Calculate the control-valve flow factor F from the known flow
and pressure at P4 and the calculated pressure at P3, Fig. 21. Do this by starting
at the supply pressure P1 3014.7 lb / in2 (abs) (20.77 MPa), and knowing that
the flow is 250 scfm (7.075 cu m / min), find P2 and P3 by substitution in the
NBS flow equationEquation 9 in Table 12for each component in the system
thus:
r 0.5
K r 0.75
4.5
1460
A2
F2
A2
534 2
F
A2
724 2
F
450
23.1
26.9
NOTE: The K factor varies with r and A and you must know
which values the manufacturer used to derive his published
K. For example, if K was derived at r 0.75 and valve inlet
pipe area A 0.2, then F 23.1 0.2/K 4.62/K.
A
K 1/4
A2
C2V
A2
1725 2
CV
A2
2330 2
CV
48.3
1.641
A2
D 40
A2
5.36 4
D0
A2
7.29 4
D0
r 1.0
A
K 1/4
21.2
41.5
1.521
0.556CV
A
K 1/4
r 0.5
10D 20
38.2
1.456
K
r 0.75
1.8F
0.316F
0.236CV
r 1.0
18.0D 02
CV
CV
DO
DO
25.46
1r
K
K K factor
10
Q 38.1 PU A
Q FPU8/5r(1 r)(3 r)
CG gas-flow coefficient
GTU/520
0.6
U
CV valve-flow coefficient
CV capacity factor
CV flow coefficient
Q FPU4/31 r 2
2
D
0.443
2
D
CV valve coefficient
CG
2
U
2
U
P( PU PD)
2
D
GTU/520
Q 60
2
D
Q
PU4/3
2g
P
V 2
1 r
Q
1
2
D
2
D
GTU
P( P P )
GT
Q 60
1360 P P
GT
Q 60
1390 P P
MT
Q 60
5180 P P
GT
Q 60
963 P P
33 P
Q 60
963
2.32
60
0.443
963
Q
C
60 V
GT
P P
1360
Q
C
60
GT
P P
1390
Q
C
60
GT
P
P
5180
Q
C
60
MT
P P
963
Q
C
60
GT
Eq no
25.47
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Hand valve:
F
Q
PU8 / 5
1
r(1 r)(3
r)
Q
PU8 / 5
1
r(1 r)(3
r)
where Q 250 scfm (7.075 cu m / min); PV P3 2982 lb / in2 (abs) (20.5 MPa);
r P4 / P3 600 / 2982 0.201.
Note: The value r 0.201 is less than the critical flow ratio of r 0.5; therefore,
F by definition is Q / PV 250 / 2982 0.0838. A valve manufacturer will accept
a flow coefficient such as F as a specification for minimum flow because the coefficient completely defines flow and pressure drop.
3. Find the flow coefficient for the relief valve
The relief valve (A / [K]0.5 0.021) is not part of the flow path. However, you can
convert its flow coefficient to F and compute the valves relieving capacity. The
pressure ratio r is less than 0.5 because the valve discharges to atmosphere. Hence,
the conversion equation is
F 26.9
A
0.565
K
TABLE 13 Computed r
Values
r
r (1 r)(3 r)
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
0.99
0.995
1.000
0.625
0.483
0.352
0.189
0.153
0.116
0.0784
0.0396
0.0199
0.0100
0.0000
25.49
The maximum flow is then Q F PV 0.565 3000 1695 scfm (47.96 cvu
m / min). The relieving capacity is 1695 / 250 6.78 times the system design capacity.
Related Calculations. During the design of any series of pneumatic systems
it is wise to standardize the flow coefficient that will be used. Then the results will
be consistent for all systems designed. The NBS coefficient given here is an acceptable and valid design value for pneumatic systems used in industrial machines,
aircraft, ships, etc.
This procedure is the work of Dominic Lapera, Chief Engineer, Kemp Aero
Products, and Franklin D. Yeaple, Associate Editor, Product Engineering magazine.
SI values were added by the handbook editor.
(11.55 K m / s)
25.50
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25.51
Substituting,
Re (0.0743 37.9K 0.0625) /
(12 4.79 107 32.2)
950K
Now we must make one or more trial solutions using the correction chart in Fig.
25 to determine the actual Reynolds number for this orifice. We will try different
values of K to see what Reynolds number each will yield. Thus:
First trial: Let K 0.5; then R 950 0.5 475. Figure 25 shows that for
D / 2L 0.0625 / 0.54 0.116, and K 0.5, Re 180. This is a wrong guess.
Second trial: Try K 0.7; then Re 950 0.7 665. Figure 25 shows Re
900. Again, this is a wrong guess. Third trial: Try K 0.65, then Re 950
0.65 617.5; Fig. 25 shows Re 600, which is close enough to the computed
617.5, value within 3 percent.
3. Find the velocity and mass flow rate for the orifice
From step 1, the velocity, V 37.9 K 37.9 0.65 24.63 ft / s (7.5 m / s). The
mass rate of flow, W 0.0743 (24.63)( )(0.0625)2 / (4 144) 0.000039 lb / s
(0.0000018 kg / s).
4. Find the Reynolds number for flow through the larger orifice
Use the following two relations and substitute as shown below
W
223.8AP1
cp
T1
Re
P2
P1
2/n
P2
P1
(n) / n
W(2C) 223.8P1
Ag
R
cp
T1
(2)
P2
P1
2/n
P2
P1
(n1) / n
2C
(2)
g
(3)
223.8 21 144
.24
660
14.7
21
2 / 1.4
14.7
21
(1.41) / 1.4
0.0156
4900K
12 32.2
25.52
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25.53
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DESIGN ENGINEERING
From Fig. 25, Re 350, which is a wrong guess. Second trial: Try K 0.6; then
Re 700, from Fig. 25; wrong again. Third trial: Try K 0.715; then Re 3503.5;
Fig. 25 shows Re 3550, which is close enough, within 1.3 percent.
Substituting in the first equation above W 0.55 104 lb / s (0.2497 kg
4
10 kg / s).
Related Calculations. When a restriction is too long for pure orifice flow analysis, and too short for line flow analysis, as is the case for many short capillary
orifices and close-clearance labyrinths, Figs. 23 and 24, considered in this procedure, empirical solutions must be used. Published test results which agree well with
computed data are summarized on a mean-value basis in Figs. 25 and 26.
The basic equation selected for the analysis in this procedure is
V K2gH
V K2g(P1 P2) /
(1)
Another equation could have been selected but this is adequate. In this equation,
the variables are: V velocity; K empirical coefficient, Figs. 24 and 25; H
head loss (P1 P2) / , where P1 inlet pressure, psf (kPa); P2 outlet pressure,
psf (kPa); fluid density in suitable units. This is basically the equation for
incompressible flow through an orifice.
The devices discussed in this procedure are not pure orifices. Neither are they
long tubes. The correction charts in Figs. 25 and 26, based on actual tests, take
care of discrepancies. Another equation could have been chosen for tubes, and the
method would still work, except that a different set of correction charts would be
needed.
Flow of compressible fluids also can be calculated with this method. If the
density change from inlet to outlet is slight, then assume the gas is incompressible
and continue to use Equation 1, above. If there is considerable expansion, then
substitute the following conventional equation for polytropic compressible flow:
W
KA2 P1
R
2gJ
cp
T1
P2
P1
2/n
P2
P1
(n1) / n
(2)
Units for Equation 2 are given below. Use Fig. 25 for the value of coefficient K.
In the case of a labyrinth seal, special versions of Equation 2 have been developed.
These accompany the sketches of labyrinths in Fig. 24. The seal coefficient, m, is
plotted in Fig. 27 for all common values of the length-clearance ratio L / C.
the Reynolds number is the heart of this method. Here is a convenient form for
round orifices and capillaries:
Re WD / Ag
(3A)
(3B)
Re W(2C) /Ag
(3C)
Equations 3B and 3C were derived using the concept of hydraulic radius, RH,
25.55
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DESIGN ENGINEERING
(4)
25.57
Note: There is some disagreement among experts here. For instance, Crane Technical Paper 410 (Crane Company), pp 14, states that the hydraulic radius for a
very thin slot is equal to the narrower dimension, C. Thus, the equivalent diameter
would be 4C, instead of 2C. Equations 3B and 3C would be affected by this change.
To use this method, solve Equation 1 or 2 first, yielding velocity V in terms of
the unknown coefficient K. Convert to mass flow W with the equations provided
above. Then solve for the Reynolds number using Equation 3. It will contain the
unknown coefficient K.
Solve for the coefficient K by trial and error, as shown above. Then calculate
the Reynolds number. Check the value against that in Figs. 25 or 26 for the given
value of (D d) / L. If its wrong, try another value for K. Three or four guesses
should get the desired result. Knowing K, you can calculate the desired velocity
and mass flow.
Accuracy of this method is as good as that for simple orifices or pipes, but the
same chances for inaccuracy exist. Remember that poor surface finish, slight rounding of the edges, inaccurate dimensions, and many other physical variations will
affect the results greatly. It is better to build and test a model, where possible.
This procedure is the work of Andrew Lenkei, Project Engineer, Research Department, Worthington Corporation, as reported in Product Engineering magazine.
SI values were added by the handbook editor.
Symbols
A Flow area, ft2 (m2)
C Radial clearance, ft (m)
cp coefficient of specific heat at constant pressure, Btu / lbF (kJ / kg C)
d Minor diameter of annular orifice, ft (m)
D Major diameter of annular orifice, ft (m)
g gravitational constant, 32.2 ft / s2
H Head, ft (m)
FIGURE 28 Positive-clearance seal for centrifugal pumps and other liquid-handling applications has the lowest cost.
ln
Z
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Subscripts
1 First term
2 Second term
n nth term
25.59
DESIGN ENGINEERING
SI Values
in.
cm
.012
0.030
0
.014
0.0355
0
.016
0.406
0
.018
0.0457
0
.020
0.0508
0
0.022
0.0588
0.024
0.0609
.026
0.0660
0
.028
0.0711
0
.030
0.0762
0
.032
0.0812
0
.034
0.0863
0
.036
0.0914
0
FIGURE 31 Recommended clearances for
3
4
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
seals
25.61
in.
cm
7.62
10.16
12.7
15.24
17.78
8
20.32
9
22.86
25.4
27.94
30.48
33.02
35.56
38.10
in Figs. 28, 29, and 30.
DESIGN ENGINEERING
25.63
HT HV HF HE HS
(1)
where the value of HS is explained in the symbols and equations panel below.
To express Equation 1 in terms of velocity, insert the known expressions for
head loss given in the equations and symbols panel. This useful relationship results:
HT [V2 / 2g][1 L / 2C 0.5 a (n 1)]
(2)
where a 2 for the seal in Fig. 29, and a 1 for the seals in Figs. 30 and 32.
Equation 2 applies to gases and liquids. For gases, the accuracy is problematical
because velocity and density change from one point in the seal to the next point
in the seal, and outside of it. To accommodate these changes you have to assume
average values during flow through the seal.
Leakage flow through the seal at any given point, for gas or liquid, is simply
the average velocity, V, at that point, times the cross-sectional area, A, of the seal.
The relationship is Q VA.
For gases, accurate predictions of leakage flow using a particular equation are
not possible unless the design of the seal happens to match the conditions of the
test upon which the flow equation is based. There are many more published flow
equations than are discussed here. Variations in calculated leakage flow might exceed 2:1. However, for first approximations, the equations in this procedure will
suffice.
One way to improve the accuracy of these calculations is to use trial and error.
Assume a Reynolds number, calculate friction factor, compute leakage flow, check,
out the assumed Reynolds number, correct it if necessary, and try again. Figure 35
DESIGN ENGINEERING
gives viscosity values for calculating the Reynolds number for fluids and gases used
in hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
This procedure is the work of Louis Dodge, Hydraulics Consultant, as reported
in Product Engineering magazine. SI values were added by the handbook editor.
Another approach to labyrinth seal design is given by V. L. Peickii, Director of
Research & Engineering, and Dan A. Christensen, Research Engineer, National Seal
Division, Federal-Mogul-Bower Bearings Inc., writing in the same publication
where they note:
Labyrinth or positive-clearance seals are so specialized that no standard types
or designs have evolved. Design is usually controlled by the tolerable leak-rate,
from which one can calculate gap clearances and number of elements required, Fig.
36.
The number of rings to limit leakage to a given flow can be found from:
N
where N
W
A
C
D
P
In this equation, to find N12 for a leakage from pressure level P1 to a lower pressure
level, P2, the N for each must be found; then N12 N1 N2.
The leakage flow rate can be found from:
W 25 KA
P1
P2
1
V1
P1
N Logn
P2
P1
FIGURE 35a
25.65
DESIGN ENGINEERING
SI Values
deg F
30
40
50
70
100
150
200
300
400
500
700
1000
deg C
1.1
4.4
10.0
21.1
37.8
65.6
93.3
148.9
204.4
260.0
371.1
537.8
FIGURE 35b
ft2/sec
4
50 10
40
30
20
15
10 104
7
5
4
3
2
1.5
1 104
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1 104
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02 104
m2/sec
4
4.5 10
3.7
2.8
1.9
1.4
0.92 104
0.65
0.46
0.37
0.28
0.19
0.14
0.09 104
0.065
0.046
0.037
0.028
0.018
0.014
0.009 104
0.006
0.0046
0.0037
0.0028
0.0018 104
(Continued ).
25.67
DESIGN ENGINEERING
25.69
Calculation Procedure:
DESIGN ENGINEERING
25.71
0.005PS / 1000, where P fluid pressure, psi (kPa) and S stroke length, in
(cm). Thus, J 0.005(4000)(2) / 1000 0.40 in (1 cm).
Also, the period of the jump is n J / V, where V piston speed, in / s (cm / s).
Then n 0.40 / 20 0.02 s. Frequency V / J, of 20 / 0.4 50 Hz. In some
machine tools the jump length may be twice the calculated value if there are sudden
periodic variations of the load. The usual solution to a jumpy feed is an increase
of the cylinder bore or replacement of the cylinder with a screw feed.
Calculation Procedure:
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Calculation Procedure:
Calculation Procedure:
25.73
L / min). The strainer should be 0.5 to 0.75 in (1.3 to 1.9 cm) above the reservoir
bottom to avoid overloading the strainer with residue.
3. Select the location of the main return pipe
The main return pipe should discharge below the surface of the oil in the reservoir.
Usual practice is to locate the main return pipe 1 in (2.54 cm) above the reservoir
bottom. This provides a backpressure of 5 to 10 psi (34 to 69 kPa).
4. Locate the atmospheric return lines
Arrange the atmospheric return lines and all other zero-pressure leakage lines so
they discharge above the reservoir oil level. Where the flow rate and air contact are
high (defined as a flow rate of more than one-half the pump capacity with many
visible air bubbles), discharge the oil above the reservoir level onto a chute that
slopes at 5 to 10 into the reservoir fluid. This is important because high-pressure
oil saturated with air will be 25 percent hotter than air-free oil.
5. Determine the baffle submergence
Locate internal baffles between the submerged return line and the pump suction
line. The top of the baffles should be 30 percent below the surface of the reservoir
fluid. In a 60-in (152-cm) reservoir, the top of the baffles should be 0.3(60) 18
in (45.7 cm) below the normal oil level.
6. Select the breather air filter capacity
Atmospheric pressure should exist in the reservoir at all times, regardless of whether
the oil level is rising or falling. To permit easy airflow into and out of the reservoir,
choose an air filter having an air capacity, in cubic feet per minute (liters per
second), of twice the pump capacity in gallons per minute (liters per second). Thus,
in this reservoir, the air-filter capacity would be 2(50) 100 cfm (2830 L / min).
7. Pick the operating temperature and viscosity
Maintain the oil temperature between 120 and 150F (48.8 and 65.6C) during
system operation. Oil viscosity can range between 100 and 300 SSU at 100F
(37.8C) if the operating oil temperature is about 120F (48.8C). Oil temperatures
up to 160F (71.1C) are permissible if the oil viscosity ranges from 300 to 750
SSU at 100F (37.7C). Fit legs to the bottom of the reservoir to allow full air
circulation around all surfaces.
8. Choose the reservoir wall thickness
For reservoir capacities up to 25 gal (95 L), use 0.0625-in (0.158-cm) thick walls;
0.125 in (0.31 cm) for capacities up to 100 gal (379 L); and 0.25 in (0.635 cm)
for capacities of more than 100 gal (379 L). The top, or cover, of the reservoir
should be 4 times as thick as the walls to ensure vibration-free operation and to
hold the pump and motor in alignment. Figure 7 shows the various components
discussed in this calculation procedure.
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Calculation Procedure:
1. Determine the volume of the gas side at the highest system operating pressure
Use the relation HHP / VLP VHP / (VHP V) (1 x)1 / n, where VHP gas-side
volume at highest operating pressure, in3 (cm3); VLP gas-side volume at lowest
operating pressure, in3 (cm3); x liquid-side pressure drop, expressed as the ratio
(PHP PLP) / PHP, where PHP and PLP, psi (kPa), are the highest, and lowest, operating pressures of the system, respectively. For this system, then, VHP / (VHP 6)
(1 0.05)1 / 1.25 144 in3 (2362 mL).
2. Compute the total chamber volume
In any accumulator, total volume gas volume oil volume. Since the gas-to-oil
volume ratio is 3-to-1, the total volume of this accumulator VACC 144 144 / 3
192 in3 (3149 mL). Expressing this on the gas-to-oil ratio basis gives VACC
1.33VHP 1.33(144) 192 in3 (3149 mL).
Related Calculations. The gas exponent n 1.25, used in this calculation, is
for a polytropic expansion. For most applications where air or nitrogen is used in
the accumulator, and where the pressure changes less than 25 percent during operation, use of this exponent does not introduce significant errors in the results.
Where greater accuracy is desired, assume isothermal compression, with n 1, for
the charging cycle, and adiabatic expansion, n 1.4, for the discharge cycle. The
gas-to-oil volume of 3 to 1 used in this calculation is a typical value for oil industrial
hydraulic systems.
25.75
Calculation Procedure:
Calculation Procedure:
DESIGN ENGINEERING
Calculation Procedure:
Calculation Procedure:
25.77
The hydraulic motor for this hoist should be large enough to handle all the loads
expected without a gear change. This will simplify the entire installation. To eliminate changing gears, the motor will have to run at its maximum speed and develop
the maximum torque even though these two conditions (speed and torque) will not
occur simultaneously.
The rpm of the drum at the light-line pull of 400 ft / min (2 m / s) (12 ft / min)/
(2R), where R drum radius, in (cm). With a 14.7-to-1 gear reduction between
the drum and motor, the maximum rpm of the hydraulic motor is 14.7(58.8) 864
rpm.
Consult a tabulation of standard hydraulic motor sizes published by the manufacturer whose motor you expect to use. Table 14 shows the sizes of motors available from one large manufacturer. Review of this table shows that the maximum
required rpm (864) of the hoist motor is within the maximum rpm range of all units
through size 15 (900 rpm).
Next, the maximum torque T of the motor drum torque, in lb / efficiency (gear
reduction). Or, T (13 in)(22,500 lb) / 0.89(14.7) 22,357 in lb (2526 N m).
Since this maximum torque is an overload condition, an operating pressure is selected near the maximum level allowed for this pump, 2500 psi (17.2 MPa), by the
manufacturer. The motor, or B-end, pressure, size number, and torque are related
by S T / 0.63P, where S motor size number of displacement constant, in3 (cm3
or mL), and P maximum allowable pump pressure, psi (kPa). For this application,
S 22,357 / 0.63(2500) 14.19.
From Table 14, the nearest size number is 15. Recalculate the maximum pressure
by using the size number 15. Or, P T / 0.63S 22,357 / 0.63(15) 2366 psi
(16.3 MPa).
Now compute the torque for the normal load of 15,000 lb (6810 kg). Then check
to see that the pressure is not too high, i.e., greater than 2500 psi (17.2 MPa) for
continuous operation. Use the same procedure as above. Or, T (13 in)(15,000
lb) / 0.89(14.7) 14,905 in lb (1684 N m); P 14,905 / 0.63(15) 1577 psi
(10.86 MPa).
The operating pressure is well below the maximum allowable continuous operating pressure and is therefore satisfactory. If the actual operating pressure at the
normal load is higher than the maximum allowable continuous operating pressure,
select a motor having a higher allowable operating pressure. Do this by referring
Size number
Maximum rpm
Maximum torque
(intermittent) in lb
Moment of inertia,
lb in2
114
212
5
10
15
20
35
50
75
150
300
1750
1450
1200
1000
900
825
720
650
580
480
400
2,350
4,700
9,450
18,900
28,300
37,800
66,000
94,500
141,000
283,000
566,000
150
200
570
1,970
4,040
6,700
18,000
34,000
70,000
237,000
809,000
DESIGN ENGINEERING
to the tabulation of motor sizes and pressures in the manufacturers catalog. Note
that the maximum intermittent torque tabulated for size 15 motor (28,300 in lb
[3198 N m]) exceeds the maximum load torque of 22,357 in lb (2526 N m). Be
sure to check that the maximum-load torque does not exceed the maximum allowable torque. Load conditionscontinuous or intermittentshould also agree. Never
try to match a continuous load to a maximum allowable intermittent load because
the motor will be overloaded. Figure 37 shows the performance of this hoist, using
the motor and pump analyzed in this calculation procedure.
3. Determine the size of the hydraulic pump
The pump chosen must have sufficient capacity to drive the hydraulic motor at
speeds up to the maximum allowable. And the pump must also develop the maximum operating pressure, even though the two conditions (speed and pressure) do
not occur simultaneously.
First determine the theoretical displacement by using the size number from the
relation: motor, or B-end, displacement 4.35S in3 / r (cm3 / r). Assume a 98 percent
volumetric efficiency each for the pump and the motor. Then the volume of oil V
in3 / r (cm3 / r) required at a given rpm is V rpm(displacement, in3 / r) / (pump efficiency)(motor efficiency). Or, V 865(65.2) / 0.98(0.98) 58,723 in3 / r (963,065
cm3 / r). This is the oil volume required at 865 rpm of the motor.
Assume that the pump is driven by an electric motor at an input speed of 875
rpm. Then the displacement d per revolution for the pump is 58,723 / 875 67.1
in3 / r (1101 cm3 / r).
Pump size number S d / 4.52, where 4.52 is a constant for the pump, or Aend. Then S 67.1 / 4.52 14.84. The nearest pump size from Table 15 is 15.
25.79
Size number
Rated rpm
Maximum gpm
Maximum hp
(intermittent)
114
212
5
10
15
20
35
50
75
150
300
1200
1200
1200
900
720
600
600
514
514
450
400
28
56
112
170
200
230
400
500
750
1300
2300
50
100
200
300
350
400
700
900
1300
2300
4000
This pump will handle maximum intermittent horsepowers up to 350 hp (261 kW).
The reason why a hydraulic pump and motor capable of handling up to 350 hp
(261 kW) are necessary to handle this installation involving a maximum of only
100-hp (75-kW) output is that various power outputs are required at different operating speeds.