Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jorma Kekalainen
Course Objective
Understand principal design concepts of
telecommunication networks
Information Sources
1.
or from elsewhere.
Reading just the general sections in the
specifications and scanning the rest will be usually
enough to get sufficient understanding
2. You can look for material from corresponding
courses in the Internet
3. Some may find that the books are easier to read.
4. Lecture notes are sufficient to pass the course.
Books
Alwayn: Optical Network Design and Implementation
Anandalingam, G.; Raghavan, S. (Eds.): Telecommunications Network
Design and Management
Bose: Breakthrough Perspectives in Network and Data Communications
Security, Design and Applications
Freeman, Telecommunication System Engineering
Graham, Kirkman, Paul: Mobile Radio Network Design in the VHF and
UHF Bands: A Practical Approach
Jurdak: Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks: A Cross-Layer Design
Perspective (Signals and Communication Technology)
McCabe: Network Analysis, Architecture, and Design
Mishra: Fundamentals of Cellular Network Planning and Optimisation
Olifer N., Olifer V.: Computer Networks: Principles, Technologies and
Protocols for Network Design
Oppenheimer: Top-Down Network Design
Paquet: Campus Network Design Fundamentals
Shooman: Reliability of Computer Systems and Networks: Fault
Tolerance, Analysis, and Design
Spohn: Data Network Design
4
Broadcast networks
Bus
Ring
Star
The switching technique and topology of a network can strongly
impact its performance and robustness.
Networks have performance attributes throughput, error
rates, delay etc.
7
What is Design?
Dictionary: "Design" refers to the process of
originating and developing a plan or proposal (a
drawing, model, or other description) for a new
object (machine, building, product, etc.).
Designing normally requires considering functional and
many other aspects of an object, which usually
requires considerable
research,
thought,
modeling,
iterative adjustment, and
re-design.
Design process
In systems engineering and networking, design is a
very systematic process, performed step by step.
The technology in use will usually impose limits on
creativity for the designer.
In many engineering disciplines, design is codified by
standards or design rules, which impose safety
margins and guidelines in the design - This is to
protect against poor design and failure.
A designer must often invest considerable
time,
effort and
resources
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12
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A channel might be
a radio or optical link through the atmosphere,
an optical fibre,
a coaxial cable,
a twisted pair cable, or even
a telephone wire on a pole.
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17
-20 dBm
-32 dBm
[-20 - (-32)] dB
12
0.7 dB
11.3
1.4 dB
9.9
0.4 dB
9.5
0.7 dB
8.8 dB Final
margin
The final power margin is 8.8 dB, which is a sufficient margin for this link.
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Note. ITU-T Recommendation sets a link margin between 3.0 and 4.8 dB
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Hierarchies
Provide structure in the network
Redundancy
Provides availability & reliability
22
Pillars of Science
Traditional scientific and engineering
approach:
Rationalism
Deduction and
Mathematics
Empiricism
Induction and
Observation (experiments)
Simulation
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Network Simulation
Simulation is the process of using software and
mathematical models to analyze the behavior of a
network without requiring an actual network.
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Gain understanding
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Art + Science
The Art of Network Design
Communication with users
Relations to business goals
Technology choices
File distribution
Let us consider a simple quantitative model for
distributing a file to a fixed set of peers for both
architecture types.
The server and the peers are connected to the
network with access links.
Denote the size of the file to be distributed (in bits)
by F and the number of peers that want to obtain a
copy of the file by N.
The distribution time is the time it takes to get a
copy of the file to all N peers.
In the client-server architecture, none of the peers
aids in distributing the file.
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Server
us
u1
d1
u2
File, size F
dN
uN
Network (with
abundant bandwidth)
32
Observations (1)
We make the following observations:
The server must transmit one copy of the file to
each of the N peers.
Thus the server must transmit NF bits.
Since the servers upload rate is us, the time to
distribute the file must be at least NF/us.
Let denote the download rate of the peer with the
lowest download rate, that is, dmin = min{d1,d2,...,dN}.
The peer with the lowest download rate cannot
obtain all F bits of the file in less than F/dmin
seconds.
Thus the minimum distribution time is at least
F/dmin.
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server sequentially
sends N copies:
NF/us time
client i takes F/di
time to download
F
us
dN
u1 d1 u2
d2
Network (with
abundant bandwidth)
uN
increases linearly in N
(for large N)
Time to distribute F
to N clients using = dcs = max { NF/us, F/min(di) }
i
client/server approach
This provides a lower bound on the minimum distribution
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time for the client-server architecture.
Observations (2)
1) At the beginning of the distribution, only the server has the file.
To get this file into the community of peers, the server must send
each bit of the file at least once into its access link.
Thus, the minimum distribution time is at least F/us.
2) As with the client-server architecture, the peer with the lowest
download rate cannot obtain all F bits of the file in less than F/dmin
seconds.
Thus the minimum distribution time is at least F/dmin
3) Finally, observe that the total upload capacity of the system as a
whole is equal to the upload rate of the server plus the upload rates
of each of the individual peers, that is, utotal =us + u1 + ... + uN.
The system must deliver (upload) F bits to each of the N peers, thus
delivering a total of NF bits.
This cannot be done at a rate faster than utotal .
So, the minimum distribution time is also at least NF/(us+u1+...+uN).
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Numerical example
The following figure compares the minimum distribution time for
the client-server and P2P architectures assuming that all peers
have the same upload rate u.
For the sake of simplicity, we set F/u = 1 hour, us =10u, and dmin
us.
Thus, a peer can transmit the entire file in one hour, the server
transmission rate is 10 times the peer upload rate, and (for
simplicity) the peer download rates are set large enough so as
not to have an effect.
We see from the following figure that for the client-server
architecture, the distribution time increases linearly and
without bound as the number of peers increases.
However, for the P2P architecture, the minimal distribution time
is not only always less than the distribution time of the clientserver architecture; it is also less than one hour for any
number of peers N.
Thus, applications with the P2P architecture can be self-scaling.
This scalability is a direct consequence of peers being
redistributors as well as consumers of bits.
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F
us
dN
u1 d1 u2
d2
Network (with
abundant bandwidth)
uN
3.5
P2P
Client-Server
3
2.5
dsc=NF/(10u)
2
1.5
dP2P=NF/[(10+N)u]
1
0.5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
N
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Example: Caching
Assumptions
average object size = 100,000
bits
avg. request rate from
institutions browsers to origin
servers = 15/sec
delay from institutional router
to any origin server and back
to router = 2 sec
Consequences
utilization on LAN = 15%
utilization on access link =
100%
total delay = Internet delay
+ access delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + minutes + milliseconds
origin
servers
public
Internet
1.5 Mbps
access link
institutional
network
10 Mbps LAN
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possible solution
increase bandwidth of
access link to, say, 10
Mbps
public
Internet
consequence
utilization on LAN = 15%
utilization on access link = 15%
Total delay = Internet delay
+ access delay + LAN delay
= 2 sec + msecs + msecs
often a costly upgrade
10 Mbps
access link
institutional
network
10 Mbps LAN
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consequence
40% requests will be
satisfied almost immediately
60% requests satisfied by
origin server
utilization of access link
reduced to 60%, resulting in
negligible delays (say 10
msec)
total avg delay = Internet
delay + access delay + LAN
delay = .6*(2.01) secs +
.4*milliseconds < 1.4 secs
public
Internet
1.5 Mbps
access link
institutional
network
10 Mbps LAN
institutional
cache
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Design Strategies
What is the basic networking
technology used?
What is the characteristic topology?
What is the cabling or wireless link
technology?
Limitations vs. Strengths?
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Design
Activity
Network
Design
Adjust Criteria
Review Results
Design Documents
Specns
Drawings
Plans
Re-design
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Analysis
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Design
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Implementation
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Analysis/Design
Analysis processes
Requirements
analysis
Flow analysis
Setting out
blueprints
Design processes
Logical design
Physical design
Routing
Addressing
Implementation and
Test
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Implementation
Implementation involves purchase of the required
hardware, software, services required to construct
the network.
Once the network is constructed, it must be
acceptance tested to confirm performance.
Acceptance testing usually exposes mistakes in design
and implementation, and is absolutely critical to
success.
Once the network has been tested and commissioned,
it can be handed over to end users.
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Legacy Infrastructure
More than often a new network design is a
replacement for an existing design.
This may present opportunities to save a lot
of money, or force significant additional
expenditure.
Where existing cabling, racks, air
conditioning, and rooms may be reused, new
replacements are not needed and money is
saved.
Often legacy infrastructure is not adequate
and must be replaced partly or completely,
increasing costs.
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Questions (1)
How to meet the requirements of the transport
application (like accuracy, throughput, latency,
mobility support...)?
How to represent and use the information?
How to utilize the communication medium?
How to connect users?
How to reach one point from another?
How to coordinate among the transmitters and
receivers?
How to regulate competition among users?
How to make the system robust to failures, attacks,
variations, growth across space and over time?
How to allocate functionalities to layers?
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Questions (2)
How to describe the channel and estimate its
characteristics (twisted pair, coaxial cable, optic
fiber, radio)?
How fast can data be sent reliably?
How to compress signals?
How to reduce noise (thermal noise, impulse noise ...)
and manage interference (from other users, from
reflections, among symbols)
How to use the communication resources (time,
frequency) efficiently?
What happens when multiple transmitters send data
to multiple receivers?
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Questions (3)
What topology? Who are transceivers and who are
relays?
Direct link or switched architecture? Circuit switch
or packet switch or something else?
How to divide into (possibly different types of)
subnetworks?
End-to-end control or hop-by-hop control?
How to get on the communication medium?
How to get from one point to another?
How to monitor and adjust overall state of the
network?
How to ensure accurate, secure, timely, and usable
transfer of information across space among
competing users?
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Money
To
Pay
Technical Design
Equipment sizing and numbers
Circuit Dimensioning
Minimises
COSTS!
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Roles
Customer Has:
Money to pay for products & services
Business Needs & Expectations
Employees (Operators and Users)
Designer Has:
Knowledge
(education &training)
Wisdom
(experience)
Vendors Have:
Products & Services
Skilled Workforce
The Internet
What is the Internet?
physical infrastructure
architecture
protocols
software
services/applications
operational practices
standards
Standards
Why do we need standards?
electricity plugs
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IETF
informal standards body
membership is open to all interested
individuals
few hard and fast rules
publishes RFCs (Request For Comments)
RFC 791: Internet Protocol (IP) Updated in RFC
1391
RFC 793: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Updated in RFC 3168
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robustness principle:
Be liberal in what you accept, and conservative in what you
send
distributed control
deployment issues:
scale, incremental deployment, heterogeneity
general issues:
simplicity, modularity, performance
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Packets vs circuits
Some (Bell-heads) believe you need a
dedicated circuit
like a phone line (but higher speed)
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Packets vs circuits
Circuit switching:
logical equivalent of a phone line connects two (or
more) people.
allows network to control everything (in theory)
allows explicit QoS
needs careful design and admission control
Packet switching:
no physical circuit (though there is still an analogue
of a connection)
packets of data are individually switched.
network doesnt do much (in theory)
hard to do QoS, but network is simpler
prime example is IP
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Packets vs circuits
Doesnt have to be one
or the other
people may run circuit
switched on one layer, and
packet switched on
another.
classic example is IP over
ATM
Robustness principle
Be liberal in what you accept, and
conservative in what you send.
if somebody else screws up, dont let this
mess your system up (liberal in what you
accept)
e.g. TCP connection termination
Layered Architecture
Divide and conquer:
break the overall big
problem into smaller
ones with standardized
interfaces
Each layer provides a
service to upper layers
and utilizes the services
provided by lower layers
Performance may not be
optimal, but makes the
architecture simple and
flexible
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP), a simple transport protocol used in the Internet. The
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is chiefly to send error messages
indicating, for instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or
router could not be reached. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for
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determining a network host's link layer or hardware address when only its Internet
Layer (IP) or Network Layer address is known. Packet over SONET (POS)
Layered protocols
Somewhat like subroutines in programming
Each layer provides services (functions) to higher
layers
Function call interface hides details of how the
service is provided
e.g. network layer asks link layer to transport a packet
across a link, without any network details
benefits
reduction in complexity
Encapsulation
Lower layers deal with higher layer by
treat information from higher layer as black box
dont look inside data
just treat as bunch of bits
Routing details
OSPF - Open Shortest Path First
Open Shortest Path First is a link state (each node possesses information
about the complete network topology), hierarchical IGP (Interior Gateway
Protocol) routing algorithm. Features supported by OSPF include least cost
routing, multipath routing and load balancing.
AS Autonomous System
Autonomous system (Internet), a collection of IP networks and routers
under the control of one entity (typically an Internet service provider or a
very large organization with independent connections to multiple networks,
that adhere to a single and clearly defined routing policy)
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TCP/IP Encapsulation
Data segment
TCP segment
IP packet
Ethernet frame
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TCP/IP operation
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Hourglass IP
robustness against
technological innovations
anyone can innovate at
either end
new applications built by
any students (e.g.
netscape, napster)
new physical/link layers
allows huge
heterogenity
success
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Broken layering
TCP/IP layers are broken more often than not
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) - uses
IP, but controls its operation
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is a routing
protocol (IP layer), but is routed
IP over ATM over IP over ATM over SONET
anything involving MPLS (Multiprotocol Label
Switching)
often services are provided at multiple layers:
error and flow control, e.g. error control in SONET (sortof physical), link layer, IP, TCP
End-to-end principle
Put functionality as high up the stack as
possible.
pushes functionality out towards the end
points results in
dumb network, smart terminals
contrast to PSTN (Telephone Network)
smart network, dumb terminals
Distributed control
anything centralized is vulnerable
distribute physical infrastucture
distribute network control
e.g. routing protocols
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), IS-IS, BGP
(Border Gateway Protocol)
Deployment issues
scalability: has to work for a large range of networks
(in distance, and number of hosts).
IP creates networks of networks, that can span any scale:
1m > 10 000 km;
1 > 109 hosts;
link speeds 1 kbps 100 Gbps.
Network scales
Geographic scale
PAN Personal Area Network (one room)
LAN Local Area Network (one building)
Ethernet (vast majority), Token ring, Wi-Fi,
Number of routers/switches
small < 10
medium 10-100
large> 100
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Optimization
Optimization variables: x
Constant parameters describe objective
function f and constraint set C
Minimize { f (x )}
x
Subject to x C
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Questions
How to describe the constraint set?
Can the problem be solved globally and
uniquely?
What kind of properties does it have?
Can we numerically solve it in an efficient and
distributed way?
Can we optimize multiple objectives
simultaneously?
Can we optimize over a sequence of time
instances?
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Applications topics
Theory and algorithms of optimization are useful
Information theory problems,
Transmitter and receiver design,
Channel decoding,
Detection and estimation,
Multiple antenna beamforming,
Network resource allocation and utility maximization,
Wireless power control and medium access,
Network flow problems,
IP routing,
TCP congestion control,
Network architecture and topology design
112
Methodology topics
Linear programming,
Convex optimization,
Quadratic programming,
Geometric programming,
Integer programming,
Robust optimization,
Pareto optimization,
Dynamic programming,
Nonconvex optimization,
Lagrange duality,
Gradient methods,
Interior point methods,
Distributed algorithms,
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optimization constraints
technological, geographic, political
Heuristic is an adjective for experience-based techniques that help in problem solving. A heuristic
algorithm is an algorithm that is able to produce an acceptable solution to a problem in many practical
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scenarios, but for which there is no formal proof of its correctness. Alternatively, it may be
correct, but may not be proven to produce an optimal solution.
Cost in networking
capital
equipment (cables, switches, ...)
premises
land that cables run along (right of ways)
operations
exclude sales and marketing, management, R&D
doesnt depend on network design
power
transit (from upstream providers)
fixed
traffic based costs
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A right-of-way is a strip of land that is granted for transportation purposes, such as for a rail line
Equipment costs
Often assumed to dominate
fixed node costs
cost of a router - often assumed small
need to include premises, installation, etc.
distance costs
straight distance cost
BW x distance cost
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Link costs
Simple model: cost of a link
where
r = link capacity
d = link distance
the parameters k, , , are constants.
often some terms might be close to zero so ignore
some terms are out of our control, so we ignore
these, or push them into constants
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Example
Lets consider the problem of business
that wants to connect up two locations
with a 10 Mbps link. What can they do:
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Example
Lets consider the problem of business
that wants to connect up two locations
with a 10 Mbps link. What can they do:
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Example
Lets consider the problem of business
that wants to connect up two locations
with a 10 Mbps link. What can they do:
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Example
We have two possible solutions:
private line
lease or build whole line
cost depends on distance: C = kprivate + privated
VPN
pay for access to network at each end, but not for
the network
no distance dependence: VPN 0
decision: use private line if
kprivate + privated 2kVPN
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The constants
Assume the simple model, how would you work out k,
, , .
and arise from the costs of building a links.
are the fixed costs: right-of-way, digging cables in, i.e.,
things we need regardless of how much capacity we use.
reflects capacity related costs: e.g., in the old days, if you
wanted two links, you needed two cables. Today, this might
reflect the number of wavelengths you use on a WDM
system.
satellites
A virtual private network (VPN) is implemented in an additional software layer (overlay) on top of an
existing larger network providing a secure extension of a private network into an insecure network
such as the Internet. The links between nodes of a virtual private network are formed over logical
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connections or virtual circuits between hosts of the larger network. The Link Layer protocols of the
virtual network are said to be tunneled through the underlying transport network.
queueing:
queueing is caused by transient congestion
processing:
packet processing time (address lockup, and header update)
fixed per hop
transmission:
time to transmit packet on the line
= packet size / line rate
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Queueing delay:
reduce queueing by reducing load
Processing delay:
minimize number of hops
Transmission delay:
minimize packet sizes
e.g. VoIP uses small packets
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Five 9s
Goal of many telecom level providers is
five nines reliability
e.g. in IP networks
uptime is 99.999%
translates to about 5 minutes downtime per
year
Reliability approach
Often not approached using
optimization but
redundancy or standby systems
routers, links, power supplies ..
distribution of control
problem detection and diagnosis
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Technological Constraints
The other aspect of optimization is the
constraints
max node degree
max number of line cards per router
times max ports per card
Non-technological Constraints
geography
cost of cable in oceans is different from land
expensive to lay cable in some places
e.g. downtown Manhattan
politics
internal company organization mandates network
organization
e.g. marketing get a better network than accounting, even
though they have less real need
security
may not want to share network resources outside
of secure building
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Other Constraints
what if we have more than one objective
e.g. network should be
fastest
cheapest, and
most reliable
Other issues
usually there are other inputs to optimization
traffic measurements
not always as easy to get as we think
planning horizon
usually when we design a network it takes some
time to build
Simple example
Three node network has three acceptable designs:
Bigger problems
Network with N nodes
for small N we can evaluate all designs, and
choose the best
Optimization
Optimization is about building automated
methods for finding optima of such problems
needs to work quickly (enough)
planning horizon
management requirements
size of the problem
Note. A common mistake is to think that the NP in NP-hard stands for non-polynomial. Although it
is widely suspected that there are no polynomial-time algorithms for NP-hard problems, this
138has
never been proven. Moreover, the class NP also contains all problems which can be solved in
polynomial time.
139
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Optimization Notation
141
Other Notation
We usually use
lower case for scalars, e.g., x
lower-case boldface for (column) vectors, e.g., x
upper-case for matrices, e.g., A
Logical Router
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145
146
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Packet processing
In an IP Router
lookup packet destination in forwarding table
up to 150,000 entries
The TTL (Time To Live) field is set by the sender of the datagram, and reduced by every host on
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the route to its destination. If the TTL field reaches zero before the datagram arrives at its
destination, then the datagram is discarded and an error datagram is sent back to the sender.
Memory demands
forwarding table can be large
up to 150,000 entries per line card
lookup in 30ns for 10 Gbps line
need fast memory
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Routing
We need a method to map packet routes to
links
called a routing protocol
several types exist
link state
shortest path
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
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Network Paths
162
Network Paths
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Network Paths
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165
Routing
166
Routing
167
Routing costs
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Routing costs
169
Routing problem
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Routing problem
The Routing Problem: Determine the
optimal routing x to minimize C(f)
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Linear costs
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Path lengths
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175
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Special case
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Triangle inequality
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Dijkstras algorithm
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Dijkstras algorithm
181
Dijkstras algorithm
182
Dijkstra Example
183
Dijkstra Example
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Dijkstra Example
185
Dijkstra Example
186
Dijkstra Example
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Dijkstra Example
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Dijkstra Example
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Dijkstra Example
190
Dijkstra Example
191
Dijkstra Result
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Dijkstra intuition
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Dijkstra issues
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195
Microwave Communication
A microwave communication system utilizes the
radio frequencies >1 GHz
These radio frequencies are called microwaves
Typically, spanning in microwave communication is
from 2 to 60 GHz.
As per IEEE, electromagnetic waves between 30
and 300 GHz are called millimeter waves or
Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) as their
wavelengths are from 10 to 1 mm.
Frequencies between 300 and 3000 GHz are called
Hyper High Frequencies (HHF) also called
submillimeter waves
197
Microwave Communication
Small capacity systems generally employ
the frequencies less than 3 GHz while
medium and large capacity systems
utilize frequencies ranging from 3 to 15
GHz.
Frequencies > 15 GHz are essentially
used for short-haul transmission.
198
Competitors
Fiber-optic cable systems provide
strong competition with line-of-sight
(LOS) microwave.
Satellite communications is an extension
of line-of-sight microwave.
Drawback; The excessive delay when the
popular geostationary satellite systems are
utilized.
Radio Horizon
The distance to the radio horizon varies with
the index of refraction of the intervening
space.
Under normal atmospheric conditions (k=4/3),
the radio horizon is about 15 percent beyond
the optical horizon because the microwave ray
beam being bent toward the earth.
However, this generalization may be overly
optimistic under certain circumstances.
Refraction
205
Line-of-Sight Considerations
Microwave radio communication requires a clear line-of-sight
(LOS) condition
Radio LOS takes into account the concept of Fresnel ellipsoids
and their clearance criteria
Fresnel zones are specified employing ordinal numbers that
correspond to the number of half wavelength multiples that
represent the difference in radio wave propagation path from
the direct path
Ideally, the first Fresnel Zone must be clear of all
obstructions.
a+b+/2
r
a
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Example
The link length is 40
km. Calculate the
maximum value of
the first Fresnel
radius, when
a) f=250 MHz
b) f=4 GHz
Note.
a+b+/2
rF
a
207
R
x
y
d=x+y
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Line-of-Sight Considerations
Typically the first Fresnel zone is used to
determine obstruction loss
The direct path between the transmitter and the
receiver needs a clearance above ground of at
least 60% of the radius of the first Fresnel zone
to achieve nearly free space propagation
conditions
Clearance is described to ensure sufficient
antenna heights so that, in the worst case of
refraction (for which Earth-radius factor k is
minimum) the receiver antenna is not placed in the
diffraction region
209
Line-of-Sight Considerations
Clearance criteria to be satisfied under
normal propagation conditions:
Clearance of 60% or greater at the
minimum k suggested for the certain path
Clearance of 100% or greater at k=4/3
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Frequency
Planning
Propagation losses
Branching
losses
Other Losses
Link Budget
Quality
and
Availability
Calculations
Fading
Predictions
Rain
attenuation
Diffractionrefraction
losses
Multipath
propagation
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Hop Calculations
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215
Propagation Losses
Free-space loss - when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight
Lfsl=92.45+20log(f)+20log(d) [dB]
where f = frequency (GHz)
d = LOS range between antennas (km)
One estimation of vegetation attenuation
(provision should be taken for 5 years of
vegetation growth)
L=0.2f 0.3R0.6(dB)
f=frequency (MHz)
R=depth of vegetation in meters
216
Diffraction
217
Propagation Losses
Obstacle Loss also called Diffraction Loss or Diffraction
Attenuation.
One method of calculation is based on knife edge
approximation.
Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0
dB loss
First Fresnel Zone
0 dB
0 dB
6dB
16dB
20dB
218
Propagation Losses
Gas absorption
Primarily due to the water vapor and
oxygen in the atmosphere.
The absorption peaks are located around 23
GHz for water molecules and 50 to 70 GHz
for oxygen molecules.
The specific attenuation (dB/km) is
strongly dependent on frequency,
temperature and the absolute or relative
humidity of the atmosphere.
219
T=30o
RH=50%
Frequency (GHz)
25
50
220
Gas Absorption
221
Propagation Losses
Attenuation due to precipitation
Rain attenuation increases exponentially with rain intensity
The percentage of time for which a given rain intensity is
attained or exceeded is available for 15 different rain
zones covering the entire earths surface
The specific attenuation of rain is dependent on many
parameters such as the form and size of distribution of the
raindrops, polarization, rain intensity and frequency
Horizontal polarization gives more rain attenuation than
vertical polarization
Rain attenuation increases with frequency and becomes a
major contributor in the frequency bands above 10 GHz
The contribution due to rain attenuation is not included in
the link budget and is used only in the calculation of rain
fading
222
Atmospheric attenuation
Rain Attenuation
Two types of attenuating mechanisms:
absorption and scattering caused by the rain
drops.
Rain attenuation
225
Ground Reflection
Reflection on the Earths surface may give rise to multipath
propagation
The direct ray at the receiver may interfered with by the
ground-reflected ray and the reflection loss can be
significant
Since the refraction properties of the atmosphere are
constantly changing the reflection loss varies.
The loss due to reflection on the ground is dependent on the
reflection coefficient of the ground
The reflection coefficient is dependent on the frequency,
grazing angle (angle between the ray beam and the horizontal
plane), polarization and ground properties
226
Ground Reflection
The grazing angle of radio-relay paths is very small
usually less than 1
It is recommended to avoid ground reflection by
shielding the path against the indirect ray
The contribution resulting from reflection loss is
not automatically included in the link budget.
When reflection cannot be avoided, the fade
margin may be adjusted by including this
contribution as additional loss in the link budget
227
Multipath
228
Introduction
The path analysis (or link budget) is carried out to
dimension the link.
This means here to establish operating parameters
such as transmitter power output, parabolic antenna
aperture (diameter), and receiver noise figure, among
others.
The type of modulation and modulation rate (number
of transitions per second) are also important
parameters.
Next table shows basic parameters in two columns.
The first we call normal and would be the most
economic; the second column is titled special,
giving improved performance parameters, but at an
increased price.
232
233
234
Example
235
Obstacle Loss
236
237
238
239
Link Budget
The link budget is a calculation involving the
gain and loss factors associated with the
antennas, transmitters, transmission lines and
propagation environment, to determine the
maximum distance at which a transmitter and
receiver can successfully operate
Receiver sensitivity threshold is the signal
level at which the radio runs for a given biterror rate at a specified bit rate
System gain depends on the design of the
radio
Link Budget
The gains from the antenna at each end are added to
the system gain
larger antennas provide a higher gain
242
Approach
First, we calculate the free-space loss between the transmit
antenna and receive antenna.
This is a function of distance and frequency (i.e., the
microwave transmitter operational frequency).
We then calculate the EIRP (effective isotropically radiated
power) at the transmit antenna.
The EIRP is the sum of the transmitter power output, minus
transmission line losses plus the antenna gain, all in decibel units.
When we add the EIRP to the free-space loss (in dB), the result
is the isotropic receive level (IRL).
When we add the receive antenna gain to the IRL and subtract
the receive transmission line losses, we get the receive signal
level (RSL).
This relationship of path gains and losses is shown in the
following figure.
Path Loss
If the isotropic radiator (an antenna that radiates uniformly in
all directions) is fed by a transmitted power Pt, it radiates
power density Pt/4d2 (W/m2) at a distance d, and if a radiator
has a gain Gt, the power flow is enhanced by the factor Gt.
So power density at a distance d is S0= GtPt/4d2 .
Finally, the power intercepted by an antenna of effective cross
section A (related to the gain by Gr = 4A/2) is Pr=AS0=PtGtGr(
/4d)2.
The term 1/(/4d)2 is known as the free-space loss and
represents the steady decrease of power flow (in W/m2) as the
wave propagates.
From this we can derive the commonly used formula of freespace path loss, which reduces to
Example
Consider the problem from a different aspect.
It requires 22 dB to launch a wave to just 1 wavelength ()
distant from an antenna.
Thus for an antenna emitting +10 dBW, we could expect the
signal one wavelength away to be 22 dB down, or -12 dBW.
Whenever we double the distance, we incur an additional 6
dB of loss.
Hence at 2 from the + 10-dBW radiator, we would find -18
dBW; at 4, -24 dBW; 8, -30 dBW; and so on.
Now suppose that we have an emitter where F = 1 GHz. What is the
path loss at 1 km?
Calculation of EIRP
Effective isotropically
radiated power is
calculated by adding
decibel units:
the transmitter power
output (in dBm or dBW),
the transmission line losses
in dB (a negative value
because it is a loss), and
the antenna gain in dBi.
dBi = decibels
referenced to an
isotropic (antenna).
EIRP = Trans. output (dBW) - Trans. line loss (dB) + Ant. gain (dB)
Example
If a microwave transmitter has a 1-watt
(0-dBW) power output, the waveguide
loss is 3 dB, and the antenna gain is 34
dBi, what is the EIRP in dBW?
EIRP = Trans. output (dBW) - Trans. line loss (dB) + Ant. gain (dB)
Example
Suppose the isotropic receive level
(IRL) is -121 dBW, the receive antenna
gain is 31 dB, and the line losses are 5.6
dB. What is the RSL?
Link Budget
Receive Signal Level (RSL)
RSL = Pout Lctx + Gatx Lcrx + Gatx FSL
Pout = output power of the transmitter (dBm)
Lctx, Lcrx = Loss (cable,connectors, branching unit) between
transmitter/receiver and antenna(dB)
Gatx = gain of transmitter/receiver antenna (dBi)
FSL = free space loss (dB)
Noise Figure
Noise figure simply tells us how much noise has been
added to a signal while passing through a device in
question.
Noise figure (dB) is the difference in signal-to-noise
ratio between the input to the device and the output
of that same device.
We can convert noise figure to noise temperature in
kelvins with the following formula:
Example
Suppose the noise figure of a device is
3 dB. What is the noise temperature?
Example
A microwave receiver has a noise figure of 8 dB and
its bandwidth is 10 MHz. What is the thermal noise
level (sometimes called the thermal noise threshold)?
Example
A certain radio system receives 1.544
Mbps and the RSL is -108 dBW. What is
the energy per bit (Eb)?
Eb/N0
We can now develop a formula for
Eb/N0:
Simplifying, we obtain
Note.
8-PSK
In 8-ary PSK modulation case the phase
circle is broken up into 45 phase
segments.
Now for every transition, 3 bits at a
time are transmitted.
The bit packing in this case is 3 bits per
Hz.
QAM
We can construct a hybrid waveform covering both
amplitude modulation as well as phase modulation.
This family of waveforms is called quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM).
For example, 16-QAM has 16 different state possibilities:
eight are derived for 8-ary PSK and two are derived from
the two amplitude levels.
Here for each state transition, 4 bits are transmitted at
once.
The bit packing in this case is 4 bits/Hz.
Example
Theoretical/Practical bandwidth
The difference between theoretical bit
packing and the practical deals with filter
design.
For QAM-type waveforms, depending on
design, practical bit packing may vary from
1.25 to 1 .5 the baudrate-bandwidth.
The extra bandwidth required provides a
filter with spectral space to roll-off.
In other words, a filters skirts are not
perfectly vertical.
Example
Suppose we are using a 48-Mbps bit stream to input
to our transmitter which was using 16-QAM
modulation.
Its baud rate, which measures transitions per second,
would be 48/4 megabauds.
If we allowed 1 baud/Hz, then 12 MHz bandwidth
would be required.
If we used a roll-off factor of 1.5, then the practical
bandwidth required would be 18 MHz.
Carry this two steps further to 64-QAM.
Here the theoretical bit packing is 6 bits/Hz and for
the 48-Mbps bit stream, a practical 12-MHz
bandwidth would be required.
baud (unit symbol "Bd") is synonymous to symbols per second. It is the unit
of symbol rate, also known as baud rate or modulation rate; the number of
distinct symbol changes (signaling events) made to the transmission medium
per second in a digitally modulated signal or a line code
Example
A digital link operates in the 7-GHz
band with a link 37 km long.
The bit rate is 1.544 Mbps and the
modulation is 64-QAM.
The specified BER for the link is 10-7
and the modulation implementation
loss is 2 dB.
The receiver noise figure is 8 dB.
The antennas have 35-dB gain at each
end, and transmission line losses are
1.8 dB at each end.
What link margin can be expected
assuming the transmitter has a 1-watt
output?
Solution
First turn to next figure and derive
the required Eb/N0.
This is about 19.5 dB; add to this the
modulation implementation loss of 2
dB and the result is that the required
value for Eb/N0 is 21.5 dB.
Example (cont.)
The next step is to calculate a
candidate RSL value.
We know that Eb must be 21.5 dB above
N0.
We can calculate N0 because we have
the receiver noise figure (8 dB)
Example (cont.)
Thus RSL, in this case, is 10 log(1.544106)
greater than Eb, because
So
Example (cont.)
We will hold this minimum RSL value for future
reference (we use this reference to calculate the
prevailing link margin), and now we turn to the transmit
side of the link.
Assume the transmitter has a 1-watt output or 0 dBW.
Calculate EIRP (effective isotropically radiated power)
in dBW
EIRP = Trans. output (dBW) - Trans. line loss (dB) + Ant. gain (dB)
Example (cont.)
Calculate the free-space loss (path loss):
Example (cont.)
Calculate RSL (Receive Signal Level) :
Antenna Gain
Often we are faced with the problem of
What antenna gain will provide the
margin or provide the gain necessary to
meet performance objectives?
c
=
f
9 2
FGHz 10
2
G = 10 log 4 (D / 2 ) 0.55
8
3 10
2 0.55 100
Example
What size antenna would be required in
the preceding example? Let G = 35dB
and F=7GHz.
D1m
Antenna types
Parabolic dish antennas, with waveguide (horn)
feeds, are probably the most economic
antennas for radio links operating from 3 GHz
upward.
Below 3 GHz, coaxial feeds are used, and often
the antennas are Yagis.
Coaxial cable transmission lines deliver the RF
energy from/to transmitter/receiver to the
antenna in this range.
Above 3 GHz, coaxial cable becomes too lossy
and waveguide is more practical.
Other types of antennas may also be used, such
as the horn, and spiral.
Besides cost and gain, other features are
front-to-back ratio, side lobes, and efficiency.
Power budget
LFSL = 92.4 + 20 log FGHz + 20 log Dkm
Link Budget
The fade margin is calculated with respect to
the receiver threshold level for a given biterror rate (BER).
The link is available if received signal is above
receiver threshold level, otherwise the link
goes down
Link feasibility formula
RSL Rx = receiver (sensitivity) threshold
285
waveguide
Transmitter 2
Splitter
Splitter
Receiver 1
Antenna Gain
Branching
Losses
Propagation
Losses
Output
Power (Tx)
Receiver 2
Branching
Losses
Received
Power (Rx)
Fade Margin
Fading
On very short radio paths below about 10 GHz, the signal level
on the distant end receiving antenna, assuming full LOS
conditions, can be predicted (calculated) accurately (about 1dB
inaccuracy).
If the transmitter continues to give the same output, the
receive signal level will remain constant.
As the path is extended, the measured RSL will vary around a
median.
The signal level may remain at that median for minutes or hours,
and then suddenly drop and then return to the median again.
In other periods and/or on other links, this level variation can be
continuous for periods of time.
Drops in level can be as much as 30 dB or more.
This phenomenon is called fading.
The system and link design must take fading into account when
sizing or dimensioning the system/link.
Fades
As the RSL drops in level, so does the Eb/N0.
As the Eb/N0 decreases, there is a
deterioration in error performance; the BER
degrades.
Fades vary in depth, duration, and frequency
(i.e., number of fade events per unit of time).
We cannot eliminate the fades, but we can
mitigate their effects.
The primary tool we have is to overbuild each
link by increasing the margin.
Availability
Link margin is the number of dB we have as a surplus in the link
design.
We could design an LOS microwave link so we just achieve the
RSL at the distant receiver to satisfy the Eb/N0 (and BER)
requirements using free-space loss as the only factor in link
attenuation (besides transmission line loss).
Unfortunately we will only meet our specified requirements
about 50% of the time.
So we must add margin to compensate for the fading.
We have to determine what percentage of the time the link
meets BER performance requirements.
We call this time availability.
If a link meets its performance requirements 99% of the time,
then it does not meet performance requirements 1 % of the
time.
We call this latter factor unavailability.
Scales of Fading
290
Probability calculations
Probability calculations
Example
Example
Calculate the following table a) with given time availability and b)
with given fade margin
Time availability
Multipath
The most common cause of
fading is multipath
conditions.
As the term implies, signal
energy follows multiple paths
from the transmit antenna to
the receive antenna.
Two additional paths, besides
the main ray beam, are shown
next figure.
Most of the time the
delayed signal energy (from
the reflected/refracted
paths) will be out of phase
with the principal ray beam
which causes fading.
Multipath
300
Multipath Propagation
Reflection (odd Fresnel zone numbers) and
Scattering
301
Multipath Propagation
Reflection (even Fresnel zone numbers) and
Scattering
302
Dispersion
In digital systems, there is the
additional impairment of dispersion
caused by multipath.
Of course, the delayed energy arrives
later, spilling into the next bit or binary
symbol position, increasing the
probability that that bit decision will
be in error.
Overbuilding
Probably the most economic way to overbuild a link is to increase the
antenna aperture.
Every time we increase the aperture doubling the diameter of the
parabolic dish, we increase the gain by 6 dB
Overbuilding
Other measures we can take to overbuild a link are:
Insert a low-noise amplifier (LNA) in front of the receiver mixer.
Improvement: 6 - 12 dB.
Fading conditions
It should be appreciated that fading varies with path
length, frequency, climate, and terrain.
The rougher the terrain, the more reflections are
broken up.
Flat terrain, and especially paths over water, tends to
increase the incidence of fading.
For example, in dry, windy, mountainous areas the
multipath fading phenomenon may be nonexistent.
In hot, humid coastal regions very strong fading may
be expected.
Fading types
Fading is defined as the variation of the
strength of a received radio carrier signal
due to atmospheric changes and/or ground
and water reflections in the propagation
path.
Four fading types are considered while
planning links.
They are all dependent on path length and
are estimated as the probability of
exceeding a given (calculated) fade margin
307
Fadin Margin
308
Fading margin
Safety margin.
Should be large
enough to guarantee
that quality and
availability
objectives are met
during fading
conditions.
Typical value 40 dB
309
Fading
310
Fading types
Multipath fading
Flat fading
Frequency-selective fading
Rain fading
Refraction-diffraction fading
311
Multipath fading
Multipath fading is the dominant fading
mechanism for frequencies lower than 10 GHz.
A reflected wave causes a multipath, i.e. when a
reflected wave reaches the receiver as the
direct wave that travels in a straight line from
the transmitter
If the two waves reach the receiver out of phase
they weaken the overall signal.
As a thumb rule, multipath fading, for radio links
having bandwidths less than 40MHz and path
lengths less than 30km is described as flat
instead of frequency selective
312
Multipath Fading
314
Rain fading
Rain attenuates the signal caused by the scattering
and absorption of electromagnetic waves by rain
drops
It is significant for long paths (>10km)
It starts increasing at about 10GHz and for
frequencies above 15 GHz, rain fading is the
dominant fading mechanism
Rain outage increases dramatically with frequency and
then with path length
Microwave path lengths must be reduced in areas
where rain outages are severe
The available rainfall data is usually in the form of a
statistical description of the amount of rain that falls
at a given measurement point over a period of time
315
316
Fading Margin
Fading margin > Rain fading + Multipath
fading
Rain fading
Dominant cause of fading for f> 10 GHz
Multipath fading
Dominant cause of fading for f< 10 GHz
318
Far-end Interference
321
Near-end Interference
322
323
Output Power
324
Output Power
325
Antennas
326
Threshold Degradation
327
Threshold Degradation
328
Link Budget
329
330
331
332
Hardware Redundancy
Hot standby
Repeaters
333
Diversity Operation
Diversity reception means the simultaneous reception of the
same radio signal over two or more paths.
Each path is handled by a separate receiver chain and then
combined in the radio equipment so that effects of fading are
mitigated.
The separate diversity paths can be based on space, frequency,
and/or time diversity.
The simplest form of diversity is space diversity.
The two diversity paths in space diversity are derived at the
receiver end from two separate receivers with a combined
output.
Each receiver is connected to its own antenna, separated
vertically on the same tower.
The separation distance should be at least 70 wavelengths and
preferably 100 wavelengths.
Probably, fading will not occur on both paths simultaneously.
Combined signal
fed to receiver
Signal 2
Signal 1
Signal Strength
C o m b in e d s ig n a l
S ig n a l 1
S ig n a l 2
T im e
335
Concept of Diversity
Fade
Transmission
media 1
Information
Receiver
Transmission
Tmedia 2
Peak
336
Diversity
Primarily used to reduce the effects of
multipath fading.
337
Diversity
338
A space-diversity configuration
Antenna separation
340
Frequency Diversity
Frequency diversity is more complex and more costly than space
diversity.
It has advantages as well as disadvantages.
Frequency diversity requires two transmitters at the near end
of the link.
The transmitters are modulated simultaneously by the same
signal but transmit on different frequencies.
Frequency separation must be at least 2%, but 5% is
preferable.
The two diversity paths are derived in the frequency domain.
When a fade occurs on one frequency, it will probably not occur
on the other frequency.
A frequency-diversity configuration
Frequency Diversity
The more one frequency is separated from the other, the less
chance fades will occur simultaneously on each path.
Frequency diversity is more expensive, but there is greater
assurance of path reliability.
It provides full and simple equipment redundancy and has the
great operational advantage of two complete end-to-end
electrical paths.
In this case, failure of one transmitter or one receiver will not
interrupt service, and a transmitter and/or a receiver can be
taken out of service for maintenance.
The primary disadvantage of frequency diversity is that it
doubles the amount of frequency spectrum required in this day
when spectrum is at a premium.
In many cases it is prohibited by national licensing authorities.
For example, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
does not permit frequency diversity for industrial users.
Hot-standby
The full equipment redundancy aspect is very attractive to the
system designer.
Another approach to achieve diversity improvement in
propagation plus reliability improvement by fully redundant
equipment is to resort to the hot-standby technique.
On the receive end of the path, a space-diversity configuration
is used.
On the transmit end a second transmitter is installed as in in the
previous figure, but the second transmitter is on hot standby.
This means that the second transmitter is on but its signal is not
radiated by the antenna.
On a one-for-one basis the second transmitter is on the same
frequency as the first transmitter.
On failure of transmitter 1, transmitter 2 is switched on
automatically.
Diversity Improvement
Propagation reliability improvement can be
exemplified as follows.
If a 50 km path required a 51 dB fade margin to
achieve a 99.999% reliability on 6.7 GHz without
diversity, with space diversity on the same path, only
a 33-dB fade margin would be required for the same
propagation reliability, namely, 99.999%.
For frequency diversity in the nondiversity condition,
assuming Rayleigh fading, a 30-dB fade margin would
display something better than a 99.9% path
reliability.
But under the same circumstances with frequency
diversity, with only a 1% frequency separation,
propagation reliability on the same path would be
improved to 99.995%.
Repeaters
Repeater receives signal
Repeater amplifies
the signal and
rebroadcasts the
signal
350
Path/Site survey
This can turn out to be the most important step in
the design of an LOS microwave link (or hop).
Much of the survey is to verify findings and
conclusions of the path profile.
Of course each site must be visited to determine the
location of the tower and the radio equipment
shelter.
Site/path survey personnel must personally inspect
the sites in question, walking/driving the path or
flying in a helicopter, or a combination of these.
The positions must be accurately enough (<1m) crosschecked in three dimensions.
Frequency planning
The objective of frequency planning is
to assign frequencies to a network
using as few frequencies as possible
and in a manner such that the quality
and availability of the radio link path is
minimally affected by interference.
352
Those frequencies above 10 GHz could be called rainfallrestricted, because above 10 GHz excess attenuation due to
rainfall can become an important design factor.
Around urban and built-up areas, frequency assignments below
10 GHz are hard to obtain from national regulatory authorities.
However, if we plan properly for excess rainfall attenuation,
nearly equal performance is available at those higher
frequencies.
Channel Plan
355
Frequency selection
Scenario 1:
Frequency band and sub-band decided.
Perfect. Early ordering of equipment possible.
Scenario 2:
Frequency band unknown.
Critical. Major changes of assumed bands may
alter the network design.
Application to frequency authority must be
made.
356
Frequency Planning
Determining factors for the influence of
interference:
The carrier to interference ratio (C/I) at the
input of the interfered receiver
The receiver selectivity i.e. receiver bandwidth
and the frequency separation between carrier and
interfering signal
The spectrum width of the interfering signal
Frequency planning/Interference
reducing methods
Frequency (channel) separation
Transmitter attenuation (at interfering
transmitter)
Cross-polar antenna discrimination (V/H)
Co-polar antenna discrimination (directivity)
Larger antennas (smaller beam width and
higher antenna gain)
High performance antennas (side- and back
lobe attenuation)
Reduced spectrum width (low deviation)
358
Frequency planning
The following aspects are the basic
considerations involved in the assignment of
radio frequencies
Determining a frequency band that is suitable for
the specific link (path length, site location, terrain
topography and atmospheric effects)
Prevention of mutual interference such as
interference among radio frequency channels in
the actual path, interference to and from other
radio paths, interference to and from satellite
communication systems
Correct selection of a frequency band allows the
required transmission capacity while efficiently
utilizing the available radio frequency spectrum
359
Path/Site survey
Line of sight must be precisely studied
reiteration for each obstacle in the LOS
microwave path
at least 0.6 of the first Fresnel zone must be
added on top of obstacles including 20 m for trees
and a few meters more for growth if in a
vegetated area (to avoid foliage loss penalties)
often it is advisable to add a few meters of safety
factor on top of the first Fresnel zone clearance
to avoid any diffraction loss penalties.
System tests
A series of tests should be carried out to
verify if the link (or system) meets the
performance requirements.
The first is the measurement of receive
signal level (RSL) at a links far-end receiver.
The second test is the bit error rate test
(BERT).
Ideally, the tests should be done over time.
This means to run the BERT continuously for
at least a few days or more to capture the
effects of fading.
Basic Recommendations
Use higher frequency bands for shorter hops
and lower frequency bands for longer hops.
Avoid lower frequency bands in urban areas.
In areas with heavy precipitation, if possible,
use frequency bands below 10 GHz.
Use protected (stand-by) systems (1+1) for all
important and/or high-capacity links.
Leave enough spare capacity for future
expansion of the system.
364
366
Introduction
The objective of a cellular system is to provide quality
communication to the maximum number of users in a defined area.
The number of users supported by the system can be increased by
using more frequencies.
Frequency resources are however always limited.
Hence RF Planning engineers are required to maximise spectrum
efficiency.
In order to accommodate a maximum number of subscribers per
network, the available frequencies need to be reused as often as
possible.
This creates interference towards other cells, which have
detrimental impact to the link quality.
Finding the optimum compromise between dense re-use and least
368
interference is the objective of frequency planning.
Introduction
The system design and planning of the system has to be done so as
to reuse the frequencies as often as possible while keeping the cochannel and adjacent channel interference within acceptable
limits.
Also a minimum received signal level has to be provided throughout
the coverage area of the network.
Frequency planning can be done
Manually by skilled expert RF Engineers.
With powerful planning tool (here used acronym CellCAD)
having the option of automated frequency planning.
369
Propagation loss
Pre-design
During pre-design, project leaders study business
planning, a prediction of the number of subscribers,
subscriber usage, target customers, spectrum and
pricing.
Objectives
Main phases
Prephase: Preparation (D0)
Initial design: Phase 1 (D1)
Implementation: Phase 2 (D2)
Optimization: Phase 3 (D3)
Ongoing system improvement: Phase 4 (D4)
Design objectives
Determining our design objectives and
standards is a major step of our design.
We need to know:
How much received power is strong enough?
Where?
How much spectrum or how many channels are
available? Where?
How small a signal to interference ratio is
tolerable? Where?
How much and what kind of demand and growth is
expected?
Objectives
CCI objectives
We define different levels of quality
tolerance in different areas.
Typically, we expect to provide better quality
in the downtown area and major highways than
in the outskirts of town.
Coverage objective is the minimum signal
strength that a mobile station requires to
communicate with the base station.
Capacity and interference objectives are sets
of thresholds.
CCI objectives
Databases
To perform simulation and design, we need information in databases about the physical
environment, people, and resources in the target area.
CellCAD or corresponding design tools display some of these databases, such as
terrain, in the form of a color map and others, such as antennas, in a table form.
Antenna database is a table of available antennas with their gains at different angles.
We can view the antenna gains, horizontal patterns or vertical patterns in CellCAD.
A structure database contains all the existing structures, i.e., towers and buildings, their
location, ground elevation, and radiation center.
We will use this database in the site selection stage of coverage design.
Model optimization is the process of adjusting our loss prediction model to conform with
measurement data collected through drive tests in the target area.
Using a correction factor we incorporate the best dB adjustment.
Morphological classification
We classify the target into only three categories
based on land usage:
urban,
suburban, and
rural.
Morphological classification
Urban areas have man-made structures and little
vegetation.
Local clutter (obstacles) interferes the line-of-sight (LOS)
from the base stations antenna to mobile stations antenna,
since the radiation center is only slightly higher than the
building heights.
Urban sites have relatively small coverage areas.
Morphological classification
Correction factors
Morphologically diverse area needs several
correction factors.
dB and dBm
Note: dBm is a unit for power but dB is a unit for power gain or loss.
Coverage classes
The mobile station requires at least a signal strength on the street or at the mobile
stations receiver. To evaluate coverage of a mobile station in a car, we added 10 dB to
the power required on the street. To evaluate coverage of the mobile station in the
building, we added 20 dB to the power required on the street.
Hand-off window
Hand-off window
Switching back and forth between two
stations due to signal level fluctuations
increases the mobiles chances of dropping a
call and overhead signaling to complete a
hand-off.
Therefore, multiple hand-offs (ping-pong
effect) are undesirable.
The hand-off window ensures that the signal
strength of a neighboring station is at least 3
dB stronger than the signal strength of the
serving station before the call is handed off
to the neighboring station.
Hand-off window
After LBA is done and the balanced path is achieved from path loss and the propagation
loss model (e.g. HATAs model) we can estimate the cell radius.
Note that this method is crude and does not account for the terrain.
After running propagation for a site with a typical antenna type, radiation center, and
EiRP in CellCAD, we can plot the signal predictions to use for estimating a cell size.
The coverage threshold plus the hand-off window is the threshold that determines the
cell radius.
Because the cell radius varies in different directions, we take the average of radii in
several directions.
If the target area is not homogenous in terms of morphology, call traffic demands,
dominant type of phones, and phones environment, we estimate several cell sizes.
After classifying the areas, we estimate a unique cell size for each area.
Coverage Design
In coverage design, we select site locations and
antenna configurations, in a sequential manner, to
provide sufficient signal strength for mobile stations
to communicate in defined areas.
Topographical maps
Topographical maps show the ground elevation using
contour lines.
Coverage design I
For regularity of design, we use a hexagonal grid pattern to guide our selection of sites.
This regularity helps us in the next stages of design, i.e., capacity analysis and
frequency planning.
Special considerations in
coverage design
Areas that are physically far apart may
become close from a propagation viewpoint
because of water enhancement.
The EM loss over water is less than over dry
ground and CellCAD accounts for this
difference.
In site selection, we need to watch for extra
propagation from sites close to water because
the propagation could cause interference.
Special considerations in
coverage design: Tilt
During the D1 stage of coverage design, we design sites using one type of omni
antenna placed within a range of heights.
In the D1 stage, we rarely downtilt an antenna because we save time by waiting to
recommend antenna downtilts during the D2 stage when we have real site locations.
Special considerations in
coverage design
Propagation in tunnels
Propagation inside tunnels is inhibited because of
excessive loss at obstructions, bends, and corners.
For propagation studies, a tunnel is often modeled as
a smooth-walled, glossy, straight, and homogeneous
wave guide.
For such a model, attenuation varies as the inverse
square of frequency.
Tunnels
Propagation in tunnels is difficult and special modeling
and design methodology must be used.
In the mobile communications industry, this has
evolved into a specialized domain, with many
techniques including such design approaches as leaky
cables, closely located repeaters, etc.
Foliage
Foliage losses
The effects of foliage are considerable at UHF and
higher frequencies.
Foliage effects vary with seasons, and thus present
special design problems.
Sometimes, significant design alterations are
necessary as the seasons change, thus the term
multi-season design.
Special considerations in
coverage design: Delay spread
In selecting site locations, we need to look for reflecting
surfaces, i.e., (glass) buildings and (snowcap) mountains, that
create time dispersion.
Capacity analysis
Objective:
Estimate traffic/channel loading per station
Put additional sites wherever needed
that too heavy traffic load can distribute fairly
The resulting subscriber density is a map or matrix with the number of subscribers in
each bin.
Traffic parameters
Traffic parameters
The incoming traffic load is a random process,
therefore, we should employ a probabilistic
model with parameters such as:
Average number of users in the system.
Average amount of delay for each call.
Average total number of subscribers predicted or
planned.
Probability of blocking a call request
System queuing strategy
Call arrival rate
Subscriber usage
Erlangs/station
For each station or cell, CellCAD calculates the call traffic in Erlangs by multiplying the
number of subscribers in the cell area by the subscriber usage.
Traffic models
Example
Limitations
Hardware limitations, spectrum availability, selected reuse
scheme, and zoning issues are inputs that we use to calculate the
maximum number of channels on each station.
Channel off-loading
Reduce the Coverage Area of Station by:
Reducing its Antenna Height (effective)
Using an Antenna with lower gain (not effective)
Reducing its power output (not effective and not
recommended)
Down tilting (effective, not to be used in D1)
Channel off-loading
First, we try to off-load traffic from the overloaded
site to neighbor sites.
Cell splitting
Second, we try to add a site to off-load traffic from
the overloaded site.
RF planning
The goal is to achieve optimum use of resources and maximum
revenue potential whilst maintaining a high level of system
quality.
Full consideration must also be given to cost and spectrum
allocation limitations.
A properly planned system should allow capacity to be added
economically when traffic demand increases.
As every urban environment is different, so is every macrocell and
microcell network.
Hence accurate planning is essential in order to ensure that the
system will provide both the increased capacity and the
improvement in network quality where required.
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RF planning
RF planning plays a critical role in the cellular design
process.
By doing a proper RF planning we can reduce a lot of
problems that we may encounter in the future and also
reduce substantially the cost of optimization.
On the other hand a poorly planned network not only
leads to many network problems , it also increases the
optimization costs and still may not ensure the desired
quality.
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Frequency planning
How many channels are needed and where?
Station by station reuse penalty?
Exclusion zones?
Big picture
Interference
analysis
Interference
reduction
Automatic frequency
planning
Manual frequency
planning
Reuse distance
Reuse distance
We increase our system capacity when we decrease
the distance between sites that use the same RF
channel.
Close reuse means small D/R, not small D.
The trade-off to increased capacity is an increase in
interference because the co-channel sites have less
distance between them.
Reuse patterns
A reuse pattern means that we can use all our spectrum on every
cluster of K sites.
4, 7, 9, and 12 are typical cell reuse patterns.
C/I
Sectorization
Smart antenna
Profits
Gain
Beamwidth
Interference
reduction
Adaptive coverage
Loss
Cost
Complexity
Likely server
Likely server
For interference calculations, CellCAD determines the serving
area based on likely server or secondary threshold.
We use interference based on likely server most often.
In a bin for interference based on likely server, CellCAD
1) filters out all stations that do not have a signal strength above
the system threshold before identifying possible servers (>Tsys)
2) identifies station A as a potential server if its signal strengths is
greater than its primary threshold.
3) identifies the best server, the station with the strongest signal
strength, and classifies this station as a potential server.
4) identifies station A as a potential server if its signal strength is
greater than the signal strength from the best server minus station
As hand-off window.
Note, to define the same serving area as likely servers, set the
secondary threshold equal to the secondary threshold for
demographics based on cell hand-off.
Example
We quantify tolerable interference as a percentage
of all covered bins that can have interference.
Percentage interference
=10/32*100=31%
Frequency assignment I:
Automatic Frequency Planning
works
Frequency assignment II
Model optimization
Model optimization is the process of adjusting
our loss prediction model to conform with
measurement data that are collected through
drive tests in the target area.
As a result of this measurement integration
process, we find a correction factor, the
standard deviation of prediction errors, and a
color plot that shows the value of error at
each point on the drive-test route.
Measurement integration
Measurement integration for model optimization
Drive-test plan
After selecting the sites to be drive-tested,
the next step is to formulate a drive test plan
for each site.
The following rules should be observed.
The drive test plan should include both radial and
circumferential routes.
It should also include wide & narrow roads.
It is important that radial roads be drive-tested
till the edge of the cell boundary.
It is beneficial to measure beyond the coverage
contour up to the interference contour of the site.
These contours are based on set threshold values.
Drive-test plan
Correction Factor
Every measured point is compared to its
corresponding predicted signal strength and
the error as well as co-ordinates are
recorded in a file in CellCAD.
The model is adjusted by adding a correction
factor to the predicted signal strength
values.
The correction factor to be added is the
average value of the differences between
measured and predicted signal strength
values.
Correction Factor
Advantages of Fiber
Advantages of the fiber transmission media
Low transmission loss (typically 0.2-0.5 dB/km)
Allows longer distances between repeaters or amplifiers
By comparison, Cat. 5 UTP (copper pairs) have loss of 7
dB/km to 220 dB/km in 64 kHz-100 MHz range
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Advantages of Fiber
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Advantages of Fiber
Larger information carrying capacity
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Note
The Infrared Data Association (IrDA) defines physical specifications
communications protocol standards for the short-range exchange of
data over infrared light, for uses such as personal area networks
(PANs).
IrDA is a very short-range example of free space optical
communication.
Ultra-Wideband (UWB) is a technology for transmitting information
spread over a large bandwidth (>500 MHz)
UWB can be used at very low energy levels for short-range highbandwidth communications
802.20 is a proposed IEEE specification for boosting IP-based datatransmission rates for mobile users in wireless metropolitan area
networks (WMANs).
Formally known as "The Standard Air Interface for Mobile Broadband
Wireless Access Systems Supporting Vehicular Mobility - Physical and
Media Access Control Layer Specification," 802.20 would support
transmission speeds of up to 1M bit/sec in the 3-GHz spectrum band.
The goal is to have a ubiquitous data wireless network that can support
real-time traffic with extremely low latency at 20 milliseconds or less.
Advantages of Fiber
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Can be placed alongside powerlines or close to radiative equipment
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Modes of a Fiber
What makes a fiber single mode or
multimode?
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Fiber Attenuation
As light travels along a fiber, its power
decreases exponentially with distance L
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Fiber Attenuation
Attenuation coefficient preferably
expressed in units of dB/km
dB is logarithmic unit for representing gain
or loss
dBm is logarithmic unit for absolute signal
power in mW
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Fiber Attenuation
What causes fiber loss?
Absorption
Scattering
Bending
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Fiber Dispersion
Dispersion = different
components of the
signal travel at
different velocities
Pulses spread in time
Causes intersymbol
interference (ISI)
more errors
Limits possible distance
and bit rate
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Fiber Limitations
Link performance is limited by:
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Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing or WDM
Frequency-division multiplexing in the optical
domain
Multiple information-bearing optical signals
transported on a single strand of fiber
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Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
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Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Current WDM systems
Dense WDM (DWDM)
ITU-T G.694.1 grid with
channel spacing 200
GHz
C- and L-band (1530-1625
nm) operation
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Access Networks
Access network are last leg of
telecommunications network
Between service provider distribution facility and
users home or business
Other names:
last mile
local loop
first mile
Access Networks
DSL = Digit Subscriber Line, DSLAM = Digit Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer, MxU
526 and
= a generic term for Multiple Tenant Unit and Multiple Dwelling Unit, SME = Small
Medium Enterprise
Design Approach
The first step in designing a fiber-optic
communication system is to establish the basic
system parameters.
Among these we would wish to know at the outset:
Type, bit rate and format of signal to be transmitted
(e.g., analog, PCM, SONET, SDH or digital TV).
ISI
System design can eliminate a number of
major causes of dispersion.
Lets simply look at dispersion as a delay.
We have a stream of bits.
The first bit in the stream does its job, but there
is some power from that bit that is delayed which
slips into the time slot of bit two.
If there is sufficient power from bit one in time
slot for bit two, the receiver is confused and may
make an incorrect decision.
As the link bit rate is increased, pulse widths get
shorter and the problem of dispersion becomes
more acute.
Eliminate dispersion
One example of eliminating the cause of dispersion
deals with the type of fiber we select.
To eliminate multimode dispersion, use single mode
fiber.
We then can turn to using the zero dispersion
wavelength which is at approximately 1310 nm for
production silicon fiber.
By doing this we remove the opportunity to use the
low loss hand at about 1550 nm.
To overcome this shortcoming, we spend more on
fiber and buy dispersion-shifted fiber.
That moves the zero dispersion wavelength to the
1550 band by changing the fiber geometry.
Chromatic dispersion
The designer is now left with chromatic
dispersion.
This is the phenomenon where even with
the narrow line width of a laser diode
different frequencies appearing in that
spectral line travel at different
velocities.
Important factors
The designer must select the most economic alternatives among
the following:
Fiber parameters: single mode or multimode: if multimode, step
index or graded index: number of fibers.
Transmission wavelength: 820 nm, 1 330 nm or 1 550 nm.
Source type: LED or semiconductor laser: there are subsets to
each source type.
Detector type: PIN or APD.
Use of EDFA (amplifiers).
Repeaters, if required and how they will be powered.
Modulation will probably be intensity modulation (IM), but the
electrical waveform entering the source is important (coding).
EDFA
In the Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
(EDFA) the core of a silica fiber is
doped with Erbium ions and can be
efficiently pumped with a laser at a
wavelength of 980 nm or 1,480 nm.
EDFA exhibits gain in the 1,550 nm
region.
Loss Design
As a first step, assume that the system is power-limited.
Probably a majority of systems being installed today can stay in
the power-limited regime if single mode fiber is used with
semiconductor lasers.
With systems operating at such high data rates such that
chromatic dispersion may be a problem, the selection of the
laser and the design of the transmitter itself become important.
It is highly desirable to minimize the line width, and we can
achieve very narrow widths by using a distributed feedback
(DFB) laser and an external modulator.
It also may be wise to select dispersion-shifted fiber, where
the zero dispersion line is shifted to the low-loss 1550-nm hand.
We now get the best of both worlds for extra cost.
Link budget
The next step is to develop a link budget, which in format is very
similar to the link budgets in LOS microwave and satellite
communications.
It is a tabular format where the first entry is the transmitter
output.
If the transmitter initially selected is a laser diode, a 0-dBm
output is a good starting point.
For shorter links with lower bit rates, the LED transmitter
should be a candidate because of cost, lower complexity and
longer life.
Then all the losses/gains of the link are entered, enumerating
and identifying each.
Among these losses we would expect to find the following items:
1. Connector Loss
There are two connectors, one at the
output of the transmitter pigtail and
one at the input of the receiver pigtail.
A pigtail is a short length of factoryinstalled fiber
2. Fiber Loss
The fiber selected for the link will have
a loss specified by the manufacturer
given in dB/km for a particular
wavelength of interest.
Multiply that value by the length of the
link plus 5% for slack.
3. Splice Loss
Assuming the link is more than 1 or 2 km
long, there will be a splice to connect
the fiber from one reel to the fiber of
the next reel.
Good fusion splices have a very low
insertion loss.
Budget 0.1 dB each.
Multiply this value by the number of
splices in the link.
4. Amplifier Gain
Links longer than 30 to 100 km (depending on
design) will use an amplifier.
Budget +30 dB for each in-line amplifier.
There is a trade-off where the amplifier is
installed.
Another candidate location is at the input to the
receiver to extend the receiver threshold
Another is at the output of the transmitter to
increase output value.
Major differences
One major difference between a link
budget for LOS radio and for fiber
optics is that there is no fading on a
fiber-optic link.
Another consideration is the use of an
optical power attenuator on very short
links so as not to overload the receiver.
Receive Levels, BER Values, and Bit Rates for PIN Diode
and APD Light Detectors
Extinction ratio
The extinction ratio is then
defined as
Example
The link operates at 2.5 Gbps and is 300 km long.
The link operates in the 1550-nm band and the loss is
0.25 dB/km.
The total fiber necessary is 1.05 300 km or 315 km.
This includes the necessary slack.
Shortfall compensation
To compensate for the shortfall of 3.55 dB the
following are possible measures that can be taken:
1. Shorten link by 15 km.
2. Increase gain of each amplifier by 1.2 dB, assuming that
EDFAs were operating at less than full gain.
3. Increase output power of laser diode transmitter by 3.55
dB.
This may shorten the life of the device.
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Case Study
The following parameters are established for a longhaul single-mode optical fiber system operating at a
wavelength of 1.3 m.
Estimate
1) the maximum possible link length without repeaters
when operating at 35 Mbit/s (BER 10-9).
It may be assumed that there is no dispersion equalization
penalty at this bit rate.
Solution
1)
At 35 Mbit/s,
Solution
2) At 400 Mbit/s,
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LTD constraints
Flow conservation (net flow of traffic in/out of nodes)
Link capacity
Node degree (number of in/output links)
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Wavelength continuity
Same wavelength channel must be used between end-points
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