American Cinematographer Manual

AMERICAN
CINEMATOGRAPHER
MANUAL
SEVENTH
EDmON
EDITED BY
DR. ROD RYAN
THE ASC PRESS

HOLLYWOOD, CALIFORNIA
Acknowledgements
This edition, like all of the previous editions, was a joint effort. We
have called on ASC members, associate members and manufacturers' representatives to discuss the state of the art in the areas of their expertise. I would like to thank each of the more than 50 contributors for taking time from their busy schedules to help in the preparation of this
manual. Mehrdad Azarmi, Ph.D. ; Ed Blasko, Eastman Kodak; Paul
Bourque, Agfa Photo Division; James K. Branch; Steven C. Chamberlain,
Arriflex Corp.; Ed Clare, Matthews Studio Equipment Group; Chris J.
Condon, StereoVision International, Inc.; Anthony Coogan, StereoMedia,
Inc.; Jack Cooperman, ASC; Ed DiGiulio, Cinema Products Corp.; Fred
Detmers; linwood G. Dunn, ASC; Richard Edlund, ASC; Jonathan Erland;
Marianne Exbrayat, Aaton Des Autres, Inc.; Doug Fries, Fries Engineering; Tom Fraser; Richard Glickman, Gliconen Corp.; William Hansard, Sr.,
Hansard Enterprises; Frieider Hochheim, Killoflo Inc.; Michael Hofstein;
Bill Hogan, Sprocket Digital; Robert C. Hummel III, Theme Park Productions, Inc.; Masaru Jibiki, Fuji Photo Film USA; John Jurgens, Cinema Products Corp.; Frank M. Kay, Panavision; Conrad Kiel, Photo-Sonics, Inc.; Jon
Kranhouse; Bern Levy, Bern Levy Associates; Frank Leonetti, Leonetti Co.;
Grant Loucks, Alan Gordon Enterprises; Harry Mathias; Rami Mina, Don
Miskowich, Eastman Kodak; John Mosely, CAS; Martin Mueller, MSM
Design, Inc.; Dennis Muren, ASC; Ryan O'Hara, Chapman Leonard; Marty
Ollstein; Allan Peach, DemoGraFX; Steven Poster, ASC; David L. Quaid, ASC;
Pete Romano, HydroImage; Gavin Schutz, Image Transform; Daniel L.
Symmes, Spatial Technologies, Inc.; Bill Taylor, ASC; Ira Tiffen, Tiffen
Manufacturing Corp.; Bill Turner, Century Precision Optics; Petro Vlahos,
Vlahos Motion Pictures, Inc.; Paul Westerfer, AMPIP; Michael Whitney,
DemoGraFX; Geoffrey H. Williamson, Wilcam Photo Research; Irwin W.
Young, DuArt Laboratories.
Special thanks to David Heuring, Martha Winterhalter, Steven
Pizzello, Marji Rhea, and the American Cinematographer staff for their
suggestions and assistance.
-Rod Ryan
American Cinematographer Manual

Seventh Edition
Copyright 1993 by The ASC Press

Hollywood, California, USA
All Rights Reserved
library of Congress Catalog Card
,-J
o. 79-93439
ISBN 0-935578-11-0
Cover Design and Artwork by George E. Turner
Copy edited by David Heuring, Stephen PizzeUo and Marji Rhea
Production by Martha Winterhalter
Printed in the United States of America by Sinclair Printing Company
ii
Dr. Rod Ryan retired as Regional Engineering Director ofEastman Kodak

MP&A V Division after 40 years service with that company. He is a graduate of
the University of Southern California BA, Ma, PhD, an Honorary Member of
ASC, a Life Fellaw of SMPTE, Retired Fellow BKSTS, a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the Academy of Telroision Arts and
Sciences and the Motion Picture Pioneers. His awards include the Herbert T.
Kalmus Gold Medal, three SMPTE Special Commendations, the AMPAS Scientific & Engineering Award and the AMPAS Medal OfCommendation. During World War II, he was a USN photographer, and after the war one ofthe photographers of the Atomic Bomb Tests at Bikini Atoll. He is the author of "A History of Motion Picture Color Technology, " editor and contributing author of
"Color Sensitometry," "Sixtieth Anniversary Issue SMPTE Journal, " "Fiftieth
Anniversary Issue American Cinematographer," contributing author of "Control Techniques in Film Processing," "Technologies in the Laboratory Handling
ofMotion Picture and Other Lang Films," "The Book ofFilm Care," and several
articles in the SMPTE Journal and other trad_ publications.
iii
CONTENTS
CINEMATOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
35mm Systems
16mm Systems
Special Purpose Systems
10
Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35

and Super 35 Film Formats
13
CAMERAS
65mm
Arriflex 765
31
Cinema Products CP-65
33
Fries 865
34
Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO
36
37
MSM8870
Panavision System-65
39
39
Panavision Panaflex System-65
43
Panavision AC/SPC
Film
.16 mm/35 mm dailies, color or black and white

Video dailies, wet or dry, with time-code or key code
Answer prints, intermediates, volume release
Screening and editing rooms
35mm
Arriflex 535
45
46
47
Arriflex 535B
50
Arriflex 35-3
52
Arriflex35BL-4s
54
Arriflex 35-3C
56
Arriflex 35-2C
57
Cinema Products FX35
59
Cinema Products XR35
61
Feathercam CM35
62
IMAGE 300 35mm

Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,
BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm)
63
Aaton35mm
Aaton35-ll
Audio
Most film/video formats including R-DAT

Rerecording, sweetening, transfers
Video
Film-to-tape ~
- N C/pAL wet gate
Standard
onversions
NTSC/P~L/SECAM
Duplication all formats

Tape-to-film transfers
Satellite Services
Syndication
64
xvii
..<:::f<'
35mm continued
16mm continued
Mitchell S35R (Mark II)
66
Mitchell Standard and High Speed
67
Mitchell Professional HS, HSC
111
Moviecam Super 35mm
69
Mitchell16mm Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16
113
Panavision Platinum Panaflex
70
Panavision Panaflex 16mm
114
Panavision Gil Golden Panaflex
74
Panavision Panaflex-X
74
Panaflex Panastar High-Speed
74
Panavision Super R-200
76
Photo-Sonies 4B/ 4C
79
Photo-Sonies 4ER
79
Ultracam 35mm
80
VistaVision
109
FILM
Color
119
Black & White
120
Color Reversal Film
121
Edge Numbers
121
Film Perforations
123
Film Handling and Storage
125
Charts: 122,127-141
MSM8812
81
Wilcam W-7
82
Wilcam W-9
83
Selection of Lenses
142
Wilcam W-11
85
Understanding an MTF Chart
145
Modem Telephoto Lenses
148
16mm
LENSES
Aaton XTRplus
86
Zoom Lenses
153
Arriflex 16SR-2
88
Lens Formulas
160
Arriflex 16SR-3
93
Extreme Close-up
165
Arriflex 16BL
95
Special Purpose Lenses
170
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M/B
97
Charts: 146, 174-199
Bolex 16mm
Bell & Howell Filmo 70.
~1
FILTERS
102
Filters for Both Color

and Black & White
102
Special Effect Filters
208
Cinema Products CP-16R, CP-16R/A
102
Filters for Black & White
216
Cinema Products GSMO
105
Filters for Color
217
Eclair ACL
107
Charts: 226-232
Eclair CM-3 (16/35mm)
108
Minicam 16mm (GSAP)

Cinema Products CP-16, CP-16A
xviii
Eclair NPR
201
xix
ACCESSORIES
Travelling-Matte Composite Photography
430
The Future for Travelling-Matte

Composite Photography
445
242
Digital Effects Cinematography
460
Camera Supports
246
Camera Stabilizing Systems
253
High-Resolution Electronic
Intermediate System for Film
Preparation of Motion
Picture Equipment
258
Computer Graphics
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer
Exposure Meters
233
Crystal-Controlled Cordless
Camera Drive Systems
Aerial Image Cinematography
PUTTING THE IMAGE ON FILM

Exposure
270
Charts: 413,419,423,443
The Cinematographer and the Laboratory
280
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Photographic Testing and Evaluation
288
Emulsion Testing
294
Charts: 272-279,300-312
LIGHTING
Light Sources and Lighting Filters
313
Characteristics of Light Sources
475
481
Aerial Cinematography
487
Underwater Cinematography
Safety Guidelines for Insert Camera Cars
495
503
Arctic Cinematography
504
Tropical Cinemato~aphy
Day-for-Night Cinematography
511
Photographic Light Sources
313
328
Infrared Cinematography
521
Light Source Filters
352
Ultraviolet Photography
523
Commercial/ Industrial Light Sources
354
Fluorescent Lighting for Motion Pictures
359
Shooting 16mm Color Negative

for Blowup to 35mm
527
AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem
376
Stereoscopic Motion Picture Technology
534
Luminaires
380
3-D Cinematography
538
390
Synchronizing Methods for Picture

and Sound Systems
540
Light Control Accessories
Charts: 314-315, 319, 323, 328,339,345, 366-375
SPECIAL VISUAL EFFECTS
xx
462
467
Shooting Background Plates
394
Front-Projection Process
399
Compositing
415
Photographing Miniatures
420
Motion-Control Cinematography
424
518
Filming Television Screens
555
Television Film Cinematography
561
Shooting Videotape for Transfer to Film
566
REFERENCES
577
INDEX
579
xxi
CHARTS AND TABLES

FILM
Comparison of Film Speeds
122
Film Data Chart
127
Film Stock Tables
xxii
AgfaXT-100
128
AgfaXT-320
128
Agfa XTS-4OO
129
Agfa PAN-250
129
Eastman EXR 5245/7245
130
130
131
131
Eastman 5297/7297
132
Eastman Ektachrome 5239/7239
132
Eastman Ektachrome 7240
133
133
134
Eastman Plus-X 5231/7231
135
Eastman Double-X 5222/7222
135
Eastman Plus-X 7276
136
Eastman Tri-X 7278
136
Eastman Kodachrome 7267
137
Eastman Kodachrome 7268
137
Fuji F-64 8510/8610
138
Fuji F-64 8520/8620
138
Fuji F-125 8530/8630
139
Fuji F-250 8550/8650
139
Fuji F-250 8560/8660
140
Fuji F-5oo 8570/8670
140
Film Stock Tables continued

Fuji FC 71112
141
Fuji RP 72161
141
LENSES
Typical MTF of 3:1 Zooms for 16mm
146
Depth of Field Charts

35mmCamera
9.8mm
174
15mm
175
20mm
176
25mm
177
35mm
178
40mm
179
50mm
180
85mm
181
100mm
182
150mm
183
200mm
184
400mm
185
16mmCamera
8mm
186
9.5mm
187
12mm
188
16mm
189
25mm
190
35mm
191
50mm
192
85mm
193
100mm
194
135mm
195
VistaVision
196
xxiii
"-
r
LENSES continued
Vertical Angle vs.

Effective Focal Length
Footage Tables continued

196a-b
Extreme Close-up
35mm Depth of Field
and Exposure Factor
16mm Depth of Field
and Exposure Factor
Plus Diopter Lenses Focus Conversion
197
16mm (29.97 fps)
302
35mm (24 fps)
303
35mm (25 fps)
304
35mm (29.97 fps)
305
65/70mm (24 fps)
306
Footage Obtained at Various Camera Speeds
198
199
FILTERS
"
16mm
307
35mm (+ frames)
308
65mm (+ frames)
309
Filter Compensation
226
ND Filter Selector
227
Color Filters for B & W Daylight Exteriors
228
Color Filters for Altering

B & W Contrast
229
Comparison of Photographic Light Sources 315
Conversion Filters for Color Film
230
Correlated Color Temperature
319
Kodak Light Balancing Filters
230
MIRED Shift Value Effects
323
Kodak Color Compensating Filters
231
Tangent Function
328
Nomograph for Light Source Conversion
232
National Carbons for Studio Lighting
339
Lamp Characteristics
345
LIGHTING
Commercial/Industrial Light Source
Characteristics
HMITM
EXPOSURE
Incident Keylight/ T-stop
272
T-stop Compensation for Camera Speed
274
Shutter Angle / fps/T-stop Change
276
Color Balancing Existing

Fluorescent Lighting
277
Balancing Daylight Windows in Interiors
278
Balancing to Match Existing

Interior Lighting
Recommended Panning Speeds
314
Lighting Filters: Color Adjusting
366-367
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescents
368-373
Color Balancing of AC Arc

Discharge Lighting
374
SPECIAL EFFECTS
Minimum Object-Distance
413
Background Projection
419
279
Miniatures: Speed/Scale/ Exposure
423
310-312
Alternative Methods for Travelling Mattes
443
Footage Tables
xxiv
16mm (24 fps)
300
16mm (25 fps)
301
xxv
Cinematographic Systems
Most films produced for theatrical presentation are
photographed in one of the systems intended for projection
in an aspect ratio greater than 1.33:1. These are loosely categorized as "wide screen" systems. All films produced for
use in television systems and most of those produced for
industrial and educational use are photographed in an aspect ratio of 1.33:1.
Following are the photographic systems currently
employed in the preparation of motion picture negatives
or reversal originals from which the various projection systems can be supplied with the proper prints.
Most films produced for theatrical presentation are
later used for television. It is desirable that the cinematographer allow for this in composing. The accompanying
drawings will show dimensions of finder markings to aid
the transition. Certain other enlarged or reduced copy dimensions are also shown. The dimensions shown are those
of primary interest to the cinematographer; for detailed
specifications, refer to the following Standards and Recommended Practices, published by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE).
Image Areas, Camera
16mm
16mm Type W (Super 16)
35mm
65mm
SMPTE 7 -1988
SMPTE 201M -1992
SMPTE 59 -1991
sMPtE 215 -1990
Image Areas, Projector

16mm
35mm
70mm
SMPTE 233-1987
PH22.195 -1984
SMPTE 152 -1989
Copy Dimensions
35mmto16mm
16mm to35mm
Super 16 to 35mm
35mmto70mm
RP65 -1991
RP66-1991
SMPTE 201M-1992
None
Television:
Safe Action and Title Area RP27.3 -1989
1
35mm Systems
35mll CAMERA SPHERICAL LENS
NO. 1
THEATRICAL
RELEASE
o
0
o lSI r-_-_-_-_-_-_-_,'O
o
011 L
- - - - - ----lIO
J9
.1
FINDER MARKING &

PROJECTOR APERTURES
NO. 1&2
NONSQUEEZEO
NEGATIVE
0 ,
.825" x .602" FOR 1.37/1

.825" x .497" FOR 1.66/1
.825" x .471" FOR 1.75/1
.825" x .446" FOR 1.85/1
.--------,'0
NO.2
TELEVISION APERTURES
AND SAFE AREAS
CAMERA APERTURE
.864" min. x 630" min.
TV STATIONPROJECTOR APERTURE
0.816" x 0.612"
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
0.792" x 0.594"
TV SAFE ACTION AREA
'0.713" x 0.535"
'CORNER RADII R ~ 0.143"

SAFE TITLE AREA
0.630" x 0.475"
CORNER RADII R. 0.125"
Figure 1.
1. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) photography for theatrical presentation (Sound area blocked).
(See Figure 1.)
The ANSI standard calls for cameras for nonanamorphic photography to be equipped with an aperture of
0.864" by 0.630" minimum. Many cameras, however, are
equipped with apertures which will cover the area required
for anamorphic images as well, and it is occasional practice to use a "hard matte" to limit the area in the vertical
dimension to the wide screen format desired by the director. It should be understood, of course, that while the use
of a hard matte ensures correct framing in the theater, it also
limits the future use of the image for television releases in
1.33:1 aspect ratio. In addition to the necessity for (and the
expense of) a special duplicate negative for television, it
should also be noted that the side lines for 1.33:1 within a
hard matted wide screen frame may have to be respected
by the cinematographer to protect for such later use. When
theatrical subjects are photographed without the hard
matte, it is wise to protect the height of the image for later
television release by excluding extraneous objects, such as
microphones or goboes, from the areas above and below
the 1.85:1 frame line and by being careful not to overshoot
the set within the television area of 0.594 inches high as
measured on the film.
2. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) photography for television presentation (Sound area blocked).
(Figure 1) (See also "Television Film Cinematography.")
The television aspect ratio is 1.33:1 and the dimensions
given on the accompanying diagram indicate not only the
actual headroom but also suggested "safe areas" for both
action and titles. In television transmission, maladjustment
or electrical errors can cause cropping of the image before
it reaches the home viewer. The areas so indicated delineate the usuallirnits of such cropping.
3. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) photography (full aperture). Camera aperture fills 4-perforation area, full space between perforations (0.980 inches by
0.735 inches).
A. Used for special effects duplication. No protection
dimension given (image size depends on user). (Figure 2)
B. For theatrical presentation, negativ e image is
anamorphosed or reduced spherically in laboratory prepa3
NO.3: 35mm FULL APERTURE

SPHERICAL LENS
(FOR PARTIAL FRAME EXTRACTION)
PRINTS
D~
NEGATIVE
SUPER PANAVISION 35 .
SUPER TECHNISCOPE, ETC.
IMAGE TO BE OPTICALLY
EXTRACTED FOR RELEASE PRINT.
0
0
1.85:1AR
Non-Squeezed
Proj Ap .825" x .446"
CAMERA APERTURE
\980" x .735"
'\ COMMON HEADROOM

),
C)
C)
0
0
f--- I--
C)
C)
C)
----
0
0
((
,LFINDER
MARKINGS
35mm ANAMORPHIC 2.4:1AR
.945" x .394"
- 70 mm 2.2:1AR
.945" x .430"
L - 35mm FLAT 1.85:1AR
.945" x .511"
D~
24 :1AR
2:1 ANAMORPHIC SQUEEZE
PROJ AP .838" x .700"
CJ
Cl
0
0
Cl
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
~I
5 perf 70 mm 2.2:1AR
Proj Ap 1.912" x .870"
Figure 2.
ration of release printing duplicate negative. Prints must

be projected with an anamorphic lens. (Alternate finder
markings are shown for 35mm "flat" and 70mm extraction.
Note that all extractions use the same headroom. Television
extraction is not fixed at this writing; alternate versions
would crop sides and extend to the bottom of the camera
aperture or use the same side lines and protect the area
above the nominal headroom line. There have been minor
variations on this system, and guidelines are under consideration for ultimate standardization of dimensions. Use of
the system depends on capability and willingness of the
laboratory to make the image extractions on the release
printing duplicate negatives.) (Super Panavision 35 and
Super Techniscope) (Figure 2) (See also "Special Systems.")
4. 35mm camera, 2:1 anamorphic lens (squeezed)
photography for theatrical presentation (Panavision and
Todd-AO 35). (Figure 3)
A. 35mm contact or 1:1 prints. For this system, cameras are equipped with anamorphic lens attachments which
compress the image horizontally in a 2 to 1 ratio, resulting
in a lens field twice as wide as would otherwise be photographed with lenses of equal focal length. Prints from negatives photographed in this system must be projected in the
theater with anamorphic lenses. At least in the United
States, for all practical purposes all theaters are so equipped.
For non-theatrical distribution, 16mm prints are made
either with anamorphic images or by unsqueezing to
spherical ("flat") images with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, cropping
each side of the image about 12%. Because of the 16mm
projector aspect ratio, anamorphic prints made at the reduction ratio of RP65-1991 will crop the top and bottom of the
35mm image. Some reduction prints have been made at
2.4:1 aspect ratio with printed-in mattes at the sides to avoid
this problem, but this is not yet standard practice.
Because of the aspect ratio and the anamorphic
squeeze, direct prints from this system cannot be run on
television, except in letterbox. In most instances a 1.33:1 aspect ratio extraction from the center of the screen loses significant action. This problem has been circumvented in the
past by "scanning" the image to follow action in the preparation of a duplicate negative from which television prints
may be made - an unsatisfactory but common solution.
The accompanying diagram shows the transition. A number of optical houses are prepared to supply this type of duplicate negative either in 35mm or 16mm. (Figure 4)
5
35.111 ANAMORPHIC LENS CAMERA
(A)
0
0
0
IL
0
0
0
6-_-----J~ 0
0
II
II
II
II
'I
35111. SQUEEZED PRINT

FINDER MARKING &
PROJECTOR APERTURE
.838" x .700"
(Additional finder markings:
70mm .753" x .668"
16mm .614" x 668" 1.85:1AR
16mm .817" x .615" 2.66:1AR
NO. 4
PANAVISION 35
ANO
TOOO-AO 35
SQUEEZED
NEGATIVE
CAMERA APERTURE
.864" min x .732" min
0
0
0
0
0
- - -=rI
II
II
II
II
I
IfF'
0
0
0
'0
SCANNING ANAMORPHIC IMAGES

FOR TELEVISION
..,
10m
I
L
-J
/
/
rn
D~-
--PRINTS
1611111 SQUEEZED PRINT

.380 x .286
Max. proj. ap.
IlI e-fi )
I
I
I
I
\
\
16111111 UNSQUEEZED PRINT

(1.85:1)
.380" x .205"
Proj ap or matte.
\
\
I
I
I
I
~
0
~
o
~~
o~
\
\
":"
I
I
I
1
..J
FINAL PRINTED IMAGE

Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
Area: .868" x .616" (35mm)
Suitable for TV projector
aperture: .816" x .612" and
Theatre projector aperture
.825" x .602"
or: .380" x .286" (16mm)
o ......
~
.~
(8)
70mm
UNSQUEEZED PRINT
PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" x 0.870"
Figure 3.
..,
I
I
1-'
LINEAR REDUCTION OF ABOVE

TOTAL UNSQUEEZED IMAGE AREA
Area for selective scanning: 1.459" x .616"
MASKING to follow important
action equals TV SAFE ACTION
AREA: .713" x .535"
l@
-f EB
0
0
0
SChematic figure:
TOTAL IMAGE OF ORIGINAL
PHOTOGRAPHY-UNSQUEEZED
Screen Aspect Ratio 2.36:1
Areas 1.728" x .732"
1.676" x .700"
:0-
l-
,,
,
..,
I
I
I
rC PEj
~O
,,
~~
,,
ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Camera Aperture .864" x .732" min.
Projector Outline .838" x .700"
Squeeze Ratio 2:1
Anamorphic camera lens
Figure 4.
16mm FILM APERTURES

TELEVISION SAFE AREA
NO. 5
B. 70mm de-anamorphosed (unsqueezed) prints. Severallaboratories are equipped to manufacture 70mm positive prints from such negatives. The aspect ratio of 70mm
prints (2.2:1) crops very little from the 35mm image, which
is anamorphically unsqueezed in the making of the prints.
The resulting 70mm print therefore is projected with spherical lenses. 70mm prints are striped with magnetic oxide,
and their soundtracks are capable of carrying six channels.
16mm Systems
[ CAMERA APERTURE
.404" x .29S"
TV STATlONPROJECTOR APERTURE
.380" x .286"
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
.368" x .276"
TV SAFE ACTION AREA
.331" x .248"
CORNER RADII R ~ .066"
SAFE TITLE AREA
.293" x .221"
CORNER RADII R ~ .OS8"
NO. 6 16mm FINDER MARKINGS
for enlnglng to 35mm
Camera aperture .404" x .29S"

Projector aperture .378" x .276" (max).
Projector aperture .378" x .20S" (1.8S:1)
(enlarging ratio 1:2.18)
SUPER 16 (16mm Type W)
for enlarging to 35mm
~D--------
bbdJ
Camera aperture .493" x .292"

ProjeclOr aperture .463" x .279"
ProjeclOf aperture .463" x .251
Figure 5.
5. 16mm camera, spherical lens photography for television, industrial and educational use. (Figure 5) (See also
"Television Film Cinematography. " ) 16mm cameras
equipped with spherical (nonanamorphic or "normal")
lenses are used for this type of photography. Either reversal or negative films may be used as camera originals. Because 16mm is used for economy as well as portability,
direct contact release prints are often made from the camera original film when only a few are required. In such
cases, extreme care should be taken to protect the original.
For prints in quantity, duplicate negatives are made on appropriate raw stock. The same comments as to the limitations of television transmission apply as were noted in the
35mm television section above (#2). The accompanying diagram shows the dimensions for the ground glass to be used
for 16mm photography for television.
6. 16mm camera, spherical lens photography for enlargement to 35mm for theatrical presentation. (Figure 5)
(See also "Shooting 16mm Color Negative for Blowup to
35mm.") From 16mm originals, 35mm duplicate negatives
may be prepared by optical enlargement for the manufacture of 35mm release prints for theatrical distribution. Most
theaters in the United States are currently matting 35mm
prints to a 1.85:1 aspect ratio.
The accompanying diagram shows the height of the
ground glass mark suggested for this type of photography.
As with 35mm photography, it is wise to protect the balance of the aperture so that both theatrical and television
prints will be suitable.
7. 16mm special camera, spherical lens photography
specifically for enlargement to 35mm wide screen for theatrical presentation. (Figure 5) (See also "Shooting 16mm
Color Negative for Blowup to 35mm.") (Super 16 or 16mm
Type W) Special16mm cameras with extended-width apertures extending into the area usually reserved for the
9
sound track are used for this syst~m. The aspect ratio of the
resulting negative is 1.66:1, and this image is enlarged to
the standard 35mm sound film aperture. 1.66:1 is commonly used in Europe and 1.85:1 in the U.S. Both dimensions are given for finder marks. A specially centered 1.33:1
16mm or 35mm duplicate negative and/ or print is required
for television display.
Sp ecial Purpose System s

During the history of motion pictures, there have been
numerous camera and projection systems, some of which
have had widespread use for a period and then have become obsolete. It is the purpose of the American Cinematographer Manual to explain and display current systems;
for history, please refer to earlier editions of the manual and
American Cinematographer m agazine.
8. 65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for
compositing to one of the 35mm systems. Any part of the
negative image may be used.
9. 65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for printing on 70rnm. The difference in camera and projector apertures allows for a magnetic sound track between picture
and perforations on each side, and the added 5mm width
allows for two magnetic sound tracks outside the perforations on each side. (Figure 6)
A. General theatrical distribution; rarely used presently.
B. Showscan; uses this format but photographed and
projected at 60 fps in a specially designed theater environment on a large screen at higher than standard brightness
and with terraced seating to improve sightlines. Grain,
flicker and image "strobing" are minimized.
C. For special purpose projection systems such as
Disney's 3-D at EPCOT.
10. 65mm, 15-perforation, horizontal frame photography (24 fps) (Imax/Omnimax). (Figure 7) The film format
for the two systems is the same. Imax is projected on a large
flat screen in specially designed theaters.
Onmimax is photographed with a "fisheye" lens, optically centered 0.37 inches above the film centerline and
displayed on a dome screen, filling 180 degrees laterally
and 20 degrees below and 110 degrees above the horizon
for central viewers. The picture shape is thus elliptical. Both
systems use terraced seating to improve sightlines.
10
65111111- 5 PERFORATION PULlOOWN CAMERA
No. 8 & 9
TODD-AD
SUPER PANAVISIONNONSQUEEZED NEGATIVE
~I
I~
35mm
CAMERA APERTURE
2.066" x 0.906"
70mm
~[
-H
1-
PROJECTOR APERTURE
0.838" x 0.700"
2:1SQUEEZED
PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" x 0.870"
Dotted line indicates
finder marking for 35mm
extraction 1.912" x 0.816"
Figure 6.
11. 35mm, 8-perforation, horizontal frame photography (VistaVision) for compositing to one of the 35mm systems. As any part of the negative image may be used to suit
the user, no projection aperture or finder markings are
shown. (Figure 8) (Lens angles are given in the tables only
for the full negative aperture.)
Depth of field is also affected by the ultimate use; it is
therefore suggested that the 35mm tables be used as a guide
to the relative depth of field, one lens to another, until test
results are seen on the screen.
12. Proposed 35mm anamorphic projection systems
using 1.5:1 squeeze and the conventional (ANSI PH22.195
Style B) anamorphic projection aperture for a 1.8:1 aspect
ratio. Source camera negative would be VistaVision (Figure 8) or 35mm full aperture (Figure 2) from either of which
a laboratory printing duplicate negative would be
anamorphically printed; alternately, 1.5:1 anamorphic
lenses would be used on standard 35mm cameras.
11
13. 65mm 8-perforation, frame (vertical pulldown)

photography (24 or 30 fps) (Dynavision). Camera aperture
2.080" X 1.480" for printing on 70mm positive film. Lenses
may be "fisheye" for dome theater projection or conventional focal lengths for 4 X 3 aspect ratio projection.
No. 10 65mm Horizontal 15 perf.
Imax/Omnimax
FILM TRAVEL DIRECTION (VIEWED FROM BASE SIDE)
2.772"
70.41MM
0.69MM
TRAVEL
REGISTRATION PIN \
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O[]OOOOOOO[]O[]OOO ' 000 D
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.016" MIN. AT SIDES
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- --ccccccoccocoOOO.CODC
FULL REGISTRATION
PIN
15 PERFORATION PULL-ACROSS
2.799"
71.09MM
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Figure 7.
000 0 0 000 0 0
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Figure 8.
12
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N
Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35 and

Super 35 Film Formats
by Rob Hurrunel
The most prevalent film formats, or aspect ratios, projected in the United States are 1.85 and 2.35. As a point of
reference, these ratios are determined by dividing the width
of the picture by the height, which is why you will sometimes see them written as 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 Verbally, you will
hear them referred to as "One Eight Five" or ''Two Three Five"
(2.35 is also often referred to as "Scope," referring to its origins as Cinemascope).
An examination of films over the past forty years
shows that format is not automatically dictated by dramatic
content. It is a creative choice on the part of the cinematographer and the director. The full range of drama, comedy,
romance, action or science fiction can be found in both aspect ratios. The purpose here is to advise on the pros and
cons of both aspect ratios and the photographic alternatives
available to achieve them. This should help a filmmaker
make an informed decision as to which format is best for a
given project.
As a clarification in this discussion, Full Aperture will
refer to the total area between the 35mm perforations, including the area normally reserved for the soundtrack (this
Full Aperture area is also referred to as the camera aperture).
Academy Aperture will refer to that area of the negative excluding the soundtrack area. Academy Aperture got its
name when the Motion Picture Academy established the
standard for where to place sound and picture information
when the first talkies were produced.
While all 1.85 composed films are achieved with normal, spherical lenses, the 2.35 aspect ratio can be achieved
in two ways. The most common method is with the use of
anamorphic lenses that squeeze the image to fit within the
Academy Aperture (see Illustration 6). The alternate
method (Super 35, Super Techniscope) uses norma/lenses
without any distortion of the image. Both methods will be
discussed here.
Also, the formats discussed here deal with general
35mm motion picture photography. Formats such as
VistaVision and 65mm are most often used for visual ef-
13
fects and special event cinematography and would require

a separate article.
Composition
Before getting into specifics about the different formats, I want to point out the composition differences between the two aspect ratios of 2.35 and 1.85, regardless of
how they are achieved photographically.
illustration 1 displays a given scene of the Taj Mahal.
On this image, a 2.35 aspect ratio is outlined by a white rectangle.
In illustration 2, two 1.85 aspect ratios are outlined by
white rectangles. The larger of those two rectangles repre-
sents a 1.85 composition equal in its width to the 2.35 aspect

ratio in illustration 1. The smaller 1.85 rectangle is equal in
height to illustration l's 2.35 rectangle.
illustrations 1 and 2 demonstrate that a 1.85 image has
potential of encompassing as much width as a 2.35 image.
Althuugh 1.85 will take in the same width with greater
height in the composition, it's important to realize that wide
sets and vistas are not restricted to the 2.35 format.
I. The 1.85 Aspect Ratio

Photographed in NORMAL Academy Aperture
Photography
1.85 is far and away the most common aspect ratio for
motion pictures filmed in the United States. I say the U.S.,
since around the world the aspect ratio most commonly
used swings between 1.85 and 1.66 depending on the country.
llIustration 1 - Aspect Ratio 2.35:1

Illustration 3 - 1.85:1
illustration 3 portrays how a 1.85 film composition

would be framed in the viewfinder of the camera.
illustration 4 shows how that image appears on the
negative and subsequently on a positive print for projection. Although you wouldn't have an optical track until
final composite prints are made, the track is illustrated here
for clarity. The shaded areas of the film frames indicate that
area of the Academy aperture that goes unused in a 1.85
film. Although additional picture information is usually
contained within that shaded area, it is masked out when
the film is projected.
Illustration 2 - Aspect Ratio 1.85:1
14
15
,.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
t OplaJSoundt_
llIustration 4 -1.85:1. Above Left: The scene as it appears on the negative.

Above Right: the scene as it appears on a contact print for projection.
When the film is finally projected in a theater (assuming it is projected properly), it will appear the same as originally composed in the viewfinder (see illustration 3).
A. Advantages of 1.85
1. Many perceive 1.85 as more appropriate for pictures
that lend themselves to more compact visuals. Since closeups virtually fill the entire frame, it is often considered a
more "intimate" format.
2. If a film is largely interiors, 1.85 is often argued as
the preferred format, since interiors usually don't involve
the wide panoramic vistas associated with 2.35. On the
other hand, many do not weigh interiors or exteriors in their
choice of format.
3. Greater depth of field (the total area in focus at a
given distance). Since 1.85 uses shorter focal length lenses
as compared with anamorphic, greater depth of field is
more easily attainable, making photography less prone to
focus problems. This advantage is sometimes negated by
cinematographers using such small amounts of light that
they have to shoot with lenses "wide open," resulting in a
small gain in depth of field.
4. An opinion often expressed is that sets don't need
to be as wide on a 1.85 film as one photographed in 2.35,
resulting in savings in set construction. However, many
would argue that film format has no bearing on the width
of set construction. As illustrations 1 and 2 pointed out, it's
possible for 1.85 to require as wide a set as 2.35, depending on the composition.
5. 1.85 is the simplest format to execute from a mechanical/technical standpoint. The choice of photographic
equipment is virtually unlimited, as any standard 35mm
camera will accommodate this format.
6. If a stunt camera mount is required that risks destroying a camera, there are a number of expendable cam-
16
era bodies available.

7. With some effort on the shooting company's part,
composition can protect for video so that a simple one-toone transfer can be done without panning and scanning.
While left and right image integrity remain virtually intact
this way, there is an approximate 33% increase in the vertical height of the composition.
Although many think it routine to protect the TV area
from intruding objects (e.g., lights, microphones, etc.), it
makes the cinematographer's job more difficult, by preventing him or her from bringing lights down close to the
area of composition. This is why many cinematographers
shooting 1.85 prefer to shoot with a 1.66:1 aspect ratio hard
matte. 1.66 is slightly larger than 1.85, closely approximating the height of the TV frame, and it gives the cinematographer more freedom to light his subjects, without fear of
a light or microphone showing up when transferred to
video.
8. Many people believe it is an advantage to shoot 1.85
because spherical lenses are sharper than 2.35's anamorphic
lenses. This is a misconception. It is true that spherical
lenses are sharper than anamorphic; however, the much
greater negative area used with anamorphic more than
makes up for the subtle difference in resolution from
spherical lenses.
B. Disadvantages of 1.85
1. The main disadvantage is the actual size of the 1.85
format on the negative. Because of the smaller area, 1.85 is
noticeably grainier than anamorphic 2.35. This is not as
noticeable in the original negative stage, but becomes more
pronounced after going through dupe negatives.
The negative area of 2.35 anamorphic is a 59% increase
over the 1.85 area.
2. Because of the greater height of 1.85's aspect ratio,
ceilings of sets are more prone to being photographed. This
can be a restriction on how easily a cameraperson can light
an interior set (visible ceilings limit light placement). On
some sets, it may require additional construction.
3. Opticals (dissolves, repositions, etc.) tend to be
grainier than with anamorphic 2.35.
.
A current trend is for editors to order "double IF"
opticals, compensating for the smaller negative area of 1.85.
This improves the quality of opticals, but at greater expense.
17
4. Not truly compatible with 7Omm. Although it can

be done, there is a large amount of unused print on the sides
when blown up to 70mm (see illustration 11). Also, because
of the greater magnification in 1.85 70mm prints, grain is
much more apparent than in anamorphic blOW-Ups to
70mm.
5. When projected, the area of the frame for 1.85 is
subjected to much greater magnification on a screen than
an anamorphic frame, resulting in more apparent grain in
the image.
II. The 2.35 Aspect Ratio

Photographed with Anamorphic (Scope) Lenses
The following is a discussion of the 2.35 aspect ratio
photographed with anamorphic lenses. A discussion of
Super 35 composed for 2.35 will follow.
Anamorphic 2.35:1 (also known as "Cinemascope" or
"Panavision") optically "squeezes" the width of the image
to fit within the 35mm Academy Aperture. illustration 5
portrays how an anamorphic 2.35 scene would appear in
the viewfinder.
lllustration 5
illustration 6 shows how that image appears on the

negative and subsequently on a positive print for projection.
When the film is finally projected in a theater (assuming it is projected properly), it will be "unsqueezed" by an
anamorphic projection lens and appear on the screen the
same as originally composed in the viewfinder (see illustration 5).
A. Advantages of Anamorphic 2.35
1. The most salient advantage is the much larger negative area. A 59% increase in negative area over 1.85 results
18
o
o
o
o
Illustration 6 - Anamorphic 2.35:1, Above Left: The scene as it appears
on the Negative "squeezed" by the anamorphic lenses. Above Right: The
scene as it appears on a Contact Print for projection.
in finer grain, better opticals, and an increase in apparent

sharpness (apparent because while a similar image photographed in 1.85 will be sharper, the increase in grain and
greater magnification actually make it appear less sharp).
This difference becomes most apparent after going through
the dupe negatives.
2. More compatible with 70mm. Because of the original negative area, there is less of a blow-up than with 1.85,
resulting in finer grain in the 70mm print. Also, the aspect
ratio can fill the entire 70mm print frame.
3. Allows for complex compositions. Able to do a tight
close-up on two individuals simultaneously. Action can be
spread across a wide expanse of the frame.
4. Most often the format of choice for films with a lot
of action or big production values.
5. Most closely approximates the normal field of vision.
6. When shooting interiors, ceilings become obscured,
giving the cinematographer more alternatives for placement of lighting.
7. A possible advantage may come with continuing
advances in High Definition TV. The area of negative used
in anamorphic films means you will exceed HDTV's resolution capability for many years to come. Some HDTV technologies are already almost equal to 1.85's resolution capability.
B. Disadvantages of Anamorphic 2.35
. 1. Difficult video transfer. To extract a video image
dIrectly from tlle center of the 2.35 frame usually results in
odd compOSItIons and the exclusion of relevant action.
An alternative is to "pan and scan" the image (panning
the WIdth of the 2.35 frame, following the most important
action). While not mechanically more expensive thanregu-
19
lar video transfer, panning and scanning usually costs more

due to the extra time required by each scene's composition
decisions. While panning and scanning makes the best of
a bad situation, many people feel it compromises the original compositions. Many filmmakers have released videos
of their films in "letterbox" format, where the 2.35 format
is maintained by putting black mattes above and below the
frame. This is a common practice in videodisc releases of
films.
The difficulty in video transfer is the most often stated
disadvantage of the 2.35 format.
2. It is often said that anamorphic is more expensive
than 1.85. However, the difference in cost between an anamorphic lens package vs. a 1.85 lens package is negligible.
Anamorphic would be approximately $2,400.00 more expensive over the course of a ten-week film schedule.
Also, discussions with a number of prominent cinematographers indicate that they wouldn't increase the size of
their lighting package significantly for the 2.35 aspect ratio
(in fact, one said it wouldn't change at all).
3. Single close-ups result in wide areas on either side
of a face, with potential for distracting objects in the frame.
However, d~e to the nature of anamorphic's longer focal
length lense~, usually anything in the background on either
side of a face would be severely out of focus.
4. Many people feel that sets need to be built wider
because of the wider aspect ratio. There are also many who
feel it doesn' t matter, and that sets can be accommodated
by choosing lenses carefully. See again illustrations 1 and
2 and the discussion under Composition.
5. Some directors have a hard time blocking action
within the larger frame.
6. Expense of more extras may be necessary for some
crowd scenes.
III. Super 35 Formats

The Super 35 Formats, known under a variety of names
such as Super Techniscope, Super 1.85, and Super 2.35, are
all flat, spherical lens formats using equipment similar to
that used in 1.85 photography. All of the Super 35 formats
require an optical step when making dupe negatives for
release prints.
illustration 7 is a diagram of a standard Super 35 frame
of film where all aspect ratios are aligned on Full Aperture
center. As the illustration shows, information is usually
20
exposed over the entire Full Aperture area of the film. The
filmmaker decides what format he is composing for, and
it is that aspect ratio the film lab will eventually extract from
the frame for release prints.
When speaking of Super 35, people are usually referring to its use in composing for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio, the
same ratio as 2.35 anamorphic.
o r;:::::=============::::::;l (~
o
o
2.35
1.85
Area
Area
o
Illustration 7 - Standard Super 35/Super Techniscope
Anamorphic 2.35 uses special lenses that squeeze the

wide image to fit within the standard Academy Aperture
frame. Super 35 composes for 2.35 with standard lenses and
extends the width of the frame into that area of the negative reserved for the soundtrack. Although most cameras
already expose picture information in the soundtrack area,
it normally goes unused.
At times, people will suggest shooting Super 35 composed for 1.85 (a. k. a. Super 1.85). The reason for this is a
belief that the slight increase in negative area with Super
1.85 will yield a finer-grain image for release. Tests have
shown this is not so. Once the negative has gone through
~terpositiveand intemegative, and been optically repositioned for standard 1.85 release, there is at best no difference between Super 1.85 and standard 1.85 photography,
and depending on the scene, Super 1.85 can look worse
than standard 1.85.
Standard 1.85 produces all dupe negatives and prints
with contact printing, while Super 1.85 requires an optical
step to reduce the image into the standard 1.85 area. Contact printing significantly reduces the appearance of grain,
while any optical step precisely focuses the grain in a negative, effectively enhancing the appearance of grain.
21
As for arguments that Super 1.85 yields a better 1.85

blow-up to 70rnm, the difference is slight, and only noticeable in a dJect AlB or side-by-side comparison. Otherwise
it is indistinguishable. If, however, a scene is already committed to an optical step (i.e., a visual effects shot), Super
1.85 may provide an improvement in negative area that
results in 1:1 better image quality when compared with a
standard 1.85 image going through the same optical process.
Another method of photography for Super 35 is referred to ~s common topline (see Illustration 8). Common
topline derives its name from the ground glass of the camera having multiple formats scribed on it, all having the
same, or cornmon, topline. This variant of Super 35 is based
on the notion that it could be a generic film format; the filmmaker may shoot a movie with the option of releasing it in
any aspect ratio desired. The common topline is supposed to
lessen the effect of changing aspect ratios by maintaining
l
and raising or lowering the bottom of the
the headroom
frame. In Actual practice, most cinematographers find it disagreeable to compose for multiple formats. Also, the change
in composition from 2.35 to 1.85 or television's 1.33 can be
quite objectionable (close-ups become medium shots, etc.).
matter what aspect ratio you choose does not hold up creatively.
The rest of this discussion will only deal with Super
35 composed for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Illustration 9 portrays
how Super 35 composed for 2.35:1 would appear in the
viewfinder.
A. Advantages of Super 35 Composed for 2.35 Aspect
Ratio
1. The main reason for choosing this format is its
greatly increased depth of field over anamorphic 2.35.
Where anamorphic lenses have to rack focus to keep near
and distant objects sharp, Super 35 has a greater potential
for keeping both objects in focus simultaneously.
However, as stated in the advantages of 1.85, the potential for greater depth of field can be negated if cinematographers choose to use such small amounts of light that
they must shoot with lenses "wide open," resulting in a
small gain in depth of field.
2. An often-stated advantage is the production savings
in the lens I camera package over anamorphic. This is erroneous, since the expense of optical Super 35 dupe negatives (needed for release prints) negate any cost savings in
production.
Camera
Apertu re
0
0
,,
-:--
0 2
,,
,
I-- .-.---- --------------"
L
-
1.33:1 Area
for Video
0
0
1.66:1 Projected Area

1.85:1 Area
" " ' - - - - 2.2: 1 Area (70mm Aspect Ratio)

2.35:1 Area
Illustration 8 - Super 35/Super Techniscope Common Topline
Experience has shown, most filmmakers agree, that

just modifying a film's aspect ratio to fit within the video
realm is a creative process. To assume that a generic format will automatically deliver pleasing compositions no
22
Illustration 9 - Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
3. The ability to shoot a film composed for 2.35 and, if

necessary, change directions and release in 1.85 by increasing the top and bottom of the frame. For most filmmakers,
however, this would be a serious compromise of the original composition (see Illustration 7).
4. Lenses are much smaller than anamorphic, resulting in a smaller, more lightweight and portable camera
package. This smaller size allows the camera to fit in smaller
places than the large anamorphic optics allow (this is one
23
of the reasoJ the format was chosen for Top Gun; the cameras were able to fit in the aircraft cockpits).
5. Often claimed to be more compatible with 70mm
than anamorphic. Some have this impression because Super 35 is a straight blow-up to 70mm, while anamorphic has
to be unsque1zed when enlarged to 70mm.
This would be true if Super 35 had an equivalent negative area to anamorphic. As it stands, anamorphic's greater
negative area lmakes up for any possible loss of resolution
when unsqueezed to 70mm. As a result, 70mm prints from
Super 35 appear Significantly grainier than those from anamorphic negatives.
6. Claimed to be a simpler video transfer by just doing a 4-perf frame extraction, resulting in dramatic increase
in top and boftom areas over the original 2.35 composition
(See illustrati ~n 7). In practice this never works, since a full
frame extraction is such a distortion of the original composition (for exAmple, close-ups become medium shots). A
panned and scanned video transfer is what ends up being
done for the bulk of the film with a few full-framed extractions where a propriate (Ferris Bueller's Day Off is an example).
B. Disadvantages of Super 35 Composed for 2.35
Aspect Ratiol
1. Most notable is the small negative area. Anamorphic
2.35 has an increase in negative area of more than 60%. It
also has slightly less negative area than standard 1.85 photography. The difference in negative area becomes most
pronounced after 35mm dupe negatives are made. Anamorphic du~e negs are made with contact printing, which
in itself tendslto lessen the appearance of grain. Super 35
dupe negs involve an optical step during which the image
is blown up, then squeezed to produce an anamorphic image for release prints. Because of this optical step, grain in
the negative tends to be more sharply resolved, making it
more objectionable.
2. For best quality, all dissolves and fades must be done
with A & B printing in the laboratories. When these effects
are done by ~n optical house they become excessively
grainy in release prints.
3. Because of the optical step involved, composite
prints cannot be struck until after dupe negatives have been
made.
24
Illustration 10 - Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1. Above Left: The scene as

it appears on the negative, positioned wit~n the FU~L a.perture fr~e.
Above Right: The scene as it appears on a pnnt for projection, after beIng
blown up & "squeezed" to make room for the optical soundtrack.
4. Again, because of the optical step involved, original negative composite prints cannot be struck. ~ctually,
it is technically possible, but can only be done WIth COn:plex procedures and such a ~l?h risk of .failure that It
doesn't merit subjecting the ongmal negative to the handling involved.
.
.
5. More difficult to preVIew because of a SpecIal ~rojection mask required for the Full Aperture work pr~t.
Since Super 35 uses the area reserved for a soundtrack ill
the work print stage, many theaters cannot be adapted to
u
project the format.
.
6. Main title opticals must be done WIth the double
IF" method to maintain quality, doubling the expense of
such opticals.
7. Editing equipment must be adapted to show the
soundtrack area.
8. Because of the small negative area, many cinematographers limit choice of negativ:s to slower spee? stoc~
(Le., 5245, 5248), or overexpose high-speed ~egatives 1-Y2
to 2 stops for better grain qu~ty, often negating the advan.
tage of the high-speed negativ~.
9. Video transfers usually illvolve pannmg and scanning because of the wide-screen asp~t ratio. This is also a
pan and scan of a much smaller neg~tive.a rea than anamo~
phic 2.35, resulting in a lower quality vI.d eo trans~er. This
becomes most evident in letterbox verSlOns of a film and
particularly on HDTV.
.
.
10. There is potential for more expensIve VISUal effects,
if a decision is made to have coverage beyond the 2.35 composition, allowing for full frame video .transfers. Matte
shots, miniatures, etc., might be comproffil5ed on full frame
transfers if the image isn't protected completely to 1.33 (see
illustration 7).
25
r
The author wishl to thank Marty Katz fo r making him write this in the
first place, flIld Harrisok Ellenshaw, Stephen H. Burum, ASC, Skip Nicholson
and Evans Wetmore for their help in bringillg greater clarity to the article and
keeping him honest. Also, thanks to Trici Venola for the use of her computer
graphic of the Taj Maltal.
35mm Blowups to 70mm Prints
to this rule are theaters that have acoustically transparent

masking (all THX 70mm theaters have transparent masking).
Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
The image below has a 2.35:1 aspect ratio.
Aspect Ratio 2.2:1

The aspect ratio of 70mm prints (and 65mm camera
negative) is 2.2:1. Since 35mm films are not usually photographed in this aspect ratio, they must adapt their composition to fit within this area. In this illustration of a 70mm
frame, the gray area represents a magnetic soundtrack.
o
o
o
Aspect Ratio 1.8J:1
When 1.85:1 [films are blown up to 70mm, the full
height of the 70mm frame is utilized. Ali 1.85 picture information is maintained with black burned into the unused
area of the frame.
Most theaters have black screen masking (black curtains) that they use to cover areas of the screen that don't
have any image on them. In a 1.85 70mm print, although
the black area does not contain any picture information,
theaters must be careful not to close their screen masking
over the black area on the screen. Were they to do so, the
masking might cover speakers placed behind the screen
that are utilized for 70mm soundtracks. The only exception
26
What follows are examples of the options, and p~t~n

tial compromises, available to adapt a 2.35:1 composition
for 70mm release.
Most often, film labs will enlarge the 2.35 image to fill
the entire area of the 70mm frame. Although the height of
the 2.35 composition is not affected u,us way ~i.e., all Nort~
South picture information remams mtact), i~ormation is
lost on the right and left sides of the compositiOn:
The frame below graphically illustrates what information is lost when 2.35:1 is blown up to fill the entire 70mm
frame.
2.35 to 70mm Prints Continued

The following illustration shows how the .image.actually appears on the 70mm print ~d whe~ projected m the
theater after being blown up to fill the. entire 70mm.frame.
The alternative method for blowmg up 2.35:1lIDages
to 70mm is to maintain the full width of the aspect ratio.
This is accomplished by fittirlg the 2.35 area within 70mm's
27
Cameras
65mm
2.2 area and burning black above and below the picture,
effectively gi~ing the film thicker frame lines. A number of
films have bE1en released in this manner in recent years,
including Superman, The Untouchables, and Star Trek IV.
In this example, the area that would be a thick black
frameline is crosshatched for clarity in this illustration. It
would not appear this way in an actual 70mm print.
Arriflex 765
31
33
Fries 865
34
Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO
36
MSM8870
37
Panavision ACjSPC
39
Pa."lavision System-65
39
Panavision Panaflex System-65
43
35mm
Aaton 35mm
28
45
Aaton 35-II
46
Arriflex 535
47
Arriflex 535B
50
Arriflex 35-3
52
Arriflex 35BL-4s
54
Arriflex 35-3C
56
Arriflex 35-2C
57
59
61
Feathercam CM35
62
IMAGE 300 35mm
63
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,

BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm)
64
66
Mitche1l35mm Standard and High Speed
67
Moviecam Super 35mm
69
70
Panavision GIl Golden Panaflex
74
74
29
35mm clntinued
65mm Cameras
Panaflel Panastar High-Speed
74
76
Photo-Sonics 4B / 4C
Photo-Sonics 4ER
79
Ultracam 35rnm
80
Arriflex 765
79
VistaVision
MSM 8812
Wilcam W-7
81
82
Wilcam W-9
83
Wilcam W-ll
85
16mm
Aaton XTRplus
30
86
Arriflex 16SR-2
88
Arriflex 16SR-3
Arriflex 16BL
93
95
97
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M/B

Bolex 1 nun
99
Bell & Howell Filmo 70
101
Minicam 16rnm (GSAP)
102
Cinema Products CP-16, CP-16A
102
Cinema Products CP-16R, 16R/ A

Cinema Products GSMO
105
104
Eclair ACL
107
Eclair CM-3 (16/ 35rnm)

Eclair NPR
108
109
Mitchell Professional HC, HSC
111
Mitchell Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16
113
Panavision Panaflex 16nun
114
Movement: The 765 uses advanced microprocessor

control technology to link two quartz-controlled DC motors in a direct drive configuration to control shutter and
film transport. No belts or mechanical couplings are used
in the drive system. Dual registration pins, triple-pin pulldown claws and user-adjustable pitch control assure image quality to optical printer standards.
Speed Range: Quartz-accurate sync at 15/24/25/
29.97/30/60/75 fps on-board; 2-100 fps with the CCU; 24
fps reverse; and 1 fps with the 765's Remote Control Unit.
Run-up time is less than 1 second at 24 fps.
Shutter: Rotating, microprocessor-controlled silicon
mirror shutter, mechanically variable from 15 to 165, plus
144, 172.8, and 180.
Reflex Viewfinder: The viewfinder has a built-in optical turret that permits on-the-fly selection of either 80:20
or 100:0 video/viewing ratios, and has a switchable ND.6
contrast viewing glass, ArriGlow illuminated frame lines,
and a finder extender with built-in 2X image magnification.
A short finder (for portable operation) and a video finder
are also available. A wide-angle eyepiece with manual iris
closure, 8X magnification, and 2 diopter adjustment is
standard.
Camera Control Unit (CCU):The CCU remotely turns
the 765 on and off, and also activates speed changes, from
up to 100 feet away.
31
Lens Mount: 64mm diameter Maxi-PL (positive Lock)

lens mount; flange focal distance of 63.5mm; designed for
ARRI Maxi-PL prime and RTH Cooke zoom, wide-angle
and telephoto lenses.
Drive: Microprocessor-controlled 24V DC motor in
direct-drive confi~ation to shutter and movement. Power
input via a 3-pin connector: pin 1 is (-), pin 2 is + 24V. Op_
erating temper ture range is -4F to +122F (-20C to
+50C).
Operating Noise Level: 25 dBa at 24 fps; 28.5 dBa at
30 fps.
Indicators: ~-finder displays: out-of-sync and filrnend. Digital LCDITachometer and Footage Displays: camera left/ right; audible and visible out-of-sync; low battery;
and feet/meters footage display.
Magazines: 1400' (160m) and 1000' (300m) displacement with microprocessor-controlled torque motors. Microprocessor samples and adjusts feed / take-up tension and
all other functions continuously. Automatic cOlmection and
data transfer to ckera via multi-plug pin plug. Mechanical and digital LCD counters.
Lenses: ARRI/ Zeiss 65mm format lenses include
30mm, 40mm, 50mm, 60mm, 80mm, 100mm, 1l0mm,
120mm, 150mm, 250mm, 350mm, 2X Mutar Extender, and
a 38-21Omm zoom. Maximum aperture ranges from T-1.8
to T-4.2 for primellenses, and T-6.2 on the zoom.
Matte Boxes:The 765's 6.6x6.6 Swingaway Production
Matte Box covers all65mm format lenses. Has two fully
rotatable 2-filter stages. Geared filter frames.
Electronic Atcessories: 1. Variable Speed and Sync
Unit (VSSU): The VSSU module allows remote speed
changes between 6 and 100 fps non-crystal; provides synchroniza tion witI:lexternal PAL or NTSC video signal (50/
60 Hz) via up to ~OO' BNC cable. 2. Video Optics Module
(YOM): Color and B & W CCD video tap cameras, with
flicker reduction and iris control.
Additional ~ccessories: 2-Speed follow focus;
bridgeplate support system for CG balance and mount for
matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy
lenses; finder exte.l}der and leveling rod; barney and heated
barney; Arri Geared Head.
32
Ii-- - - -- -- -,, "

~
---.J - -~)
~~/
This camera, designed in conjunction with Wil~am, is
intended to meet the exacting needs of Showscan cmematography (60 fps) but operates at conventional speeds as
well. Photographed aperture is standard 5-perf 65mm
(2.072" x 0.906").
.
.
Movement: Compensating link, with dual re~stra~on
pins and four pull-down claws. Retractable register pms
33
and 2-axis stroke adjustment that permits hIDing the movement for most silent operation. Removable aperture and
pressure plates for ease of cleaning.
Shutter:!170 fixed-opening focal plane shutter.
Speed Range: 1-72 fps, forward or reverse, by 4-decade digital dial that is crystal accurate at all selected speeds
up to 2 decimal digits. Single-frame operation under control of extern~l in~ervalometer also available.
Reflex Viewmg System: Rotating mirror reflex image
through ground glass, with provision for film clip insertion,
to a 360 erect image orientable viewfinder. Easily attached
eyepiece extender with automatic leveler also available.
Built-in video tap for high-resolution CCD chip camera also
included.
Lens Mount: Quick-acting bayonet lock for specially
mounted CP-65 lenses.
Lenses: A complete series of specially mounted prime
lenses varymg from 24 to 1200mm, as well as high-quality
zoom lenses, rare available.
. Sound Blimp: The camera's self-blimped design pernuts sync-sound shooting at 24 fps. At Showscan speed of
60 ~s, a lightweight composite material sound blimp is
prOVIded to ~eet exacting SOlU1d level requirements of sync
sow1d filming.
Magazines: lOoo-ft. magazines and 25QO-ft. individual
s~pply and tak~-up cassettes are available. Magazine
blimps for both SIzes are also available.
Special ~eatures: Camera can be externally controlled
for phase locKing as required by process photography and
3-D filming.
Fries Model 865 65mm/8-perf.

This is a farge-format 65mm 8-perforation camera des~gned to meet the. requirements of new formats for speoal venue productIons. Photographed aperture is 2.072" x
1.450"
Movement: Dual registration pins and six pull-down
claws. A camland eccentric mounted on a single shaft actuate the pull-down and operate the register pins. Removable aperture and pressure plates for ease of cleaning.
Shutter: 170 fixed opening blanking shutter.
Speed Riplge: 2-72 fps forward or 2-30 fps reverse. All
speeds crystal controlled.
Reflex Viewing System: Rotating mirror reflex image. Viewfinder is orientable through a full 360 and self34
..
1'11"; 11 IN L ROTATE
1111 ...1 111.101'1:11
~~ ::; ::w
1'11.1'
-,
~P==1"
lIt:r. 1'IN
IILEASE
"1U'l0UT
TAlu;-ur
1.1)"'1
1 'O~ITIOH
DIo\CKAM
I'U SII 1M" ROTATE

IA)lIIEIt 1l:t:f.:PU
corrected through approximately 180. Built-in video tap

for high resolution CCD chip camera also included.
Lens Mount: Universal bayonet type with a large port
diameter. Special mounts available upon request.
Lenses: A complete series of Hasselblad lenses is
available.
Drive: Internal 30 VDC crystal controled
Magazines:500ft. and 1000ft. displacement magazines
with torque motor take up and hold back.
Special Features: Valve which allows the operator to
direct light to the viewing system, or to the video assist or
combo which splits the light between both viewing and
video assist.
35
Weights: Camera body 45Ibs., 1000 ft. 13 Yz lbs.

Accessories: Standard Arri matte box.
Mitchell 61smm Reflex TODD-AD
nov AC-28V DC. Camera will also accept externally

mounted motors for special purposes.
Magazines: 350' lightweight magnesi~ displacem~t
type; remaining footage indicator; pOSItIve clutch dnve
1000' magazine also available.
Features: Weight: 27 pounds with 350' of film. Sho~
der support and hand grip or tripod mo~t. Dual gel~tJn
filter slot in front of film aperture. Heating system. Film
runout indicator. Remote control.
Accessories: Zoom lenses: 60-150mm, 100-300mm,
and 65-390mm. Underwater blimp with internal battery
and externally controlled film speed, stops and focus; designed for 50' depth or less. Built-in exposure meter.
MSM Model 8870 6SmmJ8-perf.
Movement: Dual registration pins. Four pull-down

claws. Adjustable pull-down stroke. Removable aperture
plate with built-in matte slot. Aperture 2.072" x .9055" Speed
range 12 fps-32.
Shutter: Focal plane 175.
Reflex Viewfinder: Pellicle beam splitter (shock
mounted) vier'S more than full aperture area. High magnification for tritical focusing; contrast viewing filters.
External Viewfinder: Large erect image viewfinder
calibrated for different focal-length lenses. Calibrated for
any two aspect ratios. Parallax correcting carns for all focal-length lenses.
Lens Mohnt: Single mount with quick-release flange
T-stop calibration allows for mirror absorption. Accepts all
Todd-AO fixed focal-length and zoom lenses. All lenses
geared for manual follow-focus control.
Drive: Internal 28V DC motor, solid-state speed control.
Speeds: 12, 18, 20, 22, 24, 28, and 32 fps . Manual
threading knob provided. Belt pack batteries. Rectifier unit
36
Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, dual-register pins, claw engages six perfs. Shrinkage adjustment
changes both stroke and entry position. Indexable loopsetting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
Vacuum backplate assures filmplane accuracy, removes
without tools for cleaning. Aperture and movement rem ove easily for cleaning and lubrication. Aperture size
2.072" wide x 1.485" high . Frame-rates from timelapse to 60
fps forward, also to 30 fps reverse.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from
172.8 to 55 with stops at 144 and 108.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex. Interchangeable
ground glasses with register pins for film clips. Finder rotates 360 with erect image; image can be manually rotated
for unusual setups. Finder shows 105% of frame, magnifier allows critical focusing at center of interest. Single lever controls internal filter and douser. Heated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. High resolution B & W
or optional color CCD video tap is built into camera door
with swingaway 50/50 bearnsplitter. Viewfinder removes
completely for aerial or underwater housing use.
Lens Mount: MSM 75mm diameter x 80mm flange
depth.
BNC-style lens mount is vertically adjustable 7~ .for
flat or dome screen composition. Mount accepts modified
Zeiss (Hasselblad), Pentax, Marniya, and other large-format
lenses. 15mm matte rods are on ARRI BL centers for accessory compatibility.
37
ready, buckle, and speed sync. Two illuminated LCD foo tage counters. Digital battery volt/ amp meter. Circuit breakers for camera, mag, heat, and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld remote or interface with
computers and external accessories.
Panavision 65mm AC (Auxiliary Camera)

SPC (Speed Camera)
t
vacuum backplat e
regpin retract knob
pitch adjustment knob
keeper release button
loop setting sprocket knob
Magazines: 1000' displacement magazines use the

MSM TiltLock mount. Magazines lock to the camera with
a pair of 8mm hardened pins, and can tilt away from the
operator to allow easier camera threading. Optional minimum profile 1000' coaxial magazines use same mount without tilt feature. Both magazines operate bidirectionally at
all camera speeds. A positive carnlock secures the mag in
running position and switches power to the motor and
heater contacts in the magfoot. Expanding core hubs have
integral OC servomotors controlled by film tension in both
directions, with soft startup to eliminate slack. Tightwind
rollers guide film winding for smooth solid rolls at any
camera angle. Non-contact light traps feature infrared endof-film sensors.
Features: Crystal sync from 5 to 60 fps in .001 increments. Status LEDs for power, heat, low b attery, mag
38
Movement: AC: Compensating link, dual registration

pins, four pull-down claws. Low noise level.
SPC: Dual registration pins and four pull-down claws
ensure same degree of steadiness as AC model.
Both Models: Movement has matte slot, removable
aperture and pressure plates that can be removed for cleaning. Timing marks provided for reassembly. Aperture
2.072" by 9.055".
Speed Range: AC: Stop-motion to 32 fps.
SPC: 16 fps-72fps.
Shutter: AC: Variable 50-200, forward or reverse.
SPC: Variable 0-1 70, forward or reverse, segments
calibrated to 10.
Focusing: Rack over for critical focusing and lineup.
Erect image telescope built-in, variable magnification, contrast viewing filters, interchangeable ground glasses, slot
for mattes.
Viewfinder: Large erect image nomeflex viewfinder.
Cam operated parallax correction.
. .
Lenses: Quick-acting bayonet lock for PanaVlSIOn
lenses. Lenses do not rotate.
Drive: Both cameras accept all Mitchell motors.
Panaspeed motor has 24 fps crystal sync and may be varied from 12 fps-32 fps. Operates on a 36V battery. For high
speed, a precisely controlled motor capable of 12 fps-72 fps
is provided. It operates on two 30V batteries.
Magazines: 500' and 1000' double chamber. 500'
bipack magazine available for special effects.
Panavision System-65 65mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness. Four pull-down claws. Pitch
adjustment to optimize camera quietness. Entire movement
may be removed for servicing.
Aperture plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
39
~hutter: F~Cal
wi~h
plane shutter
infinitely variable
openmg and adjustable m-shot. Maxunum opening: 180;
rrurumum: 40 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in 1;]0
increments: Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchroruzahon With c~mputers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote-conrro) tuilts avaLlab)e.
Reflex system: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system.
Optical viewfinder system: High magnification optical system. The!viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
40
constantly upright image through 360. Short, Intermediate and Long viewfinder tubes are available. System incorporates an 0Vtical magnifier for critical focusing and picture comp~SItion, a contrast viewing filter and a light-proof
shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel
to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. Adjustable eyepiece leveling.link-ar~ ~s supplied with every Panahead to keep the
eyepIece pOSItion constant while tilting. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own eyesight can be provided
on request.
. Groun.d Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
avaIlable WIth any marking, or combination of markings.
"Panag~ow" illuminated reticle system with brightness
control IS standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the viewfinder system for optical frame align-.
ment.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positive clamp
l~ mount for main~aining critical flange focal depth setting. All lenses are pmned to ensure proper rotational orientation.
.
Lenses: A wide range of color-matched lenses, rangmg from a distortion-free 24mm to 400mm. Most are T-2
or T-2.8. Also available are a 60-360mm T-6.3 zoom and 35
and 45mm pivoting lenses for slant focusing. In addition,
many of the mid-range Primo and Zeiss lenses, and the long
focal length Canon and Nikon lenses, can be used with a
special adaptor. All lenses checked and calibrated by MTF.
All lenses have widely spaced lens focus calibrations and
low im~!?e veiling glare. Lenses are supplied with adequate
length lflS rods for matte box and filter support. Focus control can be used from either side. Zooms are supplied with
and electronic zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Boxes: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which can be
individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes incorpo~atin!? more.filter stage~, with provision for sliding (motonzed if reqwred), rotating and/or tilting and for taking
6.6" ~qu~e .filter~ are optional. Panavision can also supply
speCIal slidmg diffusers, diopters and all marmer of image
contr.ol filters, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
41
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor runs the camera at any

speed from 1J,-30 fps. Camera speed is crystal-controlled at
all frame rates and may be adjusted at 1 fps increments.
Special syncboxes are available to synchronize the camera
with a mains power supply, computers, video signals, or
process projectors in shutter phase synchronization. Internal heaters ensure that cameras may be used at sub-zero
temperatures without special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 25db with film and lens, measured 3 feet from image plane.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available.
Both can be used on the top of the camera for minimum
camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height.
Optical accessories: Almost all Panaflex 35mm frontof-lens optical accessories and filters, etc., can be used on
the System-65 cameras.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery.
Camer,a support equipment: "Super Panahead"
geared head incorporates a 60 tilt range with a built-in
wedge syst~m to allow the operator to select where that
range IS, anywhere between the camera pointing directly
up or. direct~y down, and three gear ratios in both the pan
and tilt I~o~ements . A sliding base unit enables a camera
to be gmckliY attached and detached and to be slid backwards and forwards on the head for optimum balance.
"Panapod" tripods, with carbon fiber legs, are available in
a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
Environmental protection equipment: All System-65
cameras and magazines have built-in heaters for operation
in ar:~ temperature. Heated covers are available to give
additional protection to lenses, especially zoom lenses.
Other covers are available to protect the camera, magazines
and lenses. Spinning-glass rain deflectors are available for
use in storm conditions. An autobase is available to secure
the camera in conditions of vibration, high "g" forces and
other stressful and dangerous conditions. A water-box is
available to protect the camera in shallow water conditions;
a hazard box protects the camera from explosions, collisions
and other dangerous situations.
42
Panavision Panaflex System-65 Handholdable

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-pla~e Image st~adiness. Pilot pins register in the same
~erforation holes (Immediately below the bottom frame
Ime) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire

movement may be removed for servicing.
Aperture pl:te:.Removable for checking and cleaning.
Shutter: 170 FlXed-operung focal plane shutter.
Reflex System: Two models are available - one has
a rotating mirror, the other a semi-silvered fixed reflex
mirror for flicker-free viewing, which is especially suitable
for ~anaglide, Steadicam, Louma and remote camera operatIon.
Optical viewfinder system: High magnification optical system. The viewfinder tube is orientatable and gives a
const~tly upright image through 360; short and long
vIewfmder tub.es are available for handheld and tripod
usage. System mcorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusmg .and picture composition, a contrast viewing
filter an.d a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustm~~t WIth ma;,ker bezel to note individual settings. A built111 .Panaclear eyeI:Iece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable leveler l~ arm supplied with every Panahead
to keep eyepIece pOSItIon constant while tilting the camera
up or down. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own
eyesIght can be provided on request.
. Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
~vailable w~~ any .marking, ?r combination of markings.
Panag~ow illummated retIcle system with brightness
controllS standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request.
l~ns mount for main.taining critical flange focal depth settIng. ~ lenses are pmned to ensure proper rotational orientation.
Lenses: Lenses are interchangeable with the System65 Studio Camera.
Lens Control: Focus control which can be used from
either side ?f the camera. Zoom lenses are supplied with
an electrornc zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Box~~: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, proVISIon for two 4 x 5.650" filters which can be
individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes incor43
trolled camera cranes. They can also be used with a

"Panatate" 360 turn-over rig.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color. Flicker-free images
are possible with the pellicle reflex system.
Environmental protection equipment: Same as System-65 above.
35mm Cameras
Aaton 35mm Handholdable
(Note: The extension unit is used only for top-magazine configuration.)
porating more filter stages, with provision for sliding (motorized if rt;quired), rotating and/ or tilting and for taking
6.6" square~ters are optional. Panavision can also supply
special slid' g diffusers, diopters and all manner of image
control filte s, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
Camera motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any ~peed from 4-72 fps. The motor is crystal controlled at all speeds and may be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the
camera with a main power supply, with computers, with
video signals and with process projectors in shutter phase
synchronization. Internal heaters ensure that the cameras
may be used at sub-zero temperatures without special
preparation.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available.
1000' reverse running magazines available on request.
Magazine loading: Same as Panavision PSR 200 camera.
Optical accessories: Interchangeable with System-65
Stuclio camera.
Batteries: The camera, heaters and accessories all operate off a single 24V Ni-ead battery. Belt batteries are available for hand-holding.
Camera support equipment: Lightweight System-65
Hand-holdable cameras are ideal for use with Panaglide
and Steadiqam floating camera rigs and on remotely con44
This extremely compact camera -7 kg (15.41bs.) with

120 meters (400 feet) of film -- is designed for handheld
small-camera situations where traclitional35mm cameras
would be too bulky or awkward. The film channel is adjustable: Academy, 1.85:1, or Techniscope.
Movement: The movement of the Aaton 35 is a linear
stroke, with the in/ out movement controlled by a cam coaxial with the claw shaft (U.S. patent no. 3806016). The security provided by the claw's linear pull-down, followed
by non-shifting withdrawal from the perforation at the
dead point, ma~es a registration pin system unnecessary
- the claw tIp Itself ensures this function. The vertical
steadiness of this pull-down movement is enhanced by the
perfect lateral film positioning ensured by a spring-loaded
side pressure guide.
.
Shutter: Reflex mirror shutter, single blade, 180 openmg.
F~~s~g: Through-~e-lens viewing and focusing, 6X
magnificatIon. Auto erect lffiage. Swiveling viewfinder for
perfect eye-ta-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lenses: Panavision, Arri PL or Aaton mounted lenses
can be installed. The Aaton mount, because it has the shortest flange focal clistance of the industry, can receive almost
all the best still-photography lenses, like the Leica R, Nikon
and Canon-AF.
Motors: A small direct-drive brushless motor (1500
rp~) runs the mechanism. Automatic stop in viewing poSItion. A second motor in the camera body drives the magazine through an independent magnetic clutch. The Aaton
battery (12V, 1.8 Ah) fits directly onto the camera body.
Magazine: 400' displacement-type magazine is prethreaded and allows quick changing. It is automatically
~ocked into pos.iti.on when placed on the camera body and
IS released by lifting a lever on the motor side of the cam45
era. The feed and take-up rolls compensate for each other
in size, w~e the shaft of each roll shifts position as the film
is exposed. The electronic counter registers in feet and

meters.
Video Assist: A small high-resolution CCD video
camera attached to the side of the camera only bleeds off
30% of the light from the viewfinder.
Accessories: Lightweight wide-format swing-away

matte-box; two 4 x 5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and zerobacklash follow-focus system. CCD video assist with
manual iris control delivers extremely sharp images.
Arriflex 535
Aaton 35-11
Movement: Linear-stroke single claw; self registering
(U.s. patent no. 3806016). The vertical steadiness of this
movement is enhanced by the perfect lateral film positioning ensured by a spring-loaded side pressure guide. Hairfree gate has air circulation channel to keep hair out.
Shutter: True 180-degree front surface mirror facilitates 60Hz HMI and video monitor roll-bar elimination.
Stops in viewing position. May be inched for aperture inspection.
Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter, 6X magnification,
auto erect image, interchangeable ground glass. Swiveling
viewfinder for perfect eye-to-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lens Mount: Panavision, Arri PL or Nikon interchangeable!mounts. 35mm to Super 35 format conversion
in five minutes in the field.
Drive:IBrushless crystal sync 12V motor for 24, 25, and
29.97 or 30 ips. Variable control 6 to 54 ips. Maximum speed
with external control is 32 ips. Circuit board and motor may
be removed and replaced in two minutes. Slim battery (12V
1.8Ah) fits directly onto the camera body. A second motor
in the camera body drives the magazine through an independent magnetic clutch.
Magazines: 122m (400') pre-threaded displacementtype magazine for instant changing. The feed and take-up
rolls compensate for each other in size, while the shaft of
each roll shifts position as the film is exposed. The electronic
counter transmits feet or meters to the camera body.
Features: Digital control display: footage, voltage,
speed, ISO, magazine footage, low battery and out-of-sync
warnings. The key-eode compatible, AatonCode time recording system prints large and rugged time matrixes on
the edge of the film, ensuring perfect sync with SMPTE time
of audio recorders. 1 ppm TCXO internal clock, initialized
with RS232 or SMPTE signals. Negatives from the Aaton
35-II are ~y mixable with Panavision, Moviecam and Arri
BL AatonOode-equipped cameras.
46
The Arriflex 535 is a completely integrated camera

system. Its microprocessor control technology permits shutter angle and speed changes while running - at the camera or remotely.
Movement: Multi-link film transport with dual-pin
registration conforming to optical printer standards, and
dual pull-down claws. Easily removed for changing to a 3perforation pull-down. Adjustable pitch control. Universal
aperture plate has both interchangeable format masks and
a behind-the-Iens gel filter holder. Ground glasses and fi-
47
ber-optic focus screens for all aspect ratios available.

Shutter: Microprocessor-controlled variable mirror
shutter. Continuously adjustable from 11 to 180 while
running, in .01 increments, at any camera speed. Exposure
is %8 of a second at 24 fps with a 180 shutter. The 535's
program also permits simultaneous frame rate/shutter
angle effectk such as programmed speed changes with
.
I
.
precIse exposure compensation.
Viewfinder: Swingover Viewfinder fully operational
from either t amera left or camera right. Permits omni-directional reflex viewing with constant image correction
side-ta-side and upright. Programmable ArriGlow for lowlight filming. Nine pre-programmed illuminated formats,
an optional customized format module and fiber-optic focus screens. !Switchable ND.3 and ND.6 contrast viewing
glasses, a variety of in-finder information LEDs, and a 12"15" variable fulder.
Lens Mount: PL (Positive Lock) lens mount, 54mm
diameter, with relocatable optical center for easy conversion to the Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm,
and image sharpness is guaranteed due to the rigid mechanical corytection between lens mount and film plane.
Both Super Speed and Standard lenses with PL mounts
may be usedlPL zoom and telephoto lenses should be used
with a bridgeplate system.
Lenses: The 535 utilizes the full range of: Zeiss
Superspeed '- 18mm, 25mm, 35mm, 50mm, 65mm, and
85mm T-1.3s; Zeiss Standard -10mm, 12mm, 14mm,
16mm, 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 32mm, 40mm, 50mm, 85mm,
100mm, 135E T-2.1s; and 60mm, 180mm, and 300mm T3.0s; Arri ~amorphic - 32mm, 40mm, 50mm and 75mm
T-2.3s, and 1 00mm and 135mm T-3.0s; Arri Macro 16mm, 24mril, 32mm, and 40mm T-2.1s; 50mm and 100mm
T-3.0s and 200mm T-4.3. RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom
lenses.
Motor: Microprocessor-controlled 24V DC motor that
operates with quartz accuracy at 24/ 25/ 29.97/30 fps onboard, and at 3-50 fps with the Camera Control Unit (CCU),
Remote Uniti(RU), or the Variable Speed Unit (VSU). It also
operates at 24/25 fps reverse with the CCU, and at 1 fps
crystal accurate with its phase button. 50/ 60 Hz is standard.
External Sync Unit (ESU) is designed for multi-camera,
video, or projector interlock. Power input is through a 3pin connector: Pin 1 is (-),andPin2is +24V. Operating temperature range is -4F to +122F (-20C to + 50C).
48
Magazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial, each with two microprocessor-controlled torque motors. Microprocessor
samples and adjusts feed / take-up tension and all other
functions continuousl y. Mechanical and digital LCD
counters are built-in.
Matte Boxes: The 535 utilizes a 19mm diameter rod
Camera Support System. The Support System includes a
full range of matte boxes, bridgeplate, 2-speed follow focus, and lens supports. 15mm rod adapters are available
upon request.
1. 6.6 x 6.6 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 12mm
and up, as well as most presently used zooms. Interchangeable two, four, or six filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees,
swing-away for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
2. 5 x 6 Production Matte Box: covers fixed lenses
14mm on up, as well as most presently used zooms. Two
filter stages, swing-away for changing lenses. Geared filter frame.
3. 4 x 4 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 16mm and
up. Two and four filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees, swingaway for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
4. 4 x 4 Matte Box: (for use with 35-3 and 16SR systems
only) covers lenses 16mm and up. Two filter stages, mounts
on Arri lightweight support.
5.4 x 4 Lightweight Matte Box: mounts directly to the
front of any 80mm front diameter lens. Two filter stage with
removable rubber lens shade.
Indicators: In-finder Displays: LEDs in the viewfinder
allow the operator to monitor various camera functions,
battery status, and programmable film-end warning. Digital LCD Tachometer and Footage Displays: camera left/
right; audible and visible out-of-sync warning; visible film
jam; film-end; error codes; improper movement position;
improper magazine mounting; and disengaged rear film
guide indicators.
Electronic Accessories: Variable Speed Unit (VSU)
module mounts directly to the 535, and permits camera
speed changes between 3 and 50 fps, non-erystal. Shutter
Control Unit (SCU): mounts directly to the camera and
permits camera shutter angle changes between 11 and
180. Remote Unit (RU): operational remotely from up to
60', provides an VSU / SCU (variable shutter / variable
speed) combination. The RU links the SCU and VSU to
permit manual adjustment of the frame rate while the 535's
microprocessor varies the shutter angle - all to ensure a
49
constant det th-Of-field and exposure. Video Optics Module (YOM): provides flicker reduction and iris controL With
Selectable Beam Splitter, facilitates video viewing under
difficult conditions. SMPTE Time Code Module plugs in to
utilize on-board time code generator, and provides full
SMPTE 80-bit time code capability. Electronic Sync Unit
(ESU): The ESU, operational remotely from up to 60', provides synchronization with an external PAL or NTSC video
signal (50 / 60 Hz), another camera or a projector, or computer or video monitor via a monitor pick-up. It also contains a phase shifter, pilotone generator, and selectable division ratio between an external source and the camera's
frame rate. Camera Control Unit (CCU): provides integrated control over all electronic functions.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus with 1:1 or 1:.06
ratios; bridgeplate support system for CG balance and
mount for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heavy lense~; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the
camera; finder extender and leveling rod; barney and
heated barr~ey; Arri Geared Head; and director's viewfinder with PL mount.
I
Arriflex 535B
The Arriflex 535B is the lightweight version of the 535,

designed for handheld and Steadicam cinematography.
(Refer to the Arriflex 535 section for full 535 specs.)
Movement: The 535B has the same multi-link film
transport, with dual-pin registration that conforms to optical printer standards, and dual-pin pull-down claws as the
535. It has an adjustable pitch control. The 535B operates
at crystal-accurate speeds from 3 to 60 fps.
50
Shutter: The 535B has a manually adjustable mirror

shutter, variable from 11 to 180 in 15 steps, and 144 and
172.8.
Lens Mount: The Arri 54mm PL lens mount, with a
relocatable optical center for easy conversion to Super 35.
Flange focal distance is 51.98 - O.Olmm.
Lenses: Same as 535.
Motor: The 535B has a microprocessor-eontrolled 24V
DC motor that operates from 3-60 fps, variable in 0.001 increments at crystal accuracy. It features on-board programmable speeds of 24,25,29.97 and 30 fps, and variable crystal speeds from 3-60 fps. Speeds are continuously variable
when the Remote Unit (RU-l) is used. Speeds can be programmed from the on-board LCD, with the Remote Unit
(RU-l), and with the Camera Control Unit (CCU), Arri's
standard off-camera programming unit. The 535B's power
input is through a 3-pin COImector: Pin 1 is (-), and Pin 2 is
+24V. Operating temperature range is -4F to +122F (-20C
to +50C) .
Viewfinder: The 535B has a lightweight Swingover
Viewfinder that pivots on two axes, with full left or right
side viewing, and a fully upright image no matter where it
is placed. It can be used with the new Arri flicker-reduced
CCD black & white and color video assists, and be easily
set up for anamorphic use. Adaptable for left- or right-eyed
viewing with a built-in telescopic extender, and has quickchange beam splitters for B & W or color CCD video, and
slide-in masks for illuminated in-finder format markings.
The entire finder is easily removed without tools, and accepts a 100% video module for Steadicam use.
Magazines: Standard 535400' and 1000' coaxial magazines.
Electronic Features: At the LCD, the user can pre-set
camera speed and time code information, and display
frame rate, film stock, battery voltage, and time code and
user bits. The CCU (Camera Control Unit) can be used to
set and run these 535B camera functions. An additional
LCD display can be added on camera right. The LCD also
indicates film jam, film end, improper movement position,
magazine improperly mounted, and rear film guides disengaged. If the 535B is not ready for operation, its running
control lamp illuminates red. Time Code: The 535B utilizes
the same plug-in TC module as the 535. It records SMPTE
RP 136 Form C, and has an 80-bit integrated TC generator.
TC crystal accuracy is plus/minus Ippm (0-50 degrees C).
51
Electronic Accessories: VSU, RU, and time code module (see 535); Video Optics Module (VOM) -- Video monitoring is an integral part of the 535B's design. The 5358 can
accommodate both B & W and color CCD cameras, and
attached to the YOM both provide flicker reduction and iris
control.
Matte Boxes: See 535.
Additional accessories: 2-Speed follow focus;
bridgeplate support system for CG balance and mount for
matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy
lenses; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the camera;
finder extender and leveling rod; barney and heated
bamey; Arri Geared Head and Arri Geared Head 2; and
director's viewfinder with PL mount.
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed MOS

Movement: One registration pin and dual-pin pulldown claw. Film channel incorporates a pressure pad at the
back of aperture area. Aperture plates and ground glasses
for all aspect ratios are interchangeable.
Shutter: Rotating, front surface coated mirror shutter
system, with variable shutter: 180, 172.8, 144, and 135.
Variable s~utter from 15 to 135 in 15 increments is available for earlier cameras, and is standard on 35-3 130 fps
models. The 15 to 180 shutter is constructed of lightweight
silicon crystal. Exposure is Y4sth of a second at 24 fps with
180 shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: Four interchangeable doors with
viewfinders are available: Standard door with fixed
viewfinder and mount for video tap; offset finder door for
use with 400' coaxial shoulder magazine; pivoting finder
door, pivots 210; new pivoting finder door with optical
adapter to attach video camera. All have adjustable Super
Wide Angle eyepiece with manual iris closure. Finder extenders available are 9"standard, 9" anamorphic, and 12.2"
standard with ND.6 contrast viewing glass.
Lens Mounts: 54mm diameter PL mount. Flange focal distance is 52mm. Super Speed and Standard lenses
with PL mount, those with Arri Bayonet (41mm diameter),
and Arri Standard lens mounts with PL adapter may be
used. PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be
used with Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: 12/ 24V DC motor, with quartz-controlled sync at 24/ 25/30 fps, 50/60 Hz. An on-board variable speed dial may be used to adjust camera speed from
52
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4 to 50 fps at 12V DC. The camera is continuously variable

from 4 to 100 fps (130 ips on the 35-3130 fps camera) at 24V
DC with a Variable Speed Unit. The 50/ 60Hz EXB-2 External Sync Control may be used to interlock the 35-3 with a
video source, projector or another camera. A 4-pin power
53
connector is located in the rear of the electronics housing.

Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is 12V (+). Operating temperature range
is -13F to +122F (-25C to +50C).
Displays: An electronic tachometer and footage
counter. Aln. external red LED located below the counter
indicates when a low memory battery condition exists. A
red LED to indicate an out-of-sync condition and a green
LED to indicate variable speed mode are visible in the
viewfinder.
Magazines: 200', 400', and 1000' displacement mags;
400' low profile, coaxial shoulder magazine for
handholding.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss standard, Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses. See Arriflex 535 Lenses section for
details.
Arriflex 35BL-4s
Movement: 35BL-1 through BL-4 cameras feature

dual-pin registration and dual pull-down claws that advance the film through a fixed-gap film channel. The 35BL4s has a technologically advanced movement that includes
an adjustable pitch control. Aperture plates and ground
glasses for all aspect ratios are interchangeable between all
35BL models.
54
Shutter: Rotating, front surface coated mirror shutter

system, with variable shutter: 180, 172.8, 144. Exposure
is Y48 of a second at 24 fps with 180 shutter. 35BL-1 and
35BL-2 cameras have 180 fixed shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: 35BL-4s and BL-4 viewfinders are
a full stop faster and brighter than earlier 35BL cameras,
and feature a larger exit pupil, ArriGlow illuminated frame
lines, and a high aperture 12.5" finder extender with swingin contrast viewing filter and variable magnification up to
2X. The finder rotates 90 above, and 90 below level with
the image always upright. An adjustable Super Wide Angle
eyepiece with manual iris closure and 6.5X magnification
is standard on 35BL-4s and BL-4 cameras. An adjustable
eyecup allows the operator to select the optimum eye-toexit pupil distance. Finder extenders available for the 35BL4s and 35BL-4 include a 12.5" standard with switchable contrast viewing filter, and for the 35BL-3, 35BL-2, and 35BL1, a 9" standard, and 9" Anamorphic.
Lens Mount: 54mm diameter PL mount, switchable
to Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm. Super
Speed and Standard lenses with PL mount, those with Arri
Bayonet (41mm diameter), and Arri Standard lens mounts
with PL adapter may be used. Both PL and non-PL zoom
and telephoto lenses should be used with a bridgeplate
system. Early 35BL cameras have Arri bayonet mount. BNC
mount available for 35BL-3 only. 35BL-2 and BL-1 cameras
require lens blimps for silent operation.
Motor Drive: 12V DC motor with quartz-controlled
sync at 24/25/30 fps, 50 or 60 Hz for all 35BL models. A
Variable Speed Control accessory extends the recommended speed range from 5 to 40 ips on the 35BL-4s, 35BL4, 35BL-3, and 5 to 50 fps on the 35BL-2. The 35BL-1 will
operate up to 100 ips with the HSU-IOO speed control, specially modified magazines, and two 14.4Vbatteries. Multicamera interlock is achieved with the EXS-2 SO/60Hz External Sync Unit. Power input through a 4-pin connector.
Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is +12V. Operating temperature range is 4F to +l22F (-20C to + 50C).
Indicators: An LED electronic tachometer and footage
indicator and an audible out-of-sync warning are built-in.
A red LED near the footage counter indicates low footage,
memory, battery.
Magazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial. The 35BL can be
handheld with either magazine. Mechanical footage
55
cOW1ters are integral, and 35BL-4s magazines have an adjustable pitch control.
Angenieux zoom lenses. See 535.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus; bridgeplate support system for CG balance and mOW1t for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy lenses; video
adapter for simultaneous optical and video viewing;
SMPTE time code; finder extender and leveling rod;
barney and heated barney; Arri Geared Head; director's
viewfinder with PL moW1t.
Arriflex 35-3C
PL mOW1t, those with Arri Bayonet (41rnm diameter), and

Arri Standard lens mOW1ts with PL adapter, may be used.
Both PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be
used with a special3-C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: Forward or reverse running 12V DC
handgrip motor with quartz-accurate sync at 24/25 fps,
with EXB variable speed accessory to adjust speed range
from 5 to 50 fps. Multi-camera interlock is achieved with
the 50/60 Hz EXB sync control accessory. Power input
through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is (-); Pin 4 is 12 V (+).
Operating temperature range is -13 F to +122 F (-24 C to +50
C).
Magazines: 200' forward operation only, 400' forward
or reverse; and 400' modified 35-3 shoulder magazines
available.
Angenieux zoom lenses (see Arriflex 535 Lenses Section for
details).
Accessories: Finder extenders including 9" and 12.2"
non-anamorphic, and 9" anamorphic; leveling rod; 2-speed
follow-focus; special 35-3C bridgeplate support system for
CG balance and mOW1t for matte box, follow focus, servo
zoom drive, and heavy lenses; video adapter for simultaneous optical and video viewing; Pilotone generator for 24/
25 fps, 50/60 Hz shooting; director's viewfinder with PL
moW1t.
Arriflex 35-2C
Movement: Single pin claw with extended dwell-time
to assure accurate film positioning during exposure. Film
gate components are precision finished steel, and hard
chrome plated. Full aperture is standard, with other formats
available.
Shutter: Rotating reflex mirror shutter system, variable
from 0 to 165, in 15 increments. Exposure is ~2l1d of a
second at 24 fps with a 165 shutter.
. Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Super Wide Angle eyepiece
for mcreased side-to-side viewing; interchangeable doors
U:clu~e fix~d v~ewfinder with mOW1t for videotap, 210
pIVotmg vIewfinder with or without video, and offset
viewfinder door for use with 400-ft. shoulder magazine.
. Len~ Mount: 54mm diameter PL moW1t. Flange focal
dIstance IS 52rnm. Super Speed and Standard lenses with
56
Description: The 35-2C series consists of multipurpose

35mm cameras. They are used handheld, and with appropriate accessories, for almost every type of motion picture
production application.
35-2C1B: Standard 2C featuring the Arri parallax-free
viewfinder system, a precision film transport system with
a maximum speed of 48 fps, a three-lens mOW1t turret, and
an interchangeable motor-drive system.
35-2CGSIB: Standard 2C features plus Pilotone output
and startrnarking system.
35-2CVIB: Standard 2C features plus variable shutter,
adjustable from 0 to 165.
35-2CHSIB: High-speed model with 80 fps movement
and tachometer. A 32V DC motor with variable speed control is included with the camera.
57
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Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Wide Angle eyepiece and

parallax-free viewing.
Lens Mount: Three-lens turret with two Arri Standard
and one Arri Bayonet moUflt. All Arri Standard and Bayo- .
net lenses that cover the full 35mm format can be used.
Zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with a special
2C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: 32V DC highspeed handgrip motor for
20 to 80 fps operation is standard; other motors include 16V
DC governor motor for 24/25 fps operation, 24-28V DC
variable motor for 20 to 64 fps; 16V DC variable motor for
8 to 32 fps. Operating temperature range is -13 F to +122 F
(-24 C to +50 C). Magazines: 200' forward operation only,
400' forward or reverse.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss standard, RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom lenses with Bayonet or Standard mOUflts. Matte Boxes: Bellows and lightweight versions.
Accessories: Servo zoom drive; camera door (Anamorphic available); periscope finder; finder extender; and flat
motor base to convert camera to flat-base configuration for
mOUflting on flat surface or inside blimp housing.
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(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
35-2CT/B: Standard 2~ with Techniscope gate and

two-perforation p~down film transport system.
Movement: Smgle-claw with extended dwell-time to
assure accura~e film positioning during exposure. Academy aperture 1S standard, with other formats available.
Shut~er: Rotating reflex mirror shutter system with
180 openmg. Exposure is Y4sth of a second at 24 fps.
Special effects camera featuring pin-registered stearuness to 120 fps and computer control interface. Can be
handheld.
Movement: Cam-driven dual-pin pull-down. Dualpin registration in Mitchell position. Adjustable stroke
length and entry position. Exit and entry buckle trips. Forward and reverse operation, .980" X .735" standard aperture with provision for hard mattes.
Shutter: Butterfly reflex with focal plane cup. Adjustable 180/172.8 /144/90/45/0. Stops in viewing position. Internal phasing control to sync with TV equipment.
59
IFILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
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i

Lightweight Studio Camera
. Re~e~ Viewfinder: Erect, bright image, orientable.

Fme-~ammterchang~ableviewing screens. Precision regIster pms for matte alignment. Three viewing filters. 360
adjustable eye piece; extender available. Optional video
aSSISt.
. Lens .Mount: BNCR standard, PL optional; anamorphic locating pin. Optional adapter for Arri standard or
bayonet-mounted lenses.
. Drive: Self-contained, 12 to 32V DC motor; syntheslZ~d crystal control from 1 to 120 fps in 0.01 fps steps. (Re9.wres 24.to 32~ f?r over 64 fps). One fps button for threadmg. Audible/Vlslble out-of-sync indicator.
Magazines: FX 35 QUAD (quick acting displacement)
400' (~orward/reverse), 1000' (forward only). Feature steel
toe~ smgle lat~ cover, footage indicator, anti-spill brake,
easily cleaned light trap. Adapter for Mitchell magazines.
Feature~: Can b~ run from personal computer. Feedback: status information, alarms. Shutter and digital shaft
coder quadrature and all control functions. Designed to be
as ste.ady as ~ optical printer. Display module over
viewfinder sWlvels for operator or assistant; shows speed,
footage, camera mode, battery voltage, current, and low
battery alarm. OptionallO-foot extension cable.
. Acce.sso~es: Matte boxes, filters, lens control systems,
Video aSSIst, time code, viewfinder exposure meter computer interface module.
'
Lightweight blimped silent studio camera.

Movement: Standard Mitchell pin-registered compensating link; Cinema Products' independent adjustment of
stroke length and entry position. Removable aperture plate
with built-in matte slide for various formats. Timing marks
for reassembly after cleaning. Inching knob.
Shutter: Focal plane, continuously variable 5 to 180;
control and lock on rear panel.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror, stops in viewing
position. Fine-grain interchangeable screens. Standard or
de-anamorphic optics. High-low magnification relay lens,
two contrast filters, built-in closure. Large eyepiece with
diopter adjustment and lock.
Lens Mount: BNCR with anamorphic locating pin.
Drive: Internal crystal-controlled motor assembly continuously variable 4 to 32 fps. Fps indicator and control
knob. Pushbutton for sync speed, selector switch for 24 or
25 fps 15 ppm in 0-140 F temperature range. Visible/
audible out-of-sync warning. Circuit breaker, power indicator, running indicator lights, 30V battery pack.
Magazines: 1000' QUAD (quick acting displacement).
Lightweight, steel toe plate, velvet rollers, snap latch
mounting, single latch cover. Footage indicator, anti-spill
brake. Magazines are installed on the camera through a
"clamshell" opening in the blimp housing which provides
maximum access without requiring side or headroom clearance.
Features: Built-in focus control system with right and
left side knobs, magnetic calibration discs, brake, auxiliary
drive; mounted on front housing. Six station filter wheels
accepting standard gelatin filters. Lightweight swingaway
61
Accessories: Video assist, bridge plate, matte box, pistol grip.
IMAGE 300 35mm
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)
matte box. illuminated level, lens light and interior threading lights. LED footage counter in feet or meters. Built-in
carrying h~dles. Complete camera system (less lens and
film) weighs 93 pounds.
Accessories: Matte boxes, filters, viewfinder and aperture mattes, video assist, time code.
Feathercam CM35
Lightweight (10 pounds) handheld pin-registered
camera with snap-on magazines.
Movement: Cam-driven dual pull-down, dual-register pins. Six-inch-Iong film gate. Loop-forming threading
system. Simple maintenance.
Shutter: Rotating mirror, 180 stops in viewing position.
Reflex Viewfinder: Right or left eye. Extension available.
Lens Mount: Optional and interchangeable BNCR,
Nikon, Arri (new or old).
Drive: Variable 4 to 48 fps built-in 24V motor; 24/25
fps crystal sync, soft start-up to eliminate slack. Optional
single-frame drive. 24V battery, on-board or external. LED
fps / footage (or meters) counter with memory.
Magazines: 500' coaxial snap-on. Does not require
prethreading. Mechanical footage counter.
62
0
1'-
35mrn highspeed (300 fps) pin-registered reflex camera.

Movement: Epicyclic; six pulldown claws; two register pins in Mitchell position. Dynamically balanced. Frameto-frame register 0.0005" or better. Full (silent) aperture.
Shutter: Beryllium rotating two-blade mirror; 1200
63
Reflex Viewfinder: Bright upright image; inter-
chan~eable groW1d glasses; variable magnification; video
tap; light trap prevents accidental fogging.

Lens Mount: BNCR; Panavision available.
.
Drive: Built-in motor and circuitry; maximum speed
m three seconds. Self-braking; will stop in five feet from 300
fps. Requires 115V AC, 50/60 Hz, 30A starting, 18A rW1ning. Ten pushbutton-actuated speeds, 24 to 300 fps.
Magazines: Coaxial 1000' feed and takeup magazines
are identical and separately mOW1ted; takeup can be removed "'.'ithout removing the feed magazine. Gear driven,
differentially controlled. Automatic drive engagement and
supply overrW1 brake. Footage-used coW1ter for acetate or
polyester base.
. Features: Sync pulse for strobe light, sync at all operating speeds. Matte box iris rods compatible with Arriflex.
Footage counter with memory. Remote control input jack.
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC, BNCR (35mm);

FC, BFC (65mm)
The C camera differs from the "standard" model in

that it uses a mechanically different and quieter movement
and has other features which make it quieter. NC, BNC, FC,
BFC are rack-over models. NCR, BNCR are reflex models.
C model has a four-lens turret, the others a single lens
moW1t. B models are blimped versions.
Movement: Dual-register pins, four-prong pull-down;
adjustable stroke. Timing marks on shutter and movement
facilitate removal and reassembly. Removable aperture
plate with built-in matte slot. 35mm full .980" x .735" aper~e. Speed range: smgle frame to 32 fps. Slot for dual gel
filters.
Shutter: Focal plane 175 maximum variable to 0 in
10 increments. Phase and opening indicator on back of
64
camera. Some models have automatic four-foot fade in or

out.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror. Viewing tube
same on rack-over and reflex. Interchangeable ground
glasses, variable magnification, film clip/matte slot, contrast viewing filters. Adjustable focusing eyepiece.
Viewfinder: External large screen erecting finder.
Parallax correction coupled by cam to lens focus knob.
Lens Mount: Four-lens turret, NC only; flange depth
1.695". Single mOW1t all others: 35mm flange depth 2.420";
lenses can be centered on full or Academy aperture.
Magazines: 400', 1000', 1200' double compartment
sOW1d insulated. NC magazines will not fit standard camera but standard magazines may be used on NC models
with adapter; not recommended for sOW1d shooting.
Drive: DemoW1table motors for all types of shooting;
synchronous motors are soW1d insulated. Crystal sync 30V
DC with 50/60 Hz signal, mirror positioning circuit and
audible offspeed indicator.
Accessories: Film matte pW1ch. Matte boxes for rotating and sliding diffusion and filters. Director's finder which
takes camera lens moW1ts.
65
which camera body racks over for focusing and critical

lineup.
Note: There are several versions of modifications available for special applications.
Movement: High Speed: Dual registration pins. Dual
forked pull-down claws engage four perforations simultaneously. Removable aperture plate has built-in matte slot.
Full Aperture: .980" x .735" Academy Aperture Mask: 868"
x 631". Speed range: Single frame to 120 fps (160 fps can be
achieved but is not recommended) . Standard movement
cannot be used for high-speed work. Not possible to convert standard to high-speed camera by interchanging
movements.
Shutter: 170 maximum. Variable in 10 calibrated
segments to 0 manually, forward or reverse.
Focusing: Variable magnification erect image focusing
telescope built into the camera. Through-the-Iens ground
glass critical focus and viewing when camera is racked
over. Built-in contrast viewing filters for color and monochrome emulsions. Interchangeable ground glasses. Any
aspect ratio outline available. Camera focus tube has builtin matte slot and permits the making of perfect match dissolves.
Lenses: Four-lens turret. Positive index type, with rising and falling front. Mitchell-designed heavy-duty rotarytype lens mounts. Flange depth: 1.695". Standard and wideangle matte boxes provide for use of glass mattes, gauzes,
hard mattes, glass filters, Pola screen, diffusers, variable
diffuser attachment, etc.
Motors: Variable (wild) motors: 12V DC (8 to 24 fps),
nov AC or DC (8 to 24 fps), High Speed. nov AC or DC
rheostat controlled (24 to 128 fps). Synchronous (sound)
motors: nov, 60-cycle, 1 phase AC; 220V, 60-cycle, 3-phase
AC; 220V, 3-phase interlocking AC; 220V, 3-phase AC/96V
DC Multi-duty (Synchronous at 220V AC only). 50-cycle
motors available on request. Animation motor: Stop-motion, nov AC.
Magazines: 400', 1000' and 1200' double compartrnenttype magazines.
Viewfinder: Large erect viewfinder calibrated for different focal-length lenses. Available with dual calibrations
for any two aspect ratios. Parallax-free follow-focus attachment available.
68
Moviecam Super 35mIri.
Movement: Compensating link with dual pilot pin

registration and dual pull-down. Interchangeable aperture
plates for all standard aspect ratios.
Shutter: 180 rotating mirror variable to 45. Calibrated at 90,144,172.8. Stops in viewing position.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotatable 360 maintaining erect
image. 12" extension tube with built-in 2.4X magnification
available. Large exit pupil has heated rear element. Eyepiece adjustable. Anamorphic viewin~ available. m~
nated frame lines. Integral video aSSist; external Video
power unit includes 1 W' monitor.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Drive: Microprocessor-controlled motor, 12 to 32 fps
in one-frame increments. Crystal sync. 24V DC or 110/220V
AC.
Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacement-type torque
motor drive. Built-in heater.
Features: Below 20 dBa sound level. Built-in automatic
slate. Plug-in circuit boards field replaceable. Built-in cam-
69
era heaters. Footage and frame rate digital display forward

and reverse. Handheld and studio follow-focus for all
lenses.
Weight: 29 pOlmds with 500' of film and 50mm lens.
Accessories: "Moviespeed" attachment allows programmable speed changes from 1 to 50 fps forward and 12
to 32 fps reverse during shooting, with fully automatic exposure compensation. Time base code attachment. Synchronizer for flicker-free HMl shooting, filming from TV
monitors or process photography. Computer diagnosis
attachment for troubleshooting circuit boards. Matte boxes.
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 35mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Double pull-down claws. Pitch and
stroke controls for optimizing camera quietness. 4-perf
movement is standard, 3-perf is available. Movement may
be removed for servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.

Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture mattes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.
Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture mattes are
available for Academy, Anamorphic, Super 35, 1.85:1,
70
1.66:1, and any other as required. Special hard mattes are

available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, infinitely variable and
adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening: 200, minimum: 50
with adjustable maximum and minimum opening stops.
A digital display allows adjustments in l!J.oo increments.
Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchronization
with computers, TV monitors and HMllighting at unusual
frame rates. Manual and electronic remote control units
available.
Behind-the-Iens Filtering: Behind-the-Iens gel filter
holder.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex mirror for flicker-free viewing is
optional.
Optical Viewfinder System: High magnification optical system. The viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly upright image through 360. Short, Intermediate and Long viewfinder tubes are available. System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast viewing
filter and a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual settings. A builtin "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable eyepiece leveling link-arm is supplied with
every Panahead to keep the eyepiece position constant
while tilting the camera. Entire optical viewfinder system
may be removed and replaced with a video viewfinder
display for lightweight camera configuration (e.g., for
Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma, remote camera usage). An
eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own eyesight can be
provided on request.
Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
available with any marking, or combination of markings.
"Panaglow" illuminated reticle system with brightness
control is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the viewfinder system for optical image matching. Frame cutters are available to suit negative or positive
perforations.
lens mount for maintaining critical flange focal depth setting. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational ori71
.entation. (Note: this is particularly important with anamorphic lenses.) Iris-rod support is supplied.
Lenses: Exceptionally wide range of spherical, anamorphic and specialty lenses is available. All are checked
and calibrated by MTF. Primo lenses are all color matched
and range from a distortion-free lOmm to 150mm. Primo
zoom lenses are equal to Primo lenses in image-look and
optical performance. All Primo lenses have widely spaced
lens focus calibrations and have been especially designed
for low veiling glare. Physically long lenses are supplied
with adequate length iris rods for matte box and filter support, ultra wide-angle lenses are supplied with a suitable
sun-shade and matte box.
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control which can
be used from either side of the camera is standard; an interchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic rerriote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Boxes: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, with provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which
can be individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes
incorporating more filter stages, with provision for sliding
(motorized if required), rotating and/or tilting and ,for taking 6.6" square filters are optional. Panavision can also supply special sliding diffusers, diopters and all manner of
image control filters, etc, to use in their matte boxes.
72
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any speed from 4-36 fps and is crystal controlled at
all speeds and may be adjusted in YlOth fps increments.
Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera
with a mains power supply, with computers and video signals and with process projectors to run in shutter phase
synchronization. Panaflex cameras may be used at sub-zero
temperatures without special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 20 dB with film and lens, measured 3' from the image plane.
Magazines: 2000', 1000', 500' and 250' magazines are
all available. All can be used on the top of the camera for
minllnum camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height and for good balance when hand-holding (2000'
magazines can be used in the top position only). 1000' reverse running magazines available on request.
Magazine Loading: See diagram.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest areprovided for hand-holding the camera. In this configuration the camera is best used with a 500' or 250' magazine
fitted at the rear. The weight of the camera in hand-held
mode, with a 500' magazine and film, is approximately 27
lbs.
Image Contrast Control: "Panaflasher" light overlay
unit an optional accessory.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-Iens optical accessories
include an exceptionally wide range of color control filters,
diffusion filters, fog filters, low-contrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, low/high
angle inclining prisms.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery. The normal
battery complement is two x cased units with built-in chargers. Belt batteries are optional.
Camera Support Equipment: "Panahead" geared
head, incorporates a 60 tilt range with a built-in wedge
system to allow the operator to select where that range is,
anywhere between the camera pointing directly up or directly down, and three gear ratios in both the pan and tilt
movements. A sliding base unit enables a camera to be
quickly attached and detached and to be slid backwards
and forwards on the head for optimum balance. "Panatate"
turn-over mount allows 360 camera rotation about the lens
axis while at the same time permitting nodal pan and tilt
movements. Nodal adapter available to mount a Panaflex
73
nodally on a Panahead. "Panapod" tripods with carbon

fiber legs are available in a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B &W or color.
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex
cameras and magazines have built-in heaters to enable
them to be operated in any ambient temperature. Heated
covers are available to give additional protection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation smooth in
intensely cold conditions. Other covers are available to
protect the camera, magazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain and water. Spinning-glass rain deflectors are available for use in storm conditions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration
high "g-forces" and other stressful and dangerous conditions. A water-box is available to protect the camera in shallow water conditions, a hazard box to protect the camera
from explosions, collisions and other dangerous situations.
Time Code: The AatonCode code system encodes every frame with a SMPTE time code which is readable by
both computer and human.
Panavision GIl Golden Panaflex

Very similar to the Platinum Panaflex. Incorporates
most of the features and operates with most of the accessories listed for that camera.
increments. Micrometer adjustment allow critical synchronization with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame rates. Manual and electronic remote control units available.
Reflex System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Viewfinder System: Same as Platinum
Panaflex.
Ground Glasses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Mounting System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Matte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any speed from 4-120 fps and is crystal-controlled at
all speeds and may be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera with
a main power supply, with computers, with video signals
and with process projectors in shutter phase synchronization. Panastar cameras have internal heaters and may be
used at sub-zero temperatures.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available. Either can be used on the top of the camera for minimum
camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height
Similar to the GIl Golden Panaflex but has a fixed
viewfinder system and is not hand-holdable.
Panaflex Panastar High-Speed

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire
movement may be removed for servicing.
Threading Diagram: See below.
Aperture Plate: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Aperture Mattes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. Maximmn-opening: 180,
minimum: 40 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in YJoo
74
75
Panastar reverse running type magazine threading
and for good balance when hand-holding; 1000' reverse

running magazines available on request.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest are
provided for h~d-holding th~ camer~. In this. c0n?guration the camera is best used With a 500 magazme fitted at
the rear. The weight of the camera in hand-held mode, with
a 500' magazine and film, is approximately 26 lbs.
Image Contrast Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Accessories: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Batteries: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as Platinum
Panaflex.
Video Assist Systems: Same as Platinum Panaflex..
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Panavision Super R-200 35mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration. Doub~e pulldown claws. Pitch control to optimize camera qwetness.
Entire movement may be removed for servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture mattes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.
76
Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture mattes

are available for Academy, Anamorphic, Super-35,
1.85:1,1.66:1, TV transmitted and any other aperture required. Special hard mattes are available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable
opeaing and adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening: 200;
minimum: 50 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in Viao
increments. Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchronization with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote control units available.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex mirror for flicker-free viewing is
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Provision for a behind-thelens filter gel.
Optical Viewfinder System: Fixed optical system.
System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast
viewing filter and a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-
up or directly down, and three gear ratiosID both the_pan

and tilt-movements. A sliding base umt,-enables-a camera
to be quickly attached and detached_and to be: sli~ backwards and forwards on the head for optimum balanced
"Panapod" tripods, with car\:xm fiber:legs~ ~available in
a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art,
video
systems are available in B & Wor color.
ceo
Photo-Sonies 3Smm 4Bl4C
free viewing. An eyepiece dioptI! tb suittheoperaIDI"sown

eyesight can be provided on request.
GlOund GI_es: Same asPiatinumPana8ex.
LensMcnmting System: Same as Platinum Pana8ex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum PanafIex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum PaniI:8ex.
M.ate Boxes: Same as Platinum PanafIex.
Camera Motor: 2401' 36V motors are used to om the
camera at any speed &om 4-36 Cps withaystal control at
24 and 25 fps. Special sync boxes are available to ~
nize the camera with a main powersupply, with computers and video signals and with process projedors in shutlerphase synchronization. May be used at sub-zerp temperatures without special preparation.
DBAllatiDg: Less than 24 dB with film andJens,m.:asured 3' from the image plane. Magazines: un)' and 400'
magazine$ are available. The 400' magazine can be used,.
together with a speciallow-prolile magazine ~, for
minimum camera height.
Optial Accaeories: Same as Platinum PanafIex; see
P-il8'! 70.
Batteries: Camera, heaters and accessories all op.erate
on either a 24V or a 36V Ni-<:ad battery. The normal batterY.. complement is two x cased units with built-in ~
ers.
~era
Support Equipment: "Super Panall~ad"
geared head incorporates a 60" tilt range with 'a built~in

wedge ~stem to allow the operator to select where ~t
range is, anywhere between the camera}inting c::Iiredly
78
Rotary prism recording cam~designedfor high

Speed full foanat 35mm phot9graphy.
Film Transport: Continuous.
Frame RaIe: High-speed system: 500 to 2500 Cps in 500frame intervals. Low~~250 to 1250 fpsin250frame inaEWei lis. Special Iow-speedmoto, 125 fps:625 Cps,
available on request.
Aperbue She: FulI-fcame35mm.
Film Spedfkations: B 4tH .1866" perfuta1ions.
Shutll!r. Rotary disc. 72" fixed sImUer. 36, 18" 01' fJ"
shutter available on request.
Viewfinder: Fries orien~ BQresigbtillgis acc0mplished through the taking lens usiDg~
Lens Mount NUwn 01'HNCR.
Drive: High-speedD VAC, 3 ~ 60 Hz. Y<OD.nected synchronous speed. motor. Surge at maximum
frame rate 60 amps/each phase; nmning'30 amps/each
phase. Low speed l1SVAC, single phase, 60 Hz,~
nousspeed moIoI'. Surge atmaximum frcurienrte40 amps;
nmning 20 amps.
Mapzine: 1000'.
Film Cores: Film must be wound on dynamicalJy-balaru:ed aluminum film cores prior to ~in this ~
Aa.'es&ories: Video assist an-axis, paraUax-free, Shuttered video camera or oH-axis side mounb!d,
Photo-Sonies 3Smm-4ER
High speed, (6 to 360 f.p.$.) pinregisterstudio-.recoJ'ding camera
.Movement: Intermittent with 12 pulklown aIms, four
regiStration pins and a vacuum ba~
Shutter: Adjustable rotary disk type with jncrements:
pO between 5 and soo; 100 between 50 and120".
Reflex Viewfinder: 4ER incorporates'a reflex vie~g
system in conj\}I\ction with a Jur~/~exorientable

viewfinder system and shuttered ceo Vldeo1ap. __
Lens Mount BNCR, Panavision or Photo-So!lic;s.
Drive: Built-in motor ~ ~ .RequireS208:VAC,
single phase, 60 Hz, SCR, solid state. Surge at maXlmum

frame rate 35 amps; running 20 amps.
Magazines: 1(xx)-foot~pacity with built-inligbftrapS.
Feahues: 200-watt heater. Sync pulse for- strobe light
synchronizatipn. Ground glass with Academy, TV safe
action and 1.85:1.
Welght: 125 pounds with l000-footmagazine lOaded.
Accessories: Aniflex 5 x 6 Matte.Box with Hard Matte
set: ArrifJex 6x6 Matte Box with Hard Matte set. Diopters
for dose focus: + 1/2, +1, +2, +3 set.
Features: Quidc-rel~ balante plate. B~t-in followfocus. LED coUn.t:er feet/meters ,may be'preset to any reading; battery operated memory. Built-inheatet. Swing-away
matte box; rotating featureacxepts v~ ~ fillefS with
two stationary Stages and two rotating stages.
VIStaVISion Cameras
MSM Model 8812 3SmmJ8-per{ VistaVision
mtracam 3Smm
Sound level201 dB at tbreefeetwith.filmand 50mm
lens.
Movement: Fun aperture: .985" x .7'36". Single Claw,

dual registration pin. compensating link. using tungsten
counter-balance for minimum possible vibration. AUl&
malic film location by spring-loadedpin.PitchadjiJstInent
compensated for 3X more cbangein stroke length-at end
of stroke than at start Entire movement can be removed
for deaning; coupling is keyed for correct ~ on
replacement.
shaftwith _.
Shutler: Focal plane 115" on same

. mmor.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating two-blade balf~
mirror. 41"30' to permit short back focus ~ E~
rotates 360" using prism to pnwideerectimage. All surfaces
high efficiency for bright image, exitpupillOmm. ~ to 9X
true zoom magnification. Anamorphic correctilXl available.
Interchangeable ground ~ Internal diQpter.atcommodation.. Right or ieft eyeoperation. Video assiston bayonet
mount
Lens Mount SBNCR.
__ _
Drive: Intemal '1JN DC opticallyenaxled. 8, 12, 16,18,
20,24,25,30, and 32 Ips and by a 10V p.p extenla1pulse of
60X frame rate. Crystal sync .tIS ppm over 0to !30" F
range. SO/60 Hz and fr~Tateoutput pulse.
Weight 31lbs. with 400' of film and 5OnUnJenfi:,
Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacement. Buil~-~
torque motor and electric brake. Eithet size will mo1iIlton
c;amera top or rear.
80
Movement MSM Moncblock higIH;peed, triple register pins, claw engageslour perfs. Shrinkage adjustment
changes both stroke and entry position. lniJexaDIe loopsettingsprockets have independent locking'keeper rollers.
Vacuum backplate assures film plane accuracy, IeD10VeS
without tools lor cleaning. Aperture and moveJDmt~
move easily for cleaning and lubrication. Aperture SIZe
1.485" wide x .9'Ir high. ~tesIrom time-lapse to 72
fps forward, to 30 ipS reverse.
Shuua: Focal plane shutter,manually variable-from
l72.80 to SSO withstcps at 1 and 101r'.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex. Interchangeable
ground glasses with register pins fur film dips. ~ totates36O" with erectimage, image canbe~yrotated
foe unusual setups. Finder shoWS 1<5% of fraine, magniallows critical focusing at center of ~~ ~ lever controls internal filter and douser.Heat~l:teyt!p.lECe has
large exit pupil and longeye relief.Hi~~ti~ B & W
ceo videotap is builtinto camercl clPoE with ~gaway
SO/SO beamsplitter. Viewfinder temoves:rompletely for
ner
aerial or underwater housing use.

Lens Mount BNe lensmount15nup matte rods are
on Am ~J. centers for .~ coIDpafibili~.
.
M~gazines: 1000' and 400' disp~~t mag~es.
operale bidirectionally at all camera speedS. A poSitive
81
camloCksecurelithemag iniunning posi~n and sWikhes
power to the motor and heater contacts' jn the magfOOt.

Expanding core'hubs bavein~ DC servomotors controIledby Iilm tenSion in bothdirections, widLsoft stamlp
loe1iminate sIack..Tightwindrol1ers guide filmwindinglor
smooth solid rOIls at any camera angle. Non-contact.light
traps feature infrared endoMilm sensorS.
Features; Crystal sync 4!m 5 to 72 fps in .091 i:r\(n!ments. Status l:.EDS for POWe!;, heat~ lew batter,yl, ~~g
ready, b:uCkle/ ang $peed s~TW:Q illum:iriat'ed USDloot:'

age_coun~ Digitalbattery,vQit/amp~. Circuit~~
ers fOr camera, mag, heat,
an~ accessories.
Control-port
alk>ws operationfiPm.handheld remote or interface with
computers and extemalaa:essories.
Wileam W-7 VistaVision High -Speed

VtStaVision,.&perforation35mm desi~ for opera.tiOPllt.209 ~ ~ secondo-c.
~R.-~8tration: 13\dual-r~giSW
pins., .
.' .
FUm'Transp(Jrt: 2 claw-pins/ Trans'Iiort claws never
~ the ~t:iOnpin ~tions.
Shutter: Beryllium mirror with tungsten counter
weigt.tts.
.
Vie'wfindet; Rotating mim>r. Uses servo motors for
constanterect image while theeyepiece is'being rotated.
-.;.ens Mom'BNCR
82
Lenses: 14mmf/28 Canon; 19mmf/2.8-Leitz,24mm

T-1.4-Canon. 28mm T-l.8 Zeiss, 3Smm T-l.4 Zeiss, 50nun
T-l.~ Zeiss, 85mm T-l.~ Zeiss, 1.35mm T-l.8 Zeiss, 35-14Q
f/1.4 VlVitar ~ 4lso 2OOmm, 400nun, and 6OOmm.
Magazines: l000:-foot.
:Magazine D~e:'Gear-driven through torque motors
pennahe-ntly mourde!. ont1'ie'c.ameraJ)odY.
Matte Box: Wijcam 4 x 5.65 ~so standard Arriflex 6:
x '6.
Weight: 110 peunds with~ lens andJilm.
WUmn W-9 VlStaVision Ughtweighl

VJSfaV1Sion, 8-pedoration3Smm desi~for general
purpose use. Maximum speed 100 ftames per second.
83
x 6.
Matte Box: Wilcam 4 x 5.65 also standard Arriflex 6
- -. "-
Wetght 37 pounds with 5pnun lens an.d film.
Wilcam W-tt VistaVision Sound Speed
Registration: 3 dual-register pins.

Film Transport: 2 claw pins. Transport claws never
enter the registration pin perforations.
Shutter.IllJ" BerylliumlJlin'Ol'withtungslm~
weights.
Viewfinder. Rotating mirror. Uses servo motors fQr
constant ereetllnage while the eyepiece is being rotated.
Lens Mount BNCR.
Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/28 Leitz..t4ttun
I-I.4 Canon, 28mm T-I.S Zeiss, 35mm T-I.4zeiss, 50riun

T-I.4 Zeiss, 8Smm T-1.4 Zeiss, 135mm T-l.8 ZeiSS, 35,,1.40
flU Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm, and liromm.
Magazines: lOOO-foot.
Magazine Drive: Torq~e motots mounted on ~ch
Vista Vision 8-perforation 35mm. ~gned for

soundstage production shooting. 'Ruils at 24-, 25, and 30
frames per second, all aystal sync. Virtually silent in ~
eration without relying on extensive bliInping; Noise level
in operating condition with a prime knsis"25 dB.at 3 feet
in front of the camera lens.
Regiftration: 3 dual-register pins. 2 pairs in conventional !ocation, I pair .050 wide J?erforatiQrJs trcriliItg.
Film Transport 2 claw pins. Transport ~aws never
enter the registration pin perforations.
85
Shutter. Half~, 144 degrees. Beryllium mirror

driven by second ~~1OOkMto camera motor.
Viewfinder.
.
grmmd glass with locating pins for film clip. Automatic image erection with
manual override:for odd-angle vieWing. lOX magnifierlor
critical focusing. Built-in Sony ceo video camera.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Lmses:Available BNCR Jeoses: 14mm1/2.8 Canon,
19mm flU,1-eitz. 24mm T-1.4-~ 28mm T-l.8 Zeiss,
3Smm T-l.4 zeiss, SOmm T-1.4 zeiss, 85mm T-l.4 Zeiss,
135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140 f/1.4VIYitar zoom..Also 2OOnUn,
400mm and 600mm.
Magaziiles: 100G-fool Supply. on right side ofcamera,
take up ,o n ~ar.
.Magazine Dri,ve: liyster~ Qutm with Senfiing arms,
in camera blyfor correct film tension.
BatteJy Voltage: 36 volts.
Current: 3 amperes.
FoUowfoc:us: On left side of camera. Detachable.
~ Box: Wllcam 4 x 5.65 also standard Arriflex 6
x6.
Weight: 60 pounds with SOmm lens and 100> feet of
film.
16mm Cameras
Aaron XTRplus
......
-y----- .
Stopsin viewingposition. May be inched for ,.N>rtt ..... in~r-~on.
Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter. Ultra-bright viewfinder. FiberopticJmagi finder 6eld is 1..2lJ% of standald
l~ frame. Swiveling autoerectimage eyepiece with lOX
magnification. 20cm or 40cm extensions and left-eye extender available. Field interchangeable St16/Super 16
ground glass with Aatonite marlcings available on option.
Built-inlightmeterdisplay in viewfindel:alSoindiades low
bauery, out~f-sync and before-the-end and end-of-film
warnings.
Lens Mount Aaton.positive lock ring mount, Ani PL
~l!o ~anavjsion Primo,1l)Ounts. Aaton m01J!lt also accepts
Am Bayonet or anycreflex-type lens witfl-&ton adapter.
Staildard to Super 16f9~t eonversion innveminutes.
Drive: Brushless crvsta1 sync 12V motor fOI: 23.98, 24,
lS, 29.gJ &t 30 ips. VariaBle control form 3 to 60 fps aystal

controlled to I1I0000lps. Built-inTV bar ~tor. (24, 25, 30
~ plus 6 to 54IPs in U steps, no bul1t-mTV bar eliminJltor on
XTRplus.) E1ectronicbase and motor maybe removed and
Iq>laced in two minuIes. Slim battery (UV"l.8 Ah).fits direCtly onto the camera. body.
Maprines: 122m (4OOft)coaxia1. Feed chamber loaded
in~ and loop threaded indayJight. Fom1een to fifteenperforati~ ~ length.Twistlessfilm ~andhair
~ gate eliminates pressuremadcs andemt;dsionpile-up.
Magnetically driven takeup with electronic and:mechani~ counters. Memo-mag indexes fot ma&lne ID recogC
Ergonomically designed standard 16 and Super 16

camera for studio and documentary use, featuring time
code and video assist. Sound level19dB. (Allton XTRpIus
spedficJmlvns IIf'P5T in itDlics.)
Movement: Linear~single claw; selfregisteiing.
Lateral andvertical registration system ensures a p0sitioning of the film bettetban 2.Smm in all three axes. Hair-fme
gate with air cin:ulation channelpullS hair out
ShUtter: True 18O-degree front surface mitror facilitates 60&HMI and video-monitor roll-bar elimination.
lUUOn.
86
87~
Features: Back-lighted dlg!ta1 contrpl display; footage,

speed, voltage, ISO, time code, magazine elapsed tinte (itO
baCk-light 1I0r elapsed time on XTRptU5 displny). M~o-,m~
allows magnetic recognition by the camera body of 7-different magazines (3 on XTRplus). Coun.ter in camera provides LCD display of remaining footage - for sl19rt-endS
load or multi-emulsion shoot I<eycode compatible and
frame..accurate time code marking in SMPTE matrixes and
human readable numbers. Ippm TCXO.intemaJ doddq~
8-hour autonomy. BOttom of camera-to-lens optical axis
distance is l05mm to make the XTRplus compatible with
35mm camera accessories (l09.2mm Oil XTRplus).
Accessories: Lightweight wide-format swing.,.away
matte box: two 4 x5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and withoutplay follow-focus system. TotallyincorporatedbladC&
white or color ceo video assist: the conlbinalion of ctlncave viewing screen and exclusive relay lens with mMwal
iris cootrol delivers the clearest and ~ images requires no set-up time. LTR Model: superseded by ~,
LTRs are differentiated by the magazinemed1anical drive,
no LOJ counter and no ceo video-assistcompatibility.
Arriflex 16SR-2
Description: The Arri8ex 16SR-2 is a silent 16mm pr0.duction camera, featuring a narrow, symmetrical body
deiignand a unique, patented swing-over~The
16SR:'2 's unique design allows the user to operate frQm either side of the camera. The 16SR-2features a pin-tegisten:d
film transport and fixed-gap channeL a~tie viewing
screen, patented orientable swingover viewfinder, APEC
TIL metering system, auto shutter stop, and preset iris
activator. It is widely used internationally for feature films,
television production, TV commercials, music videos, nature ana wildlife films, documentaries, and for industrial
cmd scientific fUm production.
Venrions:
1. 16SR-2E: Standard 16SR without APEC, p~t lens
activator or automatic exposure cOntrol. These features may
~~fi~.
.
2. 16$R-2: Standard 16SR, with APEC (Arri P~on
ExpOsure,Control).
3. 16SR-2 Automatic: Same as Standard 16SR with
APEC, but also includ~ servo-activated, fuliy autOmatiC
88,
CALM TAKES UP EMULSIQN SIp[ IN)

exp06tae control Exposure is adjusIedautomatically at any
speed &om 5 to 15 Ips.

4/5. 16HSR-2 Higbspeed AufomatiC, and 16HSR-~
Highspeed (w /oAPEC): Operateup to'15Pfpsand~
gray finish 16SR Highspeedmagazines. On tbeAutomatiC
version. exposure is adjusted au~~caUy -~ lO to 150
fps withlenses equipped withauto-inS capability.
6/7. Super 16 16SR-2 and Sup~r II> 16HSR-2
Highspeed Standard and Hi~ 16SR~:.All
Ani accessories may be used wlth01.lt-modification.
liighspeed camera requires grey fiQish lii~ma~-
'lirikfilm
Movement Pin-registered, com~~tJtlg . .
trcmsport, with fixed-gap Dlm~. The 16~'R..2 operates
zines.
89
from 5 to 75 fps with external variable speed control. The

16HSR-2 Highspeed (and the 16HSR-l Highspeed version)
operates from 10 to 150 Ips with extema.1 variable speed
control. The movement does not require threading as the
loop is preset when the magazine is loaded. Switches l0cated in the camera base 01 early versions lock in crystal
speeds of 24 and 25 Ips, SO and 60 Hz,. and in IaIl!'rSR cameras, 30 fps. 72 tiL AU 16SRs can be modified with a 30 fps
lril
S ~ VtntfiDder. Rotatins mirror-shutter sysII!m. with 180" opening (y_!lee at 24 ips). with high aperturt'/ paraUu-free viewing.. and lOX magni6catim at the
e,epiece l'he swingover reflex viewfinder is centRlly l0cated.. and swings within a 190" an: to eithel- side oi the
camera for" Ieft- and right-side operation. The finder also
rotates 360" parallel to the camera on either side, and
swings out 25" for additiona1 operator com.fort. It features
a fiJeN:lpticviewingsaeen.a red out-of~ lED;and an
APEC exposure indicator.
Lens Mount: Steel bayonet 5ens mount (41mm diameter), with built-in auto-iris facility. Range focal distance
is 52mm. When used with an auhHris lens. the iris will
open to full aperture when camera is turned off and dose
down to a preset aperture when thec:amera is activaled. All
Ani 16nun or 35mm format standard and bayonet mount
lenses covering the 16mm format can be used. Long 01"
heavy lenses must be used with the bridgeplale support
>ySlnn.AftC~Ani_E>p<oureCon-
troI system. Provides continuous exposure infonnation

(match-needle mode) m a 4-stop indicator displayed in
viewfinder. For film speeds A5A 16-1lXXl An optional
servo-operated automatic exposure control system (with
manual override) for complete automatic exposure control
with auto-iris lenses is available.
Molar Drift: Quartz-eontn::lUed l2V OC motor for 24/
151?JJ fpo.50l(J)mHzopention.A~ocrer
""'1_ the speed range from 510 75 rp. (00 the 16H$R
Highspeed, hom 10 to 150 fps). Multi-<amera interlodc is
adtieved with the PSZ-D sync control accessory. Power
input through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is (.); pin 4 is +12V.
Modular plug-in e1ectroni.cs boards contain circuitry rontrolling all electronic functions, including a built-in startmarking system. out-of-sync light, Pilotone output and pre90
wiring for SMPTE 8O-bit time code. Operating temperature

range is -40 F to +122 F (~20" C to +50" C).
Mapzines, 400' eoo>daI; ronnally acrepls 100 "'" m
daylight loads; 400' daylight reels may be used if 1/8~ is
milled off the reel's edge. Loop is formed during loading
10< qukI< magaz;ne change. G'")' futish lUghspeed magazines must be used on 16HSR, 16HSR-2lUghspeed and
16SR Super 16 ~ cameras.
Super 16: Both 16sR-2 and 16HSR-2 Highspeed ouneras are available in Super 16. Thl! wider Super 16 format
(15mm x l23mm) n!<jUUed ~tionmg the optical.oos
1mm to the left. The lens mount.. fiber sc:rem. viewfinder.
tripod mounting hole and ji(f"CS!lY shoe were IIlICJYed accordindY. Thl! shutter opening 01 the Super 16 camera is
112.8".-thr APEC exposure systm't is standard on both
cameras.. but auto-iris ~contmI isnot available. The
following beyonet-mounled ....... will wad<" the Sup
16 format Zeiss 16 format Superspeed primes 12uun.
, ......and 25mm T-1.3;:ze;" 35 fonnat5upeo;peed primots
18mm.25mJ:n.35mm..5knm.and 85mm T-l.3and 13Smm
T-21; Zeiss 35mm Standard primes 10mm, 16mm, 2Ornm.
24mm, 28mm. 32mm,
SOmm.ll5mm. tOOnun. and
135mm T-2.1; and 6Omm, 180mm, and 300mm T-3.0.
Angenieux 16-44mm T-1.3 and 15-15Omm T-2.3; RTH
Cooke 102-54mm T-28. A1I35mm formal zoom lenses will
cover Super 16.
M.dtlr Boxa: See Arriftex 53S Matte Box section or
details. .Act::eslDies: 2-speed follow-lOCus with 1:1 or 1:..06
ratios; bridgeplate support system for CG balancr and
mount for matte box. roIJow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heevy_lightweghtsupport.oo-bxud be_left
aM ridrt grips for handhekl operation of the camera; ~
exIiI!rder; SMPTE time code generator; High-5peed unit for
operation of Standard 16SRs up to 75 fps or 16HSR
Highspeed up 10150 fp<; Ani Gea<ed Head; and _ .
viewfinder with PI. mount
-.n.
Aniflex Super 16
Two versions of the 16SR-2 camera are available in the
Super 16 format the 16SR-2 (5-75 fps) and the 16HSR-2
Highspeed (1(1-150 rp.). N"",,," open_ and functiono

ofboth are virtually the same as withstandard 16SR-2 cam-
eras.
The heip;ht of the Super 16 aperture in the 16SR~2 is

identical to that in regular 16SRs, but the aperture is 2mm
91
wider; pushing intO the 16tped area 00 the negative. The

Super16~75X12.3mm.andibecwertureof~
Jar SRsis 75 X 10.3.rom. ThiS necessitates the reposition. of the optical middle axis of lens mount, vieWfinder,
~ tluead and a~ !lolder by tmm to the~.
SingJe-perf film must be used.
.
J1::!e ~6SR-rs _sp~.mror shutter;l):asa,172.8" sh~_t
tet openiJ;\'g. Super16 SRs have the;same-~osure JIl~
'sy.stein as in regular 16SRS;~k~t the autOmatic: eXpbiiute
conlr6l feature cannot be installed.
Beeauseof the wider apertiue areac:overed. someslandard16mmlenseswiD ~ The following~Steel
BayonetMountleoses can be Used forSup!r 16production;
Supempeed Primes
16inm
.25atm
50mm
ZOomLenses
~ DiStagQl.i'I~1-.3
~ Distag<,>n T-1.3
10Qmm
mmm
180mm
Zeiss Tele-Apotessat 1-3.0
,~
1{W):lh ~ tartge:e"fen1ier
becomes 600mm T~.O)
ZOOm Lenses: All 35mm format zoom lenses with
41uu:D steel bayonet mount will cover Super 16.
Arriflex 16SR-3
2!.eiSs Distago~ T..!.3

Zeiss Planar T-1.3
ll~
Angeniewc~26
115-138mm
15-15Omm
16-44mm
10.4-52mm
Angenieux T-2.3
Angenieux T-2.;J
Angenieux T-1.3
CQoke Va,rOkii\etal T-2.8
Co.o~ Vfll'Q~~W T-1.5
l()..30knm
60mm
85mm
Tune Code Note: 16SR-2 Super 16 cameras'are time

code ~tible.
16mmFormat
nriun
Zeiss Planar T:.2.1

Zeiss Macro Planar T-3.0
Uiss Planar T-21
zeiss Planar T-21
zeiss Planar T-21
zeiss SaMar T~._O
50mm
35mmFormat
- SUperspeed Primes
18mm
2Smm
35mm
-5Omm
65IiUn
85mm
Zeiss Distagon T-13
?eiss Distagoq. T-1.3

ZeissDistagort T-13
Zeiss Planar T'-1.3
Zeiss Planar 1;-1.3
Zeiss Planar T~.a
Standard Primes
16Jnm
20mm
24mm
28mm
32mm
40mm
92
zeiss DistcigonT-2.1
~
Distagm T-21
Zeiss Distagon T-2.1

Zeiss Oistagon T-21
Zeiss Planar T~21
Zeiss PJanM T~21
Silent 16mJnproduction camera systemf9r' both StandanU6 jUld Super 16 productiort. In two versjons:
1. 16SR-3-SliIn~ (Standard 16 and ~ 16)
2, 16HSR'"3,~~~ (~!<W-g<u:d ~,~'an9 S!J.per16),-
Mov~ent: ,!~m.,registerea :compenSatiIl~ 1in:k, withfixed-gap 1i1m dianne!. 5-75 fps Standard; 10-150 ips
Highspeed.
Shutter. Variable (manually) rotating mirror' shutter,
90", ~, 144,1n8", 180" shutter operUngs._Shutteropenins .indicated on LCD display during eIectronic inchingmode.
tleflexVi~der: SWi.Ag(jv~Viewfinder swings in

a 190" arc for full left- or right~e operation,. with fully
upright imagemany position. With ceo video assist and
Bicker-redudimelectronics attaChed, viewfinder swings in
a 120" aro._Finderis equipped with AniGlow - sleplessly
adjustabJeilliuninated frame lines forboth Standard 16ana
Super 16. Thefinder also has wamingindications Cor asynchronous(;amercupeed, film-end arid low battery. NOlE:
the 16SR-3 ~ 16 aperture aq be-masked lor the Standard 16mm.frame. No additional aperture is needed.
Lens~unt:.Standard54mmAnjPLmountwill~
any 35mm ~t.PL mount lens. Adapters available fix

41mm bayOne!1UlEl standardmouflHenses.
Prive: aunt-in ex:ystal-eoI'l~!1e' .~;iV DC motor. On~
poa;rdpr~gt'~i:lple ~peed$ of24;~::~9.97~d 3P fp~,an"p
vanable:~stal speeds from 5-75 .m'theStandard aqnera, orlO-15QJp5-in theHighspeed 16SR-3, variable inOJlO1
increments at crystal accuracy. Speeds are continuously
variable when the Remote
(RU-t) is'used. Speeds am
urnt
bep~thel6SR-3'st)l'l-board
LCD, with~
Remote UJiil(RU-I) or with the Camera Control Unit
System Compatibility: A wide vari~ of Arriflex

35mm accessories can be used with the 16SR,.3, such. as:
a5U-l, BxtemalS~Unit; RU-l, Remote Unit;
RS-3, RemoteSwi~HE-3 ,Heated EyeC1lp; thestandard
camera. handlp; Crn-1, Camera Control -Unit; and the
AFP-2 Anti-Flicker Proa!s5or.
-' - Lenses: Withi554mm. PL lens motmt, the 16SR-3 utilizes the full range of33mIn.fOrmat and 16mm format Zeiss
$qperspeed, Zeiss Standard, Am ~ and Arri
Maqo lenses, and Rl:ITCooke and A:ngmieiJizoom lenses.
Matte BoXell: 'I1\e 16SR-3 uses the Ani 19mm rod
~era Support System. 1be Support S~~.includes a
,i ull rarige of matte bOxes '(6~6x6.6, 5xS, and:a.,variefyof4x4),
prig:s.~plates, 2-sRe~4}d.Uow...focusr ,~~d,J~fis .s,uPpo.rts.
' !5iIlli'1. rod'adapters are available on ttequest. The 4x4 Prodtion Matte Box.1s ideal'for the 16SR~. ~1S' sWingaway
a::esi~ covers lenses l6~ and up, haslJ:t~4\~geabl~
fw~ and four-frame geared filter stages, is.fulLy rotatable,
~ ~ts most 5upRprt System accessori.es.Geared Heack The 1lOR-3 works with both the Ani
Geared Head, and the.Arri GearedlJead 2-
(CCU), Arri"sStandardoH<amera~g unit.
Mapzi~: 4OO-fbot coaxial- Standard 8O-bit SMPTE

timecodemodUIeBuiltin.ExiSting l 6SR-2magazinescan
ArrifIex 16BL
beused.165R~magazineswilhotittimecodeareavailable
TUDe ~lrite8ral8O-bitSMPIE time.code. IU!cord-
ing mod~ btillt into 16SR-3 magaziDes. Fully complies

with SMPTE RP 114 standard.
Video Assist: Takes Am lii"b~qc & white oreolor
ceo vidl~(:t'!lpi~t, :~d Ani AEP-2Ali~r iedlictioI'l clt.'G.,.
troRics for b~g1i~i fli~~r .re~,,!-~~ges. Adjus.taple ,{ ot

'Standard t6'lifrClSIi~. 16, witn thdulfifnage oIeither for..
mat on the mQPitor. Changing'beam:splittet ratio for color
or B & WiS ea$y, and requireslUndj1lstment
LCD QispJay:
a. setl ~lay.frame rates
b. setldisplay.film counter
c. display 1Iiirror shutter opening (during electronic
inching mode)
d. setldisplay time oode and u<;e[ bits
e. dEplay 1'C sensitivity readout
f. battery vOltage and low~waming
g. film~and asynchronous camera speed
The CCU can be used to control or set most of the
above funetioni.
94
_ Movement: RegiStration pin operates-through a vari-
a61e speed range of 5 to' 50 Cps, forward or reverse, when

Used with appropriate mQtor andspeed controls.
_ Keflex Viewfirider: Rotating mirrOr~system
wifh1ixed 180" opening (1/. ~at 25 fps),ltigh-aperturel
paraDax..free viewiD& lOX magnification at the eyepiece.
An offset finder ~ is available fOr handheld camem applications fOr a&litio!lill operator ~
Lens MountSteelArri Baycmetmount (lens1louSing9
cue~uired to~minimalcamera
QP?ta!i"ssound
leveb). All ArriBex ~ or BayonetmQWltlenses that

rover'the 16mm fOtmiitiean be used with"Ienshousings.
95
Univ~ motor lrom 10.f psto ~ ips. M<l~: 200t~.400'

(fotwatd and ~erse), and 1200 (follY:iUdoilly)magazmes.
Lenses: FIxed focal length.ptanduQ and Zeiss

Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux and Cooke zoom
lenses.
Matte Box: Bellows type; availaPle fur all i6BL lens
housings.
Accessories: Universal Lens Housing}PI use with
fixed focal1ength lenses when minimal camera operating
16mm ARRIFLEX 16Bl
DOUBLESymM
(FILM TAKES UP EMUlSION SIDE IN)
sound level is required (accepts 3x3 or a ~ diameter

filte;r); ~le 1V grotmd~;fiber~screen
available; offset finder; finder extI!nder; zoom drive; UV
IX: quartz motor Ioc 6, 12.24 and 48 Ipsi Variable Speed
Control for 10 to f() ips operation With universal motor;
plug-in Single-System Sound Module; andSingIe-System
Record Amplifier.
Aniflex 16S1B; l6SIB-GS; 16MlB
16mm ARRIFLEX MODEl 1681

SINGLESYSTEM SOUND
(ALM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
Standard zoom and telephoto lenses should beused with

the BridgepJate Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, meterS behind the
lens and displays ~uousexposureinformation (matchneedle mode) In the viewfinder.
Motor Drive: Two motor-drive systems are available.
The quartz-con~lled motor provides cor:dless sync~on
frol and automat;kallystops the shutter in viewing~Oll.
Its ~ rangelS 6, ~ 24 (quartz-controlled) and 48.rp5.
The UJ\1V~ motor IS transistorized and goveqlorroll~lled. A Vanable Speed Control accessory Will drive the
ArrifIex 16SIB: Features pin-registered film transport

system operating to 75 fps, l CXJ-footintEmal daylight film
spool loading. with top-loading 4tfuOt magazine,miex
viewfinder system, divergent1bree Iens-mount tum!t, and
motor inlerchangeability.
ArrifIex 16 SlB-GS: PiloIooesync~and startmaddng system built-in.
~
ArrifIex l6MIB: The 16M camera is cortfigured diHerentl and has no internal daylight spgol ~ load capacity. 200-, 40(). and l2OO-t.16MmagaZines are available for
this camera. It accepts all of the accessories in the 165 sys1em except1be magazines and~-)les.
Movement Registration pin, operaieSthrbugh a variable speed range of75 ips (withappropriate tachometer),
forwatd 01' reverse. The 165, 16Manci l6BLmovements are
identical.
Reflex Viewfinderl Rotating~~qr...:$q~~ system
with 180" opening.(Y4Isec at 24'fpS), mgni iipertu:te!paral-
96
97
~r
--- -~
- - -- _._-------'
16mm ARRIFLEX SIB SERIES
./
:.:.;.\ r: '~L
j
____.__//
"
'j
:L."
,oJ
'
LJJ _ JU
0
_~L
16mm ARRIFLEX 16M

(FILMI TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
lax-free viewing, lOX image magnification at the eyepiece,

An interchangeable ground glass or fiber-optic screen, and
an optional APEC exposure control indicator, are located
within the viewfinder system.
98
Lens Mount: The 16S and M cameras have divergent

three lens-mount turrets with two standard and one steel
bayonet-lock mounts. Any Arriflex standard or bayonetmount lens that covers the full16mm format may be used.
Zoom and telephoto lerlses require use of the Bridgeplate
Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, meters behind the
lens and displays continuous exposure information (matchneedle mode in the viewfinder, 16S only).
Motor Drives: Quartz-regulated, governor-eontrolled,
synchronous, and variable-speed motors are available for
16S and M cameras, Motor specifications are listed in the
accessory column,
165 Magazines: 200- and 400-ft. torque motor-driven
magazines are available for 16S cameras. The torque motor drive is essential with 16S magazines, and is interchangeable with a1116S magazines -of the same film capacity,
.
16M Film Magazines: 200-,400- and 1200-foot magazines are available for the 16M cameras. These magazines
are gear-driven and do not require torque motor drives. The
1200-foot magazine operates in forward direction only.
Lenses: Fixed focal length Standard and Zeiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux, and Taylor Hobson
Cooke zoom lenses in Arri Standard or Bayonet mount.
Matte Box: (16S/M) with adjustable bellows, one ro- .
tating and one stationary filter stage. Accepts 3x3,3x4, and
4 x 4 glass filters. A 94mm round Polarizing screen can also
be used. Lightweight sunshade and filter holder (rubber)
for 16S or 16M, accepts 3 x 3 filters.
Accessories: Fiber-optic screen; periscope viewfinder;
finder extender; 12V IX quartz-motor for 24/25 fps Sal
60Hz, variable speeds 5 to 75 fps, and single-frame forward
and reverse capability and pilotone output; BV and 12V IX
governor motor for 24 fps forward operation only; BV or
12V IX variable motor for 5 to 40 fps forward or reverse
operation; nov AC/60 Hz synchronous motor and in-line
power supply for 12V, 24 fps operation; bridgeplate support system; adapter for microscope stand and microscope
optical link.
Bolex 16mm (All Models)

Movement Single-claw pull-down. Trailing claw system assuring maximum picture steadiness without need for
registration pin. Aperture plate made from hard chromed
99
steel. Gate has aul matic threading device that loops the
film and inserts i into gate and around sprockets. Rear
pressure plate can ~ removed for cleaning gate. Automatic
loop former preverts loss of loop.
~~ I ~m
,.
)j
Shutter: Bole spring-driven cameras (H-16 Rex 5 and

H-16 SBM) have 13 variable shutter which can be opened
or closed while c era is running. It can be locked at Y4,
Y2 and can be op ned and closed automatically with
Rexofader accesso . Shutter speeds 12-64 fps, single-frame.
Bolex electrically ven cameras (H-16 EBM and H-16 EL)
have fixed 170 sh tter. Shutter speeds electronically controlled 10-SO fps.
Focusing: All cameras have flickerless focusing and
parallax-free viewmg through prism reflex finder. Image
is magnified 14X~ ~ye-Ievel finder and may be continuously viewed in ~g or stopped position.
Lenses: H-1
ex 5 has 3-lens turret for C-mount
lenses, other mod have large Bolex bayonet mount suitable for he~vy zoo and telephoto lenses. Adapter for Cmount lenses and ccessories available. Full line of Switar,
genieux zoom and standard lenses,
Vario Switar and
matte box, extensi tubes, Aspheron wide-angle adapters
etc, available.
Drive: Spring vencameras will expose 16 W of film
on one winding.
.able-speed motor and electronically
stabilized motor s .table for sync pulse and crystal sync
100
available for syring-driven cameras. H-16 EBM and ~-.16

EL have 10-SO fps electronically regulated motors built ffi.
H-16 EL has single-frame and electric rewind, instant start
and stop. All models accept 400' magazine with take-up
motor.
Magazines: All cameras accept 100' Daylight Loading
Spools, which can be ejected with built-in lever de~Tice. 400'
magazine with self-contained take-up motor available.
Features: Footage and frame counters add and subtract. Spring motor may be disengaged. FuU1oo' film rewind. Audible scene-length signal clicks every 28 frames.
Single-frame exposure button for instantaneous or time
exposures. All cameras have filter slot behind the lens.
H-16 EL has built-in through-the-Iens silicon light meter
with shock-proof LED indicators in the VF. .
.
Accessories: Automatic Rexofader fading deVIce for
H-16 REX and SBM available for 4Q-frame fades. Camera
grip, barney blimp, extension tubes for macrocinematography. Underwater housing for EL and EBM, matte box,
cable releases, tripods, monopod, shoulder brace.
Note: Many other accessories, such as animation motors, microscope attachments and time-lapse units, are
available from other firms.
Bell & Howell 16rnrn Filrno 70

Compact, spring-wound 100' daylight loading 16mm
camera. Accessory 400' magazine and electrical motor for
models 70HR and 7OSR.
Movement Cam-operated single claw. Spring-loaded
edge guide and pressure plate. Relieved aperture plate.
Shutter: 204 (models before SN 154, 601: 216)
Viewfinder: Outside finder tube, 3-lens turret, parallax correcting eyepiece.
Focusing: Magnified central image on ground glass
when objective lens turret is rotated 180". Safety latch prevents camera running when in focusing mode.
Lens Mount 1bree-Iens turret, geared to finder lens
turret. C mount.
Drive: Spring-driven, govemor-controlled drive exposes 22' per wind at 8 fps-64 fps (model 70SR at 128 fps
only). Models.7OSR and 70HR have optional battery or AC
motors.
.
Magazines: Model 70SR and HR use optional 400'
compartment-type magazines (electric motor should be
used for magazine operation).
101
Features
Accessories: Hand backwind for dissolves. Standar dial footage indicator, optional digital
Veeder. Singlee drive. Replacement shutter for less
than 204. Filter slot modification. External large image
viewfinder.
Minicam 16
(GSAP)
Movement: termittent, single pull-down claw, cam

actuated.
Shutter: 133 fixed.
Focusing: B resight alignment tool available as optional accessory.
Lens Moun Supplied to accept lenses in "c" mount
or Arriflex Mount configuration.
Motor: In I al, 24V IX. Adjusted for 24 or 48 fps.
. Magazine: ~ pre-loaded Eastman Kodak magaZInes, 16mm x 50 , m all popular emulsions.
Other Fea
s: Light weight (less than 21h Ibs). Ideal
"point-of-view" amera. Widely used for skiing, auto racing, sky diving 0 installations hazardous to camera equipment.
Accessories: "c" mount front plate; Arriflex Mount
front plate; Batte , Ni-Cad, rechargeable; adjustable camera to?I; boresigh alignment tool? power plug; power cable;
carrymg case; un erwater housmg; battery charger.
Cinema Prod cts CP-16 & CP-16A

16mm new /documentary/single/double system
sound cameras.
Movement: , inusoidal, intermittent movement. Selfengaging sing!
w film pull-down with precision lapped
surfaces for quit, long-life reliability. Film accurately
guided over a se es of stainless steel balls to guarantee infoc~s, scratch-fr e pictures (with no emulsion pickup).
Stainless steel pr sure plate, ground lapped with recessed
center area, easil removable for cleaning.
Shutter: 173 . (optional 144).
. View~der: e CP-16 was designed for specific use
With Angemeux
m lenses with built-in reflex viewfinders. Viewfinders
available in various lengths for shoul?er or tripod ope tion, and provide ground spot focusing
m the center of th clear viewing are~. TV reticle markings
d~fine ~e. action area. Horizontal, 221ho & 45 angle eyepIece posItion.
102
Lens Mount Type "C".

Drive: Plug-in 20V battery drives crystal sync built-in
motor. 24 fps 15 ppm over 0-140 F; interchangeable
pulley for 25.
Magazines: 400' snap latch. Adapter for Mitchell 400'
and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: CP-16 and CP-16/A cameras operate with 3XL-type record/playback head assemblies. The CP-16/A features the Crystasound built-in amplifier system, a self-contained recording system complete
with two low-impedance dynamic microphone inputs, one
6OO-ohm line input, VU meter, headphone monitoring,
switchable AGe and auxiliary mixer input. A provision for
wireless receiving is also available. An auxiliary mixer,
model 6C, provides 6 channels of microphone input. The
auxiliary mixer is complete with VU meter, switchable
AGC, and headphone monitoring. The mixer, built-in amplifier and wireless units are all powered from the camera's
Ni-Cad battery (model NC-4).
103
120mm zoom.
warning light
Accessorie
tiple chargers,
mounted VU
head tripods, q
plus a line of
carrying cases.
eighs 15.8 Ibs. with 400' film and 12.81bs. with sound amplifier. Out-of-sync
d battery indicator. Filter slot.
: An AC power supply, single and mulound preamplifier, microphones, frontter, mike/lite bracket, lighting kits, fluid
'ck-release shoulder and tripod mount,
genieux zoom lenses and-a wide range of
Cinema Pro ucts CP-16R & CP-16R1A

Reflex 16 m news/documentary/studio single/

double system und cameras.
Movement Sinusoidal, intermittent movement, selfengaging singl -claw film pull-down. Film accurately
guided over a .es of stainless-steel balls to guarantee infocus, scratch-free pictures (with no emulsion pickup).
Stainless-steel pture plate, ground lapped with recessed
center area, eas' y removable for cleaning.
Shutter: Fo al plane 170 (optional 144).
Reflex Vij finder: Rotating mirror integral with focal plane shutt . Stops in viewing position. Fiberoptics
screen marked th TV safe action, projection, and 35mm
blow-up lines. djustable focusing eyepiece 12X magnification, 90 click top rotation; optional 360 rotatable right
or left eyepiece. rect image.
Lens Mo t: Thread-locking bayonet. Adapters for
Arri or Nikon ounts.
Drive: 20V lug-in battery drives built-in crystal-eontrolled motor 24 r 25 fps sync speed 15 ppm over 0-140
F. Standard sp
s 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36 fps. Pulley
change 24 to 25 akes range 12.5, 16.5, 21, 25, 29, 33.5 and
37.5 fps.
104
Magazines: 400' snap latch. Adapter for Mitchell 400' .

and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: The CP-16R and CP-16R/
A cameras have been designed to accept Crystasound 3XLtype magnetic record/playback heads. The CP-16R/A features the Crystasound built-in amplifier system, a self-eontained recording system complete with two low-impedance
dynamic microphone inputs, one 6OO-ohm line input, VU
meter, headphone monitoring, switchable AGC and auxiliary mixer input. A provision for wireless receiving is also
available. An auxiliary mixer, model6C, provides 6 channels of microphone input. The auxiliary mixer is complete
with VU meter, switchable AGC, and headphone monitoring. The mixer, built-in amplifier and wireless units are all
powered from the camera's Ni-ead battery (model NC-4).
Features: Filter slot. Battery test. Viewfinder indicator
LED for battery, out-of-sync, film runout, sound VU.
Weight with 10-15Omm zoom, 400' film, battery: 17.41bs.
Accessories: Finder 7 ' extension. Cinevid-16 video
assist, bayonet mounted. Automatic or semi-automatic
exposure system with viewfinder display. Zoom control
system. Power supply/charger. Shoulder and tripod
mounts.
Cinema Products GSMO 16mm

Movement: A high-precision, single-elaw, sinusoidal
registration movement with a curved film gate for minimum pull-down time. The interchangeable film gate as-
105
sembly with it floa ting pre sure plate and hard chromeedge film g uid e is loca ted in the cassette-type coaxial
magazine.
400' capacities. 400' magazin f atur s " fiLm remaining"

manual indicator.
Features: Illumina ted digi tal film co unter (fee t or
meters) with memory. Full-h'am auto lating. External
battery test. LED out-of-sync and low-battery indicator in
viewfinder. Weight with 400' load and 17.5-70mm zoom
lens: 12.44lb .
Accessories: Exposure control ystem with display in
viewfinder. Remote speed control with continuously variable peed from 12-64 fps. Zoom contr Is tem. AC power
supply, battery charger. Quick-release houlder and tripod
mounts. Video assist.
Eclair ACL 16mm
tiGHT TRAP
IFILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE INl
Shutter: Rotating mirror 1 0 stops in viewin g position. (1-!4 hutter for TV filming applications optional.)
Reflex Viewfinder: Fiberoptic viewing screen marked
with TV af acti n, 16mm projection, and 35mm blow-up
lines. Tw viewfi nd r options; both have 12X magnification, high-cffici ncy opbcs, focusing eyepieces. Dual-purpose viewfind l' prov ides 32 adjustable viewing posi tions;
may b e tend ed 7" for tripod operation . Optiona l
viewfinder pivots fo r left or ri ght eye and prOVides 360
rotation. Erect image. Optional 7" extender.
Lens Mount: Single-tlu'ead locking bayo n t with locating pin . pti nal ada pter for Ani and Nikon mowlted
lense.
Drive: 20V plug-i n ba ttery drives Gystal-controll d
motor; pe d of 12, 16, 24, 25, 32, 48 and 64 fp or alternate speeds of 12, 20, 24, 25, 30, 48 and 64 fps. ACCLlracy +
30 ppm over 0-140 F.
Magazine : Quick-change, rugged, cassette-type coaxial magazin e contains interchangeable film-gate as embl . Automatic I p forming d vice. (Preloaded magazine
can be chan d in tantl without touching film.) 100' and
106
Movement: TIle claw movement i a wedge- haped

claw controlled by an eccentric and a fixed cam and rendered positive by the use of a cowlter cam. The steadiness
of tile image is excellent, Witll a toleranc of less than onethousandtll of frame height. Lateral tead iness is assured
in the gate by a fixed side bar and a spring-loaded guide.
Image sh arpness is ensured by a spring-loaded preSSlll'e
plate whicll forms part of the fron t of th ACL magazine
and which maintains tile film perfectl y against the aperture
dur ing the exposure.
Shutter: Focal plane 175.
Reflex Viewfinder: Oscillating mirror, low-loss optical system, fine-grain groLUld gla s. Image magnification
12X. Focusing eyepiece wiU rotat through 360 parallel to
tl1ecamera.
. Outside thread for
Lens Mount: Universal Typ
various ad ~ pters .
Drive: 12V DC Gystal-controUed motor a t 24 or 25 fps
directly on shutter shaft. Variable- pe d ca pability 12 to 40
fps. Optional 115V sync motor.
Magazines: Snap-on 200' coa ia l. Prethread ed for
quick change; as soon as core load film or daylight spools
are inserted in feed side of magazine and film is passed
107
through light trap to takeup side, the remainder of loading operation may be carried on in daylight. Film remainder dial.
Features: Automatic tar t mark. Pilotone output 50 or
60 Hz. Weight: 7.71b .
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm

Movement: Pull-down claws are mounted on sliding
cam-driven plate. Movement has two sets of ratchet-type
pull-down claw; one on each side for 35mm and a centered
claw for 16mm. Ea e of adjusting claw stroke permits
adapting camera to either normal four-perforation pulldown or two-p rforation pull-down for Techniscope, or
single-perforation pull-down for 16mm operation. Claw
mo ement tr ke may be changed by sliding cam, which
is reached through opening in aperture plate. 0 disassembl or pecial tools required . Registration and steadin
achieved b double rear pressure plate and very long side
rails. Top plate keep film flat in focal plane, bottom plate
holds film at edges only, to keep it properly aligned for pulldown claws. perture plate is made of one piece of tee!,
hand-polish d and undercut to prevent scratching. Aperture plate is part of camera body proper, pressure plates are
built into magazine. Raised area in center of aperture portion of pre ure plate eliminates breathing.
Shutter: 200 0 variable front-surfaced mirror reflex
hutter rotate at 450 angle between lens and film plane.
Center of hutter i below aperture, thus describing a horizontal wiping motion across film. Shutter may be varied
to 350 by turning knob on left side of camera body.
Reflex Viewfinder: Through-the-Iens focusing and
viewing. Len may be follow-focused while viewing. Exb'a fine-grain d ground glas presents brilliant image even
wlder low-light lev I or when lens is stopped-down. 3600
ro tatable ey piece for right or left eye. Adjustable ma ttes
for va rious a pect ra tios.
Lenses: Three- lens divergent cam-lock turret with
Camerette A-I len mounts. CA-llens mount is large
diameter bra bayonet-type. Divergent turret permit
mounting s.7mm f cal length and longest telephoto lenses
without optical or physical interference.
Drive: Motors are mounted on side of camera and may
be changed in a f w econd . Basic motor is 6- V DC rheostat-controlled variable peed type (also available for 24V
power). Other motors: 6, 12 and 24V DC transistor-con108
trolled regulated motors with variable-speed or constantspeed operation with 50 or 60 Hz ync pulse outputs. l1sV
60 Hz and 220V three-pha e, 60 Hz AC motors for ynchronous sound shoObng. Hand-dri e al 0 available for 1, 8 or
16 pictures per nun.
M~gazines : 200', .400' an d 1000' di placement-type
magazme allow rapId changin . Maga zine are preloaded with a fixed loop (which may b
t from outside
a~ any time)..Automatic footag COWlt r. Remo al f maga~me aBO' s rnspection and c1eanin of aperture plate and
film channel: For Techniscope operation, T-Type magazine
operates at ether 45' per minut or 90' perminuteb merel
changing gears.
Features: Built-in tachometer. liding mattes for film
a~rture and i~wfinder for 16mm. Techniscope or other
wlde-~reen rab~ . Dovetail adapter for in tant tripod
c1ampmg has rnrm matte-bo rod for mounting metal
matte box. Two filter tages, one r tatabl and removable,
for use with extra-wide-angle len . dclitional mattes
may be positioned in front of matte bo to protect the lens
from bemg struck by back-light.
. Accessories: Lightweight magn ium tripod . Entire
tripod bowl and movem nt can b lifted from leg and
clamped to table edg , door , ladder, etc. Sound blimp.
One door allows tiding camera ou t on rail for instant
magaz.me change, and automatically connects follow-focus,
len dl~phragm and ext~mal eyepiec . Camera may be
u ed WIth all anamorphiC and zoom I nses, in or out of
blimp. Full instrumentation capabi litie available with
ingle-frame pulse and intervalometer op ration. Aquaflex
underwater housing fo r both 3s mm Techniscope and
16mm.
Eclair NPR 16mm
Blimpless, silenced cam ra .
109
Movem en t: Film is advanced by desmodrimic cam

movement. Quiet mo ement i achieved by wedge- haped
claw which slides into perforation with a wedging motion.
Film is pulled d wn and registered upon bench-type registration pin which begins moving into position before film
has topped. Extra-long rear pr ure plates and side guide
rail steady film. Raised area in center of aperture portion
f pressure plate eliminate po ibility of breathing or focal
hift.
Shutter: 1 0 high reflectance fro nt-sm-faced mirror
reflex shutter, centered on motor shaft below ape rture, rotates a t 45 angle between lens and film plane. Shutter rota tion d eliver horizontal expo ure ac tion and lessens
" kipping" problems on fa t-movingsubject matter or fast
horizontal camera movement.
Focusing: Parallax-free through-the-lens focu ing and
viewing. Image magnified 12X. Critical focusing possible
e en at low Light Ie els, or with top-down lens, because
of extremely fine-grain ground gla s and high-gain mirror
and tow-los optical system.
Lenses: Standard hovo-po ition tW"ret ha one Camerette CA-l len mowl t an d on "C" mount. Turrets available with two CA-1 mounts, orwi th two " C" mowlts. Any
lens from 5.7mm focal length may be used without affecting sOlUld level of camera. CA-1 i a bayonet mOlUlt without springs or other loose-fi tting adj ustments. Lenses by
Angenieux, Kinoptik, Taylor Hobson Cooke and some
Berthiot optic can be supplied in CA-1 mount.
Motor Drive: Standard motor is 12V DC transistorcontrolled regulated 24 fp type. Motor generates 6O-cycle
ync pulse when operating exactly at 24 fps and maintains
peed accuracy within 2;\0 of 1% (indicated by rwming
Ligh t). Motor hah.igh torque and opera tes at 1440 rpm to
turn shutter haft directly, so tha t no noise is caused by
gearing down . Also available: variable speed (wild) 12V DC
motor (0-40 fps); syn cl1Tonous (soWld) nov AC, 220V AC
single or three-pha e motors for operation fro m mains or
from crystal-controlled power packs for cordless synchronous opera tion. All sync motors are available for 25 fps 50
c de (European TV) operation. Motors are interchangeable
\ ithout tools.
Magazine : 400' instant changing coaxial magazine
ha prethreaded loop and may be snapped on and off intantly. Entire film apertW"e and film charmel may be inpected and deaned when magazine is removed . No torque
110
motors required for take up. Eacll magazine take ei ther

core loads or daylight pools of 100',200' or 400' capacity.
Separate footage counters provided for core and daylight
spool loads. As soon a core load film is engaged in procket
wheel of magazine feed chamber, remainder of tl1Teading
operation may be carried on in daylight. Magazine ha
noisemaking c1utclles and loop guard to disengage drive
and warn of malfunction.
Viewfinder: Double 360 swiveling viewfinder; hows
more area than film apertW"e. Insid e UUler rectangle ou tIin es full apertm-e. Inaccuracies in aJignmen t of viewfinder
d o not affect accuracy of ground glass positioning. Eyepiece adj usts for eith r teft- or right-eye operation and has
full diopter compensation with au tomatic opening and
do ing light-trap.
Features: Built-in automatic dapper for start-marks
with bloop modification for use with agra W' magnetic
tape recorder and other oscil1ator markers. Camera may be
used with any tape recorder with sync pulse recording facili ty. Matte box with adjustable bellows and two-stage filter holder with rod and long lens su pports. oise Level:
29.5dB at 3'.
Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS & HSC
Movement: Dual pilot pins. Dual claw pulJ-dow n assures optimum registration. Remova ble apertW"e plate has
built-in filter slot. P ressure plate removable. Timing marks
on sh utter and movement permit ea y removal of en tire
mechanism for clearling, eliminating danger of improper
insertion. Speed range: Professional Model single-frame to
128 fp ; HS & HSC single-frame to 400 fps. All models will
fW11200' roll of film at maximum frame rates.
Shutter: Professional Model: 0 to 235. HS and HSC:
0 to 140. Both adjustable while running (not recommended above 150 fp on HS and HSC models).
111
Focusing: Prof ional and H Models: variable magnification, erect image focusing tele cope built into camera
door. Tlu'ough-the-l ns grotU1d glass critical focus and
viewtng when camera is racked over. Built-in contrast
viewing filter for color and monochrome film . Interchangeable ground glasse with different aspect ratios
available. HSC mod I: use lOX pri matic bore ight looking through aperture plate opening in regi tel' plate.
Lenses: PI' fessional and HS Model: Four-I ns turret,
positive mdex type. Flange depth 0.900", Mi tchell-designed
hea -duty precision rotary-type lens mounts with builtin foUm -focus gear ring. "C" type Mitchell adapter available, p rmits u e of "C" mounted lenses on 16 Mitchell
turret. HSC: has single-hol e lens board on camera body.
Uses I nses in Mitchell mount . Mitchell "C" mount
adapter for len e tn tandard "C" mounts available.
Motors: Profes ional, HS and HSC Model: up to 128
fps. Variable (wild) m tors: 12V DC, 110V AC or DC. Highpeed motors: DOV AC or DC (48 to 128 fps), 24V DC (16
to 64fp ). Syncluonou (sound) motors: 110V, 60-cycle. 1phase AC; 220V, 60-c c1e, 3-phase AC; 220V AC/96V DC
ulti-Duty ( ynchronou at 220 only). 5Q-cycle motors
availabl on request. Animation motor: Stop-motion 110V
AC. H & HSC: 115V 60-cycle AC (12 fps to 400 fps). Ha
olid-sta te variable p ed cooho!.
Magazines: PTofe sional, HS & HSC Models: 400' and
1200' double compartment-type magazine. agazine
accept 100' or 200' da light poolsor-lOO' or12oo'lab loads.
Brake recommend d on f ed ide when running high
peed.
Viewfinder: PI' fes iooal, H Model: Large, erect
iewfinder calibrated for different focal length lenses provide harp, bright image and accurate field for ease of
compo ition. Para.l.la --free follow-focu attachmen t available. Sp cial tracking and monocular find rs avai lable f I'
sports and instrumentation fi lming. HSC: lOX prismatic
b resight.
Special Features: Prof ional and HS Model: Veeder
footage and frame counters. Camera base ha incorporat d
spirit level. Calibrated tad, meter built into back of camera. Bullt-in buckle trip operates if fi lm fails to take-up. HS
& HSC: Have end-of-run switch.
Accessories: Complete line of acces ories a ailable,
including sound blimp (400' or 1200' magazine top), follow-
focus attachment, matte box, sports finders, dose-up devices, tripods, pip timers, dual timing light, cases.
Mitche1116mm Reflex, SSR-16 Single

System, DSR-16 Double System Sound
Cameras
Movement: Single claw, single (or double for double

sy tem sound) registration pm. Adjustable stroke. Three
sprockets. Removable aperture plate has built-in filter slot.
Movement removable without losing timing. Speed range
16-64 fps. Alternate non-metallic and steel gears for quietness. Guides and locks interlocked with compartment door.
Shutter: Focal plane 170 separate from mirror.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating ffilrror. Ground glass
tinted outside film aperture area. Interchangeable ground
glasses. Dovetail on camera for outside finder.
Lens Mount: 3-lens divergent turret. Flange depth
2.047".
Drive: Variety of demowltable motors, no tools required.
Magazines: 400' and 1200' double compartment, designed for quietness.
Sound Recording Features: The SSR-16 contams a
sound head for magnetic recording on pre-striped film.
Record and playback head is con tained internally in the
camera box bel1ind the movement. Extremely high quality
of the recording system and camera allows wow and flutter characteristics of less than 0.3% and 0.4%, respectively.
The mixer-amplifier allows the use of two low-impedance
microphones. System is all solid-state, contams VU meter,
bias adjustment, individual and master monitoring control
for microphones; power supply is self-contained, usmg
alkaline nickel cadmium batteries with a built-in charger.
It produces 30 volts DC and charger operates on 115 volts
113
C 50/60 Hz. Recording h ads and mixer-amplifier made

by RCA. The SR-16 also contains a pic- ync generator for
recording double- y tern lip-sync ound. The DSR 16 is for
double system lip-sync sound work. Ha sa me f atures as
tern is deleted and picthe SSR-16 e cept RCA recording
ync generat r i used. Both model a ailable for use on 50
Hz pm er. Operating noi : 36 dB at 3.
Blimp: An extr mely versa tile blimp is available for
ound tage w rk. Through-the-Iens reflex viewing is xtended through the blimp door. (Same as S35R blimp.) Flat
front d or with removable unshade for u e with fixed
focal length lenses is easily e changed for e tension hou ing when using zoom lens. E ternal focu and z m kn bs
on both ide, viewing windows for len scale, footage
COW1t r and tachometer dial . Five internal lights at stra tegic points. Th.r ading knob for mot r. Electrical panel has
lighted witch. BuckJ trip will turn out light.
Panavision Panaflex 16mm Camera System

Movement: Pi.lot pin registration en ures optimum
image teadine s. Entire mo ement may be removed for
servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and d eeming.
Normal 16mm aperture plate is standa rd, Super 16 is available.
Shutter: Focal-plane hutter w ith infinitel variable
opening and adjustable in- hot. aximum opening 200,
minimum 50 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening tops. digital display allow adjustments in \110
increm nls. Micrometer adju trnent allows critical yndu-onization with computer, TV monitor and HMl Lighting
at W1U ual frame-rat . anual and electronic remote-control uni a ailable.
Reflex Sy tem: Refle rotating mirror is standard and
i indep ndent f the light hutter ystem.lnterchangeable
rni- ilvered Ii ed reflex mirror for flicker-free iewing i
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Pr vi ion for a behind-thelens fi lter gel.
Optical Viewfinder System: High magnifica tion optical
tem. The viewfinder tube i orientable and give a
constantly upright image through 360. A hort viewfinder
tube is provided for hand-holding operation and a normal
1 ngth f r trip d mOlU1ted us . Viewfinder tubes may be
sWlmg out to u.i t left- or right- ye viewing. System incorporates an optica l magnifier f r critical focus ing and picturecomp ition, a contra t iewing filter and alight-proof
hutter. Wide-range ocular adju trnent \-\lith marker bezel
to note indi idual setting. A built-in "Panadear" eyepiece
heater en ures mist-fre viewi ng. Adjustable leveler link
c:rm supplied with every Panahead t keep eyepiece posib?n co~tant while ~ting th camera up or down. n eyepiece diopter to Ult the operator's own ey ight can be
pro ided on requ t.
Ground Glasses: "Panaglow" illuminat d reticle sy te?1 ",:ith brighmess control is stand ard. Ground glasse
With finer or coarser te ture availabl on request.
Lens Mounting System: Panavi ion p iti e clamp
I~ mount for maintaining critical flange focal depth setting. All lenses are pinn d to en ure proper rotational orientation.
Lenses: Sp cia ll y designed and manufactured
Panavision-16 lenses to uit the 16mm image format. All
len
checked and calibrated by MTF. Panavision 16mm
len
are all color-matched and range from a distortion115
free 8mm to 135mm (Ii ts are available). A wide range of

Panav ision-engi neered long-focus and zoom lense by
other manufacturers are also available. All lenses have
widely spaced lens focus calibrations and excep tionally l?w
image veiling glare. Physically long lenses are ~upplied
with adequate-length iris rods for matte box and filter support.
.
.
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control which can
be used from either side of the camera is tandard; an interchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic remote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control Lmit as standard .
Matte Boxes: A tandard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, provi ion for two 4 X 5.650 fil ters which can be
individually slid up and down . Special matte boxes incorporating more filter stage.s, with p~o~ision for sliding (mo~
torized if required), rotating and tilting - and to take 6.6
quare filter - are optional. Panavision can also s~ pply
pecial slid ing diffusers, diopters and all marmer of unage
control filters, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
Camera motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any peed from 4-36 fps, is crystal-eontrolled at ~
speeds and may be adjusted in YIO fps increments. Special
syn c boxes are available to synchronize th~ ca~era w~th
a main power supply, with computers, WIth VIdeo slg-
nals and with proces projector in shutter phase ync.

Panaflex-16 cameras may be used at sub-zero temperatures
with little special preparation.
Camera noise: Less than 20 d B with film and lens,
mea ured 3' from the image plane.
Magazines: 1200' and 400' film magazines are available. Ei ther can b for min imum cam era height an d for
good balance when hand-holding.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a houlder-re tare
provided for hand-holding the camera. In thi configuration the cam ra i best used with a 4()()' magazine itt don
the rea r.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-Iens phcal accessories
include an exceptionally wide range of color control fil ters,
diffu ion fil ters, fog fiJ ter , Jow-eontrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split di pters, low / hjgh
angl inclin ing prisms.
Batteries:Ca mera, magazines, hea ter and acces ories
aU operate off a ingle 24V i-Cad battery. The normal
battery complement is t""o x cased units with in-built cllargers. Belt ba tteries for hand-holding are optional.
Camera Support Equipment: A special 16mm version
of the "Panallead"geared head is available for the Panaflex16. A sliding ba e unit enables a camera to be quickly attached and detached and to be slid backwards and forwards on the head for op timLUTI balance. "Pana tate" turnover mOLU1t aUow 360 0 cam era rota tion about the len axis
while at the ame time permitting nodal pan and tilt 010 ements. "Panapod" trip d , with carbon-fiber legs, are available in a range of sizes.
Video Assist Systems : State-o f-th -alt, CD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex16 cameras and magazines have built-in heater to enable
them to be operated in any ambient temp rature. Hea ted
cover are available to give add itional p rotection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation mooth in
inten ely cold conditions. Other cover are a ailable to
protect the camera, magazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain and water. Spinning-glass rajn deflectors are avai lable for use in storm conditions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration,
high "g" forces and other stressful and dangerous forces.
A wa ter-box is ava ilable to p rotect the ca mera in shallow
water conditions, and a hazard box can be used to pro tect
117
the camera from explosion , collisions and other dangerous situations.

Time Code: The AatonCode system encodes every
frame with a SMPTE time code which is readable by both
computer and human being.
118
Film
Color
Since the Sixth Edition of this manual was publi hed,
several -important advances in color film technology have
been made by all manufacturers marketing in the United
States. A major breakthrough in emulsion tedmology has
resulted in the dev lopment of new filins with increased
sensitivity, grea ter exposure latitude, improved speed -tograin ra tio, better defini tion and improved storage life. The
cinema tographer now has a choice of a variety of negative
and reversal camera films balanced for both dayligh t and
tungsten light sources.
Except for direct projection of the processed camera
film, color negative is the preferred camera film for original cinematography in all formats except Super 8mm. Instances of fil.ms used for "direct projection" are travel lecture photography, instrumentation photography and orne
documentary photography (availability of laboratory facilities for processing the film chosen may also be a factor in
film selection ). Altho ugh the use of negative film means
m ore care in hand lin g the o riginal camera film, better color
q uality d u e to the incorporation of color masking in the
negative emulsions is the reward. Color negative film is
available in low, medium and high-speed emulsions balanced for tungsten (3200K) light sources and in low-and
high-speed emulsion balanced for daylight. If tungstenbalanced film is used in daylight a Kodak Wratten 85 or Fuji
LBA-12 or equivalent filter should be on the camera and
the exposure index reduced by % of a stop. If daylight balanced film is used in tungsten light, a Kodak Wratten #BOA
should be used, but this practice is not recommended because it requires the exposure index to be reduced by two
stops.
Color reversal camera films, w hid 1 w hen processed
result in a p ositive image on the original film, are aI 0 supplied in emulsion types balanced for tungsten or daylight
light sources. Th same conversion filters recommended for
use with color negative can be used with the same adjustment in exposure index. If single-sy tem sound is desired,
check with the film manufacturer. Some of these fil.ms can
be supplied with magnetic striping.
119
Black & White

A variety of black & white emulsion types are available from the film manufacturers. Many are special-pLU'pose films designed for cientific or instrumentation use.
The cinematographer hould be aware of these films and
the po ibility of using one or more of them if a desired
effect cannot be achieved wi th conventional motion-picture
mulsions. For pictorial us ,panclu'omatic emulsions in
several peed range are available in 35 and 16mm negati e and 16mm reversal films. The reprod uction of colored
objects in terms ofshades of gray varies with different types
of film.
Th cinematographer can control tonal values to get a
teclmicaUy correct rendition of the subject or to exaggerate
or suppress the tonal differences for brightness, contrast or
other eff cts by the use of filters. B & W negati e films of
low or medium speed are most desirable for shazpness and
fine grain, and have ample sensitivity for general use. Highspeed film is u eful f r low "available light" situations or
for high-frame-rate photography. Because of the CLU'rent
low frequency of use of black & white as compared to color,
it is especially importantto e tablish working exposure indexes relative to the processing laboratory. B & W proc si.ng is not as standardized as color processing, differences
in chemistry, developing time, and temperature result in
changes of contrast as well as expo LU'e index.
and f-stop to be utilized; in general, slower films are sharper

and less grainy than faster films. If economy in illumination or small f-stop for depth of field is a factor, use of a
faster (higher EI) film is indicated.
For any special "look" or low-key cinematography,
experimentation or experience is needed. Generally, use of
an EI lower than the manufacturer's recommendation will
produce finer grain, higher color saturation, and a slight
increase in sharpness a t the expense of loss of highlight
detail and flattening of whites; use of a higher EI than recommended will show more grain, lower color saturation,
loss of shazpness and loss of shadow detaiL Relative position on a particular laboratory printer scale is also a factor
to be considered when determining an EI.
Color Reversal Film

Since color reversal films are intended for direct projection, there is less exposLU'e latitude (compared to negative film) for a usable film, both for actual density / exposure range and lack of opportunity to shift densities in
transferring to a print.
Selection of an EI should therefore be made based on
the use to which the film will be put. If an EI higher than
the manufacturer's recommendation is required, forced
development may be used with a compromise in image
quality.
ASA: Exposure Indexes
Edge Numbers
While ASA film peeds do not apply directly to m tion-picture films, exposure meter calibrated to ASA,
SI, or ISO tandards specify exposure indexes (EI) related to film speeds (film speeds are calculated mathematically from sensitometric exposures; exposLU'e indexes are
number useful to the cinema tographer in determining or
specifying expo ure in a given instance). AU film manufacturers furnish EI numbers related to commercial exposure
meter as a recommendation for a starting point in determi.ning optimum expo ure.
These numbers, also referred to as footage or key numbers, are sequentially printed by the film manufacturer
along one edge of the film outside the perforations. The
numbers on 35mm film manufactured prior to 1990 are
located every 16 frames (12 inches apart); on 16mm film
they are every 20 frames (6 inches apart) or every 40 frame
(12 inches apart). The numbers are applied during manufacture either by photographic exposure (visible only after
processing) or printed with a visible ink on the base side
of the film. All16mm and 35rnm camera original color film
is latent-image edge-numbered . B & W 16mm and 35mm
camera original film is ink edge-numbered.
Several changes in the format for edge numbers
were introduced during the latter part of1990. In conformance with SMPTE standard SMPTE 254, 35mm film now
Film Selection: Color Negative

For normal high key cinematography select the film
with an ASA number most consi tent with the light level
120
121
COMPARISON of FILM SPEEDS

ASAIEI
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
650
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3200
BSIIJSA
3
3
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
650
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3200
DIN
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
GOST
2.8
3.6
4.5
5.8
72
9
11
14
18
23
29
36
45
58
72
90
112
144
180
225
288
360
450
576
720
900
1125
1440
1800
2250
2880
SCHEINER
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32"
33
34
35
36
37
38
39"
40"
41
42
43
44
45
46
For all practical purposes ASAIBSAlJSAlEI are the same.

The DIN system is calculated Log 10. In the past
DIN speeds were written with the speed number followed by
/10. (example: 2/10)
The Scheiner system is obsolete. It was distiguished by
following the number.
The GOST System was used in the USSR.
122
has both human-readable edge numbers and macrunereadable information printed as a latent image on its edge
at the time of manufacture. In addition to an incrementing
number, a zero-frame reference mark, consisting of a filled
circle approximately 0.025 to 0.030 inches (0.64 to 0.76 mm),
is printed adjacent to the digit of the human-readable edge
number that is closest to the tail of the film. The frame immediately above the zero-frame reference mark is the one
referenced by that edge number. The numbers are printed
so that the center line of the zero-frame reference is aligned
with the center-line of a perforation. The spacing from one
key number to the next is 64 perforations. A mid-foot human readable and a mid-foot machine-readable edge number is printed halfway between each key number. The midfoot human-readable edge number consists of a zero-frame
reference mark and the adjacent edge number that is nearer
the head end of the roll plus an offset in perforations that
is always 32 perforations. All characters of the mid-foot
edge number are approximately ~ size. A similar system
currently under study by a SMPTE standards committee
has been proposed for 16mm.
Film Perforations
Pitch
Pitch is the distance from the leading edge of one perforation to the leading edge of the next and is expressed in
decimal inches. Motion picture perforations are commonly
referred to as having either "long" or "short" pitch. When
films are being printed, the original camera film and the
unexposed print film pass together over a curved printing
sprocket for exposure. Since the print film is on the outside,
the difference in diameter is accommodated by giving a
shorter pitch to the camera original on the inside.
16mm Films
16mm camera films are supplied with either a row of
perforations along one edge or wi th a row along both edges.
Most 16mm camera films are .f urnished with two rows of
perforations for use in "silent" type cameras. Those with
one row are intended for u se in single-system cameras
where sound and picture are simultaneously recorded, either optically or by means of magnetic striping on the film .
123
Reversal-type 16mm camera films intended for projection are usually supplied in long pitch (.3000). egative or
reversal type film intended for subsequent release printing
is usually supplied with short pitch (.2994).
Standard 16mm perforations
SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.2994
110-1986-1R-.2994
SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.3000
110-1986-lR-.3000
35mm Films
35mm motion picture films are supplied with perforations of two basic shapes and with either long or short
pitch. Bell & Howell or BH indicates negative and Kodak
Standard or KS indicates positive. egative perforations are
designed to insure a steady image during exposure in a
camera-type pull-down and registration mechanism. Positive perforations have a shape intended to red uce cracking
with repeated projection. "Negative" or "positive" perforations describe the shape of the perforation and not the
type of film involved.
Standard 35mrn perforations
SMPTE 93-1992- BH-.1866
93-1992- BH-.1870
139-1986- KS-.1866
139-1986- KS-.1870
65mm Films
65mm film used for o!iginal photography and duplicating is perforated KS-.1866. When first introduced this
film was perforated long pitch because only step-printing
was available. With the advent of continuous contact printing facilities, the negative and duplicating films are now
p rforated with hort pitch.
Standard 65mrn
SMPTE 145-1988-KS-.1866
70mm Films
Release printing from 65mm negative or intermediate
is on 70mm film which is perforated the same as 65mm but
is an additional5rnm wide. The additional width is equally
124
divided on each side of the perforations to accommodate

magnetic sound tracks. In addition to the tandard 70mm
film format two other formats are available for special
ven ue processes.
Standard 70mm
SMPTE 119-19 KS-.1 70
70mrn Type I
ANSI PH 1.20-1963- 0.234
Perforations for this tandard are 0.13 x 0.0 in ize
with a pitch of 0.234.
70mm Typell
ANSI PH 1.20-1963 -KS-.1870
Perforations for this standard are the same ize and
pitch as SMPTE 119 but with an "E" dimension of 0.079 +
0.004 instead of 0.215 0.003.
Film Handling and Storage

Film raw stock is sensitive to heat, radiation and moisture, and may be contaminated by gases or dirt. The following precautions ar suggested when handling or storing raw tock.
1. Store in a cool (550 F/ 130 C or lower), dean area for
short periods and in a deep freeze (0 0 F/ -18 0 C) for periods longer than six months. Relative humidity should be
50 percent or less to avoid rusting of cans and or possible
damage to labels and cartons.
2. Do not tore where chemical contamination i
present, either gas or liquid . Fumes, such as tho e from
ammonia, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, illuminating
gas, mercury, motor exhaust, solvents, sulfur dioxide, can
damage photographic emulsions.
3. Avoid X-rays or radiation of any kind. Raw stock
should not be tored or shipped near radioactive materials. For example, Eastman Kodak states "to protect film
stored 25 feet away from 100 milligrams of radium, 3Y2
inches of lead must be placed around the radium."
4. Film should not be stored near exhaust or heating
pipes, or in direct sunlight coming through a window even
if the room is air-conditioned.
125
5. Allow time for film to reach loading-room temperature before opening container to avoid condensation.
6. Keep the loading room and/or changing bag dean.
7.0ean magazines outside the loading room and be
sure the outsides of film cans are dean before taking them
into the loading room.
8. Bag and seal exposed film in original or imilar conta.iners.
9. Proce s exposed film as oon as possible. If it must
be held more than a day before processing or hipping, seal
the film from moisture and store as cold as possible. (A
deep freeze is appropriate.)
10. If raw tock or expo ed film is to be hipped by
commercial carrier, it should be tightly wound on cores.
The outsid hipping container hould be labeled conspicuously: "Keep away from heat or X-ray." Stock labels are
available for this purpose.
Processed Film Storage

Though thi is not usually the responsibility of the cinematographer, the following information may be useful:
1. Condition the film at 20 to 30 percent relative humidity at room temperature (optimwn relative htunidity
is 25 percent).
2. Wind film emulsion in on cores or reels. (Do not use
PVC containers, cores, or reels.)
3. Store flat.
4. Store at temperature of SOoF/10 C or lower.
(Ref: A
I m .ll , MPTE RP 131 Eastman Kodak Co. publication H-I.)
FILM DATA CHART
Color Negative Films

AgfaXT 100
Agfa XT 320 High Speed
Agla XTS 400 High Speed
Eastman EXR 50 D
Easlman EXR100 T
EastmanEXR 200 T
Eastman EXR 500 T
Eastman HS Day
Fujicolor F64
Fuiicoior F64 D
Fu;color F125
Fujicolor F250
Fujicolor F250 D
FUjlcoIor F500
lBA12 or 85
.. LBB-12 or BOA
Balance Emulsion Type

Day TlJ1g 35mm 16mm
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Color Reversal Films

Eastman Ektachrome Day X
Eastman Ektachrome Tung
Easlman Ektachrome
HS Day
X
Easlman Ektachrome
HS Tung
Kodachrome 25 Movie Film X
Kodachrome 40 Movie Film
Black and White
Negalive Films
XTlOO XTl00 N
XT320
XTS400
5245
5248
5293
5296
5297
8510
8520
8530
XT320
XTS400
7245
7248
7293
7296
7297
8610
8620
8630
8550
8560
8650
8570
5239
X
X
X
Fup FG
Fuji RP
See filler section for
8&WPhotography.
Black and White
Reversal Films
Eastman Plus XReversal
Eastman Tri-X Reversal
H
S
K
M
ASAIlSO
Daylight
Tungsten
Filter
Filter EI
8
100
320
400
12
100
200
500
80
64
80A
808
80
200
250
50
64
125
320
250
40
64
80
85
85
85
85
85
85
8660
8670
C
Nl0
N20
N30
N50
N60
N70
125
250
64
500
7239
7240
VND
VNF
40
125
80A
180
80 858
7251
VXD
100
80A
400
7250
7267
7270
VNX
400
6
40
80A
250 858
25
25 85
..
160
250
320
200
250
7222
H
PXN
C
DXN
64
64
200
200
80
80
250
250
72161
FG
RP
64
64
80
80
7276
7278
PXR
TXR
40
100
125
50
Agfa Pan 250

Eastman PlusX
Eastman PlusX
Eastman Dolble-X
Eastman Double- X
Edge
10
5231
7231
5222
71112
I'
.
Super 8 Films
B&W Kodak PIus-X &Tli-XReversal as above. Color KodacI1rome 25 &Kodachrome 40 as
above.
126
127
....N
Agfa FILMS
AGFA XT-l00 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)
co
DESCRIPTION
I 64DAY
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER
TUNG.
FILTER 110
84
100
M
This is a medium-speed color negative lilm with very fine grain , wide exposure latitude,
high sharpness and laithful color rendition. Designed for general cinematography, this film
lends itself to both indoor and outdoor use,
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shutler opening)
1/11
Lens Aperture
112.0 1/2. 8
1/4.0 tis.6 1/8.0
Foolcandles
50
100
200 400
800
1600
required
I ~~.4 I
AGFA XT320 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM Xl 320 (35mm 116mm)
DESCRIPTION
I DAY
200
I.
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER 1 TUNG. I FILTER 110
85
320
H
This Is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-lo-grain ralio. wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithlul color rendition, that Is Intended for use in cinematography
allow light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 Irames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
till
tl2.0 tl2.8 tl4.0 1/5.61 1/8.0
tll.4
10
Footcandles
20
40
80
160 320
640
required
Agfa FILMS
AGFA XTS-400 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)
DESCRIPTION
I DAY
250
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER
TUNG.
85
400
FI~TER
10
S
This Is a hlghspeed color negative film with excellent speed-lo-grain ratio, wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithful color rendition that is Intended lor use in cinematography
at low light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 Irames per second 170 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
f/l.4
f/2.0 1/2.81 1/4.0 1/5.61 tl8.0
1111
Footcandles
6
12
25
50
100
200
400
required
AGFA PAN 250 NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION
I DAY
250
This Is a high-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain, hi~h resolving power and wide
exposure latitude. Designed lor general cinematography, lhis film ends itself to both indoor and outdoor use.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture 11/1.4
tl2.0
tl2.8
f/4.0 tl5.6
118.0
1/11
Footcandles
12
25
50
100
200
400
800
required
'See filter section for B&W photography.
EXPOSURE INDEX '

FILTER
TUNG.
FILTER
200
10
H
....
VJ
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5245 (35mm/65mm) 7245 (16mm)
EXPOSURE INDEX
DESCR IPTION
I DAY
50
I FILTER
ITUNG' I FILTER
12
80A
10
K
This is a low speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with wide exposu~e
latitude, micro-line grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 1/2. 0 tl2.B f/4.0 1/5 .6 tlB .O f/11
1/16
Footcandles
50
100 200 400 800
1600 3200 6400
required
EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5248 (35mm/65mm) 7248 (16mm)

DESCR IPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
IDAY
IFILTER
ITUNG
IFILTER
64
85
100
I ~
This is a medium speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude,
micro-line grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 tl2 .0 f/2.B 1/4 ,0 tl5.6 1 tl8.O 1/11 .0 1/1 6.0
25
50
100 200 400
800 1600 3200
Footcandles
required
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EXR 200T FILM 5293 (35mm/65mm) 7293 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
I DAY
1~
EXPOSURE INDEX
ITUNG' I FILTER
IFILTER
~
~O
1'0
L
This is a color negative fi lm with optimum speed for grain extended latitude, reduced
contrast, microfine grain, very high sharpness, high resolving power, and superior color.
Lens Aperture
f/1.41 1/2.0 f/2.81 1/4.0 f/5.61 f/8.0 tll 1
1/16
Footcandles
5
25
50
100 200
400 800
1600
required
EASTMAN EXR 500T FILM 5296 (35mm/65mm) 7296 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
I TUNG.I FILTER
500
IDAY
IFILTER
320
85
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude, micro-fine grain,
very high sharpness and high resolving power.
....
VJ
....
Lens Aperture
tl1.4 f/2.0 1"2.8 tl4.0 tl5.6 1/8.0 fIll
1/16
Footcandles
5
10
20
40
80
160 320
640
reoulred
1 I
110
J
EASTMAN FILMS
HIGH SPEED DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 5297 (35mm/65mm) 7297 (16mm)
EXPOSURE
DESCRIPTION
INDEX
I DAY
IFILTER
ITUNG'I FILTER
250
80
80B
Ilg
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude that is intended
for use without filters In daylight, with HMl lights, or with mixtures of natural and artificial light.
t4
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT

frames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/ l.4 I f/2.0 If/2.8 f/4.0 Ifl5.6 1/8.0 I f/11 I f/16
Footcandles
10
20
40
80
160 '320 640
1280
required
EASTMAN EKTACHROME FILM (DAYLIGHT) 5239 (35mm) 7239 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
I DAY
160
EXPOSURE INDEX
IFILTER ITUNG' I FI LTER
40
80A
IVND
10
This is a moderate speed daylight-balanced color reversal lilm designed for use under
low-level illumination or for high speed photographic applications. The processed lilm is
balanced for direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOr DAYI'GHT (24 Ira~es pr secoy 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 fl2 .0 fl2.8 fl4.0 1/5.6 1/8.0 f/11
Footcandles
16
32
63
125 250
500 1000
rpnllimrl
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EKTACHROME FILM (Tungsten) 7240 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY FILTER TUNG. FILTER
80
8SB
125
-
10
VNF
This is a moderate speed color reversal film designed lor news and documentary
applications. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shulter opening)
fllA f/2.01 1/2.8 fl4 .0 f/5. 61 1/8.0 1/11
Lens Aperture
Footcandles
20
40
80
160 320
640 1250
requ ired
l. I
I I
DESCRIPTION
10
VXD
This is a high-speed daylight-balanced color reversal film designed lor use under
daylight illumination or a variety of HMI, xenon and mercury discharge lamps without
filtration. The exposure index 01 this film can be increased to EI 800 (daylight) or higher
by extended time of development. The processed film is balanced lor direct projection or
television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.41 1/2.0 1/2.8 fl4 .0 1/5.6 1/8.0 fl11
Footcandles
6.3 12.5 25
50
100 200 400
re uired
I I I I
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EKTACHROME High Speed Film (Tungsten) 7250 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
10
VNX
This is a high-speed color reversal film deSigned lor use under low-level illur,llnation
when supplemental lighting is unavailable or undesirable. The exposure index 01 this
film can be increased to EI 800 (tungsten) or higher by extended time 01 development.
The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.
Lens Aperture
fl1,4 fl2. 0 fl2 .8j fl4 .0 fl5 .6 fl8 .0 fll1
Footcandles
6.3 12.5 25 50 100 200 400
required
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUS-X NEGATIVE FILM 5231 (35mm) 7231 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
DAY
80
This is a medium-speed panchromatic film designed lor general production use, both
outdoors and in the studio.
EXPOSURETABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170' shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/l,41 1/2.0 112.8 1/4.0 U5.6
1/8.0 fill
Footcandles
40
SO
160
320
630
1250 2500
required
'See filler section for B&Wphotography.
I I
I I I
DESCRIPTION
DAY
250
This is a high-speed panchromatic negative film designed for use under adverse lighting conditions
and where greater depth 01 field is required without Increasing the illumination. This film has medium
graininess. As with other negative, the granularity increases with the density 01 Ihe image resulting in
increased graininess in the projected print. Avoid overexposing, especially when using in the 16mm format.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170' shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
fl1A
f/2,0
1/2.8 1/4.0
1/5.6
f/8.0 1 '/11
Footcandles
13
25
50
100
200
400
800
required
'See filter section for B&W hot ra h .
....
~
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUSX REVERSAL FILM 7276 (1 6mmlSuper 8mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
INDEX
EXPOSURE
INDEX
I DAY
I FILTER
ITUNG
, I FILTER I 10
50
40
PXR
This Is a low-speed panchromatic reversal film designed for general

produclion use both outdoors and in the studio when sufficienllight is available,
EXPOSURE TAB LE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 1/2,0 1/2,8 11/4,0 1/5, 6 1 1/8.0 1 1111
63
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Footcandles
required
See filter section lor B&W photography.
I I
EASTMAN TRI-X REVERSAL FILM 7278 (1 6mmlSuper 8mm)

DESCRIPTION
I DAY
I FILTER
ITUNG
IFILTER
ITXR
10
200
160
This is a high-speed panchromatic reversal film suitable for general

motion picture photography.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 1/2,0 1/2.81 1/4.0 11/5,6 1 1/8.0 1/11 I
16
32
63
125 250
500 1000
Footcandles
required
I I
EASTMAN FILMS
KODACHROME 25 MOVIE FILM (DAYLIGHT) 7267 (16mmlSuper 8mm)
DESCRIPTION
I DAY
25
EXPOSURE INDEX
IFILTER TUNG FILTER
6
80A
110
This Is a low-speed. daylight-balanced color reversal film designed lor general

motion picture photography outdoors, The processed lilm is balanced for direct projection,
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 Irames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 1/2.0 1/2.81 1/4.0 115.6 1 '/8.0 1 1/11
Footcandles
100 200 400 800 1600 3200 6400
required
KODACHROME 40 MOVIE FILM (Tungsten) 7268 (16mm/Super 8mm)

DESCR IPTION
EXPOSURE
1 DAY
25
This Is a moderate speed, color reversal lilm designed for news and documentary
applicalions. The processed film is balanced lor direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shulter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/l.4 1/2.0 f/2.81 1/4.0 1/5.6 1/8.0 fIll
Footcandles
60
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
required
I I
I I
INDEX
IFILTER 1TUNG, I FILTER

85
40
110
FUJI FILMS
FUJICOLOR F-64 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8510 (35mm) 8610 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER rUNG . FILTER
LBA12 64
or 85
I I
DAY
40
110
N10
This is a low-speed color negative film with fine grain, very high sharpness
and faithful color rendition.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170' shuller opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 [ f/2.0 I f12.81 f/4.0 1115.6 I 118.0 I 1/11
40
80
160 320 640
1250 2500
Footcandles
required
FUJICOLOR F64
0 DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 8520 (35mm) 8620 (16MM)
DESCRiPTION
EXPOSURE
INDEX
I DAY
I FILTER
ITUNG' I FILTER I ID
64
N 20
This is a low-speed daylight color negative film with fine grain , very high sharpness ~nd
faithful color rendition that is intended for use In outdoor filming without filters in daylight,
or with high level natural illumination-based indoor filming and artificiallighl.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170' shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
f/l.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 If/4.0 11/5.6 I f/8.O I 1/11
40
80
160 320 640
1250 2500
Footcandles
required
FUJI FILMS
FUJICOLOR F125 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8530 (35mm) 8630 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
, DAY
80
I LBA12
FILTE~ /TUNG '
125
or 85
This is a medium-speed color negative film with fine grain, very high sharpness and faithful color
rendition . Designed for general cinematography, this film lends Itself to both indoor and outdoor use.
INDEX
FILTER liD
N30
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170' shuller opening)
Lens Aperture
f/l,4 f/2.0 112.8 1114.0 f/5.6 fl8 .0 fill
Footcandles
20
40 80
160 320
640
1250
required
I I
I I
FUJICOLOR F250 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8550 (35mm) 8650 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
DAY
160
This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speedto-grain ratio,

high sharpness and faithful color rendition that is intended for use in high
speed photography as well as low light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shuller opening)
Lens Aperture
111.4 f/2.0 fl2.81 f/4.0 [ 1/5.6 1/8.0 f/l1
Footcandles
10
20 40
80
160
320 640
required
I I
EXPOSURE INDEX
TUNG _, FILTER
LBA12 250
or 85
I I FILTE~ I
I I
D
N50
FUJI FILMS
FUJIGOLOR F-250 D COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8560 (35mm) 8660 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
DAY
250
INDEX
IFILTER
ITUNG.,
FILTER liD
64
LBB-12 N60
or80A
This is a high-speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio ,
high sharpness and faithful color rendition. Designed for high-speed cinematography, underwater
cinematography, low light level daylight filming and both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial daylight illumination.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170 0 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4. 0 f/5 .6 f/8. 0 1/11
Footcandles
10
20
40
80
160
320 640
requ ired
FUJICOLOR F-500 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8570 (35mm) 8670 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
DAY
320
INDEX
ILBA-12
FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER
500
-
liD
N70
or 85
Th is IS a high-speed color negative tilm that is intended for use in high speed and underwater
cinematography as well as both indoor and outdoor filming under low light level conditions.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 1700 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 1/2.0 f/2 .8 1/4.0 1/5.6 1/8.0 1/11
Footcandles
5
10 20
40
80
160 320
required
FUJI FILMS
FUJI FG PANCHROMATIC NEGATIVE FILM 71112 (35mm)
DESCRIPTION
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition.
DeSigned for general cinematography, both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial illumination.
EXPOSURE
INDEX
EXPOSURE
INDEX
IDAY
I FILTER
ITUNGI FILTER I ID
80
*
64
*
FG
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 0 shutler opening)
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8 .0 1/11
Footcandles
40
80
160 320 640 1250 2500
required
'See filter section for B&W photography.
I I I I I I
FUJI RP PANCHROMATIC NEGATIVE FILM 72161 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition,
SUitable for general cinematog raphy. This film is designed for rapid processing where
fast access is required. .
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 0 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 1/2.0 ' f/2.8 11/4.0 f/5 .6 f/8.0 f/1 1
Footcandles
40
80
160 320 640
1250 2500
required
'See filter section for B&W ohotoaraohv.
IDAY
I FILTER
ITUNG
I FILTER
I RP
ID
80
64
-
Lenses
Len
may be classified as normal, telep hoto/
retrofocu ,zoom, anamorphic and auxiliary.
ormallen
are compactly mounted combinations
of glas e ,a mbled 0 they may be mounted in a camera
approximately one focal length from the image plane, or
film. ormallenses of long focal length tend to be bulky,
therefore tel ph to lense are designed with negative glass
elemen arranged in a manner that permits the telephoto
lens to be mounted closer to the image plane than its focal
length would indicate. When camera design, because of
beam plitters or reflex hutters, does not permit short focal length normal lenses to be mounted within one focal
length of th film, the retrofocus or in erse telephoto lens
design is used: a lens of hort effective focal length but long
back focus. Zoom lenses are a combination of the above,
with the added feature that one or more elements may be
mo ed in relation to the others. This pro ides not only a
multiple numb r of focal lengths within one body, but permits chang of focal length, and therefore image size, during cin matography.
Anamorphic lense are composed of the above types
of lenses, in combination with either a cylindrical or prismatic element to compress tlle horizontal image, providing for a wider a pect ratio within the confines of the standard motion-picture frame. early all present anamorphic
lenses have a c mpr sion ratio, or squeeze ratio, of 2:l.
(Other qu eze ratio have been used in the past, and there
i at lea t one on th horizon contemplating the use of a
different qu ez ratio.)
Auxiliary lens ar positive tele-extenders and negative wide-a ngle adapters, both of which alter tlle focal
length of prim r zoom lenses, and simple elements usually referred to a "diopter" or" plit-field diopters."
Selection of Lenses
Photographi and projection lenses are designed to
compromi aberration and di tortion to a minimum in a
peci fic fram area. Len e designed for cine use will not
generally fill a till-camera frame, nor will still-camera
lense nece arily be a sharp a cine lenses in the smaller
frame ize. Lik wi e, design compromises are made to allow large diaphragm opening with acceptable but not nec-
142
essarily optimum sharpness; be tter sharpness may be

found if such a lens is stopped down a notch or two.
One widely quoted evaluation is Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), an objective mea ure of sharpness.
While a useful means of comparison, it does not account
for all distortions or aberration (to be useful, MTF must
be measured in the comers a well as in the center of the
lens field) . In simple terms, MTF compares the contrast of
a lens with its resolving power. The resultant graph plots
the MTF in percent versus the line frequency (lines per
mm). The higher the curve and the flatter it is, the greater
is the contrast of the resulting image and th more uniform
the image quality.
Testing
Some suppliers and some independent agencies have
test equipment and will help in e aluation. While it is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss lens design in
greater depth, it should be pointed out that the cinematographer hould take particular note of aberrations which are
most evident at wide-open apertures and diffraction which
limits the smallest useful aperture. Photographic testing is
tedious, time-consuming and co tly; the use of such a facility when available can be helpful. Qualities to be oberved, preferably in comparison with a lens of known
quali ty, include image sharpne at center and corners,
contrast and flare, image distortion, and uniformity of exposure (vignetting).
Care and Maintenance

When not in use, lenses hould be kept capped, and
when transported, kept in a padded cas . Shocks and vibration may jar tlle elemen ts loose (tlu includes lugh-frequency vibration SUcll as from an aircraft ngine). When
filming outdoors wlder d usty conditi ns, protect tlle lens
with a filter. If no filter is required, u e a cl an optical glass
or a UV filter (filters, of course, should b made of firs tquality optical glass). It i Ie expen ive to replace a
cratched or marred filter than a front lens element.
Lenses should be inspected periodically for physical conditipn, including len urface examination w ith a
magnifying glass to look for fine era tche , loose glass elements, and 100 e mechanical element uch as focus scale
rings, iris diaphragms, and zoom lens linkage and carns.
143
ever clean a lens with dry tissue or fabric. Tiny abrasi e particl may cause scratches. The safest procedure is:
1. Blow off loose dust with " canned air." (If " air" is
not available, a clean, very soft camel hair brush may be
u ed; to remo e all residual oil from the brush, first wash
it in ether or pure grain alcohol and shake it out so that it is
thoroughly dry. Keep the brush in an air-tight container.
Under no circwnstances hould the brush ever touch skin.
If it does so inadvertentl , wash it again with ether or alcohol.) Do not blow dust off with the mouth. ext to dried
fingerprints, saliva is the hardest thing to remove from a
lens urface without scratching it.
2.Ifnece sary to remove sm ars from the lens surface,
fold a lens ti ue and dampen the folded edge with lenscleaning fluid. Carefully wipe th lens surface with a circuJar motion, tarting at the center and working toward the
edg . If this will not remove the mear, take a new, clean
piece of lens tissue and repeat the procedure using pure xylene or pure grain alcohol (not rubbing alcohol). Be careful
not to touch the lens mount with the xylene or alcohol. If
you do, discard the lens tissue and start over. Xylene is particula.rly useful in removing oil or oily fingerprints from
lense .If it leaves a slight mear after removing an oil y spot,
repeat the action using alcohol.
Fingerprints, or any contacts with skin, leave a residue
which may permanently etch the lens surfac . ever clean
camera lense with silicone-coated lens tissue or cloth.
Removing Lens Retainer Rings

The cinematographer, unIe skilled in lens repair,
shouJd avoid disassembly of lenses. If, in emergency, it is
necessary to do so in the field, the ring may generally be
easily unscrewed if the lightest fingertip grasp, with tl1e
lea t possible pressure, is applied. The more pressure applied, tl1e greater the expansion of the ring on the sides
oppo ite the fingers. Such pressure causes expansion of the
ring and makes removal very difficult, if not impo ible.
A particularly tubbom ring ma often be remo ed by
applying a drop of carbon tetracl1Joride or a similar solvent.
The same technique may be used in removing filter retaining rings.
144
Condensation
When equipment, including lenses, is taken from a
cool, dry environment to a warm, moist environment, condensation will occur on the cold surfaces. This particularly
applies when moving from an air-conditioned environment to the outdoors. A few minutes should be allowed for
the equipment to warm up and the condensation to disappear before photographing. Visual inspection should suffice to determine when this takes place.
Understanding an MTF Chart

by Bern Levy
For many, evaluating a lens has usually been a matter
of being aware of the manufacturer's past record and the
experience of others who have used that type of lens. To
those more technically inclined, the use of a test c11art indicating resolving power, in lines per millimeter, may be
considered a criterion of lens quality. However, resolving
power value can be very subjective and does not necessarily indicate the true value of a lens. Resolving power alone,
regardless of its accuracy, can be misleading. Lens manufacturers now utilize a method of lens testing that assesses
tl1e actual capability of a given lens.
This method is referred to as Modulation Transfer
Function, or MTF. Scientifically, MTF is defined as a function that describes the modulation of a sinusoidal object as
the frequency increases. In simpler terms, MTF compares
the contrast of a lens with its resolving power. The relationship of sharpness, plus the ability to reproduce an image,
gives a lens the property to produce a quality image. It is
the result of this comparison tl1at forms the MTF curve. As
tl1e spatial frequency (the distance of one black & white line
pair) of the test chart increases, the image pattern is reduced
in contrast. This change in contrast or "modulation" is the
basis for the MTF method of evaluating a lens.
Since the ModuJation Transfer Function is a method
of quantitatively measuring the limits of resolution of a
given area jiJ1d the ability to reproduce an image of a given
area, a single MTF curve only indica tes the response for the
specific conditions tested. The parameters for test data normally include focal length, aperture, object distance, light
145
.......
z
...c
~
E
E
~~
<:>
<:>
ao
~
Q
Q
....
Q
.......
~
C
~
...
<:>
color temperature and the image field radius as well as the

spatial frequency of the test chart. In order to fully comprehend the performance of a lens, a number of MTF curves
must be generated to cover a multitude of points within
these test parameters.
To interpret the MTF curve, we must first understand
that the horizontal axis of the chart normally indicates the
spatial frequencies in cycles per millimeter and the vertical axis provides the modulation transfer factor or contrast
values with a maximum of 100%. The basic criteria for interpreting an MTF curve are that the higher the curve and
the straighter it is, the greater the contrast of the image and
the more uniform the image quality. Whereas no lens can
deliver 100% contrast, an MTF chart showing a relatively
flat curve above 70% would indicate an excellent Lens. Consideration must be made for the higher frequencies (right
side of the horizontal axis) as even a high-quality lens cannot render an MTF (contrast) of more than 50% at a frequency of over 50 cycles.
Most MTF charts will show two curves: one for tangentiallines (broken) and another for radial lines (continuous).Telephone lines can be considered tangential lines and
telephone poles can be interpreted as radial lines. The optical aberration astigmatism shows up as sharp poles with
out-of-focus wires. An MTF chart showing a marked distance between radial and tangential curves will clearly indicate that the lens suffers from astigmatism. In ersely, a
chart indicating the two lines running very clo e will
specify a lens with very sLight astigmatism.
From the viewpoint of MTF, lenses can be roughly
cla sified into two groups: high contrast with limited resolution, and Lower contra t with greater resolution. What is
appropr:iate for one is not necessarily correct for another.
The film emulsion characteristics or the limiting fr quency
of a televi ion camera tub will dictate the preferable type.
The one with the best contrast propertie in the frequency
range to be recorded may be considered ideal.
a:
a:
c
146
147
Modem Telephoto Lenses

by William J. Turner
& Chris Condon
The term "telephoto lens" is generally used.to d~be
any lens, regardless of its optical configuratIOn, which
magnifies the image at least 50% ~ore than the n~~allens
on any specific camera. ~e term true telephoto rE!:fers to
lenses de igned for phySical compactness, yet ha~g ~
effective focal length (EFL) longer than thephyslcal distance of the optics from the.image plane. This type o!, lens
employs a negative rear optical compon~t. The t~ telelens" is becoming more common than telephoto lens.
Many of the telephoto lenses in use t<>?ay (over l~
EFL) were originally designed for ~se w~th 35mm smglelens reflex still cameras. Several major still camera manufacturers, in efforts to satisfy the unique telephoto lens requirements of professi~nal sports photographers, have
designed superior qUality, high~speed and ~oom lens~s
using newly compollilded, low disperslOn optical glass (m
some cases crystal substances SUch.as fluori.te). Thr?ugh the
use of state-of-the-art computer-aIded optical desIgn t~
niques, these lenses achieve a degree of color corr~ction,
sharpness and contrast far superior to those previOusly
attamable m high-speed lenses.
Most of these lenses are very fast for their focal length.
The Canon 300mm and 400mm f/2.8Ienses have become
quite popular. The now discontinued .ikon 300mm f/2
has become an industry-standard lens. ASide from thelf traditional uses in the fields of documentary, news, sports,
wildlife and surveillance cinematography, telephoto lenses
are used increa ingly in the shooting of commercials and
action films. Among the advantages of tele-lenses are dramatic close-ups, camera unobtrusiveness, greater safety,
technical practicality, pictorial effect ~d novelty. ~ost of
these lenses also feature mtemal focusmg. Compantes such
a Century Precision Optics have m~dified.these lenses for
the exacting requirem ents of profeSSiOnal cm~mato~apl~y
by converting the rear section and re-calibrating the ms m
T-stops.
. .
.
Some len es are more extensively modified WJth
larger, more visible fCX?tag scal~, precision integral f~now
focus gears, and speCial mounting brackets. The baSIC optics, however, are never changed.
Techniques
Tele-Ienses tend to isolate the main subject from the
background and foreground du to their inherently shallow depth-of-field. They also appear to compress objects
at various distances from the camera, and may be employed to bring the background closer to the subject. A telelens also slows the apparen t advance of a subject m ving
toward the camera. It is much easier to track an object
moving laterally across a field with a tele-lens, because it
will remain in iew for a longer period of time and still
retain a large image size. It is often ad visable to move further back, use a long tele-Iens and make a slow pan that
film a large image for a greater length of time, rath r than
move in close to the subject' line of tra el with a short focall ngth lens.
Several unique problems sometimes arise when shooting with tele-Ienses. Increa ing the image magnification
also resul ts m increased effect of camera vibration, thermal
effects of atmospheric refraction (heat waves), atmospheriC
dust, vapors and ultraviolet radiation reflected from the
same. However, new techniques have resulted in better
image quality even under these adverse conditions. Following are a number of corrective tele-lens techniques that offer solutions to these problems. For example, camera vibration due to vibrating motor drive, unbalanced shutter or
other mecllaIlical characteristics can be minimized. While
such vibration may have little or no detectable effects with
wide-angle or normal lenses, it can be highly magnified
when using long focal lengths. A solid tripod and a lens
cradle sh uld always be used . Most professional cameras
have sufficient magnification in tlleir reflex focusing systems so tl,at any vibration effect can be observed in the
viewfinder image. The tele-lens should first be focused in
with the camera operating, and focus should be compared
with the camera at rest to detect any adverse vibration effect.
Filters & Tele-Ienses

Several typ s of filters CaIl improve color in tele-lens
shots. The most useful are Skylight lA, 2A, 28 and 2C; also
the UV 15, UV 16, UV] 7 and others of comparable characteristics. Proper fil tering of black & whit films will greatly
aid in minimizing atmospheric haze. Yellow, orange, and
red filters improve definition and can increase contrast
149
because they filter out violet and ultraviolet light. Dramatic

haze penetration can be recorded with heavy red filters
uch as Wratten 25 and 29. The greatest haze penetration,
far beyond visual rendition, can be produced wi th infrared sensitive film and any of the following Wratten filters:
72B, 87, 88A and 89A. (See "Infrar d Cinematography.")
A word of caution regarding filters employed in front
of long focal length, high-performance lenses: the filter'
optical quality must match that of the lens on which it is
u ed. Any lack of optical flatne will introduce aberrations
which can ruin the .image. For this reason, it is strongly recommended never to use any untested filter, especially with
long focal length lenses.
It is becoming increasingly common to use gla filters
at the back of telephoto lenses. In orne cases, the filters are
used via a filter holder that is inserted into a slot at the rear
of the lens. In other cases, the filters are mowlted in the
camera adapter itself at the rear of the len . There are many
advantages to using the filter at the rear of the lens. Filters
are much smaller and Ie costly. The mo t common sizes
are 40.5 mm and 48 rom. Used behind the lens, the quality
of the filt r is not as critical as in front of the lens. Standard
commercial filter are typically of more than sufficient quality for use behind the lens without causing degradation of
the image. Recently, filter stages have been added behind
many telephoto lenses. These stages allow rectangular filters to be rotated and translated, not only allowing the use
polarizing filter , but hard-edge graduated filte rs as well.
These filters a re commonly u sed in two izes: 2" x 3" and
45x70mm.
To maintain the accuracy of the focus calibrations (and
any focus marks that may be made during the course of the
hot), the number and thickness of filters used behind the
lens mu t remain constant. Thi means that dear filters
must be used when no colored or ffects filters are in place.
The filters being used must al 0 be of exact thickness to
avoid shifting the predetermined focu of the lens. Both
Tiffen and Harrison are currently manufacturing these rectangular filters to a consistent thickness.
The use of th multiple fnters behind the lens can create another problem. Clear filters are normally not anti-reflection coated.The actual light 10 s caus d by an LUlcoated
clear filter is only Y6 of a top and, typically, can be ignored.
Clear filters are aid to cause "no light loss." However,
using thr e (3) uncoated filters behind the lens results in
150
three (3) losses of % each, adding up to at least Y2 stop. This

loss, therefore, must be taken into account when figuring
the exposure (e pecially with multiple clear filters) .
The best sol ution to the "heat wave" problem is to
shoot during the early morning hours. A high downward
camera angle will sometimes minimize heat waves by lessening the amount of ground level atmosphere iliat the lens
must shoot through.
Focu collimation of long focus lenses can be affected
ignilicantly by temperature extremes. Lenses which are
adjusted at room t mpera ture may not be in focus in high
de ert temperatures d ue to thermal expansion of mount
components. Focu should always be checked in the field
under actual or simulated production conditions. In cold
climates, condensation of moisture and cement separation
can be minimized by gradual exposure to environmental
extremes.
T-stop calibration of tele-Ienses i tile arne as for short
focal length lenses. However, it should be kept in mind tilat
intervening haze actually lightens distant objects. The resulting aerial perspective (a gradual lightening of objects
at increasing distances) will often result in an apparent
overexposure when a distant object is isolated in a telephoto
shot. Many cinematographers are, tllerefore, under tl,e impression that tele-lenses are calibrated differently and require less exposure. Actually, the mall portion of the distant scene being filmed is Lighter in tone and lacks contrast
because of atmospheric conditions.
To cOLUlterbalance the lack of contrast usually encountered in long-range filming, pecial emulsions may be ch osen for use with high-power tele-lenses.Sometime tl,e film
can be developed to a slightly higher gamma (if sufficient
footage is involved to make this practical). Finally, because
tele-lenses tend to magrUfy lateral image blur to an wmatural degree, it may be advisable to overcrank the cam era
somewhat.
Lens Extenders (Multipliers)

A len extender, which con ists of a multi-element
optical attachment, may be positioned behind a prime lens
to increas its focal length .These may be successfully used
wi tll many types of tele-lenses. It is a simple, inexpensive
way to further extend the focallengili of tele-Ienses. Extenders of better quality can render acceptably harp images;
however, they should be stopped down for best definition.
151
Lens extenders have an exposure increase factor corre p nding to their power. A 1.4X extender will increase
the focal length of the lens 1.4X and require a 1- top increase
in e pure. Example: a 300mm f/ 2.8 lens becomes 420mm
f/ 4 with a 1.4X extender. 2X extender will double the
focal length of the lens and require a 2-stop increase in expo ure. E ample: A -illOmm f/ 2. lens becom a BOOmm
f/5.6 \ ith a 2X extender.
ince tele-extenders already cause a light I , th dim
image may be difficult to focus and view. Effective apertur are rarely faster than f/ od / 11, or e en f/16. E tender can be combined for greater magnification. The power
h uld be multiplied to obtain the working power. For intanc : two 2X extenders can be combined to form a 4X unit,
which would have an expo ure factor of 16 and require a
4- top increase in expo ur .
Catadioptric or Reflective Systems

Reflective optical y terns employing mirrored optical
urfaces enable long focal lengths to be folded in ide of a
c mpact a sembly, thu saving space and weight. The e
y terns usually combine reflective surfaces and refracti e
correcting lenses. The color correction is good and normally
requir no correction for u ing infrared sen itive film .
B au of the necessity of u ing the entire light path, an
diaphragm usuall , cannot be incorporated in these
t ms. eutral den ity filters or a reduced hutter opening ma have to be used to reduce expo ure. Careful comparati\ e tests are advisable to determine the wtability of
th
I nses for the intended purpose.
The lenses typically ha e a econdary reflective urfac ith r on the back urfac of the front corr cting elem nt, or as a separate element mounted inside the lens. The
light is then reflected back through a hole in the primary
mirror at the back of the len and onto the film. The blocking of the center of th len by the secondary mirr r re ults
in the out-of-focus highlight and points being rendered on
th film a rings (or donuts). Thi effect should be noted and
thi type of lens should not be used if this will b a probI m. Ln many cases, these out- f-focus ring are desired and
are the main reason for usina the mirrored lens. It hould
b noted that mirror lenses typically ha eaT-number appro imately one (1) top lower than the actual f-number.
Exp ure tests hould be run prior to use, or the lens should
152
be calibrated on equipment capable of measuring the actual T-stop of the lens.

The primary requirement for achieving maximum reolving power and finest image quality with a tele-lens is
careful focusing. Long focal length lenses po
inherently shallow depth-of-field characteristics. This is a law of
physics and cannot be changed; therefore, some means of
focusing through the lens must be emplo ed. Secondly,
camera steadiness must be a ured by rigid lens mounting
and absence of vibration. Thirdly, the finest quality filters,
carefully chosen to fit the filming conditions, hould be
employed. A long lens hade i essential. It hould be carefully designed so as not to re trict the angular coverage of
the lens. It must al 0 have a totally non-reflective interior,
as hould all surfaces of tl,e lens mount that are exposed
to the image-forming light.
Modern telephoto len es have proven to be one of the
most useful tools for creative cinematography, often rendering subject details, compression, and selectiveness that
might otherwise have been impossible.
Zoom Lenses
b Bern Levy
In order to und tand why we use a zoom lens, it is
best to first understand what a zoom lens is. By definition
tem,
a zoom lens is a preci ion optical / mechanical
which can change its field of view without noticeably
changing its aperture or f us. This is made po ible by the
use of complex cam and followers controlling pred ely
de igned and manufactured optical component.
Today the zoom lens is used mainly as a variable
prime, meaning that the z om lens carries within it an infinit number of focal length which can be utiliz d for the
specific composition r quired . The cinematographer has
available almost every c nceivable focal length and aperture found in fixed focal length lenses. Cine z om have
range up to 25X now, with focal length of 7.5mm to
625mm and aperture a high as f/ 11 currently a ailable,
leaving very few requirements for fixed foca1length lenses.
In addition to these properties, the zoom lens can achieve
pecial effects by ever-ehanging tl1e field of view, otherwise
known as zooming.
153
Those characteristics which we consider important in

electing a fixed focal length lens are equally important in
lecting a zoom lens. In adctition to aperture and focal
length, we must consider zoom range, minimum focusing
distance, correction, etc. in determining which zoom lens
is s uitable for your purposes. Equally important are your
own requirements for this lens. I extremely close focusing
necessary? ls high aperture important? Will you be shooting close-ups indoors? Or mostly outdoors from long distances? All aspects must be considered.
One lens may allow better operational flexibility than
ano ther lens and therefore reduce the demands on the camera . As an example, a clo -focu ing len may cut production time as compared to a len that requires the use of
clo e-up attachments. A lens with a large zoom range may
reduce tlle n umb r of times tl1e camera is repositioned.
ReHabili ty of the lens has a direct relationship to the manufac ture r. The pa t record of tl1e lens design as well as tl1e
manufacturer's reputation in tl1e marketplace mu t be conidered . Are ser ice facilities available? Is the facility
equipped with proper instrumentation and personnel? Will
parts be available?
Another pertinent consideration is whether to purchase a new or used zoom len s. As tl1e zoom lens is a m echanical ystem, tl1e age and previous u e of the lens wi ll
determine whether a used lens, at a lower cost, ha a value
over a n w lens at a higher cost. Are tl1e zoom and focus
mechani ms sm otl1? Wha t is the appearance of tl1e coating? Are the front and rear ele ments scratched? The answers to these questions wiU help determine the va lue of a
zoom lens.
Mechanics of Zoom Lenses

Perhaps the ingle most important factor in preparing
a zoom I ns for use is the mounting proced ure. Unlike fixed
focal lengtl1lens, a zoom will not perform correctly if not
eated properly in tl1e camera. The distance from tIle seat
r flange of the len mount to tlle film plane (known as the
flange focal distance) is hypercritical. U not set to tIle prescribed dimension (17.52mm for Standard "C" mount,
40.0mm for Aaton, 52mm for Arriflex Standard, 38.l mm for
CP, 48mm for Eclair) out-oF-focu image will result when
zooming from long focal lengths to hort focal lengths. This
phenomenon is a result of the depth of focus, tIle lens-to-
154
film tolerance being greater at the long focal length than at

the short focal length. To avoid mounting problems, both
the len mount and camera socket should be cleaned before in erting the lens into the camera . It must b pointed
out that professional zoom lenses mus t be adjusted to an
extremely small tolerance specified by the lens manufacturer, which could be a preci e as .0lmm (.0004") of the
flange focal distance, and therefore, a mall particle of dirt
may actually interfere with the proper seating of the e
lenses.
While some zoom lens ctiaphragms are graduated in
both f- and T-stops, exposure should only be e t on the T
cale. Because the large number of optical e lements in a
zoom lens affects the transmis ion of light through the lens,
there i a difference between the geometric aperture (f-stop)
and the photometric aperture (T- top).
Zooming, or the changing of focal length, results in the
changing of image size a t the film plane without varying
the subject-to-Iens distance. This can be accomplished by
either mechanical or electrical means. While most zoom
lenses rely on the manual turning of the zoom barrel, a
more controlled and therefore more consistently accurate
rate can be acllieved by the use of electrical motor drives.
In some cases, this is not preferred. While some cinematographers prefer to actually ro ta te the zoom barrel directly by
hand (the claim that this m thod give them a much
greater control), other prefer an electrical ervo system
with a rate control to provide a dampening effect. Thi allows tll. opera tor to start tlle zoom very slowly and then
accelerate to th desired maxlllum speed. The situation can
also be repeated, in reverse, to end the zoom lowly. This
dampening effect is desirable a it tend to make the zoom
movement itself less noticeable. Regardless of whether
turning tlle zoom barrel by hand or by motor, it is suggested
that the lens be zoomed tlle entire focal length range before
actually making a take in order to ctistribute the lubrication
within the zoom cam and bearings. This will result in a
much moother zoom effect, eliminating irregular movements or hang-ups.
Before attempting to focus a lens, the viewfinder eyepiece must be adjusted to your vision. It is recommended
that th lens actually be defocused prior to setting this eyepiece. Yo u must r ea li ze that in thi procedure, the
viewfinder is being set to adjust the focus of your eye to the
ground glass viewing system of the camera only. The lens
155
is not considered as part of this system. The viewfu1der

should be adjusted so that only the grain of the ground
glas is harp. At U1is point, the eyepiece should be locked
in position 0 that it will not be moved accidentally dlUing
use.
When attempting to focus, the lens should always be
set at it long t focal length and at full apertlUe, as these
conditions tablish the minimum depth of field for a zoom
lens and provide maximum sensitivity. Similarly to zooming, the focus barrel hould be turned throughout its entire range in order to distribute the lubrication for a mooth
effect before making a take. For "grab" hots, one hould
know the hyperfocal distance of the lens. To review, the
ba ic rule i that when the lens is focused on the hyperfocal d' lance, the depth of field extends from half the hyperfocal di tance to infinity, providing the maximum focusing range fora po ible"grab" hot (see tables on pages 1742(0).
Do's and Don't's

It hould be olU aim to create pictlUes that do not bring
attention t the mechanics invol ed in the production of the
pictlUe. We must remember that we are operating a motion-picture camera and not a moving pictlUe camera. We
must realize that eery zoom movement, like every camera movement, hould have a motivation. The zoom should
not be u ed merely becau e it is available. The fact there is
a zoom I ns on a camera does not necessitate utilizing the
lens for the zoom ffect. The " trombonmg" technique invented by 8mm amatelUs and propagated by profe ionals around the world should be avoided unless that particular effect i required in the production.
Ba ically, a zo m lens contains an infinite series of focal lengths. We should consider the zoom as a variable
prime len u ing it in mud1 the same manner as fixed focal length len es. When a specific focal length is called for,
the zoom lens h uld be set for that specific focal length and
the scene h t ju t as if a fi xed focal length lens wa
mounted on the camera.
On th other hand, when the production calls for a
searching or revealing effect, the zoom lens is capable of
handling thi t chnique. The searffiing technique was inherit d from broadcast television coverage of baseball and
other major sports. It tarts "'lith an overall wide-angle shot
of the arena. Upon the deci ion of the team i.nvolv d to enact a sensational play, the lens is zoomed in to a tight shot
of the p layer at the center of the action. The opposite type
of zoom movemen t, "revealing" th ubject, is used more
often in commercials and theatrical film a it can impose
tr mendous impact if carried out corr ctly. In this type of
zoom movement, the zoom lens is fir t set at the long focal
length to proVide a narrow angle of view and, upon cue, is
zoomed to a wide-angle po ition to re eal another object
to accent the plot.
An intimacy with a moving ubject can be achieved by
zooming at the same rate a the ubject is moving either
toward or away from the camera. Thi method keep the
ubject size the same e en though th ubject is in motion.
The effect is heightened b the changing of perspective in
that while the subject ize remain relativel con tant
throughout the sequenc , the background relationship
changes according to the di tance from the ubjecl to the
background. The per pecti e change only because the
distance between the lens and the ubject i changing. The
focal length of the lens is not the c ntrolling factor in determining perspective. The focal length of the lens determines the angle of view, which pro ide us with the required width and height of the picture.
The zoom len can also be u ed to introduce peed. A
very fast zoom from a wide angle t a tight hot of a speeding subject will accelerate the movem nt of that ubject.
lnanin1ate objects can be made to appear to move by proper
zoom movements. The changing of imag ize in a given
equence can actually create the illusion of movement.
Zoom Lens Flexibility

There are a number of attachment available for zoom
lenses to increase U1eLr flexibility. Th e attad1D1ents can be
used to flUther change the angl of view, working distances, color and contrast, as well a protect the lens. One
of the most commonly used front-m unted attachments is
the dose-up lens (sometimes r ferred t as a diopter). TI1ese
attad1D1ents fit on the front of a z om lens, permitting a
doser U1a.I1 normal focusing range, as well as the full use
of U1e zoom. Its prime limitation i that focu ing to infinity
is not possible.
One of the most recent front-molmted attad1D1ents is
a unit to increase the focal length of a zoom. TIUs telephoto
attad1D1ent, while increasing the focal length, may reduce
157
the zoom range whereas it is limited by its front diameter

to a med ium-wide angle.
As an example, a 15-to-1 zoom is reduced to a 6-to-1
because of thi phenomenon. Another front-mounted atta~:hment performs the opposite function. A retrozoom, or
wlde-.angl~attachment, will decrease the focal length; however, In thi ca e, the zoom range is not affected. An adclitional benefit of the wide-angle attachment is that it reduces
the minimum focu ing clistance.
The m t important reason for utilizing front mounted
attachm nts i that the geometric aperture (f-stop) is not
affect d, degradation of image quality is minimal and a
normal focusing range to infinity is maintained.
On the other hand, rear mounted attachments, such a
range e tender, not only multiply focal lengths, they also
affect aperture and existing aberrations. As an example, a
2X range e tender mounted on the rear of a 25-250mm
f/3.2Iens will double the focal length (5Q-SOOmm) as well
as the a~erture (f/~.4). Aberrations which may not ha e
been.noticeable on ~ are magnified 4X due to the geometry mvol .e?, cr~atin? an image of questionable quality.
When uffiaent light IS available, such as during outdoor
sporting events, ~e iris is stopped down at least halfway
and these aberrations are reduced, generally resulting in acceptable image .
. While rear-~oun.ted ~lter~ do represent a Ie s expenIve meth d of light filtratIon, It must be pointed out that
they also elongate the back focal distance of a lens to a climension Y.! the thickness of the filter material. As tolerances
for mounting professional zoom lenses are measured in
hundredths of a millimeter, this extension of the back fo~al distance of a zoom may seriously affect its image qualIty. Of cour e, cameras which are manufactured with filter slots have adjusted flange focal distances which compensate for thi longation. This deviation then demands
that even ~ough a f~ter is not used, a UV or clear optical
flat of eqUivalent thlCkne to the normal filter material
mu t b-: in erted in the optical path in order to compensate
for the Lncrea ed back focal clistance.
Front filter, however, do not require any adjustment
of the back focal distance and are therefore recommended.
If no color filtration is required, a light UV can serve to increa e th " nap" of a picture as well as serve as an inexpen ive protective device for the front element of a zoom
len .
158
Cine Zoom Lenses on Video Cameras

Now that .the video medium has progressed to stateeqUIpment, where gamma and other picture
qualities are controllable enough to provide the "film look,"
cinematographers are fineting a need for a greater variety
of lenses to render the same quality images they have photographed on film. Unfortunately, prof ional television
equipment manufacturers have not produced many "extreme" type lenses and therefore there is an urge to utilize
the great variety of cine lenses on video cameras.
Cine lenses may be used successfully on black & white
and single-tube color cameras. As mo t professional productions would utilize a prism-type camera, we must ref~r. to this type o.f mechanism as being limited in its capability to accept erne lenses. The prism or beam plitter that
breaks up the white light coming from the lens into the
three primary colors requires an elongated back focal dis~ce of.a given lens in order to compensate for the glass
m the pnsm. Whereas some extreme cine lenses do not have
this extra back focal length, it i not possible to utilize them
on professional video cameras. Depeneting upon the ize
of the actual prism in the camera, it ha been found that
focal len~ of 15~ and longer can be used successfully
on mo.st -!-mch pnsm-type camera . Extreme wide-angle
and high-aperture lenses carmot be used. Several optical
adapters are currently available to enable you to utilize cine
lenses on video cameras. The users of these devices report
low-quality images in addition to bulkines and high cost,
negating their original concept.
of-~~-art
Lens Maintenance
User maintenance is principally limited to keeping
glass surfaces clean. No adjustment hould be made to a
zoom lens except by a qualified technician. As most major
lens manufacturers main tain their own ervice centers or
appo.int service r~p.resen tative , it i best to limit any repairs
to this group. This IS extremely important, as only a trained
technician, who knows the effects of the adjustments and
works with the proper tools and mea uring instruments,
can properly carry out a zoom I ns repair.
Should ~aj.ntenance be required, it is extremely important to realize that the ervice facility can not rectify the
p:oblem unless it is dearly indicated to them. Prior to shippmg a lens to a service facility, it i essential that the prob-
159
I .m. be ~ocwnented, clearly indicating all a pect of the

difficulties encountered. If neces ary, a test film, haWing
the problem, should accompany the lens. Term uch a
"the len i n't sharp" or "it doesn't work" hould be
a aided. pecific details h uld be indicated, uch as, "the
lens g
soft at a specificfocallength," "the iris blad
tick
at fj ?" or "the lens has been dropped" and p
ibly " the
le~ ha been immersed in a water." By gi ing these details, the ervice tedmician will be able to attack the problem and olve it quickJ ,re ulting in a lower co t to you.
La t but not least, th len hould always be packaged
prop dy. Do not attempt to hip a lens, whether to a ser. ice cent r or otherwise, without haVing proper packaging
msulation surrounding it t a depth of at lea t 2". Iu t a
imp rtant, it i essential that the lens be packaged 0 that
th r i ab olutely no m vement of the lens or any part
pa kaged therein. By adh ring to these few ru l ,your
z m I ns should provide you with excellent ervice over
th year.
in present-day thea ters, manufacturers have been u ing

.001 inches in recent years, and these new tables follow that
practice (.0006 inches (.015mm) is used in the 16mm tables).
To read depth of field for larger or smaller circles of confuion, use the column under a smaller or larger lens f-stop.
Acceptable sharpnes i affected not only by the geometry
of the cone of light imaging a point object; it is also affected
by:
1. The imaging quality of the lens both on-axi and offaxi at the plane of best focus.
2. The imaging quality at large and small, a compared
to intermediate iris diaphragm apertures.
3. Diffusion or flar ,whether inten tional or not.
4. The imaging quality of the films and printing method used (negative, intermediate, and print).
5. Viewing conditi n .
6. Object illumination and contrast.
If for any of these rea on the sh arpnes of the best
image is less than the arbitrarily established norm, .the a~
parent depth of field will be affected also. If the eXlt pupIl
of the lens, due to a ymmetry, is not the same a the indicated f-stop, the depth of field will be affected.
Because depth of field has no sharply defined limits,
the distances in the tabl have been "rounded off" to figures compatible with the distance.
Lens Formulas
Hyperfocal Distance
Hyperfocal distance of a lens represents a pecial case
f depth of field in whkh objects at infinity, a well as the
near t p ible objects, are photographed with acceptable
~arpn . ~erefore, if a I n i focused at the h perfocal
distance, all Image pain beh een one-half that di tance
and infinity will not e ceed a specific circle of confu ion,
r expr ed more simpl , will be acceptabl sharp.
The f rmula for hyp rfocal di tance (using inche or
fraction there f) i :
F
F = focal length of lens
H = -f = Flstop number
f x Cc
Cc = ci rcle of confusion
Depth of Field
t.
The circle of confusion for the hyperfocal di tance can

be briefly described a the image of a point ituated outid the fused di tance plan that will therefore not form
the image of a point in the film plane, but a blurred circle
of a diameter Cc.
Acceptable harpnes in pa t editions ha been calculated as a .002 inch image of a point ("Circle ofconfu ion"),
for imag on 35mm film. Because of larger magnification
160
The depth of field of a lens is the range of acceptable

sharpness before and b hind the plane of focus obtained
in the final screened image. It hould be understood that
th determination of depth of field involves a ubjective
sen ation that require taking into account the condi tion
under which the final proj cted image is viewed. The fo llowing two fo rmulas are fo r calculating the depth of field
with the help of the h.ype rfocaJ dis tance and the circle of
confusion.
Depth of Field Calculations

First Calculate the hyperfocaJ distance
(definition abo e)
(The tables are calculated
for Cc = .001 " (.025mm) for 35mm film,
= .0006 (0.15mm) for 16mm film)
161
Sec nd: Using H, calculate near and

far d pth- f-field Limits
HxS
D
camera t near limit

H + (5-F)
H S
DF camera to far limit
H - (5-F)
H = Hyperfocal distance
= Di lance from camera to object
F = Focal length of lens
Depth T taJ = DF-D
Wh n th bj t distance is I than 10 times the lens
focal length, d pth of fi ld i very mall, and tabl are more
appropriat I combined and stated in terms of image magnificati n, rath r than focal length and ubjectdi tance. (See
"E treme I up.")
Depth of Focus
Th depth of focu hould be dearly di tinguished
from the previousl explained depth of field . The depth of
focu i an infinitely small range behind the lens at the focaJ plan within whidl the fiLm is positioned during expome. Thi i mo t critical, particularly with short-focus
len e . If th film moves out of this precise po ition, either
forward r backward, it wUl cause unsharp images produced by an increa e of the diameter of the cirde of confusion. Th circle of confusion, in other words, is no longer
an acc ptably harp point but a larger circle which i
blurr d . Pr ci e placement of the film in the fiJm apertur
is a mo t imp rtant consideration for motion picture camera d igncr to avoid film buckJing or breakage, or other
mechanical pr blem such as variable pressure plate or
poor regi tration, cau ing displacement of the fiJm behind
the len during actuaJ exposure. Eacll frame mu t be held
securely in po ition and in perfect register in the e act focal plan and r main absoluteJy motioruess dW'ing exposur. F l' clo e approximation the formula for depth f focu for a lens at a given f-stop i plus or minus:
foca l length x f- top

Depth of focus =
1000
Lens Angle and Field of View

Field of view may be calculated by ub tituting film
aperture size for image ize; the field of view i then the
object size. (Lens angle rna b calculated with th aid of a
table of tangents or a pocket scientific or Lide-rule calculator; see tangents table.)
For 2:1 anamorphic Ie
, th field or object ize is
double in the horizontal dim nsion.
A = Aperture (height or width) in inch
f = focal length of a lens in inch
Y.!
Tangent Y.! viewing angle = - f
The tangent of Y.! iewing angle can be converted to

degrees by con ulting a tangent table. Multiply thi angle
by two to obtain the full iewing angle. For Cinemascope,
or other two times queeze wide screen processes, the formula is imply the aperture divided by the focal length of
the lens, since 2 times \12 qual 1. Other queeze ratios
should use the following f rmuLa:
Y.! A Squeeze Ratio

Tangent Yz viewing angle = - - -- -- -Using the above sk tch one may calcula t camera distance, object size, lens focaJ length or image size if any three
are known.
o = object size in front of ca mera
D = distance from obj ct to lens of camera
F = focal length f len LI ed
A = image size
and: a = lens angle when A = film aperture size
o = field of view when A = fi lm aperture size
Lens Aperture
The e component ar c nn ted together b th foUowing ba ic formula:
and that, in other term, lead to the foUowing four basic

f rm ulae:
OxF
D =- - ;
DxA
0=- - '
F '
object size x focal length

OJ tance = - - - -_
aperture size
distance x aperture ize
Object ize = - - -- - - - -focal length
F= -
distance x aperture ize

- ' Focallen th = - -- _
a '
object size
FxO
=- - ; Aperture ize= - -- - - - - - _
o
distance
All di mensions mllst be c nv rted to the sa me wli ts: f et,
inches, meters or mill imeter . (One inch equal 25.4 millim ter ; one millimeter equal .0394 inches.) Note tha t D is
mea ured to the lens (front principal point). Mo t cameras
and lens scales are calibrated to the distance from the film
plane (becau e lenses to be m LUlted on the camera are of
van u izes). Thi convention hould pose no problem
when the object distance i greater than about 10 times the
lens focal length. (See"E treme Closeup Photograph .")
164
F-stop or f-number i the ratio of the focal length of a

lens to the diameter of th entrance pupil. (Appro imately
the aperture diaphragm ize in a ymmetricallens).
T-stop is a mea urc of th light transmission of the lens.
It is related to f-stop b the efficiency of light transmission.
lens which tran mitted 100% of the light ntering it
would ha e the same f- top and T number.
To compensate for backla h in the mechanism, alwa s
t a lens diaphragm by mo ing from the wid t opening
to the desired aperture. nti method takes up any backlash
that may be pre ent and pro ide the most accurate setting.
51 PH 22.90.)
(Reference:
Lens Displacement When Focused Closer

Than Infini ty
d = lens displacement from infinity p
f = focal length of lens in inches
a = distance focu d on in inches
iti n
f2
d= a-f
EXAMPLE: The di placement of a SOmm (2 inch) len
focused at 10 feet (120 inches):
4
22
d = - - = - - = 0.031"
11
120-2
Extreme Close-up
In photographin g ubj cts at a d istance closer tha n the
ca mera lens mount sca l will allow, tlu'ee opti ns are open:
1. Wh en availab l , extension ri ng or bellows may be
u d between tile camera lens and the flange.
2. Supplementary lenses (commonly known a "diopter ") may be mOLUlted in front of the len or rewed into
filter holders on the lens.
3. Lense especiall designed for photomacrography
may be employed. (The term "macro" is 10 ly defined;
Kodak uses it when th scale i greater than 1:1, while man
len
are sold for "macro" for use down to 1:1 or 1:2.
Lenses used for general cinematography are d signed and

corrected for ubjects many feet from the camera; "macro"
lenses are corrected for whatever scale they are sold for, and
would be expected to deliver a better image at that scale
than a conventional lens with extension ring .)
The choice between extension rings or diopter lenses
is determined by convenience, with a slight preference for
the use of prim lenses and extension rings. Image aberration due to clo e focusing of prime lenses and due to the
" inlple len" sh'ucture of diopters is minimized in each
ca e by stopping down to fl8 or f/11. While a macro lens
may be corrected for a larger aperture, depth of field (about
Vioth of an in h at f/8 at scale 1:2) may be a limiting fac tor.
Depth of field at a given f- top depends solely on the scale
factor (copy ratio or image size divided by subject size), not
on the use of extension tubes or diopters, nor on the lens
focal length. Therefore, it is preferable to use a long focus
lens to allow more room for lighting.
Extension of Prime Lens

As the prime lens is mov d forward, less light is transmitted becau the effective I-stop is progressively diminished by its distance from the film. At a subject-to-lens distance of about 10 focal lengths (field width of 8" for 35mrn,
or 4" for 16mm) this begins to become noticeable. The table
hows the amount of illumination increase required to
maintain full expo ure in terms of image scale factor.
By convention, most camera lens distance scales are
calibrated at a ubject distance measured from the film
plane becau e lenses of differing sizes are in olved. The
following dose-up tables are calculated on subject-ta-Iens
di tance (to the front "principal point"; for practical purposes, the iris diaphragm, which is not necessarily the calibrated diaphl'agm ring).
When a prime lens is set at scale focus infinity, and a

diopter lens is mounted in front of it, a subject will be in
focus on the film plane if positioned at a di tance from the
diopter lens equivalent to the focal length of the diopter lens
(2 meters for a Y.z diopter lens, 1 meter for a 2 diopter lens,
etc.). Iwo diopter lenses mounted clo e together may be
used and the power is the sum of the powers of the two
lenses. When two diopter lenses are combined, the highest power should be closest to the prime lens. Plus dlopters should be placed in front of the prime lens with their
convex (outward cW've) side toward the subject. If an arrow is engraved on the rim of the diopter lens mOLUlt, it
should point toward the subject.
Highest screen quality results with lower-power diopters. It is better to use a longer focal length prime lens
and a less powerful plus-diopter lens than to employ a
higher power diopter on a short focal length prime lens.
Plus diopter lenses shorten the focal length of the prime lens
and change its focus scale. The tables give typical figures
for these factors. Because the prime lens is used "on scale"
it is not necessary to increase exposure for close-up photographed in this maJmer.
Depth Of Field For Close-up Photography

When the object distance is Ie than 10 times th lens
focal length, depth of field is very small, and tables are more
appropriately combined and stated in terms of image magnification, rather than focal length and ubject distance. The
difference in near and far depth also becomes mall, and
depth i stated in the table as the total zone of probable
acceptable sharpness. Geometric calculation of depth of
field for asymmetrical lenses (retro, tele, and zoom) i also
to be taken as an approximate guid in these zones, b cause
each has been design d for a specific range whicll mayor
may not include extreme close-up.
Diopter Lenses
By definiti n, "diopter" i the measure of the power
of the lens expre ed as the reciprocal of the focal length in
meters (1000 divided by the focal length of the lens in millimeters). The term is commonly used by cinematographers
to refer to supplementary lenses used in dose-up photography. The lenses are generally of a weak meniscus form
and are marked with the number indicating the diopter
power: +Y.z , +1, +2, etc.
166
167
ally cut in half, although they may be positioned in front

of the prime lens so that more or Ie than half is covered.
They may be compared with bifocals for human vi ion, in
which the eye may focus near and far. They have an advantage over bifocals, however, in that they may beJoel/sed
Extreme Closeup Lens Formulas

1000
Power in diopters = - - (="P")
F(mm)
shnrplyon both nenr nnd fnr sl/bjects illll/ltnneollsly.
image distance from lens
image size
Magnification " m" = - - object d istance from lens
object size
Combinin g "diopter" lens with prime lens

F x 1000
P
F=
- - - millimeters
<
F + 1000
F = focal length prime lens

F = effective f cal length,
(combinati n)
P
Total depth of field in terms of "m":
2C (l+m)
0I = - -- -
c= dia meter of circle of confus ion

N= f/ number
Exposure factor for extended prime lenses:

E po ure Factor
EI(close-up)
= (1 + my
EI(normal)
N, = indica ted or
ca librated
len stop
Lens stop corr cted for m :

l +m
Stop d1ange
=6.6 log (1 +m) =
I L=
ca lculated or
"normal"
lens st p
log (l+my ]
[
10g2
ot all of the fom1ulas are rigorous.

Some have very mall facto discarded for practicality.
Split-Field Diopter Lenses

Split-field diopter lense are pnrtin/lens , cut so that
they cover only a pOltioll of the prime lens. They are gener-
168
The depth of field of the prime lens is not e tended.

The plit-field diopter lens simply permits focusing on a
very close subject on one side of the frame, while a distant
subject is photogra phed normally tlu'ough the lmcovered
portion of the prime lens. Generally, the area in between
will not be in focus. There are instance, such as using a
zoom lens with a sma ll aperture at the Wide-angle po ition,
when sh arpn ess may extend all the way from the ultraclose-up to the distant ubject. The pUt diopter-equipped
lens possesses two distinct depths of field: one for the close
subject (which may be very shallow or possess no depth
whatever), and another for the distant subject (which will
be the normal depth of field for the particular focal length
lens and f-stop in use). It is important, therefore, to exclude
subject matter from the middle distance because it will create a situation w here the foregroLmd is sharp, the middle
distance is out of focus and the distant subject is sharp!
Split-field diopt r lenses require grOtmd-glass focusing to precisely line up b oth foregrOtmd and background
subjects and visually cl1eck focus on each. This is particularly important with zoom lenses, which may require camera movement during the zoom.
Very unusual effects are po sible that would otherwise
require two separate hots to be later combined in an optical printer via a matting process. Making such split shots
in the camera permit viewing the cene as it will appear,
rath r than waiting for both shots to be optically printed
onto one fi.Jm.
The proper power spli t-field diopt r lens is positioned
in front of the taking lens on the same side as the n a r object, so that it is sh arply focused on o ne side of the frame.
The lmcovered portion of the conventional or zoom len is
focused in the usual marmer on the di tant subject. ( ote:
Use the "Plus Diopter Lenses Focu Conversion Table" to
find near and far focusing distances with various power
diopter lenses.) A zoom lens may b employed, either to
obtain an intermediate focal length not available with conventional lenses, or to zoom during the shot. Study the shot
169
t1u'ough t11e focu ing viewfinder at tI1e f-s top to be used for
filming.
..
Th edge of tI1 plit diop ter lens sh0U!d be POSlti.oned,
if pos ibl , 0 that it line up witl1 a straIght edge m tI1e
background, uch a the comer of a room, tI1e edge of a
column or a b okca e. Eliminating tI1e edge may prove
difficult und I' c rtain conditions, particularly witl1 a zoom
lens, becau tI1e edge will hift across tI1e frame slightly
when tl1e len i zoomed. It is wise to leave space between
tl1e for ground and background ubjects so tl1at tI1ey do not
overlap aI1d 0 tI1at each is remo ed from tI1e lens edge.
This will minimize "blending." The split diopter need not
be lined up erticall - it rna be used horizontally or at
an angle t cover a foreground ubject on ~op, .bottom,
either ide or at an angle acro tI1e frame. Lighting rna
be emplo ed to Ii hten or dar~en tI1e b~ckground area
where tI1e plit occurs, to make It less no.ticeable.
plit-field diopter shots cannot be filmed on tI1~ :un.
The require preci
ubject placement, camera po ltioning and balanced Lighting to record an acceptable re ult
witl10ut at II tale blur behveen. They have Limited use and
will not replace elaborate etup that require optical printing, proc
background projection or mattes. Th.ey may be
used for imple combination shots where tI1~ cm~matog
rapher i allowed tI1e time required for a prease lineup of
tI1e variou el ment involved.
Diopter and plit-field diopter l ense~ may ~e ordered
cu tom-mad in a compound con truction which can be
more highly c rrected tI1an simple single-lens element.
Such compound lenses consist of two or more :I~men.ts and
are rath I' thick, 0 they require a special retcunmg rmg.
Special Purpose Lenses

Swing Shift Lens
The lairmont wing Shift Lens System consists of a
multi-axi moveable lens board receiver attach ed to a
Ar riflex style PL lens mount by a rubber .bellows. Specially
modified len
ar attached to tI1e receIver board by two
captive crew . The a embly i able to move tl1e en.tire lens
in the following directions: tilt up ~d down, wmg Side
to id, hift po ition and focus rIght to left, or up a~d
down. Til ting/ swinging the lens plane alters t11e focus; ~lt
ing / winging the film p lane alters tl1e shape..By combll1ing the ariou parameters of movement, different and
170
unusual effects CaI1 be accomplish ed, uch as increas d or

decreased deptl1 of field, seJ cti ve plane of focus, repositioning of image wi tI10ut changing placement of tI1e camera, and correction or addition of image di tortion. The focallengtl1s available are 20mm, 24mm, 2Smm, 35mm,
50mm, 60mm, and SOmm.
Panavision 45mm T2.8 Slant-Focus Lens

The plane of focu of tI1is len can be tilted in any direction (induding vertical and diagonal) a well as horizontal by adjusting tI1e rear lens rotating mount.
If tI1e lens focus i
t on an object near tI1e center of
tl1e field of view, tl1e plane of focu can be tilted 0 tl1at
objects (left ide of frame and / or right ide of frame) located
along tl1is tilted plane of foeu will al be harp.
If tl1ere is not an obj ct near tl1e center of tl1e field of
view, measure tl1e di tanc to tl1 near and far object and
set tl1e focus at an average between tl1 two distances. The
plane of focus can now b tilted 0 that tl1e two objects will
be brought into foeu . In all ituati n ,an obj ct near tl1e
center of llie field of view hould till be in focus after tilting llie lens.
Due to llie tilting nature of llii len, it CaIU10t be used
willi a Panaflex follow-focus. For th initial focus and any
change in focus, eye foeusing i necessary. 111is lens accepts
a I.4X Primo extender witl1 negligib le change in performance and no change in operation. The foeal length becomes 63mm witl1 a maximum aperture of T4.0. If filters
are used willi this len tI1ey should (whenever possible) be
gLass filters in front of the len . If ne ded, tI1e lens does accept a 40.5mm rear fi lter.
Continental Camera Systems RemotelyControlled "Pitching Lens" /3.9 Optical

Relay
Concept: A system to r motely control a prime lens
t11at i mOlmted at tl1 end of an optical relay tube. ln normal configuration t11e IS" tub xt nd d wnward from t11e
camera . The prime lens i mounted at right angles to tl1e
tube and can tilt 15 up to 90 down. The entire system rotate 380. This allows lens
Ud1 a
ikkor or Arriflex to
get into very small areas. Use of an anamorphic element
between tI1e end of tI1e relay tub aI1d camera allow a
spherical lens to produce an anan10rphic image on film .
171
Because focus i controll d in the relay tube, it is possible

to continuously follow-focus from Y2 incll to infinity, ~us
greatly ext nding the normal focus range of most pnme
lenses. The y tem may also be mounted vertically (as in.a
ubmarin ) or extended traight out in a horizontal pOSItion.
Clear length of relay: 1 "Maximum diameter: 3"
Control of Lens: Control console with built-in video
monitor. Pre ure- nsitive joy tick for pan and tilt operation. y tern power requirements nov, 220V or 24V DC.
Cameras: Arrifle IIC, orelco PCP90 (video), Mitchell
RT, Lightweight Technicolor Vi taVision equipped with
ikon mount.
Focus: Rem t ly controlled from hand-held unit. Fo.
eu peed i proportional to focus command.
Taking Formats : 16mm, 35mm anamorphic,
VistaVision.
Optics: ikon mount through adapter rings can use
a wide a rtment of ikkor and Arrilex lenses from 7.2
mm to l00mm. peed of sy tern is /3.9 to f/32. Prime lens
is set wide pen and aperture is controlled in the relay system.
Su pension: Standard dolly with small jib arm and
c.C.S. balanced cro arm at camera end of jib. Large telecopic billboard cranes and Chapman "Titan" cranes can
be used.
Kenworthy Snorkel Camera Systems

A remote image-taking system with operator and camera compon nt removed from shooting area. The camera
looks into a p ri cope-like optical relay tube that extend
dow nward bel w the camera and ends with a small fron tsurfac d mirror. Since the mass of the camera with operator is removed from the shooting area, considerations of
cene staging are concerned only w ith the small end (I-W'
x 1-\14" at the mirror) of the tube. The tilting mirror is remotely controU d, as are other functions such as pan, focus, roll, zoom and iris. The mirror system permits more
intimate h ting (due to its small size) than do add-on
right-angled len peri copes. It al 0 permits tilting up in
con tricted ituation because the mrrror, rather than the
tube/cam ra combination, does the tilting. TIle system allows viewp int in tight quarters reachable from overhead,
or from very low viewpoints or in miniature sets. Pans and
172
tilts are on system nodal point. An add d waterproof tube

permits underwater or transition hot.
There are two systems avai lable:
The Kenworthy ettman Snork I features fast optics
and lightweight, interchangeable formats, and carries a
shorter tube for use on lightweight dolli . The cameras are
butterfly VistaVision, 65mm, and 16mm film and .J" video
cameras. Camera lenses are u ed.
The type BKenworthy norkel i designed for hooting actors with dialogl.le at moderat lighting level . It carri a longer tube (48" or 66") which p rrnj ts more overhead
clearance for deeper penetration into four-walled sets or
water tanks. This y tern uses 35mm onl : Arriflex, Mitchell
Mark II, Panafle or oth r imilar camera . The Panacam
i used for video. S tern I nse are used on the Type B;
2 mrn & 50mm T for mm, 13mm T .6 for video. Both ysterns can use anamorphic lense . Type B requires a camera
crane.
With both s stem a con ole i u ed with a video
monitor and pan, tilt and lens control .
Dynalens
An optical stabilizing dice mowlted on the camera
optical axis for compensating for image motion due to vibration of the camera.
A pair of gyro sensor detect rapid motion and drive
two gin1bal-mowlted glas plat ,b tween which i a liquid-filled cell. One plate mov ar lmd a vertical axis and
the other around a horizontal axi in a manner which deviates the light path opposite to the Vibratory movement,
causing the image to tay till relative t the imag receptor (film or video).
A low-frequency-respon e manually operated potentiometer on the control module adjust the frequency enitivity of the unit so controUed panning or tilting may be
done.
The Dynalens is available in 2.3" diamet r for 16mm
film or small video cameras and 3.8" and 8" for larger format cameras. The maximum u eful angular deviation i
6.
173
35mm CAMERA DEPTH, Of, fIELD , HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW CIRCLE Of CONfUSION _ ,001 ' (1/1000")
LENS fOCAL LENGTH :
6,20'
4,43'
3.10'
2.22'
1.55'
1.13'
O.7S'
0.39'
1/1.4
1/2
1/2,S
1/4
1/5,6
lI S
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1/1
NEAR
f AR
6'10'
INF
6' ,367'
5' 6"
52
5' 3"
33'
4'10"
23'
4' 6'
16' 14' 0'
11' 7"
3' 7B' 5'
3' 0"
5' 11'
2' 5"
11' 5"
I" 8'1t
2' 4'12'
NEAR
fAR
5' 7'
INF
5' I'
INF
4' B"
INF
4' 6"
INF
4' 3B2'
3'11"
33'
3' 7"
19'
3' 2"
11' 6"
2' 9"
7' 3"
2' 34' 6'
I' 7'1t"
2' 7"
NEAR
fAR
4' 5'
INF
4' l '
INF
3'10"
INF
3' B"
INF
3' 6"
INF
3' 4"
INF
3' 1lB4'
2' 9'
26'
2' 511' 3"
2' 0"
5'10"
l ' 6"
2'11 '12'
NEAR
fAR
3' 5'
INF
3 3INF
3' 1INF
3' 0INF
2'10"
INF
2' 9"
INF
2' 7"
INF
2' 4'
INF
2' 141'
1'10"
9' 3I' 4'12"
3' 8'
NEAR
fAR
2' 7'
INF
2' 6'
INF
2' 4"
INF
2' 4INF
2' 3INF
2' 2"
INF
2' 1INF
1'11"
INF
l ' 9'
INF
I' 6'
92'
l ' 2V,"
5' B-
NEAR
fAR
2'
INF
2'
INF
1'10"
INF
I' 9"
INF
l ' !l"
INF
I' B"
INF
1"7"
INF
l ' 6"
INF
I' 5"
INF
I" 3"
INF
I" Vl'
21"
NEAR
fAR
l' 5INF
l ' 5INF
l' 4'
INF
l' 4INF
I' 4"
INF
l ' 3'
INF
I' 3INF
I" 2"
INF
1' 1INF
l ' 0INF
0'11'
INF
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
nf.~Wr<
~ftEuT~
15
12
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Dr.OT~~~ F
1/1
LENS
rfttT~
30
20
15
10
7
6
5
4
3
2
NEAR
fAR
IS'
INF
11'10'
64'
9'1131'
7' 515' 3'
6' 3II' 05' B9' 3"
5' 0"
7'7"
4' 3"
6' 0"
3' 6';'''
4' 7V,..
2' 8 J~"
3' 4 4.
"
1'10';'"
2'
l J,~
111.4
NEAR
fAR
12'
INF
10' 2'
547'
B' 9'
54'
6' 919' 3'
5' 9'
13' 0"
5' 3'
10' 7'
4' 8'
8' 54' 'I,.
6' 7"
3' 44'11'1r
2' 7';'''
3' 6"
I'
9'i<'
2' 2'.....
1.85:1 AR
(.S25'x.4461
0'
INF
0'
INF
0' 5"
INF
0' 5INF
0' 4INF
0' 4'
INF
0' 4'
INF
0' 4'
INF
0' 4'
INF
O' 4'
INF
0' 4'
INF
I"
INF
l'
INF
0' 6"
INF
0' 6INF
0' 6INF
0' 6"
INF
0' 6"
INF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6INF
0' 5'
INF
I"
INF
l'
INF
0' 9"
INF
0' 9INF
0' 9"
INF
0' B"
INF
0' B'
INF
0' BINF
0' B"
INF
0' 7"
INF
0' 7"
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
I" 0"
INF
I ' 0'
INF
I' 0'
INF
I' 0"
INF
0'11'
INF
0'11'
INF
0'11'
INF
0'10'
INF
0' 9'
INF
35mm CAMERA DEPTHOf"fIELD. HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW
15mm
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
29.06'
20.76'
fiELD Of VIEW
(w/projected Image)
S,S6'
0.56'
12.41'
HYPER
LENS
9,8mm
TV HEIGHT
(.594' )
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.676'x.700' )
32' 0">< 17' 465' 0"x27' 2"
25' 7">< 13'10"
S2'12-x21" 921' 4'x l1' 6"
43' 3",0( lB' r
19' 2"x 10' 4'
39' O"X 16' 3'
17' O-x 9' 3"
34' 6'x14' 614'11-x B' 1"
3D' 3'x 12' B"
12' 9"x 6'10"
2S'11-x lO' 9"
10' r x 5' 9'
21' 6-x 9' 0"
B' 6"X 4' 7"
17' 3"X 7' 2'
6' 4'X 3' 5'
12'10"X 5' 5'
4' 3"x 2' 3"
8' 6'x 3' 7"
7.27'
5.19'
3.63'
2.64'
1.82'
1.32'
0.91'
1/2
1/2.S
1/4
1/5.6
lI S
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.S25' .446")
NEAR
fAR
4'
INF
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' 5'
INF
3' 2'
INF
3' 0"
INF
2' 9INF
2' 7"
137'
2' 3'
17'
1'11"
7' l '
I' 5'
3' 3'
NEAR
fAR
3'
INF
3'
INF
3'
INF
2' 8'
INF
2' 6"
INF
2' 5"
INF
2' 3INF
2' 1INF
1'11'
INF
I' 8"
17'
l ' 4"
4' 5"
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.6Wx.7001
41'IO"x 22' r
BS' O'x3S' 6'
27' l~"X1 S' l'
56' 7"x 23' 820'11' x l1' 3'
42' S-x l7' 913'l!'x 7' 6'
2B' 3'X l1'10'
11' l 'x 6' 0"
22' 7"x 9' 5'
9' 9'x 5' 3'
19' B"X B' 3"
ll' 4-x 4' 6"
16'11"x 7' ,6'11"x 3' 9'
14' 1-x 5' 11'
5' 6'x 3' 0'
11' 3"x 4' 8'
2' 3'1.'
NEAR
fAR
6'
INF
5'
INF
5'
INF
4' 3"
INF
3'10'
INF
3' 7191'
3' 334'
3' 0'
16'
2' 7"
8'11'
2' 1';5' l '
l ' 7'
2'11'
3'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
2' IINF
2' 0'
INF
1'11'
INF
1'10"
INF
l ' 9'
INF
l ' 7'
INF
l' 5'
INF
l' 2'
B' 3"
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
I" 6INF
I' 6"
INF
I" 5'
INF
I' 5INF
I" 4INF
l ' 3INF
I" 2"
INF
0'11"
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
1'2"
INF
l ' 2'
INF
1' 1'
INF
1' 1INF
1' 1'
INF
l ' 0'
INF
0'11"
INF
0'10"
INF
15' 4"
13'10"
12' 3"
10' 9"
9' 2"
l'
INF
I"
INF
I'
INF
0'10"
INF
0'10'
INF
0'10'
INF
0'10"
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' B"
INF
0' 8"
INF
7' B"
6' 1"
4' 7"
3' 0'
(1/10001
fiELD Of VIEW
(w/ proJecled Image)
10.3S'
NEAR
fAR
B'
INF
7'
INF
6' 2INF
5' 1274'
4' 635'
4' 2'
21'
3'10"
14' 3'
3' 59' B2'11"
6' 6"
2' 4'
4' 3'
I" B'/t
2' S'lt
lB' 5-
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION ~ ,001-
14.53'
NEAR
fAR
10'
INF
B'
INF
7' 5'
INF
5'11'
32'
5' 2"
1ll'
4' 9"
13' 6"
4' 310' 3"
3' 9"
7'7"
3' 1'; '''
5' 6"
2' 6"
3' 91,\"
I' 9'
23' 0'
::~:~ ~ ~:
2' 9"x " 6'
5' 7"x 2' 4'
TV HEIGHT
(,594-)
30' 2'
20' l'
15' 010' 0"
B' 0"
7' 0'
6' 0"
5' 04' 0'
3' 0"
2' 0"
35mm CAMERA DEPTH-Of-fiELD , HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW CIRCLE Of CONfUSION
.001' (1/1000")
LENS fOCAL LENGTH:
20mm
HYPER
51.67'
36,90'
25.83'
18.45'
12.92'
9.23'
6.46'
4.70'
3.23'
2.35'
1.61'
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/ 5,6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/ 32
1/1
1.85:1 AR
(,825'x.446'1
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1 .676"x .700"}
nf.~~~~~f
LENS
~~tE~~
40
30
20
15
10
8
5
4
3
2
22
177'
19
72
14' S'
33
11' 8"
21' I"
8' S"
12' 5'
6'11"
9' 6"
S' 4','
6' 9' ,'
4' 6','
S' 63' 8',"
4' 4"
2'10"
3' 2'.
1' 11 '.,2' l'
INF
17'
160'
13' 0"
44'
10' 8'
25'
7'10"
13' 9"
6' 7"
10' 3'
S' 27' 2"
4' 5'
S' 9'
3' 7',"
4' 5'.2' 9','
3' 3'.
1'10''2' ",..
INF
11' 3"
89'
9' 6'
36'
7' 3'
16 4"
6' 1"
11' 7"
4'10'
7'10'
10'
INF
4' 2'f
6' 2"
3' S'o"
4' 9'
2' 8'1,"
3' 4 3~"
1'10"
2' 2"
8' 380'
6' 622'
5' 7"
14' 2'
4' 6'
8'113' 116'10
3' 3',
S' \'
2' 7'
3' 7'
l' 9',
2 3"
5' 844'
4'1\"
21'
4' I'
11' 2'
3' 7'
8' 2'
3' l {
S' 9'
2' S3' 11 "
l' 8','
2' 4""
4'104' 3'
60'
3' 8'
17'
3' 3'
10'11"
2'10"
7' 12' 3'
4' 5"
l' 7''2' 6','
3' 18S'
2'10"
22'
2' 6"
10' 62' '12"
s' r
l'
6 1~
2' 11 '
l' 3-
INF
INF
INF
l ' 6"
l' 9'
2' 2'
27'
1'108' 4"
l' 5'
3' 6-
\' 3'
INF
1' 7"
2' 0"
2' S"
l' 4'
INF
INF
INF
INF
l' S"
INF
I'll"
2' l'
2' 8-
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
2'
1'10
2' 4"
3' O
3' 7"
INF
2'
INF
INF
INF
1S' 1-
INF
INF
1'7"
42'
l' 3'
5 3"
42' S-" 17' 915' 8" 8' 631'10'.< 13' 310' S", S' 8"
21' 2- < 8' 10"
8' 4' 4' 6'
16' 11", 7' l'
6' 3"" 3' 412' 8'~ S' 35' 2">< 2'10"
10' 6") 4' S"
4' 2">< 2' 3"
8' 5-" 3' 6"
3' ,x I' 8'
6' 3" < 2' 7"
2' O'x l' l'
4' 2-x l' 9"
INF
1'11 -
2' S"
3' 2"
3'1'
INF
INF
2'
2'
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
2'
20'11-x l1 ' 4'
2'
INF
INF
3'
4'
S' 9"
6'1'
INF
3'
INF
INF
INF
INF
30' 2-
INF
7"
607"
INF
INF
4'
S'
6'
8'
INF
3'
4'
INF
INF
INF
INF
TV HEIGHT
1.594")
41'1O"x ?2'
85' 0,, 35'
31 ' 4', \7'
63' 9'x26'
2'
INF
INF
INF
5'
7'
9'
11'
14'
INF
3'
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
B'
10'
13
16'
19'
fiELD Of VIEW
(w/projecled Image)
l' 2"
INF
1'1
l' 4-
INF
INF
1'1"
13'
0'11'
INF
28.83'
20,18'
14,42'
10.09'
7,34'
5.05'
3.67'
2.52'
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5,6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/ 22
1/32
1.85: 1 AR
(,825'><.446")
[~ECE~~
LENS
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.676'><.700")
50
25
15
12
10
31'
131 '
19' l'
36'
12' 818' S'
10' S'
14' 1"
8' 11'
11' S7' 3Yl"
5' 4'
3' 9' ,-
27'
376'
17' 544'
I'll20' 3'
9'11"
IS' 2'
8' 6'
12' 1"
7' '/f'
9' 3S' 5"
6' 8W'
4' 7'/,S' S'I,'
3' 9'
4' 2'h'
4' 3'h'
2'10','
2'10 '1,'
3' 2"
"11 '1,'
2' ~~..
8' 10'h-
5' 7"
6' 6'
5
4
3
4' 8'h'
3' I'h'
1' 11 'h'
2' 'h'
7' 6'
6' 0'
4' 6'
3' 93' 02' 3
l' 6"
CIRCLE Of CONfUSION = ,DOl' (1/10001

40.36'
11' 3'
35mm CAMERA OEPTH-OHIELO, HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE & fiELD Of VIEW
25mm
LENS fOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER80_73'
57 ,66'
nf.~~~~~.
22' 7"
22'
INF
18'
INF
lS' S"
6S'
10'11'
23'109' 3'
17' 18' 0'
13' 36' 8'
10' 0S' 2'h '
7' l '
4' SII'
S' 8Y,"
3' 7 ~'4' S'I,2' 9'.','
3' 3'
1'11"
13'
188'
9'10"
31'
8' 6"
20' 77' 5lS' 46' 3'
11' 1S' 0"
7'7"
4' 3'
6' 1"
3' 6'
4' 7W'
2' aw'
3' 4'1,-
2' l V,'
2' 1'/,'
l '10'h'
14'
INF
11 '
INF
8' 7S8'
7' 6"
30'
6' 8'
19'10'
S' 9'
13' 3'
4' 8'
8' 7"
4' 0'
6' 8'
3' 4S' 0'
2' 7'1,'
3' 6l' 9'4'
2' 2'4"
11'
8'
6'
INF
INF
INF
9'
7'
6'
INF
7' 4'
INf
6' 7'
72'
S'l133'
S' 218' 0'
4' 3"
10' 3'
3' 9"
7' 8"
3' \',,'
S' 6'
2' 6'
3' 9'.'"
9'
2'" 3",-
INF
6' 0"
INF
S' 6-
INF
S' 0-
INF
4' 639'
3' 9'
14'10'
3' 4'
9' 11 "
2' 106' 7"
2' 3'/"
4' 3l' 8'
2' 6-
5'
INF
4'
3'
INF
2'
INF
INF
INF
INF
3'
2'
S'
4'
3'
2'
INf
INF
INF
4' 7'
INF
4' 3'
INF
3'10'
INF
3'
33'
3'
16'
2'
8'
2'
5'
l'
2'
4'
07"
9"
1',l'
6'1,'
9-
3' 7'
INF
3' 4-
2'10'
INF
2' 8-
INF
INF
3' "
INF
INF
2' 9"
INF
2' 6'
SS3'
2' 3'
19'
1'11"
7' S'
" 53' 4-
2' 62' 3'
INF
2' I'
INF
1'11'
INF
INF
2' 0'
INF
2' 0'
INF
1'11'
INF
l' 9"
INF
l' 8'
INF
1 7"
INF
INF
l' 8'
16'
l' 4"
4' S-
l' 4'
INF
" l'
9' 8'
fiELD Of VIEW
(w/prolecled Image)
41'10"x22' 7"
8S' 0"x35' 6"
20'11",, 11' 442' S"x l7' 912' 6-x 6' 9"
2S' S'x 10' 7'
10' O"x S' S"
20' 4-x 8' 68' 4'X 4' 6'
16'11"x 7' l'
6' 8'x 3' 7"
13' 6'x S' 8'
4' O'x 2' 8'
10' l'x 4' 3'
4' 2'x 2' 3'
8' S'x 3' 6'
3' 3"'x l' 96' 8'x 2'10'
2' S'x l' 4'
S' O'X 2' l'
" 7"x 0'10'
3' 3'x l' 4'
TV HEIGHT
(.5941
30' 2"
15' ' "
9'0"
7' 2"
6' 04' 93' 7"
3' 0'
2' 4'
l' 9"
l' 2"
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 35mm

HYPER
158,23'
nl~~~~~F
LENS
~~fEUT~
50
25
15
12
10
5
4
3
LENS
50
25
15
12
10
8
6
5
4
3
28,26'
14 ,38'
19.78'
7. 19'
9.89'
CIRCL E OF CONFUSION ,DOl" (1/1000")

FI ELD OF VIEW
4,94'
(w/ projecled Image)
1/1 ,4
fl2
1/ 2.8
fl4
fl5 ,6
f/ 8
fill
1/16
fl22
1/3 2
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2,39: 1 AR
31'
136
19' 037'
12' 7"
18 610' 5"
14' 2"
8' 11"
11' 5"
7' 3B II"
5 7"
6' 64' B' ,5' 43' 9' ,"
4' 2',"
2'10'\3' 1',"
1'11 ","
2'
27'
434
17' 445'
111020 59'11"
15' 3"
8' 6
12' 2
7' 0'
9' 4"
5 5"
6 8' ,
4' 7"
5' 63 9
4' 3' ,2'10 ',3 2"
1' 11',"
2' ',"
7'
35'
90
7"
887"
2"
0"
5"
8"
71 ~ ~
8' 5'"
5' 9',
6' 34' 10','
5 2310' ,"
4' 11 4"
2'11 1jJ"
3'
2' 02' '\{"
'.-
20' 6"
32' 113' 317' 3"
10'1013' 5"
9' 2' ,"
10' 11 ',7' 5'1,8' 7',"
5' B',6' 4"
4' 9',"
5' 2'"
3' 10 ',
4' 1',2'11 3' 11'11',2' ',"
206.67'
fl 1
r~ECEUT~
39,56'
56.51'
79.11'
II I
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER-
~ol~~l~~F
CAMERA DEPTHOFFIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE &. FIELDOF VIEW
1.85:1 AR
(,825" ,446")
38'
73
2 1'
29'
13'
16'
11
13'
9'
10'
8
6
113,02'
35mm
NEAR
FAR
40' 366'
22' 4"
28' 514' 0"
16' 2"
11' 4'
12' 8',9 6',"
10' 6'
7' B',"
8'
5' 106' 2"
4' 10 ',5' 1' ,3'11"
4' I"
2'11 ',3
I ' l l',"
2' I~"
',-
',-
',-
40mm
147,62'
1/1.4
NEAR
FAR
37'
76
21' 530' , 13' 8
16' 8"
11' 1"
13' 09' 4 ',10' 8"
7' 7"
8' 5' ,5' 9'"
6' 3'
4' 10''S 2
310' ,"
4' 1','
2'11 ',"
3'
1'11 ',"
2' I~"
'.
35mm
103.33'
22'
18'
INF
15' 468'
10'1024' 2"
9' 3"
17' 3"
8' 013' 5"
6' B10' 0"
5' 2',"
7' 14' 51.,5' B' ,3' 7' ,
4' 5',2' 9',"
3' 31'10....
2'
14'
INF
INF
13'
217'
9'10"
32
8' 5"
20' 10"
7' 5"
IS' 66' 3"
II ' 2"
4' 1'-
11 '
1 ""~
11'
INF
9'
INF
B'
62
7'
31'
6'
20'
5'
7'7"
4' 3"
6' 13' 64' B"
2' B' ,"
3' 4',1' 10',"
2' 1',-
6"
8"
IS' 5"
4'
8'
4'
6'
3'
5'
2'
3'
l'
2'
7'
7
08'
407',"
6',9',"
2',"
INF
7'
6'
6' 7"
72'
5'11"
33'
5' 2"
18'
4 310' 33' 9"
7' 83' 1',5' 62' 6"
3' 9' ,l' 92' 3'1,-
5'
INF
4'
INF
6' 0-
7' 4"
INF
8-
INF
INF
INF
6-
6'
INF
4' 10-
INF
INF
5' 5-
4' 6"
INF
INF
INF
4' 5"
42'
3' 9IS' 3"
3' 4"
10' , 2' 10
6' 9"
2' 3' '4' 4l' 8
2' 6"
3' 6"
INF
4 2"
5' 0"
3' 8"
INF
INF
3' 9-
INF
3' 4-
INF
3' I"
INF
3' 336'
2' 1116'
2' 7"
9' 02' 1' ,5' 2l' 6 l .t"
2' 9"
2' 9"
INF
2' 6"
INF
2'3
21'
1'10"
7'7"
l' 5"
3' 4-
TV HEIGHT
(,594")
/1.676"x ,700"1
29' 10"' 16' 250' 8" , 25' 414'11 -' 8' I3D' 3-' 12' 88'11"' 4'10"
18' ' -, 7' 7"
7'
3' 10"
14 ' 6", 6' 0"
5'11", 3' 2"
12' I" A 5' 0'
4' 9", 2' 7"
9' 7",., 4' 03' 6-" 1'117' 2"" 3' 02'11'''< l' 7"
5'11-' 2' 6"
2' 4-, I 34' 9-, 2' 0I' 9-x 0'11 3' 6-, l' 6l' 2", 0' 7"
2' 3" I' 0-
,-<
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION
73.81 '
51.67'
36.90'
25.83'
18. 79'
12,92'
9.39'
6,46'
f/ 8
fill
1/ 16
1/22
fl32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
1.85: 1 AR
(.825" ,446-)
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2,39:1 AR
4' 1'h"
2'113' I "
1'1P',,"
2' 1'1"
3' 52' 62' 1-
l' 8I' 30'10"
(w/prolecled image)
1/ 5.6
18' B38'
12 618'10"
10' 414' 48' 10"
11' 7"
7' 3'
9' 0"
5' 6','
6' 6,,4' B',5' 4 ',"
3' 9',4' 2',2 10 '{
3 I',
1'11',,
2' ]~ .
5' I"
4' 3-
,DOl" (1/1000')
fl4
ISS'
6' 5-
FIELD OF VIEW
fl2.8
30'
10' 9-
CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE &. FIELD OF VIEW
fl2
34'
97'
20' 233' 01~' 1IT 610' 9"
13' 7"
9' 1' ,"
11' 0"
l' 5"
8' 85' B6' 4 \7"
4' 9' ....
5' 33' 10 ',"
21' 6-
25
INF
16'10"
48'
II' B21' 29' 9IS' 78' 5"
12' 5"
6'11 "
9' 55' 4',"
6' 91)2"
4' 6',"
5' 6',"
3' 8' ,4' 4"
2'103' 211H....
2' I"
22'
INF
IS'
77'
10' 825'
9' I'
17' 9'
7'11"
13' 8"
6' 7"
10 2"
5' 27' 2"
4' 5S 9 ',3' 7',4' 5'.-
2' 9'.'
3' 3',1'10',"
2' p ."
17'
INF
13'
775'
9' 6
36'
8' 3'
22'
7 3"
16' 4"
6' 2"
11' 74' 117'104' 2',"
6' 2"
3' 5' ,4' B',2' 8 '.3 4',
1'10 ',"
2' 2-
14'
10'
8'
6'
INF
INF
INF
11'
INF
9'
7'
5'
INF
8' 474'
7' 4'
33'
6' 7"
21'
5' B13' 114' 7"
B'10
4' 06' 93' 3 J~"
5' ,.
2' 7',
3' 6'/2"
I' 9'1,"
2' 2',"
INF
6'1'-
INF
6' 3169'
5' B"
44'
5' 021 '
4' 2"
11' 2"
3' 8"
8' 23' 0"
5' 9"
2' 5',"
3'11l' 8","
2' 4 ~,-
INF
5' 9"
INF
5' 4-
INF
4'10-
INF
4' 4"
54'
3' B"
17'
3' 410' B"
2'106'112' 3',4' 5l' 7 ]~"
2' 6',-
INF
5'
INF
4' 3"
INF
3'1'-
INF
3' 7"
INF
3' 285'
2' 10"
22' ,2' 6"
10' 6"
2' ',5' 7"
l' 6' 1"
2'10',-
(1.676-x. 700'1
26' 2"'" 14' I"
53' ,- 22' 213' 0-, 7' 026' 6-'<1 1' I"
7' 9-, 4' 3"
15'10"), 6' 7"
6' 3"" 3' 412' 8"x 5' 35' 2"x 2' 9"
10' 6"' 4' 5'
4' l"x 2' 38' 4".. 3' 6"
3' ,")( l ' 8"
6' 3-)( 2' 72' 7 )( I' 55' 2"" 2' 22' O-x l ' I"
4' 1 -~ I' 9,. 6-, 10'
3' I-x I' 3"
l' 0-,
62' 0-, 10
TV HEIGHT
(, 5941
18' 109' 5"

5' 7"
4' 63' 9"
3' 0"
2' 3"
1'10"
l' 6"
1'1"
B"
LENS fOCAL LENGTH: 50mm

HYPER322,92' 230 ,66'
161 .46'
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
fOCUS
{fEET!
50
25
15
12
10
8
5
4
3
115.33'
100
50
25
15
12
10
....
00
....
8
7
6
5
4
40,36'
14,68'
CIRCLE Of CONfUSION = .001" (1/1000")

FIELD Of VIEW
10.09'
(w/proJecled Image)
1/1 .4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
115.6
1/8
fill
1/16
1/22
1132
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
fAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
3B'
72'
21' B'
29' 7'
13' 9'
16' S11' 2'
12'11 '12'
9' 5'
10' 8'
7' 7'1,'
8' 5'
5' 91'2'
6' 2'4'
4'10Y,'
5' 2"
3'10'lt
4' lV,'
2'11 1'2'
3' 3~"
35'
88'
20' 7'
31'11'
13' 3'
17' 3'
10'10'
13' 5'
9' 21'2'
10'11'h'
7' 6"
8' 7'
5' 8\;'
6' 4'
4' 9'12'
5' 2 ~~"
3'10 '1,'
4' 1'1,'
2'11'
l'
31'
131'
19' l'
36'
12' 8'
18' 5'
10' 5'
14' l'
8'11'
11' 5'
7' 3Y,'
8'10IJz'
5' 7"
6' S'lt
4' 8Oh"
5' 4'
3' 9'4'
4' 2V,'
2' V."
2' 'h'
27'
376'
17' 5'
44'
11'11'
20' 3'
9'11'
15' 2'
8' S12' l'
7' '12'
9' 3'
5' 5'
6' 8Y,'
4' 7"
5' 5JA"
3' 9'
4' 3'h'
2'10'1.'
3' 2'
1'l lY,'
2' :tA"
4'
2'
2'
l'
4'
9"
6'4'
5'12'
8'12'
3':"
9'1,'
2V;'
S' 10 ~'
6' m'
4'1 1'
5' l'
3'11'12'
4' 1'2'
2'lH\'
3' 'll'
2' 0'
2' 0-
41 '
64'
22'
28'
14'
16'
11'
12'
9'
l'
7'
l'
l'
O
5'
8'
7'
10' 5'12'
7' 8'lt
8' 3'12'
5'10'14'
6' 2'
4'10'4'
5' 1"."
3' 11 '14'
4' iI,4't
2'11 Vz'
3' '12'
l'l 1'lt
2' '14'
933.23'
1/1
LENS
OCUS
r,FEETj
57.66'
20.18'
1/1
,.,,,,,'

HYPER
Dt.~~Wr.,
80.73'
29,36'
1.85:1 AR
(,825")(.446")
43'
59'
23'
27'
14'
IS'
11'
12'
9'
10'
7'
8'
35mm CAMERA OEPTH-Of-fIELO , HYPERfOCAL DISTANCE /I fiELD Of VIEW
NEAR
fAR
90' 4"
112'
47' 6'
52'10"
24 4'
25' 8','
14 ' 9'
15' 3'
1110 ',"
12' 2'
9'10 ',"
10 ".1"
7' 11 't
8' ,,"
611 ','
7 ','
5' 11 ','
6' ','
411 ','
S' ','
3113 ,"
4 ','
666.59'
1/2
NEAR
fAR
87
118
46' 6"
54' 1"
24' I'
2511 ','
14' 8"
15' 4'.11 9' ,'
12' 2',"
9'10't
10 1' ,'
7'11 '
1
8' 1 ."
J,
6'11 ',"
7'
5'11 ','
6
4'11' ,'
5' ','
31Pt
4 ',"
',.
NEAR
fAR
82'
127'
45' 2'
56' l'
23' 9'
26' 5'
14' 6't
IS' 6'
11' 8','
12' 3',9' 9','
10' 2't
7'10 ','
8' 1','
6'10't
7'
3' lIJz'
1'11'It'
2' IJz'
14'
11'
B'
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
15' 5'
66'
10'11 '
23'10"
9' 3'
17' I'
8' 0'
13' 3'
6' 8'
10' 0'
5' 21't'
7' l'
4' SW
5' 817'
3' 7IA'
4' Slfl"
2' 9\','
3' 3'
1' 11'
2' 1'14'
14'
168'
9'11'
31'
8' 6'
20' 4'
7' 6'
15' 2'
6' 3'
11 ' 0'
5' 0'
7' 6'
4' 3'
6' 0'
3' 6'It
4' 7'1,'
11'
9'
7'
2'
8 )~
3' 4'
l'10Y,'
2' p ~.
INF
INF
8' 7'
SB'
7' 6'
30'
6' 8'
19'10"
5' 8'
13' 3'
4' 8'
8' 6'
4' 0'
6' 8'
3' 4'
5' 0"
2' 7 '.~
3' 6'
l' 9'4'
2' 2 ~'
INF
7' 5'
INF
6' 7'
66'
5'11'
31'
5' 2'
17' 7'
4' 3'
10' 2'
3' 9'
7' 7'
3' 1 ~/4"
5'
2'
3'
l'
2'
6'
6'
9"
9'
3':"
6' O'
INF
5' 6'
INF
5' 0'
INF
4' 6'
39'
3' 9'
14'10'
3' 4'
9'11'
2' 10'
6' 7'
2' 3'h'
4' 3'
l' 8'
2' 6'
(1.676"x .7001
20'11'x ll' 3'
42' S'x 17' 9'
10' S'x 5' B'
21' 2"x 8'10'
6' 3'x 3' 4'
12' B'x 5' 3'
5' O'X 2' B'
10' 1' x 4' 3'
4' l'x 2' 3'
8' 4'X 3' 6'
3' 3'x l' 9'
6' 8'x 2' 9'
2' S'x l' 4'
5' O"x 2' l '
2' O'x l' l'
4' l'X l' 9"
l' 7"x 0'10"
3' 3'x l' 4'
l' 2'x 0' 8'
2' S'x l' 0"
0' 9'x 0' 5"
l' 7"x 0' 8'
(.594")
15' O'
7' 6'
4' 6'
3' 7'
3' 0"
2' 4'
l' 9"
l' 6'
l' 2"
0'10'
0' 7"
35mm CAMERA OEPTH-Of.FIElO, HYPERFOCAL OISTANCE /I fIELD OF VIEW

466,62'
111.4
l ' 1 H~"
2 10 31~
19'
22'
TV HEIGHT
1 1 ~"
5'11 6' ,.
411 ','
5' ','
3'11't
4' ','
333.30'
112,8
NEAR
fAR
77'
143'
43' 6"
58'10'
23 3'
27' O'
14' 4'
15' 8','
11' 7"
12' 5' ,'
9' 8','
10' 3'"
7' 9'.'
8' 2',
610','
7' 'P4 ~
5'10',
6 l' ~ ..
4' 11 ',"
5' I"
3'11 ','
4'
',.
233,31 '
1/ 4
NEAR
fAR
70'
175'
41' 2"
64'
22' 7'
28' 0'
14 ' l'
16' 0
11 ' 5'
12' 8"
9' 7'
10 5' ,"
7' 8'.8' 3','
6' 9','
7' 2','
510' ,'
6' 2'
4'10't
5' 1 1~"
3'11','
4' ',"
CIRCLE Of CONfUSION - ,001' (1/1000")

flELO Of VIEW
29,16'
166,65'
116.65'
84.84'
58,33'
42.42'
1/5.6
fl8
f/ ll
f/ 16
f/ 22
1/32
NEAR
fAR
1.85: I AR
(.825' .446' )
NEAR
fAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAij
fAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39: ' AR
(w/ pro/ecled image)
NEAR
fAR
63
250'
38'
71'
21' 9'
29' 5'
13' 9'
16' 6'
11 ' 2','
12'11'
9' 5"
10 7','
7' 7','
8' 4't
6' 8't
7' 3...
5' 9','
6' 2' ,
4'10 11,"
5' 13,'
3'10',"
4' 11/'
54'
700'
35'
88'
20 7"
31'10'
13' 4"
17' 3'
10' 11'
13' 4"
9' 2' ,'
10'11' ,'
7' 6'
8' 7"
6 71 4"
7' 5' ,"
5 8','
6' 4'
4' 9""
5' 2','
3'10','
4' 1','
46'
INF
31'
122'
19' 4'
35'
12' 9'
18' 3'
10' 6"
14' O'
811'
11' 4"
7' 3','
8'10"
6' 5' ,'
7' 7' 2"
5' 7',
6' 4'
4' 8','
5' 3',
3' 9','
4' 21.,"
37'
INF
27'
350'
17' 6'
44'
11'11 '
20 2'
9'11'
IS' I'
8' 6"
12' l'
7' ',"
9' 3'
6' 3'
7'11 ',
5 5','
6' 8','
4' 7 14~
5' 5',"
3' 9'
4' 3 112"
30'
INF
23'
INF
IS' 9"
61'
11' I'
23' 2
9' 4"
16' 9'
8' I'
13' l'
6' 99'10'
6' O
8' 5'
5 3'
7' O
4' 5' ,
5' 8'
3' 8'
4' 5'
23'
INF
18'
INF
13'
175'
9'11'
30'11 '
8' 6'
20' 5'
7' 5'
15' 3"
6' 3'
11' 05' 89' 2'
5' 0'
7' r
4' 3
6' O
3' 6',"
4' 7','
11.676"X, 700")
24' 7" ~ 13 3
49'11'x 20'10"
12' 3' 6' 8'
24'11', 10 5'
6 1" , 3' 3"
12' 5', 5' 2'
3' 8" 2' 0
7' 4"x 3' ,.
2' 11'< l' 7"
5'10' < 2' 5'
2' 5' I' 4'
4'10"x 2' 0"
l'l1'y l' 0"
3'10( 1 r
l' 8'" O'l r
3' 4', I' 5'
l' S'x 0' 9'
2'10' I' 2'
I' 2'x 0' 8'
2' 4"x l' 0"
0' 11x 0' 6"
"10', 0'10"
TV HEIGHT
(.594' )
17' 8'
8'10"
4' 5"
2' 7"
2' l'
l' 9'
l' 4"
l' 2'
l' oO'H)"
0' 8"
35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF,FIElD, HYPERFDCAl DISTANCE &. FIELO OF VIEW
100mm
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000' )
LENS FOCAL LENGTH :

HYPER1292'
922,62'
645,83'
461.31 '
322,92'
230,66'
1/1
1/2
112.8
1/4
1/5.6
nl~~~~~
LENS
~~(EUT~
100
50
25
20
15
12
10
8
1/1.4
NEAR
FAR
92'10"
108' 5"
48' 2"
52' 0"
24' 6' ,'
25' 6"
19 8',,"
20' 3 ~.
14' 10"
15' 2'1.
11'103/.
12' 1'/,"
9'11"
10' I"
7" ' '''-
7
6
NEAR
FAR
90' 3'
11 2'
47' 5"
52'10"
24' 4"
25' 8',,"
19' 7"
20' 5'1.
14' g15' 3"
10'10'1,"
12' 2"
9'103/.
10' l'i,"
7'11 '/,"
8' 3/l'
6'11'h7' 'h"
5'11 '1,.
6' V."
4'11'!,5' " 4
8' '~"
6' 11'1"
7' 'h"
5' 11'/..
6' '14"
4'1" /.
5' 1/4"
NEAR
FAR
81'
118'
46' 5"
54' 224' l '
26' 0"
19' 5"
20' 7",'
14' 8"
15' 4'/.
11' 9'/.
12' 2'1.
9'10'/,"
10' 2"
7f103~"
8' P/~"
6'11"
1' 1"
5'11 '1,'
6' 3// 4'11'h5' V,"
NEAR
FAR
82'
128'
45' I"
56' I"
23' g26' 5"
19' 2"
20'11"
14' 61'.
15' 6"
11' B'h"
12' 3'\"
9' 9v."
10' 2',
7'10',B' ".
6'10',,"
7' 1'/,"
5'11"
6' 1"
4'11'h"
5' '~"
NEAR
FAR
76'
145'
43' 4"
59' 223' 2'
27' I"
lB'lO"
21' 4"
14' 4"
IS' 9"
11' 6'1,"
12' 51.,"
9' 8',"
10' 3'.
7' 9' ,"
8' 2'1>6'10 1',"
7' 2"
5'10'1, '
6' 1'/..
4'11"
5' 1-
NEAR
FAR
70'
177'
41' 1"
64'
22' 7"
28' 0"
lB' 5"
21'11"
14' 1"
16' 0"
11' 5"
12' B"
9' 7"
10' Sv.7' 8 '~"
8' 3V.6' 9'h"
7' 2'1,
5' 10'1."
6' 2"
4'10'4"
5' I I'.
FiElD OF VIEW
(w/pro)ecled Image)
161.46'
117,42'
80.73'
58.71 '
40.36'
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
1,825'x,446' )
NEAR
FAR
54'
674'
35'
87'
20' 7"
31' g11' l '
24' 1"
13' 4"
11' 2"
10'1 1"
13' 4"
9' 2v."
10'117' 68' 7"
6' 7'/,"
7' 5'/.
5' 8'h6' 3'1.
4' 9'1,"
5' 2'4"
NEAR
FAR
45'
INF
31'
131'
19' I"
36'
16' 0"
26' 7"
12' B"
l B' 5"
10' 5"
14' I"
B'11"
11' 0"
l' 3',,"
8'10',,"
6' 5\7"
l' 8"
5' 7"
6' 5'4"
4' 8'h"
5' 4"
NEAR
FAR
31'
INF
27'
337'
IT 6"
44'
14'11"
30'
11'11"
20' 2'
10' 0"
15' I"
8' 7"
12' 0"
7' \;9' 36' 3"
7' l lY,5' 5'1,'
6' 8"
4' 7 11l'
5' 5'4-
NEAR
FAR
29'
INF
22'
INF
15' 5"
61>
13' 5"
40'
10'11"
23'10"
9' 3"
11' I"
8' 0"
13' 3"
6' 810' 06' 0"
8' 6"
5' 2'h"
7' 1"
4' SV,"
5' BY,"
ANA 2,39:I AR
f1.676"x .700"j
20'll'X l1' 3'
42' s"x l T 9'
10' S"x 5' B"
21' 2'x 8'105' 2"x 2' 9"
10' 6")( 4' 5"
4' l"X 2' 3"
B' 4"X 3' 6"
3' l"X l' B"
6' 3"x 2' 7"
2' S'x l' 4"
5' O"x 2' 1"
2' O"X l ' I"
4' ,")( l' 9"
l' 7"x 0'10"
3' 3-x I' 4"
l' S"x 0' 9"
2'l O"x I' 2"
l ' 2" x 0' 8"
2' S"X l ' 0"
l' O"x 0' 6"
2' O"x 0'10"
NEAR
FAR
62'
263'
38'
72'
21' 8'
29' 7"
11'10"
22'10"
13' 9"
16' 6"
11' 2"
12'1 11i
9' 5"
10' 8"
l' 7',,"
8' 5"
61 8 1127' 3'1."
5' 91/2"
6' 2'1.
4'101'.
5' 2"
1453'
1038'
726,6'
519.D
363 ,3'
264.2'
181.6'
132.1'
90.82'
II I
1/2
1/2.8
1/ 4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(,825' .446")
NEAR
FAR
131'
175'
91' 3"
Ill'
69'11"
80'1047' B"
52' 6"
24' 5"
25' 7',19' 7',"
20 4''11' 8'.
18' 3' ,14' 9'"
15' 2'.
11'10","
12' " .9'10',
10' I ' ..
7'11 '.
8'10' ,"
NEAR
FAR
124'
189'
NEAR
FAR
116'
211'
84'
124'
65' 6BB'
45' 7"
55' 4"
23'10"
26' 3"
19' 3"
20' 9',17' 5"
lB' 8"
14' r
15' 5'/,"
11' B' ,'
12' 3'\"
9' 9','
10 2',7' 10' ,8' 1',-
NEAR
FAR
96'
347'
73'
161'
58'
105'
42' 1"
62'
22'10"
21' 7"
lB' 7"
21' 816'1019' 4"
14' 2',"
15'11"
11' 6'
12' 7"
9' 7',"
10' 4',
7' 9"
8' 3"
NEAR
FAR
B2'
861'
65'
222'
53'
12B'
39'
69'
22' 029' 0"
18' 0"
22' 616' s20' 013'10"
16' 4"
II' 3"
12'10'
9' 6'
10' 7"
l' 0"
B' 4',"
NEAR
FAR
70'
INF
51'
412'
48'
174'
36'
BO'
21' 0"
30'10"
17 423' .,.
15'10"
20'10"
13' 616'11"
11' 0"
13' 2"
9' 3;,10'10"
7' 6',"
8' 6"
NEAR
FAR
57'
INF
48'
INF
41'
431'
32'
111'
19' 7"
34' 616' 5"
25' 8"
15' 0"
22' 512'11'
18' 0"
10' 7"
13'10"
9' 0"
11' 3"
7' 4"
8' 9"
ANA 2,39:1 AR
11.676'x.7DO")
20'11-< 11' 3"
42' S"x 17' 9"
13'11-" 7 6"
28' 3"''' 11'10"
10' 5-,. 5' 8"
21' 2"" B'10"
6'11"x 3' 9"
14' 1", 5'10"
3' S"~ 1'10'
7' 0", 2'11"
2' 9',< l' 6"
5' 6"' 2' 42' 5"" l ' 45' 0", 2' 1"
2' O"x l ' 1"
4' l "x I' 9"
I' 7"y 0'10"
3' 3"x " 4"
l' 4"x 0' 9"
2' B"" l' 2"
l' l"x 0' 7"
2' 2" 0'11"
LENS
~~REUT~
150
100
75
50
25
20
18
15
12
10
8
NEAR
FAR
142' 8"
158' 2"
96' 8"
103' .,.
73' I"
77' 0"
49' 250'10' (
24' 9' ,"
25 2',"
19'10'.
20' ".17'10'.
IB 1'.
14'11"
15' I"
11'11' ,'
12'
9'1"'10' ',1'11',8' ',"
',.
111.4
NEAR
FAR
140'
162'
95' 5"
lOS' 1"
72' 5"
77'10"
4B'10"
51 ' 3"
24' B',25' 3',19' 9'.
20' 2'.
7'10 ',lB' 2"
14'10'\"
15' I' ,
11'11 ';"
12' ''9'11',"
10' ',"
7'11'.
8' ',"
15' 0'
7' 6"
3' 9"
3' 0"
2' 3"
l ' 9"
l' 6"
l ' 2"
1'0"
0'10"
0' 8"
35mm CAMERA OEPTH"OF-FIELD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIElO OF VIEW
150mm
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
2906'
2076'
DI~~~~~~
TV HEIGHT
(.594' )
CIRCLE DF CONFUSIDN ,001 " (1 / 1DDO'1
NEAR
FAR
136'
161'
93' 7"
lOT 5"
71' 4"
79' I"
48' 4"
51' 9"
24' 7"
25' 5'.
19' 8'.
20' 3'.
IT 9'.
18' 2' ,14'10' ,"
15' 2"
11'10','
12' 1' ,"
911 '.
10'
7'11 '"
8' 1'2"
'.
8$'
116
68' 0"
83' B"
46' 9"
63' 8"
24' 2"
25'10','
19' 5',"
20 7
IT 6','
IB' 5' ,"
14' 8',"
IS' 4"
11' 9' ,"
12' 2',910 '.10' 1' ,
7 11-
o ,"
NEAR
FAR
106'
255'
78'
138'
62'
95'
43'1158' 0"
23' 5"
26'10"
19' 021' 217' 2"
18'11 ',"
14' 5"
15' 8"
11' 7'1,"
12' 5"
9' 8'.
10' 3',7'10"
a' 2'."
FIELD DF VIEW
(w/ prolecled Image)
TVHEIGHT
(,594")
IS' o
10 0"
l' 6"
5' 0"
2' 6"
2' 0"
I' gI' 6"
l ' 2'
l' 0"
o g-
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:
HYPER
orS~~~~F
LENS
rfECE~
200
100
75
50
25
20
18
15
12
10
8
nrS~~~~F
LENS
rftE~~
400
200
150
100
75
50
35
25
20
18
15
FIELO OF VIEW
(w/ prDjected Ima ge)
5161'
3690'
2583'
1845'
1292'
922,62'
645,83'
469.70'
322,92'
234.85'
161.46'
fll
flU
1/ 2
112.8
fl4
fl5 .6
fl8
fI ll
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(,825'x,446' )
NEAR
FAR
192' r
208' 198' 1102' O'
73'11"
76' 1"
49' 6'1."
50' 6"
24'10 '12"
25' 1'; '"
19'11"
20' 1"
17' 11 '1."
18' ]/.1"
14'11'12"
15' 'h"
NEAR
FAR
190'
211'
97' 4"
102' 9'
73' 6'
76' r
49' 4"
50' 8'12"
24'10"
25' 2"
NEAR
FAR
108'
NEAR
FAR
89'
ANA 2,39:1 AR
f1.676"x .7001
20'11"x l1' 3"
42' 5->< 17' 9"
10' 5"x 5' 8"
21' 2",( 8'107' 9",( 4' 3"
15'10">. 6' r
5' 2"x 2' 9"
10' 6"x 4' 5"
2' 7"x l' 5"
5' 2' x 2' 22' O' x l ' 14' 1",( l' 9"
1'10' )< l ' 0"
3' 8'x I' 6'
l' 6'x 0'103' I"X l' 3'
l' 2'x 0' 6"
2' 5'x l' 0"
l' O'X 0' 6"
2' O'x 0'100' 9-x 0' 5'
l' r x 0' 8"
11'1 H~ "
12' W
9'11''10' II?
8' 08' 0-
19'1QW'
20' 1'1,"
17'11'
18' 1"
14'II Y,"
15' ]!~..
11'11 ',"
12' 1f2"
9'l l'.'10' 1 ~ "
7'1HI"
8' h I'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:
HYPER,
35mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELO HYPERFOCAL OISTANCE & FIELO OF VIEW

,
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,001" (1/1000")
200mm
NEAR
FAR
181l
217'
96' 3"
104' 072'10"
77' 3"
49' ,/,"
51' 024' 9"
25' 3"
19'10'/,'
20' 2"
17'10 Y,"
18' 1Vz"
14'11"
15' l '
11'11 '1.
12' 3~"
9'11 '/2"
10' '!>"
7'11 ~"
8'
',"
NEAR
FAR
180'
224'
94'10lOS' 9"
72' 1"
78' 2"
48' 8"
51' 5"
24' 8"
25' 4'
19' 9'/,"
20 2 3ll'
17'10"
18' 2'1,"
14'10"
15' n ,'
11'11'
12' 19'11 "'10' 1,2"
7'11'."
8' v."
NEAR
FAR
173'
237'
92'10"
108' 5"
70'11"
79' r
48' 2"
52' 0"
24' 6'/,"
25' 6"
19' 8'/2"
20' 3'1,"
17' 9"
18' 3"
14' 9IS' 2Y,11'10'1"
12' 1\,"
9'11"
10' 1"
7'11 '12"
8' \1"
NEAR
FAR
164'
255'
90' 3"
112'
69' 4"
81' 8"
47' 5"
52'10"
24' 4"
25' 8Y,"
19' 7"
20' 5Y,"
17' 8"
18' 4","
14' 8"
15' 3"
11'10'"
12' 2'
9'10'/,"
10' n,
7'11 '.
8' J~.
NE.AR
FAR
153'
290'
87'
118'
67' 2"
84'10"
46' 5"
54' 2"
24' I"
26' 0"
19' 5'
20' 7'12"
17' 6"
18' 6'
14' 6'1215' 4'"
11' 9' ..
12' 2'"
9'10 ' ..
10' 2"
7' 10~'"
8' 1',,"
NEAR
FAR
140'
348'
82'
127'
65'
89'
45' 256' 0"
23' 926' 5'
19' 2"
20'10'12'
17' 4'
18' 8', ,'
14' 4'
15' 6"
11' 8Y,"
12' 3'.
9' 9',,"
10' 2'"
7'10' t"
8' " .-
NEAR
FAR
124'
525'
76'
145'
61'
98'
43' 4"
59' 2"
23' 2"
27' 1"
18'10"
21' 4"
17' h"
19' I"
14' I"
15' 9"
11' 6'1"
12' 5' ,"
9' 8',"
10' 3',,,
7' 9''8' 2'12"
INF
INF
70'
174'
57'
110'
41' 3"
64'
22' 7"
28' 0'
18' 5"
21'10'
16' 9"
19' 6"
14'
16' 011' 5"
12' 8"
9' r
10' 5' .7' 9"
8' 31,"
62'
263'
51'
140'
38'
72'
21' 7"
29' 7"
17'10'
22'10'
16' 2'
20' 3'
13' 9'
16' 6"
11' 2"
12' 11 'h9' 5'
10' 8'
7' 7","
8' 5'
10,333'
7381 '
5161'
3690'
2583'
1879'
1292'
939,4'
645,8'
III
fll ,4
fl2
fl2,8
1/4
1/5 ,6
fl8
1111
1/16
fl22
fl32
1.85:1 AR
(,825" ,446-1
NEAR
FAR
330'
508'
181'
224'
139'
163'
94'11"
105' 8"
72' 2"
78' I"
48' 8"
51' 4"
34' 4'i'
35' 8"
24' 825' 4"
19' 9","
20' 2''17'1018' 2"
14'10'1'"
IS' 1'/,"
NEAR
FAR
305'
579'
173'
237'
134'
170'
92'10"
108' 5"
70'1179' 7"
48' 2"
52' 0"
34' I"
35'11 ',"
24' 6''25' 6"
19' 8',"
20' 3'.
17' 9"
18' 3"
14'10"
15' 2'1,"
NEAR
FAR
247'
ANA 2,39:1 AR
,~
NEAR
FAR
385'
416'
196' 2"
204' 0"
147'10"
152' 2"
99' _;,"
101' 0"
74' 5'1275' 6'1,'
49' go
50' 3'
34'10',,"
35' 1',"
24'11 "'25' ',"
19'11 \it
20' '12"
17'lH~"
18' Ifl'
14 / 11 ~~"
15'
15' 0"
7' 6"
5' 7"
3' 9"
1'10"
l ' 6"
l ' 4"
1' 10'10"
0' 8"
0'7"
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,001" (1/1000")
14,762'
NEAR
FAR
389'
411'
197' 4"
202' 9"
148' 6'
151' 699' 4"
100' 8"
74' 7V,"
75' 4'12'
49'10'
50' 2"
34'11"
35' 1"
24'11","
25' If,"
19'11',"
.
20'
17'11'1'
11,
"
18'
14'l 1'h"
15' 'I,"
(,5941
35mm CAMERA OEPTH -OF-FIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
400mm
20,667'
NEAR
FAR
392' 5"
407'11"
198' 1"
202' 0"
148'11"
151' I"
99' 6'1,"
100' 6"
74' 8',"
75' 3',"
49'10'12"
50' 1',"
34'l1 Y,"
35' ''24'11',"
25' If..
19'11W
20' 'I.'"
17'11',"
18' V,"
15' 0"
15' 0"
TV HEIGHT
NEAR
FAR
379'
423'
194' 9"
205' 7"
147' 0"
153' I '
98' 8'
101' 4'
74' 375' 9"
49' 8"
50' 4'
34'10"
35' 224'1125' 119'11 ',"
20' "2"
17'11't,"
18'
14'11', "
15' w
v,-
NEAR
FAR
371'
434'
197' 7"
208' I"
145' 9"
154' 6"
98' 1102' 0"
73'11"
76' 1"
49' 6', "
50' 6"
34' 9"
35' 3"
24'10',,"
25' 1',,19'11"
20' 1"
17'11 ',"
18' ]1,'
14'11\\"
IS' W
NEAR
FAR
361 '
449'
190'
211'
144' 2"
156' 4"
97' 4"
102' 9"
73' 6"
76' 7"
49' 4'
50' 8',,"
34' 8"
35' 4241025' 2"
19'10'.'
20' 1"'17'11'
18' I"
14'11 ","
15' 34"
NEAR
FAR
346'
473'
186'
217'
141' 9"
159' 3'
96' 3"
104' 072'11'
77' 3'
49' ',"
51' 0"
34' 6'.35' 5''24' 925' 3"
19'10'.
20' 2"
17'10' ,18' 111"
14'11IS' I'
NEAR
FAR
281'
697'
165'
254'
129'
178'
90' 5"
112'
69' 6'
81' 6'
47' 6"
52'1033' 9"
36' 424' 4"
25' 8"
19' 7"
20' 5',"
17' 8'
18' 4","
14' 9IS' 3"
INF
153'
290'
122'
195'
87'
118'
67' 2"
84'10"
46' 5"
54' 2"
33' 2"
37' O'
24' I"
26' 019' 520' 7"'17' 6"
18' 614' 8"
15' 4'''-
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/projecled Image)
TV HEIGHT
(,594")
11.676"x .700")
20'11 ")< 11' 3"
42' 5'" 17' 9"
10' 5"" 5' 8"
21' 2"x 8'10"
7' 9'" 4' 3"
15'10"x 6' 7"
5' 2"x 2' 910' 6"x 4' 5"
3' 10';< 2' 1"
7'10">< 3' 3"
2' r " l ' 5"
5' 2"x 2' 2"
l ' 9")( 0'11"
3' r x l' 6"
l' 3' < 0' 8"
2' 6-'" I' 1"
l ' O"X 0' 6"
2' 0-" 0'10"
0'10" < 0' 6"
I' 9-' 0' 9'
0' 9"x 0' 5'
l ' 6"A 0' 7"
15' 0"
7' 6"
5' 7'
3' 9"
2' 91'10"
l' 3-
0'11'
0' 80' 8"
0' 6-
.....
00
C'I
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
25
15
8
6
4
2
1.5
1
13.78'
9.84'
6.89'
4.92'
3.44'
2.46'
1.72'
1.25'
0.86'
0.63'
0.43'
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/projected Image)
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
STD & TV
(.380"X.286")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"x.251 ')
7'
INF
5' 11"
INF
4' 5'
43'
3' 9'
15' 4"
2'10"
6' 9'
5'
INF
5'
INF
3' 8'
INF
3' 3'
46'
2' 6"
9' 7'
2' l '
5' 4'
l ' 6'1,"
2'10'
l' 2'/"
1'11'
0'10'1,'
l ' 2'
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' l '
INF
2' 8"
INF
2' 3"
21 '
1'10'
7' 8'
l ' 53' 4'
l' 1'1"
2' 20'10'
l ' 3'
9'
INF
7' 2'
INF
5' l '
19'
4' 2'
10' 7"
3' 15' 8"
2' 5V,"
2' 3'lt
3'10'
l ' 9'
2' 4'
4'
l'
2'
l'
l ' 4V,'
l ' 8V,'
0'11'1,"
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
25
15
8
6
4
3
2
1.5
1
4'
8'
6'
3'/"
l ' 9'1,'
0'11'
l' lV,'
1' 1'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
16mm CAMERA DEPTHDFFIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000")
8mm
3'
INF
3'
INF
2' 5INF
2' 2"
INF
1' 10INF
l' r
23'
l'
4'
l'
2'
3"
9'
W'
8'
0' 9'1,'
l ' 5-
2'
INF
2'
INF
1'11"
INF
l' 9"
INF
l ' 6"
INF
l' 4"
INF
1'1'
10' 8'
0'1 1'
3'10'
0' 8'/"
l ' 8V,'
2'
INF
2'
INF
" 5'
INF
l ' 4'
INF
l ' 2"
INF
1'1'
INF
0'11 INF
O' 9V,'
12'
0' 7'/,'
2' 5'
l'
INF
l'
INF
1' 1'
INF
l ' 0'
INF
0'11INF
0'11"
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' 8'
INF
0' 6'1"
5' 0-
l'
INF
l'
INF
O' 9'
INF
0' 9INF
0' 9INF
0' 8"
INF
0' r
INF
0' 6'/,INF
0' 5'1,'
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
0' r
INF
0' r
INF
0' r
INF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6INF
0' 5INF
0' 4V,'
INF
0'
INF
0'
INF
0' 5'
INF
0' 5'
INF
0' 5"
INF
0' 5"
INF
0' 4'
INF
0' 4"
INF
0' 3'/'''
INF
13.88'
9.71 '
6.94'
4.86'
3.47'
2.43'
1.77'
1.21 '
0.88'
0.61 '
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
7'
INF
5'11"
INF
4' 5'
45'
3' 9"
15' 8'
2'10"
6'10'
2' 3'12"
4' 4"
l ' 8'
2' 6'
5'
INF
5'
INF
3' 9"
INF
3' 3'
44'
2' 6"
9' S'
2' 1"
5' 3l ' 6'/"
2' 9';"
l' 2'A1'11"
0'10'12"
l' 2'
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' 0INF
2' 8'
INF
2' 2"
23'
1'107'10'
l ' 5'
3' 5'
l ' 1'1,"
2' 2"
0' 10'
l ' 3-
3'
INF
3'
INF
2' 5'
INF
2' 2'
INF
1'10'
INF
l ' ]22'
l ' 34' 9'
l ' W'
2' 7'12"
13' r
4' r
8' 8'
3' 4'
5' O-
9'
INF
7' 3'
INF
5' 1"
19'
4' 2'
10' r
3' 1'/"
S' ]-
2' 7V,'
2' 5V.-
3' 6'/"
l' 9'A'
2' 2'A-
3'10"
l ' 9'
2' 4'
l' 4'1'l ' 8%'
0'11%'
1' 1-
l ' 4'1,"
l ' 7'/,'
0'11 '/'"
l ' 'h'
2-X22' 8"
9-X 19'11' -x 13' 7"
1-x 11'119' r x 7' 311' 9"x 6' 4"
7' 3"x 5' 5"
8' 9'x 4' 94'10'x 3' 7"
5'10"x 3' 23' r x 2' 8'
4' 5'x 2' 4'
~: 1 ~:~ rl~:
l'
2'
l'
l'
9"x
2'x
2'x
5-x
l ' 4" 2'

0'11'
0' 9"
16mmCAMERA DEPTHOF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.DOD"l
9.5mm
19.43'
12'
INF
8' 6"
66'
5' 8-
30'
36'
18'
22'
l ' 3V,"
l ' 9'1,"
0'11"
l ' 1V,'
0' 9V,"
l ' 4",'
2'
INF
2'
INF
1'10'
INF
l ' 9"
INF
l' 6INF
l' 4'
INF
1' 1'
11' 4"
0'11"
3' 10' 8'lt
l ' 8V,'
2'
INF
2'
INF
l ' 5'
INF
l' 4'
INF
l ' 3'
INF
1'1'
INF
0'11"
INF
0' 9'12"
9'11"
0' 7'1,'
2' 4"
l'
INF
l'
INF
l ' 0'
INF
l ' 0'
INF
0'11 '
INF
0'10'
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' 8"
INF
0' 6'h"
5' 8"
l'
INF
l'
INF
0'10'
INF
0' 9'
INF
0' 9INF
0' 8'
INF
0' ]INF
0' 6V,"
INF
0' 5V,"
INF
l'
INF
l'
INF
0' ]INF
0' r
INF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6"
INF
0' 6INF
0' 5"
INF
0' 4'/,INF
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/prolected imagel
STD & TV
(.380"x.286
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463'x.251 'I
25' 4'x 19'
30'11-x 16'
15' 3'x 11'
18' 6'x 10'
8' l "X 6'
9'10'X 5'
6' 1'x 4'
7' S'X 4'
4' O"X 3'
4'11'x 2'
3' O"X 2'
3' 8"x 2'
2' O'X l'
2' S'x l'
l' 6"x l'
1'10-x l '
l ' O'x 0'
l' 3"x 0'
1"
9'
5'
1"
l'
4'
r
0"
0'
8"
3'
0'
6'
4"
1"
09"
8"
....
00
00
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(fEET)
25
15
8
6
4
3
2
1.5
1
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,0006" (611 0,000")

FIELO OF VIEW
31.00'
22,14'
15,50'
11.07'
7,75'
5,54'
3,88'
2.82'
1.94'
1.41'
0,97'
(Ill/projected Image)
111
1/1.4
1/2
1/2,8
1/4
1/5.6
fl8
1111
fl16
1/22
1/32
(.380"x ,286N )
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
14'
129'
10' l'
29'
6' 4"
10' 9"
5' ,~'
7' 5'
3' 6'/2'
4' 7"
2' 9"
3' 3'\'
1'10'1>'
2' PI,'
l' 5'll
l' 7'
0'11'/..
l' 'I,"
12'
10'
INF
INF
8'11"
46'
5'11'
12' 6"
4' 9'
8' 3"
3' 4V,'
4'10 V,2' 7'1.'
3' 5'/,1'10'
2' 2'1>'
l ' 4'1.'
l' 7'/,'
0'11Y>'
l' '1>-
7' 8'
465'
5' 3'
16' 6'
4' 4'
9' 9'
3' 2'
5' 5'
2' 6'
3' 8W'
l' 9V,'
2' 3'/2l' 4'1>'
l' 8'
0'11'/,l' ]/,-
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPERFOCAL
DISTANCE
16mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELO, HYPERFOCAL OISTANCE & FIELO OF VIEW
12mm
NEAR
FAR
S'
INF
6' 4"
INF
4' 8"
29'
3'11'
13' 1"
2'11'
6' 3"
2' 4'1>'
4' l'
l ' 8'/,'
2' 5",'
l ' 3'1"
l' 9"
0'11'
1'1'1,'
NEAR
FAR
6'
INF
5' I"
INF
3'11'
INF
3' 5'
27'
2' 8'
8' 32' 2'
4'11 '
1'7'
2' 8W'
l' 31'10V"
0' 10'/,1 ~"
l'
5'
INF
4'
INF
3' 3"
INF
2'11'
INF
2' 4"
14'
1'11'
6' 7'
l' 5'1>'
3' 2l' 2Y.
2' V,"
0'10'1.'
l' 23/,'
3'
3'
2'
2'
2'
INF
INF
INF
2' 0'
l' 7'
l' 0'
0'10"
INF
INF
3'
INF
INF
2' 7"
INF
2' 4'
INF
2' 0'
INF
l'
13'
l'
4'
1'
2'
0'
l'
84'
2"
1'
S'!>'
9'/24'(,'
INF
INF
l'
l'
INF
INF
l'
l'
INF
1'11'
INF
l' 6"
INF
INF
INF
l' 0"
0'10'
l' 8'
l' 4'
l' 0'
0' 9'
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
l' 5'
l' 2-
INF
l' 0'
INF
0' 9'
l' 0-
0'10"
0' 8'
0'10'
6' 80' 82' l '
0' 9'
0' 7'
0' 7'
3' 5'
0' 6-
INF
l' 2'
6'11'
l ' 0'
3' 2'
0' 9"
l' 6'1t'
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
INF
STo /lTV
SUPER 16 1,85:1 Aft
(,463"X ,251 ")

20' l'x lS' l'
24' 6'x 13' 3'
12' O:X 9' l'
14' 8'x 7' 11'
6' 5"x 4' 10"
7'10" 4' 3"
4'10' 3' 7"
5'10' 3' 2'
3' 2' 2' 5'
3'11- 2' I'
2' 5' l' 92'11' l' 7'
l ' 7' l' 2"
1'11' l' 0'
l' 2'> 0'11 '
l' S-x 0' 9'
0' 9"x 0' 7'
0'11'X 0' 6'
16mm CAMERA OEPTH-OF-FIELo, HYPERFoCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
16mm
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = ,0006" (6/10,000")

FIELD OF VIEW
55,11 '
39,37'
27,56'
19,68'
13,78'
9,84'
6,89'
5,01 '
3.44'
2,51 '
1.72'
(Ill/projected Image)
111
1/ 1.4
112
1/2,8
1/4
1/5,6
1/8
f/11
1/16
1122
1/32
(,380"X,286")
LENS
FOCUS
IFEET)
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
50
25
15
10
26'
539'
17' 2'
46'
12' 020' 7'
8' 6'
12' 3'
7' 0'
9' 4"
5' 5'
6' 9'
4' 7"
5' 63' 8'1..
4' 3'/,'
2'10'1,3' 2'
8
6
5
4
1'11 1(, "
2' 1-
22'
INF
18'
INF
15' 4'
69'
10'10"
24' 3'
8' 0"
13' 5'
6' 810' 0"
5' 2",'
7' l'
4' 5',5' 9'
3' 7'1>'
4' 5'1>"
2' 9'1>'
3' 3-
13'
270'
9' 933'
7' 415' 86' 2'
11' 3'
4'11'
7' S"
4' 36' l'
3' 6"
4' 8'
2' 8Y,3' 4','
1 ' 10 '~'
1'10 1;, "
2' 1'1,'
2' 2-
14'
11'
INF
8'
63'
6'
20'
5'
13'
4'
8'
4'
6'
3'
5'
2'
3'
8'
11'
INF
INF
INF
9'
7'
INF
INF
68'
8'
6'
7'
8'
0'
84'
0"
71',"
6'Y
l' 9'A-
2' 2",'
7' 2'
INF
5'10"
36'
5' I'
19'
4' 2'
10'
3' 87'10'
3' l '
5' 82' 5'/2"
3'10l' 9'
2' 4'
5'11'
INF
5' 0-
INF
4' 543'
3' 915' 43' 4'
10' 22'106' 9'
2' 3'12'
4' 4l ' 8'
2' 6'
6'
INF
5'
INF
3'
2'
INF
INF
STo & TV
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(,463' x, 251 ' )
2'
INF
30' 2'x22' 8'

36' 9'x 19'11 '
INF
INF
INF
3'
2'
2'
1~: J:~ lJ: l~:
5'
4'
3'
2'
2'
2' 7-
2' 0'
9' O'x
11' O'x
6' O'x
7' 4'x
4' 9-x
5'10'
3' 7'
4' 4'
3' 0"
3' 82' 5'
2'11 -x
l' ~"X
2' 2"x
l' 2"x
l' 5'
5'
INF
4' I'
INF
3' 8'
INF
3' 3'
46'
2'1118'
2' 6'
9' 7'
2' l'
5' 4'
l' 6'(
2' 10"
4'
INF
3' 4'
INF
3' l'
INF
2'9"
INF
2' 6'
INF
2' 3'
20'
1'11 '
7' 6'
l' 5'
3' 4'
INF
INF
2' 5'
INF
2' 2'
INF
2' 1-
INF
1'10'
INF
1'7'
23'
l' 3"
4' 9'
INF
INF
INF
INF
I' 6'
INF
INF
1'11'
l' 5'
INF
l' 9'
INF
l' 8'
INF
l ' 7'
INF
l' 4'
INF
l' 4'
INF
l' 34'
INF
l' 2'
INF
1' 1'
INF
INF
l' 1'/29'11'
0'11'
INF
6' 9"
6' 0"
4' 6'
4' 03' 7'
3' 22' 8'
2' 4'
2' 3'
2' 0'
l ' 9'
l' 7'
l' 4'
l' 2"
0'110' 9'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
OISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
50
25
15
10
B
6
5
4
3
134.6'
96.11'
62 .27'
48.05'
33.64'
24.03'
16.82'
12.23'
8.41 '
6.12'
4.20'
FiElD OF VIEW
(w/ prolecled Image)
1/1
fl1.4
fl2
fl2.8
fl4
1/ 5.6
1/ 8
fi ll
1/1 6
fl 22
fl 32
STD /I TV
(,380" .286-)
NEAR
FAR
16'
INF
12'
INF
9' 3'
40'
7' I"
17' 2"
6' 0"
12' 0"
4'W
8' 0"
4' lV,6' 4'
3' 54' 91/,'
2' B3' 5'/"
1'10'/,2' 21/,"
NEAR
FAR
13'
INF
10'
INF
7' 11139'
6' 3"
25'
5' 5"
15' 3"
4' 5"
9' 4'
3'107' l '
3' 3'
5' 32' 6'1,'
3' 8'
NEAR
FAR
10'
INF
8'
INF
6' 9"
INF
5' 6"
55'
4'10'
23'
4' 011' 9'
3' 7'
8' 53' O
5'112' 5'
3'l1'i,'
l ' 8....
2' 4 ~','
NEAR
FAR
7'
INF
6'
INF
5' 5"
INF
4' 7'
INF
4' l'
164'
3' 6"
21'
3' 212' 42' 9'
7' 8'
2' 2'h"
4' 8'
I' 7',2' 71/,-
NEAR
FAR
5'
INF
5'
INF
4'
INF
3'10INF
3' 6"
INF
3' 0317'
2' 9"
27'
2' 5'
11' 7'
2' 0'
5'11'
l ' 62'l1 Y,'
NEAR
FAR
4'
INF
4'
INF
3'
INF
3' 0"
INF
2' 9"
INF
2' 6"
INF
2' 3'
INF
2' l '
82'
l ' 9"
10' 6'
l' 4h"
3'10'
NEAR
FAR
36'
80'
21' l '
30' 8'
13' 6'
16'11'
9' 3V,'
10' 9V,7' 6'h"
8' 6"
5' 9"
6' 3'/,4' 9'45' 2'1"
3'10Y,'
4' 1'1z"
2'11 V,3' lA"
l '11 V
2'
NEAR
FAR
33'
104'
19'10'
33' 9'
13' O'
17' 9'
9' 'h'
11' 27' 4'h"
8' 95' 7'1,6' 4'1,"
4' 9"
5' 3V..
3'10"
4' 22'11'
3' l W'
l'11 'h2' v,'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET!
50
25
15
10
B
6
5
4
16mm CAMERA DEPTHOFFIELO, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE /I FIELD OF VIEW

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6110,000")
25mm
NEAR
FAR
29'
195'
l B' 3'
40'
12' 3'
19' 48' 9"
11' 9'
7' 2"
9' 15' 66' 7"
4' 7'1,5' 4'1,3' 9'/,4' 3'
2'10Y,3' 13/l'
1'11'. -
2'
],,"
NEAR
FAR
25'
INF
16' 5'
52'
11' 521'10'
B' 312' 7"
6'1 0"
9' r
5' 4"
6'10'1z4' 6V,5' r
3' 8%'"
4' 4V..
2' 93)'3' 2112"
1'112' l '
NEAR
FAR
20'
INF
14'
98'
10' 5'
27'
7' 914' 3"
6' 6"
10' 6"
5' 17' 44' 4S'10'h'
3' 53/,"'
4' 6V,'
2' 9"
3' 3."
1'1031, '"
2' p,-
l ' 9ld'
2' 31/,-
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463-x .251 1
19'
23'
9'
11'
5'
7'
3' 14' 6'

6'x 12' 9'
7"x 7' 39'" 6' 4'
9'" 4' 4'
O-x 3'10'
~:1~:~ ~: lJ:
~: J:~ ~: ~::
2' 3-x l '
2' 9"x l'
1'1 1 ~X l '
2' 4-x l'
~:1~~
9"
6'
53'
r~
;: ~:~ gl~
0' 9"x 0' 7"

O'11'x 0' 6-
16mm CAMERA DEPTHOFFIElD, HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE /I FIELD OF VIEW

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6110,000")
35mm
263.7'
188.4'
131.9'
94.18'
65.93'
47,09'
32.96'
23 ,97'
16,48'
12.0'
8,24'
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/prolecled Image)
III
fll .4
fl2
fl2 .8
1/4
1/5,6
1/8
fill
1/16
1/22
1/32
STD & TV
(.380"x .286")
NEAR
FAR
16'
INF
12'
INF
9' 340'
7' 117' 2"
6' 0"
12' O
4'108' 0'
4' l V,6' 4'
3' 5'
4' 9';"
2' B3' 5'/,l ' 10V,'
2' 2'1,'
NEAR
FAR
12'
INF
10'
INF
7'10'
167'
6' 325'
5' 515' 64' 59' 53'10"
7' 23' 2'1,'
5' 3'
2' 6V,3' 8l' 9'/..
2' 3'/,'
NEAR
FAR
10'
INF
8'
INF
6' 8'
INF
5' 5'
60'
4'10"
24'
4' o12' O
3' 6'
8' 7'
3' O'
6' O
2' 54' O
l ' B'II2' 4';"
NEAR
FAR
7'
INF
6'
INF
5'
INF
4' 6INF
4' 1273'
S' 622'
3' l '
12' 9'
2' 8'
7' 9'
2' 2y,4' 9"
l' 7V,2' 7';'-
NEAR
FAR
42' 062'
22'1027' 7"
14' 2y,15'119' 71{,10' 4'\7' 98' 3S'10W
6' 1'\4'115' l V..
3 ' 1 1 ~-
4' 3~
2'11'1,'
3' V':'
1'11'. '
2' ~'
NEAR
FAR
40'
68'
22' 128'10"
13'11'
16' 49' 610' 6Y,"
7' 88' 4",.
5' 93A6' 2';'4'10Y,5' 13,, "
3'11'
4' l '
2'11 'h'
3' W'
1'11'/,'
2' W'
NEAR
FAR
36'
81'
21' 030'10"
13' 6"
16'119' 3'1710'107' 6Y,'
8' 65' 96' 31?"
4' 93".
5' 2'h'
3'10'h4' l 'h'
2'11'1,3' Ji~"
1'11'/,'
2' If..'
NEAR
FAR
33'
107'
19' 9"
34' 012'1117'10"
9' 'Iz"
11' 27' 4'/,'
8' 95' 7 3~"
6' 54' 9'
5' 3'1,'
3'10'
4' 2'1"
2'11'
3' 1'1,l'11'1z2' V,-
NEAR
FAR
28'
207'
18' 2'
40'
12' 319' 58' 8"
11' 9] ' l ilt
9' l '
5' 6'
6' 7"
4'
7 ]~"
5' 5'
3' 9' ..
4' 3'
2'10'h"
3' 1)/..'
1'11'1,'
2' 31,"
NEAR
FAR
24'
INF
16' 4"
53'
11' 522' 0"
8' 3"
12' 8'
6'10"
9' r
5' 46'104' 6\,5' 7'
3' 8'1,'
4' 4'1z'
2' 9'/,"
3' 2'h'
1'112' l '
NEAR
FAR
20'
INF
14'
104'
10' 428'
7' 814' 4'
6' 5'
10' 7'
5' 17' 44' 4'
S'10'1z"
3' 6'.'
4' 6'h"
2' 93' 3'1,'
1'10';'''
2' 1';"
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"x .251 ")
1 ~: ~:~ 1~: ~:
6'10"x
B' 4'x
4' 2'x
5' O-x
2' 9"x
3' 4'x
2' 2"x
2' 8-x
I' 7-x
2' O-x
l ' 4,:x
I' 8'x
l' l'x
l ' 4"x
0'10"x
l ' OOX
0' 6'x
0' 8-x
5' 2'
4' 63' 12' 9"
2' 11'10l ' 8"
l ' 5l ' 3'
1' 1l ' O'
0'11
0'10"
0' 9"
O 70' 60' 5'
0' 4"
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPERFOCAL
OISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
50
25
15
10
8
6
5
4
3
538,2'
384,4'
269,1'
192,2'
134 ,6'
96.11 '
67 ,27'
48,93'
33.64'
24.46'
16,82'
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/ projecled Image)
1/1
1/1 .4
1/2
112,8
1/4
1/ 5,6
f/ 8
1/ 11
1/16
1/22
1/32
STO & TV
(.380" ,286")
NEAR
FAR
20'
INF
14'
97'
10' 527'
7'9"
14' 36' 610' 6"
5' 17' 44' 4S'10'1t'
3' 6'1,-
NEAR
FAR
IS'
INF
12'
INF
9' 4"
39'
7' 1lS'116' 011'114'107'114' 2"
6' 33' 5'/24' 9'/22' 83' 51'10"'2' 2V.-
NEAR
FAR
13'
INF
10'
INF
7'11139'
S' 325'
5' 515' 34' 59' 4"
3'107' 13' 2'1,5' 32' sv,3' 8"
l ' 9 '~2' 3'1,-
NEAR
FAR
45' 955' 123'11"
2S' 314' 715' 5",9' 93/'."
10' 2'/,7'10'/28' l V,5'11 '/,6'
4'11 '115' W
3'l W.4' If, "
2'11'1,3' W'
2' 0"
2' 0"
",-
NEAR
FAR
44' 357' S23' 62S' 914' 5"'15' 7''''
9' 910' 3V,7'10"
8' 2"
5'11S' 11'.4'11'1,5' :It...
3'11'!,4'
2'11';'3' V."
2' 02' 0"
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
100
50
25
15
10
8
7
5
4
NEAR
FAR
42' 261'
22'11"
22' 7'
14' 2'hlS' 10 '~"
9' 7 'J,~"
10' 4'1<"
7' 9'/,8' 3-
~:1~~:
4'115' 13'11 '1,4' 3//'
2'11';'3' .."
2'0"
2' 0"
"'-
LENS fOCAL lENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
OISTANCE
16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD, HYPERFoCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

)
CIRC LE OF CONFUSION = ,0006' (6/ 10,000"
50mm
"
NEAR
FAR
40'
S8'
22' 228' 913'11lS' 39' 610' Sv,7' 8'/,8' 4'/,5' 9 ~,6' 2',4'10",5' 1'12"
3'114' 12'11 V,3' v,1'11',2' II'"
NEAR
FAR
3S'
80'
21' 1"
30' 813' S16'11"
9' 3"'10' 9'/,7' S'/28' 65' 96' 3'1,4' 9'1<"
5' 2'1,3'10'/'4' 1'/,2'11 v.3' 'J,~.
1'11'1,2' If, "
NEAR
FAR
33'
104'
19'10"
33' 9"
13' 0"
17' 9"
9' W
11' 27' 4W
8' 9"
5' 7JA
6' 4 ~~
4' 9"
5' 3'1,3'10"
4' 2'
2'1 13' 1 ~~
1'11 "'2' '12"
NEAR
FAR
29'
195'
18' 340'
12' 319' 4"
8' 911' 97' 29' 15' 66' 7'
4' 7 ~~"
5' 4'1<"
3' 9'1,4' 3'
2'10'123' 1',1'11 ",2' ~/4
NEAR
FAR
25'
INF
16' r
51'
11' S21' 8"
8' 412' 7S'119' 7'
5' 4"
6'104' 6'1,5' 7'
3' 8'/24' 4'/,2'103' 2<;'1'1'2' 1-
4' 6Y2"
2' 93' 3V,1'10 ]~"
2' 1'1,-
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"X, 25 1i
9' 7-, 7' 311' 9-xS' 44' 9-x3' 7"
S'10-x3' 22'HFx 2' 23' S-x l 'l'1'11-' 1' 52' 4-X l' 3l ' 6-xO' 2l '10-x l ' 0l ' 2"xO'10"
l ' 4-XO' 9"
0'11-XO' 8l' 2"x O' 7'
0' 9-xO' 7'
O'll-XO' S"
0' 7-xO' 50' 8-xO' 40' 4-xO' 30' S-xO' 3-
16mm CAMERA oEPTH-Of,FIELo, HYPERFOCAl DISTANCE & FIELD Of VIEW
85mm
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION
= .0006' (6/10,000")
1555'
1111'
178,7'
565,5'
389,9'
277.8'
194.4'
14 1.4'
97,21 '
70,70'
48,61 '
FIELD Of VIEW
(w/ projected Image)
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/ 2.8
1/4
1/ 5,6
1/ 8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
STO &. TV
(,380-X,286")
NEAR
FAR
59'
342'
37'
NEAR
FAR
49'
INF
33'
103'
19'1133' 813' 0"
17' 99' 34"
11' 27' 4"'"
8' 8V,6' 61'.-
NEAR
fAR
41'
INF
29'
171'
18' 639'
12' 5'
19' 08' 911' 87' 2'12"
9' 06' 4y,7' 95' 6'1,6' 6V,4' 8"
5' 4"'3' 9'11"
4' 3-
NEAR
FAR
33'
INF
25'
INF
16' S'
51'
11' S21' 88' 4'
12' 86'10"
9'7"
6' lV,8' 25' 46'104' 6'1'5' 73' 8'124' 4'1,-
NEAR
FAR
94' 0106'10"
48' 551 ' 8'
24' 7'1,25' 5'
14'10'1,15' 1'1,9'11'1010' 3t."
7'11 '11"
8' v,6' l H~
7' If."
5'11'/'6' w/
4'11'1.5' v."
4' 0"
4' 0-
NEAR
FAR
91' 9"
109'1147'1052' 4"
24' 5'1225' 7"
14' 9'12"
15' 2'1,9'11"
10' 17'11 '1'8' ~~.
6'117' '/2"
5'11';'6' 'I,"
4'11'A5' V,"
4' 0"
4' 0"
NEAR
FAR
89'
115'
47' 053' 524' 2V,25'10"
14' 8'A15' 3'h"
9'10W
10' 1'/,7'118' 16'11'1,7' 'A5'11 '/26' '12"
4'11'1.5' '1,3'11'1'4' 'A"
NEAR
FAR
85'
122'
45'1154'1123'1126' 214' 7V.IS' 59' 9'1,'
10' 2'1,'
7'10'A8' l y,6'1'7' 1S'l 1'!, '
S' ';.4'11W
5' v,3'11';'4' w
NEAR
FAR
80'
135'
44' 457' 423' 626' 9"
14' SW
15' 79' 9"
10' 37'10"
8' 2"
S'10'l, 7' 1'125'116' 14'11'1,5' 3/.1"
3'11 '12"
4' 1ft'
NEAR
fAR
74'
156'
42' 5"
61'
22'1127' 614' 3lS' 10V,9' 7'1,10' 4'1,7' 9V.8' 36'107' 2'105'10'/26' 1'1,4'115' 2'/,"
3' 11 ~~"
4' 'A-
NEAR
FAR
66'
20S'
40'
S7'
22' 2'
28' 813'11IS' 39' 610' 8w
7' 8'1,8' 4S' go
7' 35' 9'1,6' 2'/,4'10"'5' 1'11"
3'114' 1-
77'
21' 330' 413' 7"

lS' 99' 410' 97' 6~~"
8' SlU6' 87' 4'1,5' 96' 3'1,4'105' 2';'3'10'1.4' 1'!,-
7' 6'h"
5' 7';'6' 4';'4' 9"

5' 3'1,3'10"
4' 2-
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
{,463'x, 251i
11' 4-x8' S13'10-x7' 65' 8'X4' 36'11-x3' 92'lO"x 2' ,3' S-x l 'lO"
l ' 8-X l ' 32' O-X l' 1l ' l -XO'10l ' 4-xO' 80' ,-XO' 8l ' l -XO' 7'
0' 9"x O' 70'11 -XO' 60' 8-xO' S0' 9-xO' 50' 6'xO' 50' 8-xO' 40' S'XO' 40' 6-xO' 3-
16mm CAMERA DEPTHDFFIElo, HYPERFoCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
IFEET)
200
100
50
25
15
10
8
6
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000")
2153'
1538'
1076'
768.9'
538.2'
384,4'
269,1'
196.8'
134.6'
97 ,85'
67 .27'
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
169'
246'
91' 6110'
47' !l"
52' 524' 5'
25' 7'
14' 9V,15' 2'/,9'1' 10' l'
7'11 V'
8' J/~
5'1HI'
6' w
159'
270'
88'
115'
47' 0"
53' 624' 2W'
25'10"
14' 8W'
15' 3't,9'10V,10' lV,'
7'11'
8' I'
5'11 Y,'
6' v"
183'
220'
95' 7104'10"
48'10"
51' 2"
24' 8V,25' 3't,14'10'1,'
15' 1'1,9'11 '/'10' Il"
7 lP ~
8' '14
5'll'A'
6' W'
177'
230'
93'11106'1148' 551' 824' lV,'
25' 514'10'/,15' PA9'l l V,10' "J!4"
7'11178' v.5'11';'6' If."
LENS
FOCUS
IFEET)
200
100
50
25
15
10
8
6
115'
99'
INF
779'
73'
66'
159'
204'
42' 240'
61'
67'
22" ' 22' 2"
28' 827' 7'
14' 2'h13'1116' 315'10'1'9' 69' 7'1'10' 4'1,10' 6V,7' 9lf.7' 8V,'
8' 38' 45'10V,'
5' 9>'\'
6' H~"
6' 2';."
80'
66'
INF
INF
INF
INF
33'
103'
,9'1,33' 713' 0'
17' 99' 111' 27' 58' 8V,5' HI'
6' 4'-
29'
195'
18'
40'
12'
19'
8'
11'
7'
9'
5'
6'
80'
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463'x.251 ' )
19' 3-x 14' 623' 6-)( 12' 9"
9' 7-x 7' 311' 9-x 6' 44' 9'x 3' 75-'O"x 3' 2"
2' 5-x l' 92'11-) l' 7l' 5' l ' "
l' 9- 0'11 '
0'11" 0' 8l' 2- 0' 7'
0' 9- 0'7'
0'11- 0' 6'
0' 7' 0' 50' 8- 0' 4-
50'
57'
389'
36'
21' ,30' 8'
13' 616'119' 3Vz"
10' 9'/,7' 6V,8' 6'
5' !l"
6' 3';'-
STO & TV
(.380" .286")
INF
49'
40'
3349!l"
2167'
16mm CAMERA DEPTHOF,FIELo, HYPERFDCAL OISTANCE & FiElD OF VIEW

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
146'
132'
318'
417'
84'
79'
123'
135'
44' 345' !l"
55' 157' 6'
23'1123' 6'
26' 9'
26' 3'
14' 5'/,14' 7'
IS' 5V,- 15' 7'1,9' 99' 9'A'
10' 3'1,10' 2V,7'101l"
7'108' 28' 11l"
5'11 '1,5'11'
6' 1'; '6' 'A-
FiElD OF VIEW
(w/prolected Image)
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION
3923'
2802'
1962'
1401 '
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2,8
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
190' 4211'
97' 6'
102' 749' 4'h"
50' 824'10"
25' 2'
14'11 V,15' 3/."
9'11'1,10' W'
7'11 'A8' '1.'''
6' 0"
6' 0"
187'
215'
96' 7103' 849' l V,'
50'1124' 9'11'
25' 2'A14'1115' l'
9'11'h10' 'h7'11 'A'
8' y,"
6' 06' 0"
182'
223'
95' 2105' 448' !l"
51' 424' 8';."
25' 3'A14'10'/'15' 1'/,9'11 V,10' '127'11'A'
8' Y..
175'
233'
93' 4107' 848' 3"
51'10"
24' 6'A'
25' S'!l'
14'10"
15' 29'11%10' '1."
7'11 V,-
5'1131.-
6' '/.. "
8' v"
5 lH~
6'
v.-
980.9'
700,6'
490.4'
356.7'
245 ,2'
178,3'
122.6'
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
f/16
1/22
1/32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
166'
156'
251'
280'
90' 9'
88'
111'
117'
47' 746' 8'
52' 853'10"
24' 4Th" 24' 1'h"
25' 825'1114' 9';'14' 8%'
15' 2'1." 15' 49'10'A9'10%'
10' l 'A' 10' 1>,\7'11 '1,7'118' 34"
8' 15'11'/,5'11 '176' '12'
6' '12'
NEAR
FAR
142'
128'
338'
455'
83'
78'
126'
139'
45' 5'
43'1055' 8"
58' 2"
23' !l"
23' 426' 4'
26'1114' 6V,14' 4'/,15' 5'A- 15' 89' 9Vt'
9' 8'1,10' 2'!l' 10' 3V,7'10'12'
7' 9'A'
8' l V,'
8' 2'./,5'11 V,S'10.'
6' :W
6' l V,-
110'
INF
71'
169'
41' 663'
22' 8'
27'1014' 1'h16' 0'
9' 7V,'
10' 5V,7' !l"
8' 3%5'10%'
6' lo-
94'
INF
64'
228'
39'
70'
21'11'
29' 113'1016' 49' 5';'10' 7'
7' 88' 4'115' 9'12'
6' 2'12'
76
INF
55'
542'
36'
84'
20' !l"
31' 513' 417' l'
9' 3'
10'10'12'
7' 6'
8' 6\'l"
5' 8 ~,'
6' 3'A-
.0006' (6/10,000")
FiElD OF VIEW
(w/prolected Image)
STO & TV
(.380' .2861
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463'x ,251")
14' 3-X l0' 9"
17' 5-x 9' 5"
7' l-x 5' 48' 8-x 4' 83' 6-x 2' 84' 4-x 2' 4'
1' !l"x I' 42' 2-x "2I' O-x 0' 9l' 3-)( 0' 80' 8-x 0' 6'
0'10-X 0' 50' 6'x 0' 5'
0' 8-x 0' 40' S-x 0' 40' 6-x 0' 3-
,. . .--.,..,- -,-- -- , .-
...
C>
~ ~
~ >
VERTICAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH

(Focal Length in Millimeters)
RANSMITTEO
DR
PROJECTED 0.189' 0.l 60' 0.375' 0.500' 0.158' 0.l 86' 0.l51 ' 0.446' 0.594' 0.700' 0.991 ' 0.870'
IMAGE
ANGLE
(DEGREES)
TV
TV
TV
TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm
2/ 3"
ANA VISTA
I'
tw'
'It'
16 1.85:1 TV
8
1.85:1 AR TRANS
TUBE TUBE TUBE TUBE
AR
>
196
0.5
0.7
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
550
393
275
183
138
110
92
79
69
61
55
46
39
34
30
27
18
14
11
9
8
7
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
757
541
378
252
189
151
126
108
95
84
76
63
54
47
42
38
25
19
15
12
10
9
8
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
1091 1445 460

780 1039 328
546 728 230
364 485 153
273 364 115
218 291 92
182 242 77
156 208 66
136 182 57
121 162 51
109 145 46
91 121 38
78 104 33
68 91 29
61 81 25
54 73 23
36 48 15
27 36 11
21 29 9
18 24 7
15 20 6
13 17 6
11 15 5
10 14 4
9 12 4
8 11 3
7 10 3
7 9 3
6 8 3
6 8 2
5 7 2
5 6 2
4 6 2
4 5 2
832
595
416
277
208
166
139
119
104
92
83
69
59
52
46
42
28
21
16
14
12
10
9
8
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
731 1298 1729 203712884 2532

522 927 1235 1455 ~060 1809
365 649 864 1019 1442 1266
244 433 576 679 961 844
183 325 432 509 721 633
146 260 346 407 577 506
122 216 288 339 481 422
104 185 247 291 412 362
91 162 216 255 360 316
81 144 192 226 320 281
73 130 173 204 288 253
61 108 144 170 240 21 1
52 93 123 145 206 181
46 81 108 127 180 158
41 72 96 113 160 140
36 65 86 102 144 126
24 43 57 68 96 84
18 32 43 50 71 63
14 26 34 40 57 50
12 21 28 33 47 41
10 18 24 28 40 35
9 16 21 24 35 30
8 14 18 21 30 2f
7 12 16 19 27 24
6 11 15 17 24 21
6 10 13 15 22 19
9 12 14 20 1f
5
5
8 11 13 18 16
4
7 10 12 16 14
4
7 9 11 15 13
6 8 10 14 12
3
3
6 8 9 13 11
3
5 7 8 12 10
9
3
5 6 7 11
196a
HORIZONTAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL

LENGTH (Focal Length in Millimeters)
-,
Cl
Cl
TRANS~ITTED OR
ROJECTED 0.252" 0.346" 0.5" 0.667 ' 0.209" 0.380" 0.463" 0.825" 1.676" 1.485" 1.912"
IMAGE
ANGLE
(Degreesl
05
0.7
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
'h"
%~
TUBE
TV
TU8E
TV
TV
1"
TU 8E
TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm

l W'
-8
-16 1.85:1 ANA VISTA
TU8E
1.85:1 AR
AR
733
524
367
244
183
147
122
105
92
81
1007
719
504
336
252
201
168
144
126
112
1455 1941
1039 1387
728 971
485 647
364 485
291 388
242 323
208 277
182 243
162 216
608
435
304
203
152
122
101
87
76
68
61
51
43
38
34
73 101 145 194

61 84 121 162
52 72 104 138
46 63 91 121
41 56 81 108
37 50 73 97 30
24 33 45 64 20
18 25 36 48 15
14 20 29 38 12
12 16 24 32 10
10 14 20 27 8
9 12 17 23 7
8 11 15 20 6
7
9 14 18 6
6
8 12 16 5
6
8 11 15 5
5
7 10 13 4
5
6 9 12 4
4
6 8 11 3
4
5 8 10 3
3
5 7 9 3
3
4 6 8 3
3
4 6 8 2
3
4 5 7 2
1106 1348 2401 4878 4322 5565

790 963 1715 3484 3087 3975
553 674 1201 2439 2161 2782
369 449 800 1626 1441 1855
276 337 600 1219 1081 1391
221 269 480 975 864 1113
184 225 400 813 720 927
158 192 343 697 617 795
138 168 300 610 540 695
123 150 267 542 480 618
111 135 240 488 432 556
92 112 200 406 360 463
79 96 171 348 308 397
69 84 150 304 270 347
61 75 133 270 240 309
55
37
27
22
18
67 120 243 216 278

45 80 162 143 184
33 59 121 107 138
27 47 96 85 110
22 39 79 70 91
15
13
12
10
9
8
8
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
19
16
14
13
11
10
9
8
8
7
6
6
5
5
33
29
25
22
20
68
58
51
46
41
60
52
46
40
36
18
16
15
14
12
11
10
10
9
37
33
30
28
25
23
21
20
18
33
30
27
25
22
21
19
17
16
c::i
c
~c
...
o
..,
+
:::::
o '"
'"
c::i 0
0
. <a
~1----+- +-+-+--+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+--1
~
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~~f:5~~~~~~88~;;
606006000600d
...
1--- -+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+--1
c::>
00
:>:
l:i:
oN
:::::
~ 1----+- +-+-+--+--+--+-+ -+-+-+-+-+--1

eN
:::::
77
61
59
52
41
42
38
35
32
29
26
24
22
20
~~~
co
to
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Extreme Close Up
16mm DEPTH of FIELD and EXPOSURE FACTOR
vs.
Magnification or Field of View
Magnl
flcallon
Rallo
Field 01 View
(projecled image)
.286'x.380' .251 'x .463"
Dec.
Frac.
Std. 16
Super 16
0.100
0.111
0.125
0.143
0.167
0.200
0.250
0.333
0.500
0.667
0.750
0.875
1.0
1/10
1/9
1/8
1/7
1/ 6
1/5
1/ 4
1/ 3
1/2
2/3
3/4
7/8
1/1
2.86x 3.80
2.51 x 4.63
2.58 x 3.42
2.26x 4.17
2.01 x 3.70
1.76x3.24
1.50x 2.78
1.26x 2.32
1.00x 1.85
.754x 1.39
.502x .926
.376x .694
.335x .617
.286x .529
.251 x .463
+++++
....
CXlOlU1~
2.29x 3.04
2.0 x 2.66
1.71 x 2.28
1.43x 1.90
1.14x 1.52
.859X1.14
.572x .760
.429x.570
.381 x.507
.327x .434
.286x .380
Circle of Confusion
= 0.0006"
DEPTH OF FIELD (TOlal: fronl + back. in inches)
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
Exposure
Increase
Faclor
T-Stop
Increase
0.13'
0.11
009
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.014
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.19'
0.15
0.12
009
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.0 10
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.26'
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.10
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.014
0.009
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.37'
0.30
0.24
0.19
0.14
0.10
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.013
0.010
0.008
0.007
0.53'
0.43
0.35
0.27
0.20
0.14
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.018
0.015
0.0 12
0.010
0.74'
0.61
0.48
0.38
0.28
0.20
0.13
0.08
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.016
0.013
1.06'
0.87
0.69
0.54
0.40
0.29
0.19
0.12
0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.019
1.45'
1.19
0.95
0.74
0.55
0.40
0.26
0.16
0.08
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.03
2.11'
1.73
1.38
1.07
0.80
0.58
0.38
0.23
0. 12
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
2.90"
2.38
1.90
1.48
1.11
0.79
0.53
0.32
0.16
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.05
4.22'
3.46
2.76
2. 15
1.61
1.15
0.77
0.46
0.23
0.14
0.12
0.09
0.08
1.21
1.23
1.27
1.31
1.36
1.44
1.56
1.78
2.25
2.78
3.06
3.52
4.0
.27
.30
I\)
....+
'/.
.39
.45
.53
'13
.83
1'13
1.47
1'13
1.81
2.0
."
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rm
Camera Filters
Filter Factors
Camera fil ters are transparent or translucent optical

elements that alter the properties of light entering the camera lens for the purpose of improving the image being recorded. Filters can affect contrast, sharpness, highlight flare,
color, and light intensity, either individually or in various
combinations. They can also crea te a variety of "special
effects." It is important to recognize that, even though there
are many possibly confusing variations and applications,
all filter behave in a reasonably predictable way. This section is intended to explain the ba ic optical characteristics
of camera filters as well as their applications. It is a foundation upon which to build through experience. Textual
data cannot fully inform. There is always something new.
In their most successful applications, fil ter effects blend
in with the rest of the image to help get the message across.
Exercise caution when using a filter in a way that draws
attention to i~elf as an effect. Combined with all the other
elements of image-making, filters make visual statemen ts,
manipulate emotions and thought, and make believable
what otherwise would not be. They get the viewer inolved.
Many filter types absorb light, and this must be compensated for when calculating exposure. These fil ters are
supplied with either a recommended "filter fac tor" or a
"stop value." Filter factors are multiples of the unfiltered
exposure. Stop values are added to the stop to be set without the filter. Multiple filters will add stop values. Since
each stop added is a doubling of the exposure, a filter factor of 2 is equal to a one-stop increase. Example: three filters of one stop each w ill need three additional stops, or a
fil ter factor of 2x2x2 = 8 times the unfiltered exposure.
When in doubt in the field about compensation
needed for a filter, you might use your light meter with the
incident bulb removed. 1 you have a flat diffuser, use it;
otherwi e just leave the sensor bare. Aim it at an unchanging light source of sufficient intensity. On the ground, facing up a t a blank sky can be a good field situation. Make a
reading without the filter. Watch out for your own shadow.
Make a reading with the filter covering the entire sensor.
o light should enter from the sides. The difference in the
readings is the compensation needed for that filter. You
could also use a spot meter, reading the same bright patdl,
with similar results. There are some exceptions to this depending on the fil ter color, the meter sensitivity, and the
target color, but it's often better than taking a guess.
Filter Planning
Filter Grades
Filter effects can become a key part of the "look" of a

film, if considered in the planning stages. They can also
provide a crucial last-minute fix to unexpected problems,
if you have them readily available. Where possible, it is best
to run advance tests for pre-conceived situations when
time allows.
Many filter types are available in a range of "grades"

of differing strengths. This allows the extent of the eHect
to be tailored to suit various situations. The grade-numbering systems may vary with manufacturer, but genrally, the
higher the number, the stronger the eHect. Unless otherwise
stated by the manufacturer, there is no mathematical relationship between the numbers an d the strength s. A grade
4 is not twice the strength of a grade 2. A grade 1 plus a
grade 4 doesn't add up to a grade 5.
by Ira Tiffen, ASC Associate Member
Filter References
Ther are several filter manufacturers who should be
contacted regarding available filter types and nomenclature. Filter of the same name, but of different manufacturers, may not have the same characteristics. The one industry standard is the Wratten system for filter colors. Wrattennumbered fil ters have defined transmission properties that
are at least cross-referenced by the various key suppliers.
200
Camera Filters for Both

Color and Black & White
Ultraviolet Filters
Film often exhibits a greater sensitivity to something
invisible to humans: ultraviolet light. This occurs most often outdoors, especially at high altitudes, where the UV201
absorbing ahnosphere is thilUler, and over long distances,

such as in marine scenes. It can show up as a bluish color
cast with color film, or it can cause a low-contrast haze that
diminishes details, especially when viewing faraway objects, in ei ther color or black & white. Ultraviolet filters
absorb UV light generally without affecting light in the visible region.
It is important to distinguish between UV-generated
haze and that of airborne particles, such as smog. The latter is made up of opaque matter that absorbs visible light
as well as UV, and will not be appreciably removed by a
UV fi lter.
Ultraviolet filters come in a variety of absorption levels, usually measured by their percent transmission at 400
nanometers (nm), the visible UV wavelength bowldary.
Use a filter that transmits zero percent at 400nm for aerial
and far-distant scenes; one that transmits in the ten to thirty
percent range is fine for average situations.
Infrared Filters
Certain special situations call for the use of black &
white or colo r infrared sensitive films. For aerial haze penetration, recording heat effects, and other purposes they are
invaluable. Their color and tonal renditions are very different, however, from other film types (consult film manufacturers for further details). Various filters are used to reduce
unwanted visible light. Red, orange, and yellow filters, as
used for panchromatic black & white film, can enhance
contrast and alter color. Total visible light absorption, transmitting only infrared, as with the Wratten #87 or #89 series of filters, can also be useful. The results will vary with
film type and other factors. Prior testing for most situations
is a must.
Neutral-Density Filters
When it is desirable to maintain a particular lens opening for sharpness or depth-of-field purposes, or simply to
obtain proper exposure when confronted with too much
light intensity, use a neutral-density (ND) filter. This will
absorb light evenly throughout the visible spectrum, effectively altering exposure w ithout req uiring a change in lens
opening and without introducing a color shift.
Neutral-densi ty fjj ters are denoted by (optical) densi ty
value. Density is defined as the log, to base] 0, of the opac202
ity. Opacity (degree of absorption) of a filter is the reciprocal of (and inversely proportional to) its transmittance. As
an example, a filter with a compensation of one stop has a
transmittance of 50%, or 0.5 times the original light intensity. The reciprocal of the transmittance, 05, is 2. The log,
base 10, of 2 is approximately 0.3, which is the nominal
density value. The benefit of using density values is that
they can be added when combined. Thus two ND .3 filters
have a density value of 0.6. However, their combined transmittance would be found by multiplying 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25,
or 25% of the original light intensity.
Neutral-density filters are also available in combination with other filters. Since it is preferable to minimize the
number of filters used (see section on multiple filters), common combinations such as a Wratten 85 (daylight conversion filter for tungsten film) w ith a ND filter are available
from manufacturers as one filter, as in the 85N6. In this case,
the two-stop ND .6 value is in addition to the exposure
compensation needed for the base 85 filter.
Gradated ND Filters, or Wedges

Often it is necessary or desirable to balance light intensity in one part of a scene with another, in situations
where you don't have total light control, as in bright exteriors. Exposing for the foreground will produce a washedout, overexposed sky. Exposing for the sky w ill leave the
foreground dark, underexposed. Gradated, or wedge, ND
filters are part clear, part neutral density, with a smoothly
graded transition between. This allows the transition to be
blended into the scene, often imperceptibly. An ND .6-toclear, with a two~ stop differential, will most often compensa te the average bright sky-ta-foreground situation.
These filters are also available in combination colors,
as where the entire filter is, for example, a Wratten 85, while
one half also combines a graded-transition neu tral densi ty,
as in the 85-t0-85N6. This allows the one filter to replace
the need for two.
Gradated, or wedge, filters generally come in three
transition types. The most commonly used is the "soft"
gradation. It has a wide enough transition area on the filter to blend smoothly into most scenes, even with a wideangle lens (which tends to narrow the transition). A long
focal length, however, might only image in the center of the
transition. In this case, or where the blend must take place
in a narrOw, straight area, use a "hard" gradation. This is
203
r
ideal for featureless marine horizons. For situations where
an extremely gradual blend is required, an "attenuator" is
used. It changes density almost throughout its length.
Certain types of part clear, part neutral-density ffiters
are called sky-eontrol ffiters. They may have a sharp, not
gradated, dividing line, requiring careful alignment and
choice of lens opening to blend in the edge.
The key to getting best results with gradated ffiters is
to help the effect blend in as naturally as possible. Keep it
close to the lens to maximize transition softness. Avoid
having objects in the image that extend across the transition in a way that would highlight the existence of the ffiter. Don't move the camera unless the transition can be
maintained in proper alignment with the image throughout the move. Make all positioning judgments through a
reflex viewfinder at the actual shooting aperture, as the apparent width of the gradation is affected by a change in
aperture.
Gradated ffiters are best used in a square, or rectangular format, in a rotating, slidable position in a matte box.
This will allow proper location of the transition within the
image. They can be used in tandem, for example, with one
affecting the upper half and the second affecting the lower
half of the image. The center area can also be allowed to
overlap, creating a stripe of the combination of effects in the
middle, most effectively with gr~datedffiters in colors. (See
section on "Gradated Color Filters.")
No Filter
Polarizing Filters
Polarizers allow color and contrast enhancement, as
well as reflection control, using optical principles different
from any other ffiter types. Most light that we record is reflected light that takes on its color and intensity from the
objects we are looking at. White light, as from the sun reflecting off a blue object, appears blue because all other
colors are absorbed by that object. A small portion of the
reflected light bounces off the object without being absorbed and colored, retaining the original (often white)
color of its source. With sufficient light intensity, such as
outdoor sunlight, this reflected "glare" has the effect of
washing out the color saturation of the object. It happens
that, for many surfaces, the reflected glare we don't want
is polarized while the colored reflection we do want isn't.
The waveform description of light defines non-polarized light as vibrating in a full 3600 range of directions
204
Polarizer for reflection control.
around its travel path. Polarized light is defined as vibrating in only one such direction. A polarizirig ffiter passes
light through in only one vibratory direction. It is generally used in a rotating mount' to allow for alignment as
needed. In our example above, if it is aligned perpendicularly to the plane of vibration of the polarized reflected
glare, the glare will be absorbed. The rest of the light, the
true-colored reflection vibrating in all directions, will pass
through no matter how the polarizing ffiter is turned. The
result is that colors will be more strongly saturated, or
darker. This effectvaries as you rotate the polarizer through
205
No Filter
Polarizer for blue sky and Didymium for red enhancement.
Polarizer for exposure control.
a quarter-turn producing the complete variation of effect,

from full to none.
Polarizerslare most useful for increasing general outdoor color saturation and contrast. Polarizers can darken
a blue sky, a k~y appp,cation, on color as.well as on black
& white film/ but there are several factors to remember
when doing this. To deepen a blue sky/ it must be blue to
start with, not hite or hazy. Polarization is also angledependent. A plue sky will not be equally affected in all
directions. Therreas of deepest blue are determined by the
following "rulf of thumb." When setting up an exterior
shot, make a right angle between thumb and forefinger.
Point your forefinger at the sun. The area of deepest blue

will be the band outlined by your thumb as it rotates
around the pointing axis of your forefinger, directing the
thumb from horizon to horizon. Generally, as you aim your
camera either more into or away from the sun/ the effect
will gradually diminish. There is no effect directly at or
away from the sun. Do not pan with a polarizer without
checking to see that the change in camera angle doesn/t
create undesirably noti~able changes in color or saturation.
Also, with an extra-wide-angle view, the area of deepest
blue may appear as a distinctly darker band in the sky. Both
206
207
situations are best avoided. In all cases, the effect of the

polarizer will be visible when viewing through it.
Polarizers need approximately 1 ~ to 2 stops exposure
compensati on, without regard to rotational orien tation or
subject matter. They are also available in combination with
certain standard conversion filters, such as the 85BPOL.In
this case, add the polarizer's compensation to that of the
second fiJ ter.
Certain camera op tical sys tems employ internal surfaces that themselves polarize light. Using a standard (linear) polarizer wiUcause the light to be further absorbed by
the internal optics, depending on the relative orientation.
A circular polarizer is a linear one to which has been added,
on the side facing the camera, a quarter wave "retarder."
This "corkscrews" the plane of polarization, effectively
depolarizing it, eliminating the problem. The circular
polarizer otherwise functions in the same manner.
Polarizers can also control unwanted reflections from
surfaces such as glass and water. For best results, be at an
angle of 32 to 34 degrees incident to the reflecting surface.
Viewing through while rotating the polarizer will show the
effect. It may not always be advisable to remove all reflections. Leaving some minimal reflection will preserve a
sense of context to a close-up image through the reflecting
surface. A close-up of a frog in water will appear as a frog
out of wa ter without some tell-tale reflections.
For relatively close imaging of documents, pictures,
and small three-dimensional objects in a li ghting-eontrolled environment, as on a copy stand, plastic pola rizers
mounted on lights aimed a t 45 degrees to the subject from
both sides of the ca mera will maximize the glare-red ucing
efficiency ofa pola rizer on the camera lens. The carnera, in
this case, is aimed straight at the subject surface, not at an
angle. The lighting polarizers should both be in the sa me,
perpendicular orientation to the one on the lens. Again, you
can judge the effect through the polarizer.
Special Effect Filters

The foll owing fil ter types are ava ilable in a wide range
of grades useful in both color and black & white imaging.
111ey ha ve no recommended filter factors, but may require
exposure compensation based on a several considerations.
Filters that lower contrast or crea te fl are, where contrast
and /or light intensity is higher, will do more for any given
grade. Working with light, the more they have, the more
they can do. The same filter, in two different lighting conditions, may produce two different effec ts. With diffusion,
or image-softening filters, hi gher contrast scenes appear
sharper, needing more diffusion, than scenes of lower contrast. Diffusion requirements will also va ry with other conditions. SmaUer film formats wiII a llow less diffusion, as
williarge-screen projection. Color may alJow less diffusion
than black & white. Producing for television may require
a greater degree ofdiffusion to survive the transition. These
relationships should cause you to choose exposure and filter grade based on the situation and personal experience.
Prior testing is always recommended when possible.
Diffusion Filters
Many different techniq ues have been developed to
diffuse image-forming light. Stronger versions can blur
reality for a dream-like effect. In more subtle forms, diffusion can soften wrinkles to remove years from a face. The
optical effects all involve bending a percentage of the image-forming light from its original path to defocus it.
Some of the .e arliest "portrait" diffusion filters are still
in use today - "nets." Fine mesh, like a stocking, stretched
across the lens, has made many a face appear fl aw lessly
youthful. More recently, these can also be obtained as standard-sized hard optical filters. Nets function through "selecti ve diffusion." They ha ve a grea ter effect on small details, such as wrinkles and skin blemishes, than on the rest
of the image. The d ear spaces in the mesh transmit light
unchanged, preserving the overall sharp appearance of the
image. Light striking the fl at surface of the net lines, however, is reflec ted or absorbed. A li ght-eolored mesh will
reflect enough to tint shadows, either making them lighter,
which lowers contrast, or addin g its color while leaving
highlight areas alone. TI1e effect of diffu sion, however, is
produced by the refraction of light that just strtkes the edges
of the mesh lines. This li ght is bent at a differen t angle,
d1anging its distance to the fi lm plane, putting it out of focus. It happens t11at this has a proportionately grea ter effect on finer details than on larger image elements. The result is that fewer wrinkles or blemishes are visible on a face
that otherwise retains an overall, relatively sharp appearance.
_______rII
209
No Filter
Low Contrast
Fog Filter
The finer e mesh, the more the image area covered

by mesh lines, d the greater the effect. Sometimes, multiple layers are
d to produce even stronger results.
Mesh wi a square pattern can produce small fourpoint stars fro lights in the scene. Most of the time, this is
not desirable. ost mesh patterns used have a hexagonal
pattern to
. e this effect.
As with y filter that has a discrete pattern, be sure
that depth of fi ld dpesn't cause the net filter lines to become visible in the image. Using small apertures or short
focal length I
makes this more likely, as does using a
smaller film format. Generally, mid-range or larger apertures are suitable, but test before critical situations.
When diffusing to improve an actor's facial appearance, it is important not to draw attention to the pr~ce
of the filter, especially with stronger grades, when diffusion is not required elsewhere. It may be desirable to lightly
diffuse adjacent scenes or subjects which would not otherwise need it, to ensure that the stronger filtration, where
needed, is not made obvious.
In diffusing faces, it is especially important that the
eyes do not get overly soft and dull. This is the theory behind what might be called circular diffusion filters. A se211
r
mentioned previously. Use it to help isolate the main subject, held sharp in the clear center, while diffusing a distracting background, especially in situations where a long lens
and depth-of-field differentiation aren't possible.
Another portrait diffusion type involves the use of
small"dimples," or clear refracting shapes dispersed on an
otherwise clear optical surface. They can be round or diamond-shaped. These are capable of more efficient selective
diffusion than the net type, and have no requirement to be
aligned with the subject's eye. They don't lower contrast
by tinting shadows, as lighH:olored nets do. These dimples
refract light throughout their surface, not just at the edges.
For any given amount of clear space through the filter,
which is relative to overall sharpness, they can hide fine
details more efficiently than net filters. A more recent development involves a minutely detailed series of patterns,
made up of tiny '1enslets," each with a greater degree of.
curvature, with more opt:.ical power, than that developed
by the dimples pJ;eviously mentioned. This produces a
maximum of selective diffusion efficiency for any given
amount of overall sharpness.
The above types of filters, though most often used for
"portrait" applications, also find uses wherever general
sharpness is too great, and must be subtly altered.
Some diffusion filters also cause highlight areas to
flare. They can scatter light, having an effect on lowering
contrast. These are closely related to fog or mist filters.
These include "dot" filters which incorporate small, discrete optical elements of various sizes that selectively diffuse, lower contrast, and cause mild highlight flare. They .
can be very effective in achieving these combined effects.
Double Fog Filter
Sliding Diffusion Filters
ries of concentric . cles, sometimes also having additional

radial lines, are et ed or cast into the surface of a clear filter. These patte
have the effect of selectively bending
light in a somew t more efficient way than nets, in a more
radial orientation This requires that the center of the circular pattern is gned with one of the subject's eyes, not
always an easy ta k; to keep it sharp. The rest of the image
will exhibit the
ion effect.
A variation
the clear-eenter concept is the centerspot filter. This is special-application filter that has a modion surrounding a clear rentral area
erate degree of
that is generally 1 ger than that of circular diffusion filters
2U
When attempting to fine-tune the application of diffusion within a sequence, the ability to vary the strength
of the effect while filming can be invaluable. This can be
accomplished by employing an oversized filter that has a
gradated diffusion effect throughout its length. It is
mounted to allow sliding the proper grade are.a in front of
the lens, which can be changed"on-<:amera." When even
more subtle changes are required, maintaining consistent
diffusion throughout the image while varying the overall
strength, a dual"opposing gradient" filter arrangement can
be used.
213
Fog and Mi t Filters

A natural og causes lights to glow and flare. Contrast
is generally 10 er, and sharpness may be affected as well.
Fog and mist . ters mimic the effect of atomized water
droplets in the . . The soft glow can be used to make lighting more visib . For example, the effect of humidity in a
tropical scene
be enhanced. In lighter grades, these filters can take e edge off excess contrast and sharpness.
Heavier grad can create unnatural effects, as for fantasy
sequences. In g eral, however, the effect of a strong natural fog is not p oduced accurately by these filters in their
stronger grad , because they are too fuzzy, with too much
contrast. For
t, Double Fog or gradated fog filters are
recommended
Gradated og filters, sometimes called "scenic," are
part clear or li t fog, and part denser fog effect. Aligning
the clear or we er half with the foreground and the stronger half with th background will render an effect more like
that of a natur fog, accumulating strength with distance.
Double F s have milder flare and softening characteristics than st dard fog filters, while exhibiting a much
greater effect 0 contrast; especially in the stronger grades.
A very thick n
al fog will still allow close-up objects to
appear sharp. will a double fog filter. The key to the effect is the mu lower contrast combined with a minimal
amount of hig .ght flare.
Mist filte generally produce highlight flare that, because it stays cl r to the source, appears more as a "halo"
than the more utwardly extended flare of a fog filter. The
. mist filters crea e an almost pearlescent glow to highlights.
The lighter gra es also find uses in toning down the excessive sharpness d contrast of modern film and lens combinations with ut detracting from the image.
Low-Contr st Filters
There are
riors, where p
exposing for
other severely
come in two ke
of "localized"
This reduces c
leaving highli
type also incl
214
y situations, such as bright sunlit exteopel. contrast is difficult to maintain, and

ther highlights or shadows will leave the
der- or overexposed. Low-contrast filters
types. The first type creates a small amount
are near highlight areas wit:hiI1 the image.
ntrast by lightening nearby shadow areas,
ts almost unchanged. A variation of this
es a light-absorbing element in the filter
which, without exposure compensation, will reduce contrast by also darkening highlights. Use this latter filter when
lighter shadows are not desired. In both cases, the mild flare
produced from bright highlights is sometimes used as a
lighting effect.
A second, more recently developed type of filter reduces contrast without any localized flare. It uses ambient
light, not just light in the image area, to lighten shadows
evenly throughout. Use it where contrast control is needed
without any other apparent effect on sharpness or highlight
flare.
Star-Effect Filters
Lighting can be enhanced in ways that go beyond
what exists in nature. Star filters create points of light, like
"stars," str-eaking outward from a central light source. This
can make lighting within the scene take on a more glitter.ing, glamorous appearance. This effect is usually produced
by a series of thin lines etched into the flat optical surface
of a clear filter.These lines act as cylindrical lenses, diffracting light points into long thin lines of light running perpendicular to the etched lines. Lines on the filter positioned
horizontally produce vertically oriented star lines.
The size and brightness of the star lines produced are
first a function of the size, shape, and brightness of the light
source. You have additional control through the choice of
a particular spacing between the lines on the filter. Generally these spacings are measured in millimeters. A 1mm
spacing has twice as many lines per unit area as a 2mm.
spacing. It will produce a brighter star for any given source.
Spacings offered generally range from 1mm to 4mm, as
well as both narrower and wider distances for specialty effects.
The number of directions in which the lines run determines the number of points produced. Lines in one direction produce a two-pointed star, just a streak through the
center of the light. Filters with 4, 6, 8, 12, and more points
are available. Although the more common types have a
symmetrical arrangement of points, tl1ey can also be obtained with asymmetric patterns, which tend to appear
more "natural," or less synthetic.
With an 8- or 12~point filter, the many star lines will
tend to overpower the rest of the image, so use them carefully.
215
As with Yfilter that has a discrete pattern, be sure

that depth of eld doesn't cause the filter lines to become
visible in the ' age. Using small apertures or short focal
l~gth lenses
es this more likely, as will using a smaller
film. format, s ch as l?mm vs. 35mm given an equal field
o! VIew. Gen ally, nud-range apertures or larger is suffioent, but test before critical situations.
Filters f
Tone-Con
Black & White

1Filters
Black & hite panchromatic film records only tonal

diff~ces .
een colored objects, which appear as black,
white, or
erent shades of gray. Proper rendition depends on yo own desires, and the differences between
film sensitivi to colors and that of the eye. The latter is
due to the fa that most emulsions are more sensitive to
blue, violet d ultraviolet than to other colors. Therefore,
bl~e appears to be lighter on film than it does to the eye.
a blue sky light enough to appear a similar
This can ~
shade of ligh gray as the clouds that are in it, making the
clou~s "disa pear." A more "correct" cloud presence is
obtamed th ugh the use of a yellow filter, such as a
Wratten #8, hich can absorb blue light, darkening the sky
to more close y match what the eye would see. The #8 also
acts as a gen ral compensator for most subjects, giving a
tonal renditi n similar to that of the eye. Deeper colors,
further to the red end of the spectrum, such as Wratten #15
deep yellow, #16 orange, and #25 and #29 red filters, will
produce pro essively deeper and artificially more dramatic renditi ns of blue sky.
Remem
that, since these filters act on color differences to prod ce tonal differences, the required colors must
be present. e part of the sky you are recording must be
blue to be affl
. Sky sections closer to the sun or nearer
the horizon, e generally less blue than elsewh~. Use of
a gradated n utral-density filter can darken a sky relative
to the foregr und, but will not increase contrast between a
blue sky and the clouds.
Using .
for contrast control can be a matter of artistic prefer ce, or of necessity. It is possible for two disparate colo say a certain orange and blue, to record as
the identical tone, eliminating any visible difference between them. ilters will lighten objects of their own color
and darken ose of their complement. Complementary
.
216
color pairs are: green-red; orange-blue; violet-yellow. An

orange filter in the above case will darken the blue and
lighten,the orange; a blue filter will perform the reverse.
A green filter, such as Wratten #11, can be used to
lighten green foliage to show more detail. It may also be
used to provide more pleasing skin tones outdoors, especially against blue sky.
Any filter used for the above purposes will have a
greater effect if slightly underexposed. Its function depends
on absorbing light of its complementary colors to increase
the proportion of light of colors similar to itself. Exposure
compensation is often needed to allow proper image density, but the relative difference is reduced by the addition
of light at the absorbed wavelengths through additional
exposure.
Filters for Color

Recording color involves greater knowledge about
light sources than is necessary for black & white imaging.
Sunlight, daylight and exterior lighting at different times
of day,as well as incandescent, fluorescent, and other artificial sources, all have color characteristics that vary significantly. We see images through our eyes only after they are
processed by our brain, which has the ability to make certain adjustments to the way we see color. White will still
appear white to the eye in various lighting situtations, as
long as we don't have more than one type visible at a time.
Film has no such internal compensation. It is designed to
see only a certain type of light as white - all others will
appear different to the extent of their difference. Filters are
required to provide the necessary fine-tuning.
The following discussion of Color Conversion, Light
Balancing, Color Compensating, Decamired, and Fluorescent filters will be better understood after consulting the
section on color temperature and light-source characteristics.
Color-eonversion Filters
Color-eonversion filters are used to correct for sizable
differences in color temperature between the film and the
light source. These include both the Wratten #80 (blue) and
the Wratten #85 (amber) series of filters. Since they see frequent outdoor use, in bright sunlight, the #85 series, espe-
217
No Filter
Sepia Filter
d #85B, are also available in combination

utral- density filters for exposure control.
dngFilters
light-bal cing filters are used to make minor corrections in color mperature. These are comprised ofboth the
Wratten #81 ( ellowish) and the Wratten #82 (bluish) series of filters. ey are often used in combination with colorconversion fil ers. Certain #81 series filters may also be
available in c~binationwith various neu~al density filters for exposUre control.
218
Color-compensating Filters
Color-eompensating filters are used to make adjustments to the red, blue or green characteristics of light. These
find applications in correcting for color balance, light source
variations, different reversal film batches, and other color
effects. They are available in density variations of Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow, as well as Red, Blue, and Green filters.
Decamired Filters
Decamired filters (a trademark of their manufacturer)
are designed to more easily handle unusual color tempera-
219
lengths, which filters alone cannot add back. This is particularly true of many types of metal halide lighting. With
other lighting types, such as fluorescent, color temperature
measurements may not provide the correct filter requirements since color temperature theory is based on having a
continuous spectrum, meaning light at all wavelengths. It
is possible for a light source to have a sufficient spectral
distribution to emulate a correctable color temperature
when so measured, but its effect on film can be very different. (See section on lighting for additional details.)
Gradated Color Filters, or Wedges

Similar to Gradated NO filters, these filters are also
produced in a wide range of standard and custom colors,
densities, and proportions for many applications. A blueto-clear filter can add blue to a white, hazy sky without
affecting the foreground. An orange-to-clear filter can enliven a tepid sunset. Color can be added to the bottom of
the scene, as with a green-to-clear filter used to enrich the
appearance of a lawn.
Stripe filters are another type of gradated filter, having a thin stripe of color or neutral density running through
the center of the filter, gradating to clear on either side.
These are used to horizontally paint various colors in layers into a sky, as well as for narrow-area light balancing.
Coral Filters
Split-Field Len
than previously mentioned filters. Available

mired shifts (see lighting section on mireds)
m both a re and a blue series, decamired filters can be
readily comb ed to create almost any required correction.
ture variatio
~ incremen
Fluoresce t and Other Discontinuous

Spectra Li ting Correction
~ince fil
never actually add color, but only absorb

certam wave ~~ to increase the relative proportion of
others, the 0 ginallight source must include the colors you
want. Some urces are totally deficient in certain wave220
As the sun moves through the sky, the color temperature of its light changes. It is often necessary to compensate
for this in a variety of small steps as the day progresses, to
match the appearance of different adjacent sequences to
look as if they all took place at the same time. Coral filters
include a range of graded filters of a color similar to an 85
conversion filter. From light to heavy, any effect from basic correction.to warmer or cooler than "normal" is possible.
Corals can also compensate for the overly cool blue effect
of outdoor shade.
Sepia Filters
People often associate sepia-toned images with "early
times:' This makes sepia filters useful tools for producing
believable flashbacks and for period effects with color film.
Other colors are sti]l visible, which is different from origi-
~al epia-~oned photography, but these colors appear to be
This type of filter, which ma be called by a trade name

(see manufacturers), is a combination of rare earth elements
~ gla . It comp~etely rerno ~ a portion of the spectrum
rn the orange regIon. The effect IS to increase the color satu~tion int~ .ity ~f certain brown, orange, and reddish obJ~ts by eliminating the muddy tones and maximizing the
cnrnson. ~d scarlet components. Its most frequent use is
fo~ ~btammg s~ongly aturated fall foliage. The effect is
nurumal on objects of other colors. Skin tone might be
overly warm. Even after color timing to correct for any
unwanted bias in these other areas, the effect on reddish
obj cts will still be apparent.
range of variation of the printer. These are much more limiting than the multitude of colorants in the real world, and
the number of ways in which adjustments can be made at
the camera. Filtering on the camera brings the lab that much
doser to the desired result, providing a greater latitude of
timing options.
There will be times when counting on the lab is the
only choice. Lab can also produce some unusual effects.
When faced with a low-light situation, in daylight using
tungsten film, it may be necessary for expo ure rea ons to
pull the 85 filter and correct m the printing. When you do
this, however, neutral gray tones will appear slightly yellow, even w hen aU else looks correct. This effect can be used
to artificially enhance I u h green foliage color through the
addition of yellow. It may have other uses, but you will not
achieve the same r ult as if you had used the 85 filter.
Underwater Color-correction Filters
LL-D
The LL-D (trademark of its manufactur r) was deigned to help m tl1e above situation. It require no expoure compensation, and makes sufficient adjustments to fue
film to enable the timer to match the color of a properly 85filtered original. It i not an all-arOlmdreplacement for the
85. U e it only where needed for exposure purposes, and
for ubsequentl printer-timed work.
infu d WIth an overall sepia tint.
Didymium Filters
. When filming underwater, the light you are r cording

filtered by the water it pas es through. Longer-wavelength reds and orang are ab orbed until only blue is left.
ll1e. actual effect is determined by numerous factors, such
a bght source ( un or artificial), water quality, and the
water path. The latter i the distance the light travels
through ~e water. In natural ( un)light, this is the depth
o ~ the ubJect from the urface plus the ubject-to-<:amera
distance. For artificial lighting, it is the distance from the
light to the subject to the camera.The longer the water path,
the ~eater the filtering effect of the water. In many cases,
certaIn color-eompensating (CC) filters can absorb enough
horter wavelength to r tore better color balance. The
difference between corrected and w1corrected color can be
dramatic. The use of fa t r-speed films will facilitat th use
f light absorbing correcting fil.ters.
1
Differences Between Camera

and Lab Correction
It i the job of the lab timer to fine-tune the finished
color rendition of the film . 1lU accounts for variables in
e po ure, print stock and processing. Timing can also be
used to impart certain color effects, both for tandard correction and pecial situation. The difference i that lab
correction has only the range of colors and densities available in the film emulsion to work with, and is limited to the
222
Special Application Filters

Contrast Viewing Filters
Balancing lighting by eye is a matter of experience.
Decisions can be aided through the use of contra t viewing fil ters.These are de igned to handicap tl1 eye, with its
mud1 greater rang of apparent densities, to r semble the
range of the varioLls types of film. Use contrast viewers to
judge relative highlight and shadow densiti s. There are
viewers for black & white film, as well as vari LIS viewer
densities for color film. A darker viewer is u ed for slower
film speeds, where you would tend to use brighter lightmg. Faster film, which can be used in dimmer settings,
would require a lighter viewer. Details can be obtained
from the manufacturers.
Other Filter Considerations

Effect of Depth of Field
and Focal Length Changes
Standard color filters generally function without
change through variations in depth of field and focal length.
1his may not be true of many of the "special effect" filter
typ . There are no solid rules for predicting the variation
in fil ter effect due to depth-of-field or focal length changes.
There are some things we can expect, however. Let's look
ata fog/mist type filter that causes a light to glow, orflare.
Take the example of a certain grade filter where we can see
that the ratio of light cliameter to glow cliameter is, say, 1:3.
A we view this through a changing focal length, we will
e that the ratio remains the same, although the magnification will vary accordingly. So the decision to use a fil ter
of a clifferent grade to maintain a certain appearance at clifferent focal lengths will be based on wanting to change the
ratio, as opposed to any otherwise corresponding relationhip. Tests are advisable for critical applications.
Sizes, Shapes, and M ounting Techniques

Filters are available in round and rectangular hapes
in many sizes. Round filters generally come supplied with
metal rings that mount directly to the lens. Frugal filter
users might find it preferable to employ adapters allowing
the use of a set of filters of a single size with many lenses
of equal or smaller izes. Round fil ters also can be upplied
with self-rotating mounts, where needed, as for polarizers.
Th y can be readily stacked in combination. Rectangular
filters require the use of a pecial filter holder, or matte box.
They offer the adclitional benefit of allowing slidability for
effects that must be precisely aligned within an image, such
as grada ted fil ters. In all cases, it is advisable to use a mowlting y tern that allow for sturdy support and read y mallipulation. In add ition, th use of a lens shade at the ou trmost mounting position (from the lens) will minimize the
effect of stray off-axis reflection .
M ultiple Filter Use

Wh n any ingle filter is not enough to produce the
de ired re ults, u e combinations. Choose carefully, to
minimize the number required. Usually the job can be done
with no more than three filters. Use filters that inclividu-
ally add to the final effect, without canceling each other out.
For example, don't use a polarizer, which can in~ease co!or
saturation, in combination with a low-eontrast filter which
reduces saturation, unless it works for some other reason
(the polarizer could also be reducing reflections, for instance). Generally, the order in which filters are mounted
is not important.
Secondary Reflections
Lighting can cau e flare problems, especially when
using more than one filter. Lights in the image pose the
greatest difficulties. They can reflect between filter surfaces
and cause unwan ted secondary reflections. Maintaining
parallelism between filters, and further aligning the lights
in the image with their secondary reflections where possible, can minimize tIlis problem. In critical situations, it
may be best to make use of a m atte box with a tilting filter
stage. Tilting fil ter(s) of good optical quality only a .few
degrees in such a unit can clivert the secondary reflections
out of the lens axis, out of the image, without introducing
unwanted clistortion or noticeable changes in the filter's
effect.
Custom (Homemade and Field-Ready)

Filters
There will be times when you need an effect and don't
have time to obtain one ready-made. Certain effects can be
produced that, although different from fact~ry ~ters, can
be useful in a pinch, or for unusual custom Sltuations. et
diffusion effects can be produced as they were originally,
by stretching and affixing one or more layers of stocking
material to the lens end, held in place with a rubber band.
There are also numerous possibilities with a clear filter (or
several) available. Petroleum jelly can cause flare or diffusion, or even some star-like streaks depending on its application, to a clear filter, spread with a finger or cloth. The
cllief benefit here is that the effect can also be applied only
to selected portions of the scene. Breathing on a clear filter
can produce interesting but temporary foglike results. Using cut gels can simulate certain gradated filter effects.
When doing this, be sure to keep the filter close to the lens,
and use larger lens openings, to keep the visible edge as soft
as possible.
TABLE I: FIlTER COMPENSATOR

llna alop
no nil"
22
20
18
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.6
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
Filler Faclors
1.25
20
18
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
1.6
18
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
2
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
2.5
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
3.2
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
4
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
5
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
5
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
8
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
10
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
12.5
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
16
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
20
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
25
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
NO Filter Selector Chart

Stop for correct exposure 1.4
Stops
Faclor
'to
Trans
1/3 1.26 80
% 1.6 63
1/3
1
2 50
stop
1113 2.5 40
steps
1% 3.2 32
2
4 25
J
8 12.5
I 3
16 6.25
one 4
32 3
stop 5
64 1.6
steps 6
7 128 0.8
I 8 256 0.4
2.8
5.6
32
45
64
20
18
16
14.3
28
25
23
20
40
36
32
28
45
40
12.7
11
8
5.6
4
2.8
2
1.4
18
16
11
8
5.6
4
2.8
2
25
23
16
11
8
5.6
4
2.8
36
32
23
16
11
8
5.6
4
11
16
23
7
6.3
5.6
5
10
9
8
7
14.3
12.7
11
10
4.5
4
2.8
2
1.4
1
.7
6.3
5.6
4
2.8
2
1.4
1
.7
9
8
5.6
4
2.8
2
1.4
1
90
128 180 256
ND
Filter
.10 1.3 1.8 2.5

.20 1.1 1.6 2.2
1.4 2
.30 1
.40 .9 1.3 1.8
.50
.60
.90
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
3.6 5
3.2 4.5
2.8 4
2.5 3.6
.8 1. 1 1.6 2.2
1.4 2
.7 1
1.4
.7 1
.7 1
.7
3.2
2.8
2
1.4
1
.7
The columns 10 the left of the " NO Filter" show the filler 'actor bolh numerically and
Inlens stops and the percentlransmission 01 each. Up to 0.6NO. Incrementsare In 'I>
stop sleps. From 0.6No to 2.4No the increments are In full stops. oensilies may be
added: (0.6No plus 0.9No equals 1.5No). II correct exposure Indicates avery small
stop beyond the calibration of the lens AND/OR: IIllls desired 10 open the lens to a
45
32 45
32
23
16
23
11
16
11
8
5.6 8
45
32
23
16
11
45
32
23
16
wide aperture to throw the background out of focus: Select the desired lens slop In
the column under the Indicated slop. and use lhe corresponding NO Filler from the
left shaded column. (For B&W photography. accounl for Ihe factor of any color filler
also).
CONVERSION FILTERS FOR COLOR FILMS

Filler
Color
Blue
Amber
Filter
Number
Exposure
Increase
in Stops
80A
80B
80C
800
2
111:1
1
85C
85
85N3
85N6
85N9
85B
'/3
'3
11:1
12'3
2%
32fJ
213
KODAK COLOR COMPENSATING FILTERS

Mired
Shift
Value
Conversion
in Degrees K
3200
3400
3800
4200
to
to
to
to
5500
5500
5500
5500
- 131
- 112
- 81
- 56
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
to
to
to
to
to
to
3800
3400
3400
3400
3400
3200
81
112
112
112
112
131
These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be

checked by practical test, especially if more than one filter is
used .
KODAK LIGHT BALANCING FILTERS

Filler
Color
Bluish
Filler
Number
Exposure
Increase
in Stops
To obtain
3200 K
from:
To obtain
3400 K
from:
82C 82C
82C 82B
82C + 82A
82C + 82
82C
82B
82A
82
1'13
1'/3
1
1
11:1
2fJ
'IJ
Va
2490 K
2570 K
2650 K
2720K
2800 K
2900 K
3000 K
3100 K
2610
2700
2780
2870
2950
3060
3180
3290
3200 K
3400 K
3300 K
3400 K
3500 K
3600K
3700 K
3850 K
3510
3630
3740
3850
3970
4140
No Filler
Necessary
Yellowish
230
81
81A
81B
81C
810
81EF
1!J
'13
'13
"3
2fJ
2fJ
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
Pule
Deulty
Yellow
(Absorbs
Bill)
.05
.10
.20
.30
.40
.SO
CC-OSY
CC-l0Y
CC-20Y
CC-JOY
CC-40Y
CC-SOY
Pule
Density
ExpDs.re
Increase
In Stops
'h
'13
'13
'13
'h
Red
(Absorbs ExpDsure
Blue and Increase
Green) In SIDps'
Magenta
(Absorbs
Green)
Exposure
IncrelSe
II StDpS
Cyan
(Absorbs
Red)
Exposure
Incruse
In Stops
CC-OSM
CC-l0M
CC-20M
CC-30M
CC-40M
CC-SOM
'h
'h
'h
'h
'h
CC-OSC
CC-l0C
CC-20C
CC-30C
CC-40C
CC-SOC
'13
'13
'13
ExpDsure
IncrelSe
In Slops
Blue
(AbsDrbs
Red and
Green)
Green
(AbsDrbs
Blue and
Red)
'13
'h
'h
t
ExpDsure
IncrelSe
In Stops
113
CC-05B
CC-OSG
'13
.OS
CC-OSR
'13
CC-l0B
CC-l0G
'13
.10
CC-l0R
'13
'13
'h
CC-20G
CC20B
.20
CC-20R
'13
'13
CC-30B
'IJ
CC-30G
'h
CC-30R
'h
.30
1
CC-40B
CC-40G
'h
.40
CC-40R
1!J
1
CC-50G
CC-50B
1'13
CC-SOR
1
.50
These values are approXimate. For critical work, they should be checked
by practical test, especially if more than one filler is used.
Mired
Shift
Value
- 89
- 77
-
65
55
45
32
21
10
9
18
27
35
42
52
231
NOMOGRAPH fOR LIGHT SOURCE CONVERSION

ORIGINAL SOURCE IN K
R:~~I~~O
T1
Exposure Meters
CONVERTEO SOURCE IN
T2
10000
!ml
1000
II5ll
1I5
lI5C
81H
NoftllCr
--81C
_
81A - t
-82A _
r-
810
818
81
82
828
82C
IIOll - - - - 82C - 82
82C.82A
:::
_ - 10:
IIlB
1lOA -l
5000
6000
7000
!DXI
10000
The nomograph can be used to fmd the aPrloxlrTlate filter tor apamcular arwetslon ~ placJng
~~~~~l~~r:~~ ~rimal SOurce IT 1110 a seccnd source 021 The approximate hlter can
by Jim Branch
The usual final adjUSbnent of a motion-picture camera for exposure control is made with the iris cliaphragm
in the camera lens. While this is a very simple adjusbnent,
a great deal depends upon its accuracy. Much thought has
gone into the objectives to be attained by the adjustment
of the diaphragm, and the means to obtain a correct adjustment.
It is recognized that a prim object of expo ure control in motion-picture photography is to obtain consistent
and uniform image of the principal ubjects. It is ery
important to obtain flesh tone which will be consistent
from one scene to the ne t. It is undesirable to have flesh
tones which will be light in one scene, dark in the next without reason, and again light in the next scene. Correct exposure control will provide negatives which are consistent
from scene to scene and can be printed on a very narrow
range of printer lights.
Modern exposure control is ba ed on the use of a good
light meter. The light meter measures the effective intensity of the light, taking into account the sensitivity of the
film in the camera and the expo ure time. The exposure
time is a result of the frames-per-second rate at which the
camera operates, and the angle of the hutter opening. Professional cinematographers usually think in terms of 24
frames per second and a 175-d gree h utter, which give a
basic exposure time of \-So second . The light meter combines
all of the foregoing factor to give an answer in terms of the
appropriate camera lens stop.
Light meters are of two types. Some measure the incident light which illuminates the subject. Others measure
the light which is reflected from the scene. The results obtained from the two di fferent types may be quite clifferent.
It is important therefore to under tand the diffe.rences between the two types.
Incident Light Meters

These meters are normally used at the location of the
photographic subject. They mea ure the light which is effective in illuminating the ubject. They give an answer in
232
233
r
term of f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. ll1e camera
lens diaphragm opening i then set to match the effective
intensity of the prevailing illumination.
is exposed, the various reflectances preWhen the
sented by the subject will then each fall into a given place
in the film acc ptance range. For example, a face tone of
~O% r~ectanc will fall into the 30% reflectance position
m the film acceptance range. TIUs method thus provides
consi tently uniform face tones from scene to scene.
. The inci~ent light meter accomplishes its purpose by
domg two.thin . It measures the incident light intensity
at the location of the photographic subject. It also takes into
account the con~itions of illumination geometry; that is,
whether ~e ubJect has front ke light, side key light, or a
back ke Li~ht. The meter combines these factors and gives
an answer m terms of the correct setting for the camera lens
diaphragm.
eral makes of incident light meters which
There are
~se a thr e-dimensionallight collector. The hemispherical
light collector allow these meters to perform automatically
the dual function described above.
The incident light meters are normally used at the
po. ition of the principal ubject, with the hemisphere
p~~ted at the camera lens. The hemisphere then acts as the
ffiIDlature face of the subject. All illun1i.nation which will
~e effec~ve. on the ubj ct, including key light, fill light, Line
light, hatr light, e e lights, etc., will be received, evaluated
and integrated b the meter. The meter will then indicate
~rectl~ the correct f- top or T- top for the camera lens. Inodent Light m ters are particularly usek1l because they may
be u ed on a cene before the principal subject appears.
They mClY al 0 b carried through CI scene, with the hemisphere alway pointed at tl1e cam era lens, to detect uneven
i.1lu~inati n, and particularly hot spots, into which the
subject may m ve during the action.TIUs allows the scene
illumination to b lutably balanced before the principal
subject i CIt hand.
In the ca of outdoor photogrClphy, it is not always
nec~s a ry to take th meter to the location of the principal
sU~Ject. Und r U~1 conditions the illumination is usually
uruform over c nStderable areas. U the illumination is the
same at ubject location and at camera location the meter
may be u ed at camera I cation. Care should be exercised
to point th m ter in the proper direction, as tl10ugh it were
at the ubject locati n.
filn:
234
Exposure meters, in general, are ither analog (with a

needle) or digital. The introduction of the analog incident
meter with the 3-D light-eollecting hemisphere revolutionized the method of determining p roper exposure for the
cinematographer.
Today, a number of comparlie throughout the world
manufacture exposure meters employing the basic incident
type principles in their design, but all due credit should be
given for the invention to Don orwood, ASC, who patented it, and Karl Freund, ASC, who wa instrumental in
its development. Most incident meter are provided with
suitable adapters so that the rna be converted for use as
a reflected light meter if the occa i n should so indicate.The
reflected light adapter can be used in a ituation where the
cinematographer encounters difficulty in putting the meter
into a position to read either the illuminati n directly on
the subject, or illumination imilar to that on the ubject.
Such a situation, for example, might be encountered when
taking a picture out of the window of an airliner in flight.
The reflected light attachrnent can also be used in other si tuations to evaluate the relative brightness of a background.
Special Effects
When a special effect is de ired, the cinematographer
may use the incident Light meter to first determine normal
exposure for the subject. Then he may then deliberately
modify that value, up or down, to achieve the desired effect. 111i.s can be done wi th considerable confidence because
the incident Light meter will g ive a firm foundation upon
which to base tl1e desired modification.
Specific Situations
There are some si tuations, occa ionallyencountered
in outdoor photography, which r quire special attention.
1. Unusually light or dark backgrounds are cause for
consideration. When ac ne includes an unusually light
background, the cinematographer may wi h to first use the
meter as an incident ligh t meter to determine the basic exposure for the principal subject in the foregrolmd. Then he
can convert the meter to a reflected Light meter in order to
measure the brightness of the unusual background. The
second reading is then used to modify omewhat the basic
incident light reading. The same procedure could be followed in the case of an W1U ually dark background.
235
2. Outdoor scenes that include a subject in the foreground as well as distant objects, such as mountains, in the
background, usually also include considerable aerial haze,
which may be invi ible or only partly visible to the eye, but
strongly isible to the camera. A frequent photographic
resul t is a recording of the aerial haze overlaid on the scene
background. This would give the appearance of an overexposed backgrolli1d. It is recommended that in such a situation a haze-cutting filter be used to improve the background . In addition, use the procedure previously described for the ca e of an unusual lighting background.
3. Scenes consisting of a mixture of sunshine and shade
areas, with the principal subject in a shade area, can be
handled by: (a) using the meter in the sunshine area, or (b)
opening up the lens by 1h to % f-stop from the meter indication.
Reflected Light Meters

Reflected light meters can be classified into two
group , according to function. The meters in each group
may give exposure readings which are substantially different from those given by the meters in either of the other two
groups. This is due to dilierences in basic principle of operation.
Group 1. These are the meters which are designed to
meas ure the average brightness of an entire scene. Such
meters are usually used at camera location and pointed at
the cene. For a discriminating ob erver, this method appears to give acceptable results only in the case of a very
limited category of scenes, those which have front-lighting
and a foreground subject of medium tone as well as a background of medium tone. In other types of scenes, which
include ide-lighting or backlighting, or very bright or dark
backgrolli1ds, or large areas of sky, the exposure results are
questionable. This is because the meter, when used by this
method, is affected not only by the unit brightness of each
portion of the scene, but also by the relative area of each.
Thus a large area of ky would influence the meter to dictate a mall lens aperture whid1 might result in an underexpo ure of the face of fue principal subject in fue foreground. Any backlight may trike directly into the meter
cell and cause an unduly high reading on the meter. This
also would result in underexposure of fue foreground subject. Large bright backgrow1ds tend to cause meter read236
ings which result in underexposure of foreground subjects.

Large dark backgrounds tend to cause meter rec:dings
which result in overexposure of fue foreground Subject. U
fuis method is used it should be considered only as a very
rough guide, subject to considerable modification according to fue experience of the cameraman.
It is interesting to note fuat fuis method is fue one generally used in fue built-in automatic exposure conh'ol systems of amateur motion-picture and still picture cameras.
It has been noted by many that fue photographic results do
not meet fue high standards of professional cinematography.
Group 2: These are fue spot meters. A spot meter may
be used at camera location and aimed at a selected spot in
fue scene. The effectiveness of the meter is heavily dependent on fue operator's judgmentin fue selection of the spot.
The selected spot must be precisely representative of the
particular combination of elements which compose the
scene. In fue use of such a meter the operator must be particularly careful when confronted with a scene that presents
strong contrasts between fue selected spot and fue scene
background. An example of such a situation would be a
case where a person in the foreground is in front of a very
light background, such as sky or white buildings, etc. In
such a case fue operator should modify the spot reading
provided by the meter according to his o~n estimate ~f the
situation . When the use of a reflected light me ter IS required, fue results of determining fue exposure can be
greatly improved by using a "Kodak eutral Test Card."
This card is a piece of sturdy 8" X 10 " cardboard that
is neutral gray on one side and white on fue other. The gray
side reflects 18% of fue light falling on it, and the whiteside
reflects approximately 90%. Also, fue gray side has a protective lacquer overcoat that r duces specular reflectance
and resists d amage due to fading, fingerprints, soil, etc. To
a light meter, an average scene is one in which the tones
w hen averaged form a tone brightness that is equivalent
to middle gray - a tone fuat reflects 18% of the light illuminatingit (fue same tone and reflectance of fue gray card).
When a scene is not average the gray card as a reference
helps you make the proper exposure judgments. A Kodak
Gray Card is manufactured w1der close tolerances to provide a neutra l gray-side reflectance of 18% ( 1% ) and
white-side reflectance of approximately 90%.
237
Testing
Small errors may exist in meters, lens calibra tions,
emulsion speeds and development. These small errors w ill
frequently cancel out without w1due harm to the final pichlfe. It is when these errors add up in the same direction
that their cumulative effect is serious. It is wise, therefore,
to test equipment, film and meters under simulated pro-duction conditions so that errors may be detected and corrected before production begins. It is always a good idea
to "tune up to the variables."
Exposure Meters
Cinemeter II
Type: Hand-held digital /analog incident meter.
Light Sensor. Large area, blue enhanced silicon photo
sensor. Swivel head 270 degrees.
Measuring capability: Direct readout of photographic
exposures in full f-stopsor fractional f-stops. Also measures
illuminance level in footcandles and Lux.
Measuring Range: Direct-reading multiple-range linear circuit incorporates a high quality CMOS integrated
amplifier whose bias current is compensated against drift
up to 70" C Dynamic range 250,(J()() to one. Digital f-stop:
1/05 to f/90 in \I.-stop increments. Analog f-stop: f/ O.63
to /36 in ~-stop increments. Photographic illuminance:
0.20 to 6400 footcandles, 2 to 64,(J()() Lux.
Dis play: Vertical digital / analog bar graph which consists of 72 block liquid-<:rystal bars (6 bars per f-stop), that
rise and fall depending on the light intensity. The scale can
be used in three different display modes (Bar, R ooting Zone
and Dedicated Zone), a nd in three different measureme nt
modes (f-stops, foo tcand les a nd Lux).
Display Modes:
'I. Bar mode is similar to a needle-reading meter, except that the movemen t is lip and down instead o f left to
right.
2. Fl oa ting Zone mode: a single flashing bar forms a
solid bar that graphica lly indicates the range of illumination in the scene. It ca n also be used for the measurement
of flickering or blinking sources.
3. Dedicated Zone mode is used to save up to five separate measurements.
238
Display Range:
ISO film speed: 12 to 2500 in Y.J-stop increments.
Camera speed: 2 to 375.
Shutter Angle: 45 to 90 in I,.(l (-stop increments,
90 to 2050 in 1;12 f-stop increments.
Filter factors: Y.J f-s top to 7 f-stops.
Resolution: Digital: Y6 f-stop. Analog: 1,4 f-stop.
AcCUIacy: Digital If. f-stop.
Additional Functions: Memory s tore and recal1.
Lamp: Electroluminescent backlit liquid crystal display.
Power consumption: Operating reading 5 rnA with
backlight on.
Power Source: One 9-\'0It battery.
Dimensions: 6%" X 3 "X HI,"
Weight: Approximately 10 ounces.
Minolta Luminance ftl , nl-] O & nt-%o

Type: Reflex-viewing spot-reading automatic/ manual
luminance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 1 r.~o in
model nt-YJO) of acceptance.
Viewing System: Focusing through-the-lens reflex
type. Objective lenso85mm f/2.8. Angle of view: Circular
go with central 1 (YJ in model nt-~o ) marked circle. Magnification: 2.96X focused at infinity.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance
level in footlamberts or candelas.
Measuring Range:
Model ft-1 : 0.01 to 99900 ft-L (0.01 step)
Model nt-1 : 0.1 to 99900 cd / m 2 (0.1 step)
Model nt- ",0: 1.0 to 99900 cd/m 2 (0.1 s tep)
Display Range: Red (+) LED's a t Ule right o f Ule number disp lay indica tes lOX and 100X the display reading.
Accuracy: With in 4% o f C.LE. standard 1 djgit in
last djsplay position.
Screen-flicker accuracy: Within 1% of average luminance w ith projection cycle o f more than 72 H z and duty
of 7% (projector at 24 Ips).
Analog Output: Output voltage: 1V over full scale.
Output impedance: 10 kiJo-ohms.
Power Consumption: 6 rnA in anaJog mode. Meter
can monitor changes in luminance for a period up to 40
hours.
Power Source: One 9-volt battery (Eveready 216 or

equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year w ith
normal use.
Dimensions: 2 7A" X 6~" X 41Y16"
Weight: 18lA! ounces, without battery.
Spectra Cinespot 1 0 Spot Meter
Type: Through-the-Iens viewing spot-reading automatic/ manuallwninance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 10 angle
of acceptance.
Viewing Optics: 1.6X magnification, erect system with
focusing e epiece.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illwninance
level in foot lamberts or candelas.
Measuring Range: Low Range D-30 fL (or 0-100 cd /
m 2) reading legible down to O.5fL. High Range 0-300 fL
(orD-1,OOOcd/m2), upper limit may be increased by use of
acces ory lOX or 100X attenuators.
Spectral Response: Within 4% (by area) of eIE Photopic Lwnino ity Function.
Accuracy: 1% of full scale or 5% of reading (whichever is greater).
Error Due To Chopped Light: 0.5 % at 24 cycles/
second.
Power Source: One 6-volt battery. (Eveready 544 or
equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year wi th
normal use.
Dimensions: 5" X 2" X 6.4"
Weight: 15 ounces.
Spectra Professional IV
Type: Hand-h Id exposure meter for measuring incident and reflected light.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell, computer selected gla filter tailored to spectral response of the film.
Swivel head 270 degrees.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of photographic expo ures. Al 0 measures illwninance level in footcandle and Lux.
240
Measuring Range: One million to one (20 f-stops) dimultiple-range linear circuit controlled by
oucrocomputer.
Display Range: ISO film speed: 3 to 8000 in Y.J stop
increments.
Camera speed: 2 to 360 frames per econd.
Resolution: Digital: 0.1 f-stop. Analog: 0.2 f-stops.
Accuracy: Digital: 0.05 f-s top.
Additional Functions: Memory store and recall.
Lamp: Optional electroluminescent lamp for backlit
liquid crystal display.
Power Consumption: Operating (reading) SmA. Data
retention SuA.
Power Source: One 6-volt battery. (AS44, PX28L or
PX28).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with
normal use.
Dimensions: SW' X 2W' X 2".
Weight Approximately 6 ounces.
re~t-reading
Mild, of tlte material it. tltis sectioll of tlte II/allllal is basic, bllt referellce
sllOlIld be made to 0 011 onuood, A C alld Eastmall Kodak Compallyfor
tlte gray card i"fon1JatiOIl.
Crystal-Controlled Cordless
Camera Drive System
by Edmund M. DiGiulio
ASC Associate Member
Cinema Products Corporation
When recording sound simultaneously with filming,
it is necessary to provide some means of guaranteeing that
the soundtrack will be in perfect synchronism with the film.
In single-system filming, where the sound is recorded directly on the film in the camera, on either a magnetic strip
or optical sound track, this is automatically accomplished.
In double-system filming, however, speed variations of
camera and recorder, as well as the elasticity of the magnetic recording tape, require some positive means of keying the dialogue to its appropriate film frame.
The inclusion on the sound recorder of a second, parallel sync or "Pilotone" track is the most common method
in use today. The sync pulse is typically a sine wave of 50
to 60 Hz with an RMS amplitude of approximately 1 volt.
Back in the lab, a "resolver" transfers the sound track onto
oxide-coated sprocketed film stock using the sync track as
a reference so that the transferred sound track will correspond, frame for frame, with the camera negative. Until the
introduction of crystal sync systems, this sync pulse was
derived from the camera by another means.
1, for example, the camera was being driven by a DC
motor, with some sort of governor control to hold it fairly
accura te at 24 fps, a sync pulse generator geared to the
movement or motor shaft could be employed to provide
the sync pulse output. A cable conducts the sync pulse from
camera to sound recorder. (See Fig. 1.)
An alternate method, used mos t commonly on
soundstages but also on location, was for the camera to be
dri ven by a synchronous motor opera ting from AC mains,
or on location from an AC generator. In this case the recorder used the mains or alternator as a sync pulse source
(Fig. 2).
In crys tal drive systems, a crystal oscillator of extremely high accuracy at (or in) the recorder provides the
sync pulse. The camera is in tum driven by a specially designed DC motor and control circuit which is capable of
operating in exact synchronism with a self-contained crys-
tal oscillator of comparable accuracy (Fig. 3). TI,e crystalcontrolled motor operation is analogous to that of a sync
motor operating in synchronism with AC mains. In the case
of AC synchronous operation, both camera and recorder
are tied to the AC source as a common reference. In the case
of crystal operation both camera and recorder reference to
self-contained crystal oscillators which are so accurate that
the effect is the same as if they had been tied together.
Since the reference is absolute, any number of cameras
can be operated simultaneously, in perfect synchronism,
with a single recorder. The basic advantage to the crystal
drive system, however, is that it eliminates the need for
power cables and any umbilical connection between the
camera and recorder. Most crystal motors commonly in use
today employ some means of indicating when the motor
is nmning out of synchronism. This is usually a beep tone
or a blinking light. nus is a reliable indicator of good synchronous operation and is a corollary benefit.
Time Code
While the cordless crystal drive system guarantees
synchronous operation between camera and recorder, it
does not provide a start mark. Slating, therefore, must be
done either with a conventional clapstick, or by wireless
transmission of start and scene information.
A more promising approach is that of absolute time
reference or "crystal clock." In this system we use an extremely accurate crystal time-base generator (or clock) capable of marking the film at regular intervals with a precise time reference and other pertinent production data. A
similar or identical clock would also be plugged into the
recorder to mark the sound record in identical fashion. It
is only necessary for both crystal clocks to be time-synchronized at the beginning of the day and then be plugged into
the camera and the recorder, so that for the rest of the day's
shooting, the mark made on the film and on the sowld
record would always occur at precisely the same time. The
effect would be the same as if we operated clapsticks at
regular intervals of one second or more during the entire
day. As in the case with crystal-controlled synchronization,
any number of cameras could be tied to one recorder or
several recorders.
The EBU (European Broadcasting Union) proposed
such a time-code system in the early '70s. It involved the
METHODS OF SYNCHRONIZING
CAMERA AND RECORDER
SYNC
IV INPUT
I0=0 I
FIG. I
recording of time information optically on the film in the

form of 16 binary-coded decimal digits per second. In accordance with this proposal, a number of European equipment manufacturers designed and offered for sale equipment incorporating the ability to record or read the EBU
time code. This approach did not have much success in the
marketplace, however, as the only function it served was
to permit the automatic syncing of dailies. Accomplishing
this single task did not prove to be cost-effective.
Starting in the late '70s, SMPTE in the United States
began exploring the possibility of recording the SMYrE
time code that had already been established for use with
videotape, on both picture and soundtrack. By using the
same code that was already a standard for videotape
(uniquely identifying every frame), it was felt that a further
and more important function could be served than just
syncing up dailies. By transferring the picture and also the
SMYrE time code from film to tape, one could realize the
tremendous efficiencies of videotape editing and then use
the SMYrE time code as the means of conforming the edit
decisions from the tape to film.
From the first experiments by EBU through the early
efforts by SMYrE, the proposed method for recording time
code in the camera was optical. This approach has the advantage of being permanent and easily duplicated in the
printing process. This technology is changing rapidly and
the most up-to-date information can be obtained from
manufacturers' representatives.
FIG. 2
SYNC
INPUC
T TelO( @
TEMP
FIG. 3
244
Cfb
COMPENSATED
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
245
Camera Supports
Cranes
Louma Crane by Samcine
The Louma Crane is a modular crane which incorpoa rem tel -controlled pan and tilt camera mounting
tern. It ma be fitted to any uitable doll ,including
Elemack Cricket, Hornet or Rolls types.
The complete crane, e c1uding individual wei&h ,is
packed in 10 Samcine rigidized cases. Maximum Weight of
an ingle part is 116 pounds.
In largest configuration, ann withreinforc m n~ tay :
Arm length 26', weight tubes 10' 10". Maximum height of
optical axi with limited pan (fulcrum 10' high): 31' 4 W'.
Maximum height of optical axi with 360 pan (fulcrum 8'
4"): 25' 3". Maximum dimension of reinforcement tays: 5'
8 Y2" wide, 2' 11" above tube axi . Weight excluding dolly,
990 powlds. Smaller configuration withoutexteJ1Sion stays:
arm I ngth 15' 7" or 3' 5".
Maximum angle of tilt upward with 360 panning: 45;
d wnward: 65. Maximum angle of tilt upward with limited pan: 60.
.
Minimum dimension of an aperture through which
crane head will pa whiJ upporting a Panafle camera:
I ' 7 W' wide 2' 3" high. Minimum height of optical axi of
PanafJe camera abo e under-side of platform: 7 Y4".
Th Louma Crane command console con ists f an
electronicall -operated rem te camera pan and tilt
tern
op rated b two handl
actlya if it were a regular
geared camera head Like a Panahead, Sarncine M~y. or
Worrall. The command cent r incorporates a televi JOn
monit r connected to th TV vi wfinder system of the camera. A econd closed-circuit TV camera is used to relay lens
calibration information to the focus assistant, who is able
to remotely control the focu ,aperture and zoom (if fitted)
functi n of the lens.
rat
The Crane by Matthews

Portable foldin<> cran
tern. Can be mounted on
thr types of wh~: pneumatic, hard, or flotation. (Special track i a ailable.)
Ba ic kit:
Largest dimension of a disassembled module i 8
feet.
Transport weight: 2000 pounds with weights
Set up: Pedestal 64" x 64"
Maximum lens height: 16' 6" with typical camera.
Minimum height: 2' 6"
Reach: 144"
Recommended load: 550 pounds
Junior kit
Transport Weight: 140 pounds
Maximum height: 108"
Minimum height: Floor (Fulcrum height 36")
Reach: 120"
Extension kit:
Transport weight: 100 pounds
Maximum height: 24'
Minimum height: Minus 19'4"
Reach: 18'4"
Maxi Extension Kit:
Transport weight: 105 pOlmds
MC 88 Crane
Designed exclusively for use with Cam-R~ote.and
other rernote-control de ices. The boom length 15 adJustable and requires no support cables.
Boom lengths:
Short boom: 10'
Medium boom: 18' 6"
Long boom: 22' 6"
Nettman Cam-Remote by Matthews

A remotely controlled head for film and television
production cameras. Th head is precisely controlled over
a continuous 360 range in both pan and tilt. All lens functions are controlled via powerful and accurate motor . The
system can be used on camera cars, lighting grids by
Matthews, the MC88 Crane or any other production cranes.
U er friendly controls emplOying "Worrall-type" hand
wheels or joystick system are provided for the operator.
The head is normally controlled via cables but may be controlled via a serial Link y tern.
247
Chapman-Super Nova Mobile Crane

Location and stage crane.
Width:
7' 7" (232 em)
Length:
20' (589 em)
Length with battery pack:
21' 6"
9' 3" (282 em)
Minimum Height
Lens Height (without risers):
27' (823 em)
Drop Down:
8' (244 em)
Maximum Reach:
173" (526 em)
Maximum with U ' extension:
29' 3" (884 em)
Traveling Weight:
28,500 lbs.
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 23' (701 em)
(with h draulic riser):
27 (823 em)
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 2' 7 '
Boom Length fully extended:
30'11"
37' 4"
ax Length Boom & chassis:
Tread:
6' 4"
Wheel Ba :
13'10"
12' per sec
Maximum Speed (batteries):
Minimum Turn Radius:
23' 3"
Maximum lifting capacity:
1,750 lbs.
Mercury Balancing Automatic leveling system.
Pat nted Feathering valves.
860 DC Ampere hours available.
Two 72-volt ysterns used in series or paralleled, total
144 volts.
Six wh el drive, six wheel steering.
Chapman-Titan II Mobile Crane

Width:
Length:
Length with spare tire:
Minimum Height:
Lens Height (without risers):
Drop Down:
Maximum Reach:
Maximum with 12' extension:
Traveling Weight:
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.:
(with hydraulic riser):
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.:
7' 7" (232 cm)

20' (589 em)
21' 5"
9' 3" (282 em)
27 (823 em)
8' (244 em)
173" (526 em)
29' 3" (884 em)
26,000 Ibs.
23' (701 em)
27 (823 em)
3' 7"
Boom Length fully extended:

30' 11
Max Length Boom & Chassis:
37' 4"
Tread:
6'4"
Wheel Base:
13' 10"
12' per sec
Minimum Turn Radi us:
23'3"
Maximum Lifting Capacity:
1,500 Ibs.
Mercury Balancing.
Automatic leveling system, Patented Feathering valves.
Six-wheel drive, six-wheel steering.
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile Crane

19' 5"
Max. Lens Height:
Maximum Reach Beyond Cha is: 18' 9"
Vert. Travel of Boom abo e grnd.: 15' 5"
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: lOS'
Chassis Width:
77.5"
Tread:
6' 4"
Wheel Base:
10' 6.5"
860 DC Ampere hours a ailable.
Mercury Balancing.
Patented Feathering valves.
1,700 lb .
Chassis Length:
15' 11"
Minimum Chassis Height:
8' 4"
Traveling Weight:
19,500 Ibs.
12' per sec
Minimum Turn Radius:
21' 2"
Four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering.
Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane

Lens Height:
Maximum Reach:
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.:
Chassis Width:
Chassis Length:
Minimum Chassis Height:
Maximum length boom + chas i :
Crane operating weight:
Tread:
16' 2"
14'6"
12'2"
3' 0"
4' 0"
7' 10"
5'8"
19' 4"
7,2001bs.
44"
249
Wheel Base:
Maximum Speed:
Minimum turn racUus:
5' 7"
11.2' per c
7' 9"
1,500 Ibs.
Chapman-Electra I Stage Crane

Lens height
Minimum height
Reach:
Max. reach (with 3' ext n ion):
Cha is width:
Cha i length:
Minimum chas is height:
Weight:
Minimum turning racUu :
*Equipped with soLid wh eL only.
11'
ground
7'
10'
41"
81"
4' 10"
3,000 Ib .
1,5001b .
7' 3"
Chapman-Nike/Electra II Stage Crane

Lens height:
Maximum reach:
ert. Tra eI of Boom below grnd.:
Chas is width:
Cha is length:
Minimum cha i height
aximum length boom & chassis:
Crane operating weight:
Tread:
Wheel base:
Maximum speed:
Minimum turn racUus:
Maximum Lifting capacity:
14'
14' 6"
10'
2'
44"
7' 3"
5' 3.5"
16' 9"
5,600 lbs.
40"
5'
9' 9.6" per sec.
6' 3"
1,500 lbs.
Dollies
Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly
For indoor or outdo rue. For television or motion
picture productions.
Lens height (w/ 0 added risers):
9'
Low lens height (with e tension): 22"
Lifting capacity:
900 lbs.
Max. horizontal readl (w / extension): 38"

Chassis length:
64"
Chassis width:
38.75"
Minimum Cha i height
41"
Weight
1,450 Ib .
Crab or Conventional steering.
Electric drive, full 24 hours of use with each charge.
Dual rocker y tern, three point suspension.
Elemack Cricket Dolly

Convertible three or four wheel dolly with center hydrauJic pedestal.
Ba ic Unit (Collap ed ize):
25W' x 25W' x 25W
Lens height:
5' 11"
Low lens height:
3' 11"
Lifting capacity:
260lb .
27 'l'16"
Width (wheels spread:
Minimum Tracking Width:
17"
Weight:
300 Ibs.
Crab or Conventional steering.
Accessories: Electro hydrauJic Lift drive.
Several configurations of mini cranes.
Seats and brackets; running boards.
Curved and straight track ections in two gauges.
ArticuJated boge wheels for track use.
J. L. Fisher Crab Dolly

Four-wheel dolly.
Chassis wid th:
30"
Olassis length:
67"
Weight:
446 Ib .
Max. Height:
61 "
Max. Height (w f low level head):
50"
Min . Height:
14"
Min. Height (for storing or shipping): 20"
Min. Height (with low level head):
3"
Elevation: AC, DC, or manual.
Camera mount ahead of wheeJs.
Full crab-brake in rear wheels.
Four or two wheel lection for crab or steering hots.
Solid or pneumatic tir .
251
FGV Panther
Column drive may be operated manually or its ascent
and descent phases may be stored and recalled using builtin computer memory.
Minimum size for transport
Length:
29" (73.6 em)
26.8" (68 em)
Width:
Height
28" (71 em)
Total weight for transport:
260 lbs. (118 kg)
Maximum tracking width:
24.4" (62 em)
Minimum tracking clearance:
14" (36 em)
Minimum Battery performance per
charge, column moves:
200
Max. load llSing column drive:
5511bs. (250 kg)
Max. w / column retracted:
1,763.7Ibs (800 kg)
Input voltage tolerance:
18-28 V
24 A
Maximum power consumption:
24 V 9.5 Ah
Battery unit specifications:
Charge cycle standard charger:
10 how's
Charge cycle charge/ballast unit: 5 hours
Max. lens height (Arri 35 BL
on Sachtler Studio Head):
74.8" (190 em)
Min. lens height (35 BL on Sachtler
Studio Head+adapter):
17.7" (45em)
Column range:
27.6" (70 em)
Max. lens height w /Super-Jib (35 BL
on Sachtler+5Ocm Bazooka):
118" (300 em)
Max. lens height w /Lightweight-Jib
(35BL on Sachtler Studio Head): 106" (270 em)
Kombi-Wheels for track or floor use.
Program stores LIp to 5 drive sequences.
Integrated battery maintains program memory.
Continuously variable speeds.
Modular quick-change circuit cards.
Camera Stabilizing Systems

by John Jurgens
Cinema Products Corporation
Modem camera stabilizing systems enable a camera
operator to move about freely and make dolly-smooth
hand-held shots without the restrictions or the resultant
image unsteadiness encountered with prior methods.
These systems transfer the weight of the camera unit to the
operator's body via a support structure and weight distributionsuit. This arrangement frees the camera from bodymotion influences. It allows the camera to be moved by the
operator through an area generally defined by the range
through which his arm can move.
Camera smoothness is controlled by the "hand-eyebrain" human servo system tl1at we use to carry a glass of
water ar?und a room or up and down stairs. Viewing is
accomplished through the use of a video monitor system
~at displays an actual through-the-Iens image, the same
l~ag~ one would see when looking through a reflex
vlew~der. The advantage of these camera stabilizing systems 15 that the camera now moves as if it were an extension of the operator's own body, controlled by his internal
servo system, which constantly adjusts and corrects for
body motions whether walking or running. The camera
~oves an~ glides freely in all directions - panning, tiltmg, boommg - and all movements are integrated into a
single fluid motion which makes the camera seem as if it
were suspended in mid-air and being directed to move at
will. These camera stabilizing systems turn any vehicle into
an instant camera platform.
As with remotely controlled camera systems, servo
controls may be used for control of focus, iris and zoom on
the camera lens.
Cinema Products Steadicam

(Universal Model III)
The Steadicam system consists of a stabilizing support
arm which attaches at one end to the camera operator's vest
and at tl1e other end to a floating camera mounting assembly which can accept either a 16mm, 35mm or video camera. The comfortable, adjustable, padded, close-fitting camera operator's vest is an effective and sophisticated weight
252
253
distribution system. It transfers and distributes the weight

of the Steadicam ystem (including camera and lens) across
the operator's houlders, back and hips. The arm mOWlting plate may be quickly reversed to mOWlt the stabilizer
arm on the right or left ide of the front plate.
The stabilizer support arm is an articulated support
system which parallels the operator's arm in any position,
and almost completely cOWlteracts the weight of the camera y tems with a carefully calibrated spring force. The
double-jointed arm maximizes maneuverability with an
articulated elbow hinge, which frees the arm to move 380
degrees horizontaJly from the elbow. One end of the arm
attaches to either ide of the vest front plate, allowing the
operator to change for left- or right-handed operation. A
free-floating gimbal connects the stabilizer support arm to
the camera mOWlting a sernbly.
The camera mounting assembly consists of a central
support p t, aroWld which the individual components are
free to rotate as needed. One end of the post supports the
camera mounting platform, while the other end terminates
in the electronics module. The film or video camera can
rotate 180 degrees to left or right on its platform. The video
monitor is attached to a pivoting bracket which may al 0
slide up, down or aroWld the post. There are scale markings on eacll of the components so that adjustments for
various mod of hooting may be documented and repeated. The video viewfinder monitor features a kinescope
tube of high brilliance with multiple layer coatings to eliminate reflection and permit viewing in swllight. An electronic level indicator is visible on the CRT viewing screen
in the bottom of the picture area. Electronically generated
frame line can b adjusted to accommodate any aspect
ratio. Positions of the components may be reversed to permit "I w mode" configuration. The Steadicam unit is internally wired to accept wireless or cable-controlled remote
servo systems for lens control. A quick-release mechanism
permits th op rator to divest himself of the entire
Steadicam wut in emergency. A 12V/3.5A NiCad battery
pack mounts on the electronics module to supply the
viewfinder system and film or video camera.
Panavision Panaglide
The Panavision Panaglide system is an integrated stabilizer system incorporating specially lightened cameras:
3Smm Panafle for ync sound, 3Smm Pan-Arri for non-
254
sound, 6Smm Hand-held Refle x and 16mm Pana flex

Elaine; a Panacam model supports a video camera.
The support consists of a reinforced padded vest to
which an adjustable articulated suspension arm is pivoted.
The arm uses either a pneumatic/spring or a spring/cable
shock-Cibsorbing system. A vertical telescoping staff attached to the suspension arm carries a camera platform on
one end and an electronics/battery unit on the other. The
unit can be inverted, with the camera mounted either at top
or bottom of the staff. All swing joints and spring tensions
are adjustable.
The viewfinder uses video reflexed from the camera
lens, a 3W' high brightness monitor, flexibly positioned for
convenience, and superimposed frame lines. Image can be
electronically deanamorphosed or can be reverse-scanned
for over-the-shoulder shooting.
The Panaglide also features remote focus and iris controls; illuminated level indicator; 24V battery; crystal sync
or variable camera speeds; digital fp and footage counter;
and a quick-release vest for safety of operator.
Aerial Mounts
Continental Camera (Door, Belly and Outside
mounts)
Door mounts for video/16mm/3Smm are Master &
Magnum moWlts (cameras up to 30 lbs) and the Magnum
Elite (cameras up to 100 lbs). Belly mOWlt can accommodate cameras up to 40 Ibs; 1800 field-of-view, tilts up 100,
down 90 0 . Can be mounted with camera looking fore or aft,
and will accommodate zoom lenses, though useful only at
wide-angle portion of lens. Huffy mount is a belly mount
for cameras up to 100 lbs; will allow 1600 field-of-view. Both
belly mOWlts attach to skid tubes of Bell206/206L helicopters, fitted with standard or high skids. Outside mOWlt attaclles to Hughes 500 C or D model helicopters; must be
flown with specially qualified pilot. 337 FAA inspection
required for belly moWlts, STC approvals for door moWlts.
Also unique body stabilizer, remote head a nd periscope
lens.
Gyrosphere (Gyro-Stabilized)
Two Gyrosphere systems were built in the mid-80's
using earlier Wescarns as their starting point; the extensive
255
upgrade and red sign work represented many "firsts":

Vertical refer nce gyros to automate ability to hold level
horizon; integra tion of the Speed Aperture Computer with
an aerial y tern; improved stabilization and camera steering enabled faster and more accurate pans/ tilts with less
lag; improved ergonomics with hand-held joysticks; prime
lens capability. Mixed analog and digital electronics. Vertical slit curved plexigla window.
Camera: Modified MitcheU Mk 2 (3-36 fps) with
underslung XR-35 magazine. Also available with Elllpirejlex
VistaVision camera from ILM (2-48 fps) or Vistacam from
BCS (2-48 fp ).
Spacecam (Gyro-Stabilized)
Unique gyro-s tem using heavier gyro wheels spinning at greater RPMs. Patented powered main cardin-joint
allow more responsive and faster pans/tilts. Digital electronics allow many abilities (i.e., dutching in sync with
helicopter turns). The lens looks through a windowless
port. Unique brackets for modified Hughes 500 helicopter
includes nose po ition as well as sides; unique nose and tail
position brackets for JetRanger helicopters.
Cam ra: custom built light-weight body and magazine
utilizing Mitch II C movement (0-36 fps), as well as modified Mitchell Mk 2 (0-60 fps); VistaVision (0-90 fps) and
Showscan (0-72 fp ). AU cameras incorporate patented
SpaceCam fiberoptic video assist system with superior lowlight capability.
Tyler Camera (Door and Nose mounts)
Middle-Mount II for video/16mm/35mm; MajorMount for Arri 35-3, Arri BL or Mitchell Mk 2 (with special horizontal magazine adap ter), as well as larger formats
up to Imax. Tilting nose mount (35mm/16mm/video) can
be used with prime lenses for Arri 35-3 as wide as 9.8mm.
Til ts from up to include rotor blades to upside-down / rearward; also can be mounted with camera looking aft. Do s
not accommodat zoom in 35mm, but allows zoom (if limited to wide end of lens) for video/16nuncameras. Attaclles
to no e of B U206/206L helicopters fitted with standard or
high skid; can be fit to A-Stars/Twin-Stars if aircraft owner
has special adapter brackets installed. Available large format tilting no -mount for cameras up to Imax; same tilt
range a standard nose mount; designed to attach to skid
tubes of Bell206/206L helicopters, fitted with standard or

high skids. FAA SIC approvals for all mounts. Also unique
crane-mount, gyro-stabilized boat mount and jib arm. Exterior gyro-stabilized mount allows fast pan/ tilt rates, fast
lens changes; uses Arri 3 with custom 1000' top-loaded
magazine allowing low lens position for on-the-ground
applications. Tilt range to inverted 90 degrees. Color video
tap as well as bore-sighted video camera for low-light viewing. The lens looks through a windowless port. Ability to
lock off camera to mimic "banking horizon look" of nose
mount.
Wescam (Gyro-Stabilized)
The original (early 1960's) gyro- tabilized camera
mount. Current generation features all digital electronics
with unique abilities and may be remotely operated at the
end of a 500' cable or by radio link. The lens looks through
an optically flat anti-reflection coated gla window which
tracks with the lens during pans/tilts. This patented window system minimizes internal reflections from back or
side light; also permits use of polarizing filter, not possible
with curved plexiglass, which creates a rainbow of interference lines. FAA src approvals for all mounts. 120 Video
units worldwide on Goodyear blimp, etc. Unique mounting brackets for Super Puma, MBB-l05, 206L and Huey
helicopters, as well as boats. Also specialized track for onthe-ground moves up to 26 mph using radio link control.
Camera: Modified Mitchell Mk 2 (1-60 fps) with
underslung Arri BL magazine . Also available with
EmpireJIex VistaVision camera from ILM (2 - 48 fps) .
Preparation of Motion Picture

Camera Equipment
felt markers, grease pencils, pens and pencils, chamois,

chalk, disposable batteries.
Invoice Check
Marty '6llstein,
Michael Hofstein & Tom 'Frisby' Fraser
All motion-picture camera equipment must be periodically inspected and maintained to insure proper performance in production. Camera rental facilities employ
skilled tedmicians to service and repair equipment after
each use. Once the equipment leaves the rental house, however, the camera crew must service that equipment
throughout the production. The camera assistant must be
prepared with the right knowledge, skills, tools, and reference materials to properly maintain all equipment in the
camera package.
The following is a list of procedures for the preparation of camera equipment needed to photograph a motion
pictur . It is the responsibili ty of the camera a sistant to
assure that all equipment and supplies needed and requested by the director of photograph y are present, in
working order, at the start of production.
Inventory
1) Basic equipment, from the ground up: Spreader, hihat, tripods, tripod head, camera body, batteries, all necessary cables, magazines (small & large), lenses and housings, zoom motor and control, follow-focus unit, matte box,
filters and holders, changing bag.
2) Additional acces ories often requested by the director of photography: Adapter plates (quick-release, dovetail/ balance, riser, tilt); speed control (for HMllights, TV
monitors, or other requirements); set of hard mattes, eyebrow, French flag; hand-held accessories (matte box, follow -foc us, shoulder pad, viewfinder, magazines);
viewfinder extender, leveler, heater; bameys, rain shields;
obie light, 'assistant' light; videotap, monitor, recorder.
3) Supplies to be purchased by the production company: Raw stock, camera reports, film cores, empty film
cans, black labpack bags, labels, cloth camera tape, paper
tape, lens tissue, lens cleaning solvent, cleaning swabs, oraI}gewood sticks, slate, spare camera fuses, rags, air cans,
Examine the rental invoice or work order, and confirm

that all equipment ordered by the director of photography
is included. Make sure that all upport accessories and supplies needed by the assistants to properly perform their
tasks are also included. When the equipment is first received, use the rental invoice to check that all equipment
and supplies that have been ordered and billed for have
indeed been delivered. Confirm that the serial numbers
listed on the invoice matcll those engraved on the equipment.
Equipment Checkout
Set up and test acll piece of equipment to determine
whether it is in working order. Label each case with cloth
tape and marker. When a case is not being used, keep at
least one latch locked to prevent an accident. Start from the
ground up and build the camera system. Thoroughly clleck
the entire package for completeness, compatibility, and
proper functioning. The equipment should be clean and
properly lubricated. Immediately return any piece of equipment that does not perform to your satisfaction.
The follOWing li t suggests standards by which to
judge each piece of equipment. They are to be used in conjunction with the appropriate camera operation manual.
Some of the proced ures described, such as testing the
flange focal depth or magazine clutch and brake tension,
require specialized test equipment. If the test equipment is
not available, or .if you encounter any other questions or
problems, speak to the camera teclmician who pr pared the
package at the rental house. It is likely that he has performed the tests himself and can give you the resul ts.
1) Spreader
a) Runners slide smoothly and lock in all positions.
b) End receptacles accommodate the tripod points and
spurs, and hold them securely.
2) Tripods
a) Each leg extends smooth!y and locks in all positions.
259
b) Top casting accommodates the base of the tripod

head (flat Mitchell, ball, or other).
c) Hinge bolts that attach each leg to the top casting are
adjusted to proper tension: each leg swings easily
away from top casting and remains at selected angle.
d) Wooden tripods (baby, sawed-off, standard): Legs
are solid and have no splits or breaks.
e) Metal or fiber tripods (baby, standard, 'two-stage'):
Legs are straight and have no burrs or dents.
3) Tripod Head
a) Base (Mitchell, ball, or other) fits and locks into tripod topcasting.
b) Ball base (only) adjusts smoothly and locks securely
in any position.
c) Camera lockdown screw fits into camera body, dovetail base with balance plate, riser, or tilt plate;
OR
d) Top plate of head includes a quick-release (touchand-go) base, which accommodates a quick-release
plate that bolts to camera body or any of the adapter
plates.
e) Eyepiece leveler bracket and frontbox adapter on the
head accommoda te the leveler rod and frontbox being used.
f) Friction or fluid Head:
1. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
2. Both brake levers lock securely in all positions.
3. Both drag knobs easily adjust the tension of movement from free movement to the tension required
by the operator.
g) Gear Head:
1. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
2. Both brake levers engage properly (gears may
move under stress).
3. Gears shift smoothly between low and high
speeds.
c) Camera interior is clean - no emulsion buildup or

film chips.
d) Camera oil and grease has been applied to lubrication points as recommended by camera manufacturer. Clean off any excess.
e) All fuses are intact and properly seated. Carry spare
fuses.
) Movement of the shutter, pull-down claw, and registration pins is synchronized. Check by carefully
scribing a frame in the gate, then inching the motor
back and forth manually. The film should remain
stationary as long as the shutter stays open.
g) Movement of shutter and mirror is syncluonized.
(Check o nly on certain cameras, including
Panavision.)
h) The "glow" that illuminates the ground glass is synchronized with the shutter - the light turns off before the shutter opens the gate. (Check only on certain cameras, incl uding Arriflex.)
i) Camera speed holds steady at all speeds required for
the production. Thoroughly test all speed control accessories being used in camera package.
D Pitch and loop adjustments operate properly (certain
cameras).
5) Aperture
a) Film gate has the correct aspect ratio.

b) Gate is clean and properly seated. To confirm this:
1. Remove the gate and pressure pad.
2. Clean both with a chamois, and if necessary, a
proper solvent.
3. Clean channels and holes with an orangewood
stick.
c) Flange focal depth is set to manufacturer's specifications. Confirm by measurement with depth gauge.
d) Plastic gels have been removed from the gel holders.
6) Batteries and Cables

4) Camera Body
a) Accommodates and locks securely to tripod head,
balance plate, riser, tilt plate and shoulder pod with
camera lockdown screw.
b) All rollers move freely.
260
a) All batteries and cables are compatible - male pairs

with female, the number of pins in connectors match.
b) Batteries hold charge and cables conduct properly.
Check with voltmeter.
c) Camera motor runs film steady at desired speed
while under the load of all other current drawing ac-
261
cessories required for the production. The e may include a zoom motor, a sistant light, video tap, eyepiece heater, and viewfinder "glow." Check with
each battery.
7) Lamps
Lamps that require bulb may include an out-of-sync
monitor lamp, running lamp, start-marking lamp
(older cameras), and others. All lamps must light at the
proper time. Replace all defective bulbs.
8) Variable Shutter
Mechanism operate through the full range of opening . Set hutter at opening elected by the dir ctor of
photography.
9) Viewfinder
a) Ground glass is prop rl y sea ted. Ground glass depth
is within manufactur r's pecifjcations. Check with
portable collimator.
b) The image is clear and dean. U necessary, remove
ground glass and carefully clean with proper solvent
and lint-free lens tissue.
c) Ground glass i marked for the aspect ratio requested by the director of photography.
d) E epiece focuses easil to the eye of the operator (adjust diopter until the grains of the ground glass appear sharp).
) Viewfinder extender fits properly between camera
body and eyepiece. Magnifier and ND filter operate
properly.
f) Viewfinder extender I veUng rod attaches ecurely
to extender and to bracket on tripod head. Rod ext nds smoothly and I cks in all positions.
g) Viewfinder illumination, or "glow", is syndl.ronized
with the hutter.
10) Lenses
a) Each lens and lens housing is compatible with - and
seats securely in - the mount in the camera body.
b) Front and rear elements are clear and clean, free of
large chip and scratch , or any fingerprints or dirt.
Blow off loose material with a blower bulb, clean off
262
grease with lint-free lens tissue and proper lens cleaningsolvenl

c) Iris leaves are flat and fall properly in place as they
are closed from the full open position.
d) Follow-focus assembly mounts properly. Focus gears
thread properly on the lenses.
e) Lens focus distance markings are accurate. (See Lens
Focus Calibration.)
11) Zoom Lens
a) Zoom mechanis m is aligned properly and tracks
smoothly.
b) The cross-hairs on the ground glass remain centered
on a point throughout the zoom.
c) Lens focus distance markings are accurate at aU focal lengths. (See Lens Focus Calibration.)
12) Zoom motor

a) Motor mounts securely and threads properly on the
lens.
b) Zoom control unit operates motor smoothly at all
speeds.
c) All cables connecting the camera, zoom control and
zoom motor conduct properly when checked with a
voltmeter.
13) Lens Housing

Distance and f- top strips fit properly and match the
markings on the lens.
14) Filters
a) Both surfaces of each filter are clear, clean, and free
of major flaws.
b) Filters are the proper size:
1. Filters cover entire image area of each lens being
used.
2. Filters fit properly into filter holders - on lens,
lens housing, matte box, filter tray, or separate
holder.
c) Filter mounting accessories accommodate all lenses
used, and mount the number of filters on each lens
required by director of photography.
d) Rotating mount for polarizing filter turns moothly
and locks in any position.
263

e) Sliding mow'll for grad uated filters rnovessmoothly
and locks in any position.
f) Prepare labels fo r each filter (tape or velcro) for display on the sid e of the maUe box.
15) Matte Box

a) Mounts secu rely to came ra bod y and extends
smoothly along the supporting rods.
b) 0 light passes between the maUe box and the lens.
If necessary, acquire additional rings, filter trays or
rubber 'doughnuts' to block light leaks.
16) Magazine
a) Fits snugly into the camera body.
b) Magazine doors fit and lock securely.
c) On co-axial magazines, label each "Feed" and "Takeup" d oor wi th tape.
d) Throat, film channels, and interior are clean, clear of
dust or film chips.
e) Loop adjustment operates properly (certain ca meras).
f) Magazine gear timing is properly adjusted - film
runs smoothly and quietly through the magazine.
g) Clutch tension and friction brake tension have been
measured with the proper tools and are correct.
17) Video Assist: video camera, monitor

and recorder (optional)
a) Video camera (or tap) mounts securely on the camera body.
b) All ca bles a re compatible and operate the tap, monitor and recorder.
c) The iris and foc us con trols adjust sm oothly and produce an adeq uate image on the monitor.
d) The image can be centered on the m onitor so that the
entire film frame is visible and level.
Lens Focus Calibration

(see "Photographic Testing and Evaluation")
1) Prime Lenses
a) 400101 o r wider: set camera a t 3 feet (yom Focus
Chart. Focus lens visually, compare wi th lens dis-
264
tance markings. For more critical testing, shoot film

tests of each lens.
b) Longer than 4Omm: set camera at 7 feet.from Foc~
Chart. Focus lens visually, compare With lens diStance markings.
c) J'Jllenses - focus on distant object to test sharpness
atlllfinity.
.
2) Zoom Lenses: Use calibration procedure descnbed fo r
Prime Lenses, and repeat for several focal lengths - at
3 feet for the wide end, 7 feet for the long end, and a
distant object to test infinity for both ends.
3) Note: Other Iens-to-chart distances may be used, as long
as the selected distance is marked on the lens barrel. The
chart should fill the frame as much as possible.
4) When the eye focus differs from the scale focus:
a) Consistent from lens to lens
1. Check ground glass seating and depth measurement.
2. Check lens mount.
3. Check measurement technique and tape measure
for accuracy.
b) Single discrepancy
1. Return lens for collimation.
2. If needed immediately, encircle lens barrel with
chart tape and mark the correct distances.
Scratch Test
Run a scra tch test for each magazine to determine if
the re are any obstructions in the came ra o r magazine
mechanism that might d amage the fUm. Load a short end
of virgin raw stock in the magazine and thread it through
the camera. Tum on the ca mera motor and run the film
throug h for several seconds. Turn off the motor. Rem~ve
the film from the take-up compartm ent o f th e ma gazme
withollt unthreading the film from the ca mera. Examine the
film w ith a bri g ht li g ht and mag ni fy ing g lass. If a n y
sc ratches or oil spots appear on the emu lsion or base, mark
the film, still threaded in the cam era bod y, wi th a fe lt pen
at the following points:
a) where it exits the magazine feed rollers;
b) just before it enters the gate;
c) just after it exits the gate;
d) where it en ters the magazine take-up roU~. .
Then carefully unthread the fi.l m and examme It to
determine where the damage originates. Once the problem
265
area h~s be n .identified, ch ck that area for dust, film chips,

emulsIon buildup, or burrs. Remove burrs with emery
paper, and any removable ob tructions with an orangewood stick.
. Make periodic scratch tests on magazines and camera
durmg production to avoid damage to the negative.
Steadiness Test
Test teadin
fcamera movement by double-exposingimage.
1) Prepare chart: irnple cross of one-inch white tape on
black card.
2) Mark tart frame in film gate with feH pen.
3) Roll 30. ~nd of the chart at 50% exposure.
4) Backwmd film, or rewind film in darkroom, to place
tart fram back in film gate ( 0 as to thread on the
same perforation).
5) Off t chart by th width of the tape, and doubleexpo chart.
6) Proc
and project to evaluate steadiness.
Daily Preparation for Shooting

1) Clean th aperture. Suggested methods:
a) Pull the aperture plate and clean with proper solvent.
b) Remove th lens and blow air through the lens port
with blow r bulb.
c) Sight through the lens (po ible with a lens 40mrn or
longer).
d) Remove hairs and dust from the gate with an orangewood tick.
2) Warm up th camera:
a) Run th camera for several minutes wi thout film.
b) In cold ituations, run the camera for the amount of
time it would take to run one full magazine through
the camera at stand ard speed .
3) Load proper film tock in magazines.
4) Prepar late and camera reports.
Film Tests
(See "Photographic Testing and Evaluation.")
Film te .ts c:re r~quested by the director of photography. FoUowmg IS a list of tests that may be useful in preparation for a production. A standard gray scale and color
266
chip chart are often used for such tests, as well as models
tha t resemble the subjects of the film to be photographed .
1) Lens sharpness and color balance (particularly important if lenses of different manufacturers are used on the
same production): Test each lens to ensure consistent sharpness and color balance when lenses are changed. Photograph the identical subject with each lens and compare on
a one-light print.
2) Film stock and ernul ion batch: Test each different
film stock and emulsion batch to be used on the production for color balance and expo ure latitude.
3) Laboratory Processing: normaJ, forced, flashed. Test
processing at film laboratory seJected by the production.
This is particularly important for determining the degree
of forced processing or f1a hing that i desired.
4) Filters: Test the effects of various filters on chosen
subjects to facilitate a seJection of filters for the production.
5) Lighting:Test the look of new lighting instruments,
color gels, and diffusion material on seJected subjects.
6) Makeup: Test makeup on actors under the lighting
conditions planned for the production.
Tools
A proper set of tools and supplies is essential to the
preparation and maintenance of motion-picture equipment. Although the production company should provide
the expendable suppLies, a camera assistant's personal set
of tooLs should include most of the following items:
blower bulb - large (6")
lens brush - camel's hair or ft sable (1"; use only for
lenses, keep capped)
magazine brush - stiff bri ties (1"-2")
lens tissue - lint free
cotton swabs
lens-cleaning solvent
50' flexible measuring tape
lighter fluid
scissors - straight blade, blunt tip (2")
tweezers forceps - curved dis ecting forceps or hemostat
ground glass puller
ARRI SW2 - 2mm hex (for variable shutter)
magnifying glass
267
small fla hHght

orangewood sticks
tape:
cloth (1 ") black, white, and colors
paper (W') white, colors
chart (YJ6") white - for lens barrel markings
velcro - (1 ") white, male & female
chalk - thick, dustless
felt marking pens
' rite-on / wipe-off' pens for plastic slates
powder puffs (to clean rub-off slates)
grease pencil - black and white
pens and pencils
film cores
camera fuses
multim ter
soldering iron
16-gaug solder
solder wick desoldering spool
folding knife
emery paper (600 grip - ferric-oxide coated)
razor blad (single-edge industrial)
rope - nylon line (%" x 10' long)
camera oil
camera grease
oil syringe and needle (one fine, one wide)
bubble level - small, circular
ATG-924 (snot tape)
black cloth - 2' quare
set of jeweler' crewdrivers
set of hex wrenches (Y.!2" - t6" and metric)
combination pliers (6")
needlenose pliers (6"), miniature (1")
crescent wrench (6")
vice-grip pHer (4") diagonal cu tters (4")
wire stripp r (4")
screwdriver (\1;", t6", W', 51\6")
Phillip scr wdrivers #0, #1, #2
Arri screwdriv r #1, #2, #3
insert slate
color illy (gray scale and color chip chart)
gray card
electrical adapters:
V-ground plug adapter
screw-in socket adapter
WD-40oil
assistant light
compass
depth-of-field charts
depth-of-field calculator
footage calculator
circle template (for cutting gels)
extra power cables
magnetic screwdriver
variable-width screwdriver
wooden wedges (to level camera)
small mirror (to create a highlight)
dentist's mirror (aids in cleaning)
alligator clips
graphite lubricant
3h" x 16 bolt - short and long
2 one-inch C-c1amps
black automotive weather stripping
small wooden plank (for mounting camera)
The Camera Assistant

The position of camera assistant requires a wide range
of skills. The assistant must have technical knowledge of
the camera, lenses, and a myriad of support equipment. He
or she must be physically fit, capable of total concentration,
and be able to retain a sense of h umor under stressful conditions.
Optional Items
Addi tional tool are often useful- each assistant collects hi or her own personal set. Following is a list of optional items that many have found to be valuable.
268
269
Putting the Image On Film

The ection on "Expo ure" together with the adjacent
table i intended as a quick-reference conden ation of
material explained in more detail in ''Lighting,'' "Pilter ,"
and el where in the manual.
Exposure
Most e posure meter incorporate some sort of calculator; some imple, ome sophisticated. An exposure meter
mea ures amOLmts of ligh t, ei U,er incident or reflected . The
calculator helps you decide how to use U,e measurement.
There are ix specific ariables entering the calculation:
Variables:
Film exposu re index
amera Speed
h utter Opening
Lens Aperture
Fil ter
Light
Expressed as:
El, ASA/ISO
FPS (frames per second)
Degrees
T- top
Filter factor
Meter reading:
Footcandles
Foot Lamberts
T-Stops
TI'e "1" stop number i defined as being the true "f"
t P number of a lens if it completely free from all reflec. The T (transmission) nwnber
tion and absorption 10
r pre nts the f-stop numb r of an open circular hole or of
a perf ct lens having 100% a ial transmission. The T-stop
can be considered as U,e" ff ctive" f-stop . rt is from this
conceptthat the m ean s ari e for sta.ndardiza tion of T- top
ca libration. T-stops are calibrated by measuring the light
int nsity electronicall y at th focal plane, whereas f-stops
ar caJclLlated geomehicall y. Thus f-stops are based on the
light U,at enters a lens. T- tops a re based on U,e intensity
of U, light that emerge fr m U,e rear of U,e lens and forms
the image.
There is no fi ed ratio, however, between T-stop and
f- t P which applie to all lens . The difference actua lly
r presents light losses within U,e elements of a given lens
du to reflection from the gla -air urface and from aborption wiUlin the gla itself. ConsequenUy, thi factor is
variabl and cannot b incorporated into an expo ure
meter, since the meter must flmction in connection wi th

many cIilierent lenses calibrated in both f-s tops and T-stops.
Many cinematographers do not Lmderstand why lens
and exposure tables are presented in f-stops wh n all professional cine lenses are calibrat dinT-stops. The f- tops
are required for all calculations involving object-image relationships, such as depth of field, extreme d se-up work
with extension tubes, etc. Such tables are based on the size
of the "hole" or diameter of the bundle of light rays which
the lens admits to form the image. The diameter of the fstop will normally be the same for all len es of similar focal length set at the same aperture. The T-stop, however, is
an arbitrary number that may result in the same T-stop
setting varying in aperture diameter with cIilier nt len es.
It is recommend d that all professional cine I nses be
calibrated in both T-stops and f-stops, particularly for color
work. T-stop calibration isespecialJy important with zoom
I nses, the highly complex optical design of which necessitates a far greater number of optical elements than is requiredin conventional lenses. A considerable light loss .is
encountered due to the large number of reflective optical
surfaces and absorption 10 e. A zoom lens with a geometrical rating of f/2, for example, w ill transmit considerably less light than a conventional fixed focal length lens
of similar rating with fewer elements.
Exposure tables a r generaIly based on "effective" ftops, (which are, in fact, T- top ). Small variations in emulsion peed, processing, expo ure readings, etc., tend to cancel out. Cinematograph r hould shoot tests with their
particular lenses, meter, ligh t and film to find b t combinations for optimum results.
Other variables, sud, a direction and contrast of the
light, are factors ca.lculated from the experienc of the cinematographer, aided by sud, things as photospheres and
spot readings. Finally, manipulation of all th ab ve, plus
off-normal negative processing to achieve a desired "1 0k,"
is from the mind of the cinematographer.
The laboratory and choice of film are do ely tied to
exposure. It is important to keep exposure within limits
satisfactory both to the elected film and to the printing
range of the laboratory.
The tables will aid exposure calculation for meters
which lack settings for some of the factors or will aid in
calculating constant exposure control when one factor aries from another.
271
Incident Key LightlT-Stop
200 160 125 100
80
64
50
40
32
25
(Foot candles)
EI/ASA
2000 1600 1250 1000 800 650 500 400 320 250
Tstop
1.4 1.25 1.5

1.6 1.5 2
1.8 2
2.5
2 2.5 3
2.2
3
4
2.5
4
5
2.8
5
6
3.2
6
8
3.6
8 10
4
10 12
4.5 12 16
16 20
5
5.6 20 25
6.3 25 32
7.1 32 40
8
40 50
9
50 64
10
64 80
11.3 80 100
12.7 100 125
14.2 125 160
16
160 200
18
200 250
20
250 320
22.6 320 400
2.5
2.5 3
3
4
4
5
3
4
5
6
5
6
8
6
8
10
8
10
12
10
12
16
20
25
32
12
16
20
16
20
25
25
32
40
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
650
800
40
50
64
50
64
80
80 100
100 125
125 160
160 200
200 250
250 320
320 400
400 500
500 650
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
64
80
80 100
100 125
125 160
160 200
200 250
250 320
320 400
400 500
500 650
64
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
250 320 400

320 400 500
400 500 650
500 650 800
650 800 1000
800 1000 1290
650 800 1000 1290 1625

800 1000 1290 1625 2050
1000 1290 1625 2050 2580
Most cinematography IS at 24 Irames per second. The table is calculated lor loot candles incident light on a lully lighted subject at 1/50
second exposur.e (172.8: precisely. but 170 0 to 180 0 varies Irom this by
less Ihan a printer POint lor normally processed color negative). For
photography at 1/60 second (30 lrames per second. 180 0 shutler; or 24
Irames per second. 144 0 shutler). use onethird wider lens stop or one
272
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
12
16
20
16
20
25
20
25
32
25
32
40
25
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
32 40 50
40 50 64
50 64 80
32 40 50 64 80 100
40 50 64 80 100 125
50 64 80 100 125 160
64 80 100 125 160 200
80 100 125 160 200 250
100 125 160 200 250 320
125 160 200 250 320 400 500
160 200 250 320 400 500 650
200 250 320 400 500 650 800
250 320 400 500 650 800 1000
320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290
400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625
500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050
650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580
800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250
1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100
1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160
1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500
2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
64
80 100
80
100
125
160
200
250
100 125
125 160
160 200
200 250
250 320
320 400
320 400 500

400 500 650
500 650 800
650 800 1000
800 1000 1290
1000 1290 1625
1290 1625 2050
1625 2050 2580
2050 2580 3250
2580 3250 4100
3250 4100 5160
4100 5160 6500
5160 6500 8200
6500 8200
8200
column 10. the right (one ASA step lower) on the incident light table. For
exposure Indexes less than tabulated (which are uncommon at this lime)
find the column which is ten times Ihe desired Index and multiply Ihe Iighl
by ten. Example: For EI 10. use the column under E1100. For exposure at
T stop 2. multiply 50 by 10 and the light level desired will be 500.
273
T-Stop Compensation for Camera Speed

(constant shutter)
60 76 96 120 150 192 240 300 384 484

225 285 360 450 562 720 900 1125 1440 1815
6 7.5
ft/min 22.5 28
9.5
36
12
45
15
56
19
71
24
90
30 38 48
112 142 180
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
36
40
45
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
36
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
1.1
fps
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
36
40
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
11 10
12.7 11
14.3 12.7
16 14.3
18 16
20 18
23 20
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
.9
1
1.1
.8
.9
1
.7
.8
.9
1
.7
.8
.9
1
1.3 1.1
1.4 1.3 1.1
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
2
1.8 1.6 1.4
2.2 2
1.8 1.6
2.5 2.2 2
1.8
2.8 2.5 2.2 2
3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2
3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
4
3.6 3.2 2.8
4.5 4
3.6 3.2
5
4.5 4
3.6
5.6 5
4.5 4
4.5
6.3 5.6 5
6.3 5.6 5
7
6.3 5.6
8
7
6.3
8
7
9
10
8
7
9
11 10
9
8
12.7 11 10
9
14.3 12.7 11
10
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
.7
.8
.9
1
1.3
1.1
.7
.8
.9
1
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
1.1
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
.7
.8
.9
1
1.3
1.1
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
Shutter Angle/f.p.s./T-stop change

(for 24 or 30 f.p.s. projection)
f.p.s.
f.p.s.
Exposure change
in T-stops
24
30
22
27
20
25
19
24
18
22
16
20
15
19
lia
14
17
12
15
9.5
12
1% 1%
7.6
9.5
6. 4.8(5) 3.8(4) 3 2.4

7.6 6. 5(4.8) 4(3.8) 3
2
211a
2%
311a
Maximum
Shutter
235
200
180
170
150
140
135
215
183
165
156
138
128
124
196 188 176 15]0 147 13]0 118 93 74 59 47 3ye 29 24

16]0 158 150 133 125 117 100 79 63 50 40 32 25 20
150 143 135 120

142 135 128 113
125 119 113 100
11]0 111 105 93
113 107 101 90
113 105 90
106 99 85
94 88 75
88 82 70
84 79 68
II it is desired to slow the camera without varying the lens Slop but
maintain constant exposure:
If It Is desired to reduce exposure without varying the lens stop:
If It is desired to reduce the exposure time per frame
without reducing exposure:
71
67
59
55
53
57
54
48
44
43
45
43
38
35
34
36
34
30
28
27
29
27
24
22
21
23
21
19
18
17
18
17
15
14
14
This lable gives shutler angles in one-third Tstop exposure intervals (bold
columns) as well as for some camera speeds in less Ihan one-third stop
intervals.
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting

David L Quaid ASC
Using existing fluorescenl lighting unfiltered
Common
fluorescent lights
(See 'page 242
lor comprehensive
lisling)
Camera flIlers
(Kodak or eqUivalent)
3200K flIm
5500K film
Cool white
Cool white deluxe
Warm white
Warm white deluxe
CC50R
+#81A
+ CC05M
+#858
Pholo lamp filters

(Rasco Cinegel or equivalenl)
~
EI
EI
CC30M
2f:
Filtering fluorescent lighlS to

match pholo lights
213
3200K
5500K
EI
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
+ Plusgreen
2fJ +Third blue
+ Quarter blue
+ 'l4Plusgreen
Camera filter: None

(Tungsten negative
or reversal)
To match 3200K
Camera flIter:
Tungsten Negative: #85
Oaylight film: None
EI
To malch 5500K EI
Fluorfilter
+ Y2Minusgreen
Minusgreen
0
# 85C
+ CC05M
# 82C
% + CC05M
Half blue
MT54
1'1: + 'l4Plusgreen '!J + Eighth 81ue
+ UV Filter
+ Eighth blue
Sun '12 CTa

+ '/,Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
- Quarter blue
'13 + 'l4Minusgreen
+ Eighth blue
CC30M
+#81EF
CC508
'13 + CC15M
Half blue
Plusgreen
121: + Plusgreen
0 + Y2Plusgreen
+Quarter blue
+Sun lie CTa
Minusgreen
+ '/,Minusgreen
+Sun '14 CTa
- Half blue
'!J + Minusgreen
+ Eighth blue
1fJ
CC10M
+#81
# 808
% + CC05G
'l4Plusgreen
Sun Y2 CTa
12/ +Quarter blue '!J + UV Filter
+ UV Filter
'/,Minusgreen
Full blue 50
0 + Y2Minusgreen
'13
Balancing Daylight Windows on location Interiors

Emulsion
Balance
Exposure
Index
Camera
Filler
Photographic lights/Filler
Practical/Existing Lights/Filters
Window Fillers
Balancing Interior to Daylight

3200K
Daylight
85 Neg.
85B Rev.
Daylight
Daylight
None
3200K/Full Blue 50 or Dichroic

White lIame arc/Y-1
HMI. CID/Y l"
Tungsten/Full Blue 50
Cool White Fluor/Minus green
NO as required
Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K

3200K
3200K
None
3200K INone
Yellow lIame arc/YF10l
HMI. CID/Y 1+MT2"
TungstenlNone
Cool White Fluor/
Fluor filler + '12 Minus green
AC dlscharge/
CTO or Sun 85
plus NO as required
Balancing to Match Existing (Ambient) Interior lighting
Cool White Fluorescent

3200K
3200K
1713 stop
Daylight
Daylight
2,/3 stop
CC50R- 3200K
+ #81A
+CC05M
+85B
CC30M
Full Blue 50
Cool White Fluor/None
Plus green
+ Third Blue
+ Plus green
+ Quarter blue
+ 'I. Plus green
Tungsten/same as
Photo 3200K
White Flame ArcE'US Green

_ liMI. CID
+ Third Blue
plus NO as required
Other AC Discharge Commercial lighting-see pg 242 for filters
Tungsten
See " Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K" above. This would be an unusual situation. Either accept the difference between 3200K
and ambient lighting or drop voltage on 3200K photo lamps and add lieeTa to 5500K lighting. Inefficient electrically.
HMI and CID may vary. See PO 218 and check with 3C meter.
The Cinematographer
and the Laboratory
Laboratorie routinely use the film manufacturers'
recomm nd d p ciIications for processing, modifi d to
meet their particular equipment. (TIle entire sy tern - typ
of film , manufactmer ' EI recommendation, laboratory
printing and proc ing range - is calibrated to produce
a plea ing rendition of fully lighted flesh tones lmder normal projection condi tion .) In addition to producing normal r ult n the creen, rna t laboratorie can on request
mod.iy the r n re ults to produce a particular eHect or
look.
Printer Points
TIle laboratory c ntrols print density and color balance
b increasing or decreasing the intensity of each primary
color of light in t p called printer points. Since the de elopment of the B & H model C printer most manwactmers
have tandard.ized on a range of 50 light points in 0.025 Log
E incr ments. In addition to the light points each printer
usually aloha 24 trim settings (0.025 Log E) , giving an
available total of 74 lights.
The ideal etting for scene-to-scene timing would be
at m.id-scale (Trim 12 + Tape 25 = 37 lights). In actual practice th a ailable range is considerably less. Printer lamp
are usually operated w,der their rated voltage. TIlls reduces
the light inten ity in all three colors. For example, lowering the voltage from 120 to 90 volts on a BRN 1200-watt
lamp results in a relative change in printer points equal to
minu 12 R d, 13 Green, 17 Blue. The trims are usually used
to balance the printer for a given print film emulsion. A
typical emulsion might require 16 Red, 13 Green, 10 Blue,
or in t rm of the idea l, p lus 4 Red, plus 1 Green, minus 2
Blue. Oth r factor influen cing the available printer points
are the op rating peed of the printer, and the use of neutral-den ity fi lter in the individual charmels and the main
light bam.
TI,e sum of the e variables explains why a given negative might be printed Red 28, Green 29, Blue 22 at one laboratory and R d 36, Green 32, Blue 36 at another laboratory
to produce matched prints. It is important to understand
that printer point relate only to how the printer exposes
film. A one-stop .30 Log E change (12 printer points X .025

Log E) is equal to a one-stop exposme in the camera only
if the film in the camera has a gamma of approximately 1.0.
The current negative films, both black & wh ite and color,
have gammas of approximately .65. Therefore, in correlating camera and printer expo me, one s top equals 2f.I x 12 =
8 printer points per stop.
Exposure Reporting
It has become the normal practice for labora tories to
furnish "one light" ra ther than timed daily rush prints. TIlls
does not mean that all negatives are printed at the same
light points. The laboratory establi he a day exterior, day
interior, night exterior and night interior light for a cinematographer when he / she starts a pictlUe, based on testing
or on the first few days of shooting. Each laboratory establishes it own method, but basically alI try to keep usable
negative within the 1 to 50 light point scale. Eastman Kodak
proposes the LAD (Laboratory Aim Density) sy tern, which
keeps the printer scale constant by adjusting printer trims
to compensate for proces and stock variables, and places
a "normal" scene atm.id-scale. (Laboratori do not necessarily agree on the numerical val ue of the preferred m.idscale light point, but this is not critical as long a you know
whidl system your laboratory uses.) Coni renee with yom
laboratory technician will estabLish method that fit your
style of photography. AIter that, variation in your exposure
will show as variation in the den ity of y m dailies. Bear
in mind that if subject matter or tyle of photography requires a solid black in any area of the print, exposure must
be kept at center of the printer scale or higher.
Negative raw stock from different manufac tLu'ers may
or may not have the same base density, maximum d ensity,
or density /exposure ch aract ri tic ("curve shape"), although these differences are u ually s mall. A rush print
made by the LAD conh'ol method sh w the d ensity and
color ratio at mid-scale on the print r. N ga tive from two
manwactlUers, both exposed correctly, mayor ma y not
look the same at this printer point. If nece ary, an adjustment to the printer point may be made for the difference
in raw s tock and this new light point us d for printing dailies on the subject.
Special Processing
If special processing is requested: a conf~rence with th.e
laboratory r presentative and expenmentatlOn (or expenence) is desirable. If special processing is requested, or the
cinematographer is using high or lo.w exposure for effe: t,
it is desirable to test the effect by gomg through the entir:
release-print technique, including ~e interpositiveldupLicate n gative generations, ~d to vIew the res0t as. nea:ly
as po ible under the anbapated release-prmt vIewmg
conditions. (Don't ignore the fact that most pictures are also
released in one of the television formats.) If the scene to be
photograph d will be used in an optically ~rinted special
effect, it is wi to confer with the appropnate speaal-effects people.
Release-Printing Procedures
Aft r th picture negative and soundtrack negati~e
have been a mbled in their final form, the laboratory Will
anal ze the pictur negative fo~ scene-to-scene ~,o~or ~d
density variations and make a pnnt known as the first trIal
composite." As many trial prints are. made .as a:e necessary
to re olve all printing data. The final trIal IS al 0 ~ften
known as an "answer print." With the data thus obtamed,
one or more intermediates are printed and from these the
relea e prin are made. Modem film to~ used to n:'ake
the interm diat p itive and intermedia te or d~plicate
negatives are of cellent quality, but they do en~ail ad~ed
printing generations. The appearance of scenes m~olvmg
effects uch a ff-normal film exposure or processmg can
suffer if th Yexc ed the extremes the system can handle.
(See also "T sting and Evaluation.")
Color Reversal Films

Most f the above al 0 applies to color reversal film ;
however, color rever al film are now usually used only
when it is intended to project the original. Exposure labtude is short compared to that of color negative films .
Proper e po ure is ther fore critical in order to keep all
scenes at a usabl density.
282
Black & White Negative

and Reversal Films
The above also applies to black & white reversal films.
Black & white negative films, however, are an exception.
Both their contrast and density can be more strongly affected by developing time than color negati e films. While
there is much more latitude in expo ure with black & white
negative films as compared to color negati e films, both
grain and acutance are affected by expo ure ariation.
De iation from the manufacturer' recommended EI (expo ure index) should be tested and evaluated.
Forced Development of Color Films

With the color films mo t comm nl used today, it is
po sible to compensate for under po ur by extended
development or "pushing." Similar to the principles of traditional black & white nsitometry, forced development
of these color films increases thcir contra t, grainin
and
the fog level.
Therefore, forced development can n er ield the
same image quality possible when film ar expo d and
processed strictly according to the manufacturer' recommendations. In many instances, however, the image quality obtained with underexpo ure and erdevelopment is
entirely satisfactory, and a cinematograph r may want to
take advantage of this fact when hooting w,d r adver e
light conditions. What "pushing" mean, in Hect, is that
the cinematographer can delib rately und rexpose the film
(sometimes by as much as two stop) and requ st that the
laboratory compensa te in devel pment.
Witl, the introduction of high- p cd co l r nega ti ve
emulsions, there is less ca ll for pushing the moderate speed
films, except for a specia l "look" or w h n underexposure
i unavoidable and high-speed negative i not at hand. It
is possible to push one stop in dev lopment withou t appreciable loss in image quality. Th scenes produced in this
manner can be intercut wi th scenes exposed and processed
normally.
Ifealor negative is pu hed two top in development,
the increase in the graininess and th fog lev I is ubstantial, but the results are acceptabl for scenes in volving
night-for-night photography or available-light photography under exceptional circwnstanc .
283
Extending development beyond two stops does not

appr ciably contribute to the image; rather, it increases the
grain and fog level and should not be attempted even as
an emergency measure. It should be realized that with color
film the sensitometric balance of the three emulsion layers is only achieved with normal processing and that forcing the development does not accomplish a true compensation for underexposure. Forced development does not
result in a substantial increa e in Exposure Index of the
negati\ e as measured by accepted scientific methods. evertheless, it cannot be denied that the technique proves to
be of some practical value if it brings the underexposed
negative into an acceptable printing range.
Reversal films, unlike negative, derive their projection
density from the camera exposure. Forced proces ing of
underexposed film can bring up the projection density to
normal. Eastman Ektachrome Films 7240 and 7250 and
Fujicolor RT8427 and 8428 (all tungsten balanced), as well
as Ektachrome 7239 and 7251 (daylight balanced) can be
"pushed" one stop with acceptable results. In emergency
situations they can be pushed up to three stops with some
10 s in quality. The ability to underexpose these films and
till obtain on film a usable image should by no means be
regarded as a suitable substitute for additional lighting
when it can be provided.
If a cinematographer anticipates the need for deliberate underexposure during a production, he or she should,
if possible, shoot careful tests in advance using the same
emulsion to be used for the production and have them proces ed by the lab that will be processing the production
film . The results can then be analyzed with the help of a
labora tory representative. Needless to say, underexposed
rolls should be clearly marked with instructions a to how
much they should be pu hed when they are sent to the laboratory.
Flashing
Flashing may be de cribed qualitatively a subjecting
the negative film to a weak, controlled uniform fogging
expo ure prior to development either before, during or after photographing the desired subject. There is no measurable difference in the effect iJ the .flashing takes place befor or after the principal expo ure. As a result, because of
arious unfa arable factors ( uch as not being able to con-
trol the time interval between the flash exposure and the
time that development will actually take place, and not
knowing the actual conditions ofphotography in advance),
pre-flashing is generally avoided in favor of post-flashing.
Simultaneous fla hing during actual photography by
means of a special device attached to the front of the camera lens is described under ''VariCon.'' A device called a
"Panaflasher" can also be used for simultaneous fla hing on
Panavision cameras. The Panaflasher can be used pre- or
po t-exposure.
Since color negative consists basically of three emulion layers sensitive to red, green, and blue light, the pectraIcomposi tion of the ligh t used for flashing can be a neutral equivalent to tung ten light (3200K) or daylight (5500K)
which, depending on the film, would affect all three emulsion layers equally. The fundamen tal reasons for using a
neutral flash are to reduce the contrast of the image and to
increase shadow detail. This effect is accomplished because
the flashing exposure affects principally the shadow region
of the negative image.
Another reason for flashing is to adtieve certain crea ti ve effects by using a non-neutral flashjng exposure
which would then alter the normal color rendition of the
developed negative.
Flashing is also u ed ometirnes to reduce contrast of
po itive or reversal films wh .11 uch films are to be used
for special effects duplication purposes, such as projection
backgrounds or aerial image compositing with animation.
VariCon Adjustable Contrast Filter

The Arri VariCon is a compact, variable contrast-control sy tern which quickly and easily slides into the dual
filter stage closest to the lens of any regular 6.6"X 6.6" matte
box. The VariCon differs from low-contrast filters in that it
provides for a contin uou ly adjustable contrast over the
entire ph otometric range of the film without any loss of
resolution, and without any effect on the highlights. It differs from standard fla hing (pre- or post-exposure) of the
n gative in the lab or in the film camera magazine in that
it adds a controlled, even amount of light during the exposure, and permits the cinematographer to set the desired
contrast reduction while observing the resuJt in the
viewfinder, in relationship with the actual scene to be photographed. The VaTiCon al 0 provides for coloring of
285
r
'hadow a reas in the image without affecting the highlights.
Thi featurecanbe veryh lpfulinsituation when xtr me
con tra t com pres io n would result in extrem color
d aturation.
Th
tem con i ts f a light ourc , the VariCon
CIa Emitter, the 6.6" 6.6" ariCon frame that h Id the
Emitter (with a built-in lo t for an ND filter), a digital meter
for pred sellino- of contra t ranges, and a dual-level output Power uppl . WiUl th
ariCon placed in the 6.6"X
6.6" ta e clo t to the leI ,it will co er virtually all wideangle and long focal-length prime lenses, and mo t zooms.
ith the ariCon in po ition a nd witched OFF, it will not
aff ct image quality or r quire f- top compen ati n.
12V or 24V batterie . (Cables for 24V batteries are available only through sp cial order.)
Power consumption: 96 Watts (SA @12V, 4A @24V)
Dimensions:
Upper light urce: 9 X 2 X 1.75 inch
Slide-in emitter eetion: X 6.5 X 0.5 inch
Weight:3Ib.
Adjusting the VariCon

VariCon' contra t-rang adju tment is impl : turn
a ing le control knob (located on its left sid ), or turn a
ing le fl exible extension haft that plugs directly into the
Vari n ju t above the ontrol knob, to adju t contra t up
r down. The amOlmt of conh'a t reduction ca n been
through Ule finder, or be mea ured via the digital m ter for
a curacy and repeatabili ty. t the meter for the camera's
f- top, the film stock's e po ure inde ,and Ule r qui red
contra t range in va lue l4 ,Y2, 1,2,3, 4 or 5. ( value of 1 is
equal to 20/0 f1a rung.) The eff ctive range of ariC nco\,r ituationsfromFl..lwithSOO
AtoF22withl00 S .
Olanging the colorati n of the ariCon is don with
a 0- I placed in the ariCon' lide-in gel filter holder.
Ii ht nsor built int the ariCon works in conjunction
wiU, the meter to compensate for the light reduction of Ule
el filter. ariCo n ca n al 0 b u ed in conjuncti n \ ith
o th r filter to enhance Uleir effects.
aTE: When usin g th VariCon, exposing th g ray
ca l I late with Ule Val'icon wi tched ON is recomm nded;
it' helpful for Ule lab tim r.
Lens Coverage:
Standard Aspect Rati
Zoom len cs: 1 mm on lip
Prime lens : lOmm, 12mm, 16mm on up
peet Rati :
up r 35
Zoom len : 20mm on up
Prime len : 12mm, and 16mm on up
Power urces:
aricon ha two SO , 12 'BRL' U hio halogen bulb,
pow red b 110
C throu h a 12
C adaptor, o r from
286
287
Photographic Testing and

Evaluation
b Fred Detmers
Ph tographic testing and experimenting aid th cinrapher in evaluatin equipment, new film and
pr
ing, and techniqu
f lighting. This article i int nded a a checkli t and bri f on the techniqu of t ting
and valuation.
Eadl f the fact r in creating a photographic image
relat t several other factor; it i important in eva luation
to var one factor at a tinl ,and conti nuall to compa r ,
wh n po sible, with a known resuJt. In this way, a bank of
information i acquired w hich can be drawn on and expanded .
Before proceeding to photograp hic testing it is n cessal' to stablish the condition Lmder which the te twi ll
be eva luated. It i of no value to photograph a test and then
vi wit Lmder anything l than first-elas conditions. ta ndard and recommended practice have been set up by the
MPTE and A 151, and te t film are a ailable fr 01 the
MPTE for evaluation of pr jection conditions. If the e
conditions are not optimum, the value of the test i compr mised. ser of 160101 and upcr hould be particularl alert to thi condition b ause there are 0 man ubin use.
tandard projector and len
Thr ugh adaptation and fatigue the eye can change its
n iti ity to color, densi ,or ubjective harpn . When
p ible use two projecto and two screens. ake dir ct
c mpari n rather than ubjective evaluations. Lf in doubt,
witch fi lms on the two pr jector and re-eval uate.
om of the te ting r ferred to below may be perfo rm d n black & w hjte film even if the subject is to b
color, th reby aving ome of the cost. If the te tim dlanica l rath r than photographic, th nega tive it elf may be
projected f r evaluation in tead of going to a print.
1. Equipment
. teadine check: Particularly when compo ite
photography is contemplated (but valuable in any ca e), a
heck for image teadin
. advisable. The ubj t matt r ma be imple; for instance, a black background with a
simple cross made of adh ive tape. Phot~graph 20 or .30

c nds of the cross, cover the lens, backwmd to the begmning uncover the len, offs t the dlart by the wid th of the
tape: and double-expo the chcu:t. Ally LLI1Steadin
will
readily show between th offset lines (Do not re-tt:r~~d on
a differe:lt perforation - thi introduces the p Ibihty of
unstead perforations and compromises the cam ra t t.)
After photographin and proces ing this.and befor projecting, e amine the negati e for perforahon damaue and
scratches.
B. Optical: Lenses h uld have been calibrat d at the
fact r or by the distribut r for e po ure and focu an~ ~he
distributor should hav ch cked the growld gla p ItIon
wi th r ference to the film plane. [f you trust your uppl!er
th r is no need for exten ive t ting. If, h owe er, the eqUl pm nt is unfamiliar or it i n e ary to field te t th quipment, foUowing are suggested procedmes:
1. Focus an d ground gla / film plane:
(a) et up a focu / definition chart (obtajnable from
camera equi pment suppliers) with center and comer ~ar
g ts; et up at a distance from the camera corr ponding
to a sca le-calibra t d di tance, filling the aperture a much
a p ible. Check the e e focus ver u scale focus. Rep at
for each lens. Repeat at a O1jd-distance (15 to 25 feet) ale
calibrati n. With a zoom lens, check at
eral zoom ttin.
A consistent discrepanc uggests either ground gla.
or index error. A discrepan on one ~ens ugg . ~ err~r m
the tting of the ale ring. (When usmg Panavi I n Wideangle lenses, read and foU?" the ~anavision in tructio.ns.)
In ei ther case, photographic or colhmator tests ar r qwred
to confirm the source of error. (If yo u have a r ntal or a
n wlyacquiredcam ra/ len , send it/ them back for corr ction.)
.
(b) Set up the d finition chart at a scale dl ta nc clost to filling the fram . Lf the index and/or focus. calc nngs
ar provided with secon?ary index ~narks for adjustments,
u these marks as a gwde; otherWise:
..
On a piece of tap on th index, make fom additIOnal
temporar marks at equal in.tervals ab~ve and below the
inde . pace the marks to indicate 0.001 Ul travel of the lens
for adl inter al ( e "Len Formulas"), and label tho e
away from the film "plu " and those closer t th film
II
minus."
r
At a wide-open aperture, using either the temporary
mark or the permanent econdary mark mentioned
abov , photograph a hort take (just enough to get up to
peed) at each index mark: "plu ,"" ," "minus." Develop
and amine with a lOX magnifier. The expo ure hould
be noticeably harper than the plus or minus. If it is not,
repeat the test to confirm.
Check all lenses, and check also at another mid-distance (say 15 feet), alway at a scale-calibrated mark. If any
len icon istentl " off the mark" or if there is a pattern of
failure between lenses, end the camera/len e back for
recalibration or, in the field, be guided by the focu te t
re ult .
2. Sharpness (See al "Lens Selection."):
Becau sharpness is a ubjective judgment ba ed on
th ompo ite of resolution, acuteness, con trast, flare and
ab rratio~, a fu ll test of each len wo uld encompas photography m a number of different ituations. A imple compari on may be made betwe n lenses, however, by photographing a definition chart and a simple scene with each
lens and comparing them with identical expo ures made
with a len of known photographic performance.
(a) The definition chart hould preferably be one made
f r lens testing (available from camera supply distributors)
and hould have targets in the comers as well as in the center. E posure hould be made at a wide-open aperture, a
mid-aperture (one at which ou would be most likely to
photograph interiors), and at a very small aperture, each
lighted for normal expo ure. The wide-open expo ure
h uld how up aberration and distortion, particularly in
the corn rs, should they be present. The small aperture
exp me will tell you (in compari on with the " mid-aperture" exposure) if there is lower definition becau e of diffrac ti n; a lac k of definition at wide-open or small apertul"es
can affect apparent deptl1 of field as well as intrinsic harpn
area into the surrOlmding area. Care hould be taken not

to exceed the printer cal .
(c) Compari on of (b) normal exposure with a like e po ur made with a known lens i a subjecti e harpness
t t.
3. Expo ure (T- t p), color hift
Photograph a h rt I n h of film of a o-ray al at the
me T-stop and illumination with each lens. Th n gative
gra
ale rna be read with a den itometer, if available, to
det rmine tuuformity. If a print is made of the negati e it
may be projected to e if t11 re i a color hiFt b tween
len . In most instance mall difference in col r can be
corrected in printing and will affect only t11e ru h print. If
yOll ar photograplling n reversal film, yOll may wi h to
u color correcting filt I to balance t11e lenses.
II. Laboratory/Process/Printer Scale/

Emulsion Batch
Generally the e test hould be comparative. We
hould compare for harpness, gra in, contra t, detail in
highlights and shadow a nd off-color highlight or hadow . Prints should be made for best appearance in face
and / or mid-tones and comparative prints should be made
to match in these ton
gra
ale included in th
ene
. helpful.
Comparative t
hould be made at t11e same T- top.
Where an expo. ure range is made, e po ure h uld be
aried witl1 hutt r and/ r neutral densit filt rs.O ar
fiIt
hould be 1I ed to ub titute for neutral den ities 0
t11 same number of filt r are always in place. WhiJ the
cen u ed above for Inc mpari ons can al 0 b u ed in
U1
tests, it is helpful al t include a high-key and a lowk y cene.
A. Testing new film stocks:
(b).The te .t cene should include a whi te area, a light

area (With detail uch as lace), and a dark area with detail,
a weB a a person or object howing detail in mid-tones.
There hould be a normal expo ure and one each one top
over and underexposed. When printed alike in the midton and compared, this will how up contrast, and if the
lens ha a tendency to flare, the overexposed scene will be
flatter than the normal and will how flare from the white
290
Photograph a rang of expo ures of each c n from

the new film and on a known film, from normal to pi u and
minus 2 lens stop . If fore d prace ing is intend d ( ee
below) add a set at minus 3 top .
291
B. Testing for off-normal processing

(including push processing and
flashing):
1. Beca u th re are now three variables - exposure,
flash Ie el, and d veloping time - tmless a wide range of
combinations i budgeted, it might be well to separate tests
for fla h and proces ing, observe the result, and then confine tests of combination to levels likely to be useful to the
desired look. lwa compare to a normally exposed and
developed ene.
2. Before committing to forced developing, compare
with a properly printed, underexposed, normally developed take. In ome instances, the only thing forced de eloping does i raise the printer points.
3. ake a print of a minus-one-stop exposed, "push
one" developed take at the ame lights as the normally
exposed, normally developed take. Comparison will how
just what i accomplished by "push-one" developing.
4. If the d ired look is obtained but the print is made
below printer point 10 or abo e 40, be cautious because you
have Limited your latitude.
Varying both without conference between U1e cinematographer and laboratory technician can only lead to confusion. If the desired effect can only be achieved by off-normal printing or negative proces ing, it i advisable to go a
step further and evaluate the re ult after making either a
duplicate negative or a CR1 to simulate release-print conditions. The result should then be viewed with as Large a
screen magnification as is anticipated, for the release print
If television use is anticipated the result hould also be
viewed under television conditions.
C. Testing a new emulsion batch for

compatibility:
If the new emul ion batch is incompatible, it is more
Likely to be 0 in off-normal densities or processes. Follow
the same general procedure as in testing a new film; the
exposure range need not be as great. If the printer lights
vary 2 or 3 points between scenes photographed the same
on the two batches of emulsion no harm will be done. If
there i a marked difference in shadow or highlight color
when face match, caution is warranted.
III. Visual Effects: Lighting, Filters,

Image Modification
This i a subj ctively judged area in which the cinematographer and laboratory teclmician must work together
cIo ely. Unle ba ed on experience, it is ad visable to start
with a print at center scale. If the visual appearance is then
not correct, the decision can be made whether to vary the
photographic conditions or vary the printing conditions.
293
Emulsion Testing
by t ven Po ter, ASC
Calibration
1. Th 'ba i ph I ical nahlfe of the film tock (i .e., how
much del it. ther i in th ncgative without an e po ure)
mu tbccalibrarcd. If ouar goingtotestoruseotl1 rfilm
toc~ and / r pr
ing techniques the e hould al ' 0 be
cal ibrated at thi time.
Th lab hould proce a hart length of une 'po ed
ncgativc. If th negativ i going to be pushed or pulled r
flashed , th
p cial treatments should be done in the p rocribed Wel at thi - time a well. You ca n measure the specific den iti
f the ba densi t plus fog level on a denitom t I' for r fer nce. (Thi reference can be used later if
therc is an mul -i n hangc, lab change or just as a simple
check on your tandard emu l ion.)
We know tl1at thi pecific den ity will be used to reproducc a bla k tonc on the fina l print. If t1u density on
thc nega ti vc is not printed deep enough to reproduce a
desirabl black on the print stock t11ere w ill be no black
tonc in th fu1al print and tile image will be appear to have
been wlder p ed . If thi i tl1e ca e tile images ca n al
develop a grainy appea rance and w ill not dupe well.
At tlu point au have a piece of wlexposed processed
ne ative t1lat r fI ct an y pecial proce sing tedlluque
done t that negativc. You hould al a have noted reference d nsi ti
f that nega ti ve. This lead us to til second
part of the t t.
2. In order to d etermine the pecific amount of light

needed to print your test negative to a de irable black tone,
we must test the print stock and any printing techniques
(la lUng the print stock, E R, bleach uppression or optical printing, for example). Thi i done by printing your
piece of W1exposed processed film t k at a succe ion of
printer lights increasing by 2 to 4 points of d nsity (8 printer
points equals 1 stop, 4 points equal \12 t p, etc.). If you are
planning to use any unusual printing techniqu or print
processing techniques, the hould be applied at this point.
Any subsequent printing for th e ri of tests hould
ha e these techniques appli d a well.
A trick that I have often u d to h Ip me judge my
optimum black density i to punch a hole in the negative
with a ingle-hole paper punch (n t in the center of the
frame) before it i printed. This will giv au a reference to
zero density in the frame, which can help determine the
optimal vi ual black tone that you want. Your desired black
tone will never be a black a the p rtion printed through
the hole, but the reference h lp t d termine what den ity
you will want to adueve with our proce ing and printing techniques.
If your lab has trip projectors w luch the use for timing proposes, this is a very good way to iew these te t .
Two identical prints can be made which can be viewed ide
by side on these projectors, allowing you to tudy th results and compare different den iti . If n trip projectors
are available,the length of each exposure hould b enough
to allow you time to view it uffici ntly n the screen during projection.
Once you have determined which density you would
Like to represent black in yo ur final print, it should be read
on the densitometer and used for latcr reference. You can
also read the densities of each I vel of printer Lights to see
where reciprocity sets in, although thjs i not actually neces ary because this density will probably be d eper tl1an
you will achlally be printing at.
A test for no-density print highlight. can also be done
at this time by printing a piece of paqu I ader at the determined printer Lights and reading th r ulting density.
The difference between your chosen black density and tl1e
re u1ting wlute density will determine the d ynanuc range
of the print stock. In ord r to d t rmine the peed and
working range of your nega ti ve in rela tion to tl1at print
tock, furfuer testing is nece sary.
You ho uld now have a op timum black density and a

rcferen to the printer lights that it will take at yo ur lab to
resuJt in tha t density w ith you r dlOsen nega tive s tock. Thi
include an LUlU ual proce ing methods and any variation in printing t clu1ique - tha t you dlOO e to use. Thi
bring u to the third part of the test.
. Thi will b the fir t camera test which will determine the \V rking p d or e po ure index (El ) that will
allow y u t judge the exp ure nece ar to represent the
valu that ar ph t graphed a normal tones on the final
print when that print i made u ing the recommended
den ity d termined b th fLr t two parts of th
tests. You
must determine the am unt of light that it will require to
pI' ~er! . ph t graph a mid-gray tone when the negative
1 pnnted t th benchmark density.
Th re are v ral pain worth mentioning at this tage
about t tina meth d . Everyone has their own method of
mea urin lightvalue .Thereareprobabl a man method a th re a r p pi taking e. posure reading . If our
meter and meth of reading \ orks for you it i correct.
I pref I' to u a linolta 1 pot meter and take my
neutra l r ading ff of a nicolor Permanent Gra Card. I
~eel that thi illv me a consistent and accurate way of judgUlg n t nl the light falling o n a ubject but the reflectance
of that ubje ta welJ.lalso like to vary the amowlt of light
falling on th ubj t rather then changing the T- top on the
len . Thi giv me a more accura te serie of e po ure
becau e there i no I' liable wa to vary the stop by fractions, due to the variable and tolerance of the lens iris.
Lighting f r the e te ts requires flat, even illumination
over the urfac of the ubject, similar to copy lig ht (light
from two ide f the ubject at a 45 angle from the canlera) . Th 01 I' temperatme of the light hould be as dose
to 3200 Kel in po ible except in te t of day lig ht film ,
when 5400 K Ivin hould b u ed.
If yo u flr pla ning to use filtratio n, s uch as diffusion
of orne kind, th
filter should be used in all ubsequent
te t , b cau e me of these filter can have some lightabsorption qualitie . Even though this effect will be very
slight, it can aff ct the resuJt of your tests by as much a
two-third of a t p.
Make a eri
fexpo ures of an .. x 10" gray card and
a face with n utrfll kin tone at a erie of stops based on
va riation in the manufacturer's recommended exposure
inde . tart th
ri a t one stop under the 1 and increase
the exposure by one-third of a top until yo u reach one stop

over the recommended speed.
For in stance, if you we re t ting Koda k' 5296, the recommended speed is 500. You w uld ta rt yom test a t an
E1 of 1000 and proceed to an EI of 250 in one-third - top increments, resulting in seven diff rent po meso
Remember, don't vary th T-stop. Change the amount
of light to give the proper e po ur at th T- top you are
usin a .
Print the negative at the b nchmark d n ity arrived at
in th second part of the t t, adjustin the printer ratio
(color balance) to reproduce an utral ra . Read th print
density of the gra , in each e pure.
proper mid-gra
print density for theater viewing h uld be R/ 1.09 G / 1.06
& B/1.03 ( tatus A filters).
Vie\ the print to deterrnin \vhich print is dosest to
that recommended den ity. L k car fuIJ at the quality of
the color balance of th kin t n in relati n to the gra
card. If an emulsion cannot I' produce kin tone properl
when the gray card i printed c IT tl ( I' vice versa), this
i a good indication that there ar pI' blerns with either the
emulsion or the lab processe that ha taken plac . If this
is the case, when the skin tone are printed proper! in the
final print there w iIJ alwa b pI' blem ctting the proper
color balance in the hadow .
The print tha t is cho n a th btl' pre entation of
the gray card and skin tone will b c me th mid-point in
thedynamicrangeof om negati . h ckwhichexpo ure
index was used for tl1i test. Thi EJ wi ll b c me your empirica l e muls ion speed . M st fte n [ha e fund that the EI
that is derived w ill be within on -third of a s top of the
manufactLLrer's recommended p ed, unJ some fo rm of
processing modification i u ed ( uch a pu h o r pull processing).
4. This is the part of th tc ting proce tllat will dete rmine the usable d ynamic ra nge f your nega tive w hen exposed, processed a nd printed u ing th informa tion ga thered in the prev ious te t .
Make a series of expo ure u in a Macbe th Color
Checker color dlart, an 8YiO" gray ard, a mall gray cale
and a face Witll neutral kin tone. Mount til color chart
vertically with ilie gray ca rd in tile middle a nd the cale
vertica lly next to the gra card, all on one piece of ca rd.
MOWlt tllis card on a grip stand and place it over tile head
of the model. This allow y u to fi ll tile frame with tile card
and then tilt down to ee the face. hoot the chart and the
face each for a minimum of ten seconds (more if you can
afford th film) so that au will ha e enough time to tud
the r ult on the reen. If you are comparing emulsion
or proce ing technique, repeat these te ts for ead, variation .
U ing U,e EJ that au deri d from th la t test, start
the serie of exposur at norma l and lmder xpose succ ssively lll1til you r ach five stop underexp d. Do th
arne w ith overe po ure.
Fore ampl :
First ries
n rmal
1 top under
1 Y1 tops w,d I'
1 2A stops under
2 stops und er
2 Y1 tops under
2 2A top under
.., t P under
tops under
t ps tll1d r
Second Series
n rmal
1 top over
2 tops over
3 slops over
3 Y1 tops over
3 2A tops over
-! top over
of Y1 tops a er
5 top over
The u e of w, e n incremen t of expo ure is based on

experienc . I know that the fir t shadow d tail wiU fa ll
somewh re wi U1.in th range of2 and 3stop lll1derexpo d
and that the last h.ighlight detail will faU b tween 4 and 5
stops over. I also kn w from e perience that th increments
between 1 and 2 comprise ery useful shadow densities to
have a v' ual referenc to.
Print these t t again at the benchmark densitie .
View th \ ark print to mal< ur U, color ratio are correct. If po ibJe, at thi point an interpositiv ,d upe negati ve and fi nal print h uld be produced u ing any special
printing technique intended for the final release (such a
ENR or fla hing the in terpositiv ). This w ill allow you to
view th r ults a they would be iewed in the theater. If
thi is n t po ible, enough useful information can b
learned b vi wing th work print.
Wh n ou view the r ults pr jected, either in motion
or on trip projector, you will b gin to ee the effects of
expo ure on different tones and colors. If yo u are comparing differ nt emul ions or proc ing tedmiques, U,e reults should be view d side by ide for prop r comparison.
The expo ure difference b~tween. fir t h~dow det~il

and last highlight detail and U,etr relabon to mid-gray ~vJ11
determine the empirical d ynamic range of the negabve,
proc ing and printing combination.
Conclusion
H i importan t to rememb r that th e t~s t are not
scientific but empirical. They are mea~'t to tram yo ur ~ye
to the d ynamic range of yo ur em ulSion LlJ:der ",:orkmg
condition . The te t hould b a good working reterence.
In fact I ha ve often taken frame of each exposure and
mOlll1ted them in lide mOlll1ts for vie\ ina on the t if J
want t knowe actl where to place a specific tone on the
scale a that it will be repres nted exactJ a I want in the
final print. To do thi you wi ll ne~d a s.mal.1light box pr perly color-correct d and with an 11 IllffilI1ahan of 425 F +/
-10%.
H is most imp rtant to learn to tru t O Uf eye raU,er
than rei ing on to many exp ure reading . These t ts
should give au a better under tand.ing f.tl:e resul of
exposing, proce ing and pril:'ting our ongtnal :am ra
negative 0 that au can predict acU what U,e tffiag
you make will look like. With thi knowl. ~g au hould
be able to make more can istent dramahc trnages to help
tell U,e tory of your motion picture.
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE

24 F.P.S. Sound Speed (1 foot
SECONDS
<on
z:
e.>
....
<on
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3Q
300
.....
....
.......
1
1
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
12
12
13
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16
16
17
18
<on
<on
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c
0
:::IE
z:
.....
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....:::IEen
...""
e.>
....
<on
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...
24
8
32
16
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
25
26
27
27
28
28
29
30
30
31
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32
33
33
34
34
35
36
24
8
32
16
c:e
24
8
32
16
10
24
8
32
16
24
8
32
16
24
8
32
16
24
8
32
16
c:e
IX
24
8
32
16
24
8
32
16
24
8
32
16
24
8
32
16
24
8
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16
en
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i!
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed

(1 foot = 40 frames)
SECONDS
MINUTES
40 frames)
MINUTES
.........
.......
1
36
2
72
108
3
4
144
180
5
216
6
252
7
288
8
324
9
360
10
396
11
12
432
13
468
14
504
15
540
16
576
17
612
18 648
19
684
20
720
21
756
22
792
23
828
24
864
900
25
936
26
27
972
28 1008
29 1044
30 1080
<on
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i!
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31
32
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46
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58
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60
1116
1152
1188
1224
1260
1296
1332
1368
1404
1440
1476
1512
1548
1584
1620
1656
1692
1728
1764
1800
1836
1872
1908
1944
1980
2016
2052
2088
2124
2160
z:
en
Q
z:
0
.....
....
....
en
:::IE
en
Q
z:
.....
....
<on
....
en
....
.....
::>
:::IE
e.>
....
.......
<on
...
....en .......
...
IX
i!
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
25
10
35
20
5
30
15
19
20
20
21
21
22
23
23
24
25
25
26
26
27
28
28
29
30
30
31
31
32
33
33
34
35
35
36
36
37
15
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
3
4
5
5
6
6
7
8
8
9
10
10
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
18
c:e
IX
e.>
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
25 39
10 40
35 41
20 42
5 43
30 44
15 45
46
25 47
10 48
35 49
20 50
5 51
30 52
15 53
54
25 55
10 56
35 57
20 58
5 59
30 60
c:e
25
10
35
20
5
30
15
25
10
35
20
5
30
15
25
10
35
20
5
30
15
25
10
35
20
z:
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
...........
I-
37
75
112
150
187
225
262
300
337
375
412
450
487
525
562
600
637
675
712
750
787
825
862
900
937
975
1012
1050
1087
1125
en
....
<on
....
.....
::>
:::IE
c:e :!:
:::IE
...""-
31
32
20 33
34
20 35
36
20 37
38
20 39
40
20 41
42
20 43
44
20 45
46
20 47
48
20 49
50
20 51
52
20 53
54
20 55
56
20 57
58
20 59
60
20
en
....
:::IE
........... ...""
I-
1162
1200
1237
1275
1312
1350
1387
1425
1462
1500
1537
1575
1612
1650
1687
1725
1762
1800
1837
1875
1912
1950
1987
2025
2062
2100
2137
2175
2212
2250
c:e
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
301
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE

29.97 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed
(1 foot = 40 frames)
SECONDS
en
Cl
z:
Cl
~
en
1
tT 2
,3
11
~ ~;~:;
l~::.:i;::
I~':):
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
,20
en
~
I-
:EO
Cl
I:
en
0
1
2
3
3
4
5
6
6
7
8
9
9
10
11
12
12
13
14
14
30
20
10
0
30
20
10
0
30
20
10
0
30
20
10
0
29
19
9
39
29
19
9
39
29
19
9
39
29
19
.... ....c
~
I i!
:24l 17
25 18
26 19
27 20
28 20
29 21
30 22
"
~::
en
Cl
z:
en
~
I-
:EO
.... ....c
~
~
I:
en
....
en
=:I
z:
:IE
3'1 23
I~
~
~~ Illi l'
';=,;
,t
t~
~;~;
.~
:EO
<:
.... ....
9 1
44
39 2
89
24 29 h 3 134
25 19 t 4) 179
26 9 / ~ . 224
i i iI 26
269
27
314
:~! 28 19 ~; 8 , 359
29 9 ; 9 404
29 39 !,O 449
30 29 11 494
42 31 19 12 539
43 32 9 13 584
44 32 39 14 629
45 33 29 15 674
46 34 19 16 719
41 35 9 17 764
35 39 18 809
36 29 19 854
59; 37 19 1?0 ; 899
5;1\ 38 8
944
989
~? 38 38
39 28
1033
40 18
1078
55 41 8 ,25 1123
56 : 41 38 26 1168
51 42 28 27 1213
58 43 18 28 1258
59 44 8 29 1303
60 44 38 30 1338
li1!
en
MINUTES
}t: 23
Ii
35mm FOOTAGE TABLE

24 F.P.S. Sound Speed 11 foot
SECONDS
I:
Cl
z:
en
en
I=:I
z:
:EO
38 31
36 32
35 ;33
33
31
29 H
27 iii!
26 ;8;;
24 ;,3~,
22 '4t
20 41
18 42
17 43
15 44
13 45
11 46
9 47
8 48
6 49
4 ~O
2 !~i
0 ~2;
39
37
35 55;
33 I 56
31 S7
30 58
28 59
26 60
!IIJ:
~!j~
I~
:EO
<:
w
....
....
1393
1438
1483
1528
1573
1618
1663
1708
1753
1798
1843
1888
1933
1978
2022
2067
2112
2157
2202
2247
2292
2337
2382
2427
2472
2517
2562
2607
2652
2697
I:
24
22
21
19
17
15
13
12
10
8
6
4
3
1
39
37
35
34
32
30
28
26
25
23
21
19
17
16
14
12
.......
...
en
:E
en
Cl
z:
.......
... .......
en
:E
... ... ... ... ... ...

e:>
e.>
...:
cc:
e:>
e.>
en
"-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1
3
4
6
7
9
10
12
13
15
16
18
19
21
31
32
8 33
34
8 35
36
8 37
38
8 39
40
8 41
42
8 43
22
24
17 25
IS' 27
19 28
20 30
21 31
22 33
23 34
24 36
25 37
26 39
27 40
28 42
29 43
30 45
en
44
45
46
8 47
48
8 49
50
8 51
52
8 53
54
8 55
56
8 57
58
8 59
60
46
48
49
51
52
54
55
57
58
60
61
63
64
66
67
69
70
...:
cc:
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
72
73
75
76
78
79
81
82
8
8
8
8
84
85
87
88
90
8
8
16 frames)
MINUTES
en
::::>
z:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
.......
en
.......
...
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
810
900
990
1080
1170
1260
1350
1440
1530
1620
1710
1800
1890
1980
2070
2160
2250
2340
2430
2520
2610
2700
::::>
z:
:E
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
..........
2790
2880
2970
3060
3150
3240
3330
3420
3510
3600
3690
3780
3870
3960
4050
4140
4230
4320
4410
4500
4590
4680
4770
4860
4950
5040
5130
5220
5310
5400
303
3Smm FOOTAGE TABLE
35mm FOOTAGE TABLE

29.97 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed
(1 fool = 16 frames)
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed

11 foot = 16 frames)
SECONDS
MINUTES
en
C>
....::Een
en
C>
en
....::Een ........
... .......... ...""< ... .......... ...<2

CI
CI
(.)
(.)
cn
en
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
1 9
3 2
4 11
6 4
7 13
9 6
10 15
12 8
14 1
15 10
17 3
18 12
20 5
21 14
23 7
25
26 9
28 2
29 11
31 4
32 13
34 6
35 15
37 8
39
1
40 10
42 3
43 12
45
5
46 14
31 48
32 50
33 51
34 53
35 54
36 56
37 57
38 59
39 60
40 62
41 64
42 65
43 67
44 68
45 70
46 71
47 73
48 75
49 76
50 78
51 79
52 81
53 82
54 84
55 85
56 87
57 89
58 90
59 92
60 93
7
9
2
11
4
13
6
15
8
1
10
3
12
5
14
7
9
2
11
4
13
6
15
8
1
10
3
12
::>
::
::E
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
en
en ....
....
....
:::>
::E
.......... ...<
""
93
187
281
375
468
562
656
750
843
937
1031
1125
1218
1312
1406
1500
1593
1687
1781
1875
1968
2062
2156
2250
2343
2437
2531
2625
2718
2812
:E
SECONDS
....::Een
MINUTES
...... ...""
I-
12 31 2906
8 32 3000
4 33 3093
34 3187
12 35 3281
8 36 3375
4 37 3468
38 3562
12 39 3656
8 40 3750
4 41 3843
42 3937
12 43 4031
8 44 4125
4 45 4218
46 4312
12 47 4406
8 48 4500
4 49 4593
50 4687
12 51 4781
8 52 4875
4 53 4968
54 5062
12 55 5156
8 56 5250
4 57 5343
58 5437
12 59 5531
8 60 5625
<
.....
w
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
::E
c
........
12
8
4
...,w
?tf
~:~
'11
13
15
"g. 16
10 18
11 20
11 22
I~:
ti
30
rt 31
18 33
19 35
20 37
39
g~ ;; 41
231 43
n 44
25 46
26 48
27 - 50
2& 52
54
56
git,
14 r'31 58 1 1
1232 59 15 2
10 I:';,aa 61 13 3
8 -~,34 ' 63 11 4
6 i3~
9 iLP
7 :; fL
5 ;7
3 ." 8
14 '39 73 19
12~O
74 15 10
13 11
11 12
9.13
65
~Ini
04if
86
7 i,~Jl i 108
6
12
3
9
15
5
11
2
8
14
4
10
1
31 3484 0
32 3596 6
33 3708 13
34 3821 3
35 3933 9
".~_~-'" 4045 15
37; 4158 5
38 4270 12
39 4383 2
40 4495 8
41 4607 14
42 4720 4
43. 4832 11
~~~: ~~~~ l~~~t ~~~~
13 4T 88
11 4a 89
9 4~ 91
7 tOO 93
5 'S!r i 95
3 :1~ 97
1~3': 99
1554 101
1355 103
11'56 104
951 106
'eWi 110
3~i
112
224
337
449
561
674
786
899
1011
1123
1236
1348
1461
112
3 16
1 17
15 18
13 19
1120
8 -: ~1
6?2)
423
224
o 25
14 26
12 27
10 28
829 '
1798
1910
2023
2135
2247
2360
2472
2584
2697
2809
2922
3034
3146
3259
6 : ~O;! 3371
IX:
3 46 5169
9 47 5282
o 48 5394
6 49 5507
12 50 5619
2 51 5731
852\ 5844
15 53 ' 5956
5 54 6068
11 55 6181
1 56 6293
7 57 6406
14 58 6518
4 59 6630
10 i ~a 6743
13
3
10
0
6
12
2
9
15
5
11
1
8
14
4
65/70mm FOOTAGE TABLE

24 F.P.S. SOUND SPEED
(1 foot = 12.8 frames)
CIO
N
SECONDS
c;:)
Cl
z:
v.l
MINUTES
c;:)
c;:)
CI
::E
<
c;:)
c;:)
::E
<
:::l
z:
~
c;:)
~
LU
W
~
c;:)
z:
c;:)
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<
:::l
~
~
w
w
\'1) 1 11.2 ~1;. 58 1.6 ;\!J; 112 6.4

'~i 3
3 5
4 7
5 9
6 11
7 13
8 15
9 16
10. 18
20
22
13 24
14 26
15 28
16 30
17 31
18 33
}9 35
20 37
~t; 39
,~~ ; 41
23H 43
24 45
25 46
26 48
27 50
28 52
29 54
~o 56
:~i;i
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
1.6
0
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
1.6
0
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
1.6
0
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
32 60
3S 61
34 63
35 65
36 67
37 69
38 71
39 73
40 75
76
78
80
44 82
45 84
46 86
47 88
48 90
49 91
50 93
51{ 95
52 ; 97
53 : 99
54 101
55 103
56 105
57 106
58 108
59 110
60 112
f~
0 ,2
11.2 a
9.6 4
8.0 5
6.4 6
4.8 7
3.2 8
1.6 9
0 ;10
..
11.2 11
9.6 ~1~)
8.0 t3
6.4 14
4.8 15
3.2 16
1.6 17
0 18
11.2 19
9.6 :20 ~
8.0
6.4 ~I~r
4.8 23
3.2 24
1.6 l~5
0 26
11.2 27
9.6 28
8.0 29
6.4 ~o
::~
'.'
225
337
450
562
675
787
900
1012
1125
1237
1350
1462
1575
1687
1800
1912
2025
2137
2250
2362
2475
2587
2700
2812
2925
3037
3150
3262
3375
z:
cg
"'::E"
LU
LU
',~~ ;
3487
3600
SSt 3712
34 3825
35 3937
36 4050
37 4162
38 4275
,39 4387
t40; 4500
4612
4725
4837
44 . 4950
45 5062
46 5175
47 5287
48 5400
49 5512
50 5625
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0 . " 5850
6.4 531 5962
0 54' 6075
6.4 55" 6187
0 56 6300
6.4 57 6412
0 58 6525
6.4 59 6637
0 6Q 6750
1 ~~iI 5737
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6.4
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6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
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35mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS

(1 Ft = 16 frames)
RAMES
PER SEC
12
16
20
22
5+ 0
6+4
6+ 14
24
32
48
64
96
120 128
SEC
0'+ 5fr. 0+ 10
1+4
2+ 8
3+ 12
10
0+ 10 1+4
2+ 8
5+0
7+ 8
15
20
0+ 15 1+ 14
3+ 12
7+ 8 11+4
15+0 18+ 12 20+10
1+4
5+ 0
10+ 0 15+ 0
20+ 0 25+0 27+ 8
30
60
1+14 3+ 12
7+8
15+ 0 22+ 8
30+ 0 37+8 41+4
3+ 12 7+ 8
15+ 0 30+ 0 45 + 0
60+ 0 75+ 0 82 + 8
2+ 8
10+ 0 15+ 0 20 +0 30+ 0 37+ 8 40+ 0

20 + 0 30+ 0 40 + 0 60+ 0 75 + 0 80+ 0
10+ 0 12+ 8 13+4
30+ 0 45+ 0 60+ 0 90+ 0 112+ 8 120+0

40 +0 60 +0 80 +0 120+0 150+ 0 160+ 0
90mb
:;::::::::::=::::::::::::::::-;.:.
60+ 0 90+0 120+ 0 180+ 0 225+ 0 240+ 0

120+ 0 180+ 0 240+0 360+ 0 450+ 0 480 +0
65mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS

(1 Ft = 12-4/5 frames)
FRAMES
12
16
20
22
0'+ 5fr. 0+ 10
1+7
3+ 2
4+ 9
6+3
7+10
8+8
10
0+10
1+7
3+ 2
6+3
9+ 5
12+6
15+ 8
17+2
25+ 0 37+ 6
50+ 0 75 +0
15
20
1+ 2
2+4
4+9
9+ 5 14 + 1 18+ 10 23+6
25+1
37+ 6 56+3
75+ 0 112+6
1+7
3+ 2
6+3
12+6
34+5
50+ 0 75+0 100+0 150+0
30
60
2+ 4
4+ 9
9+ 5
18+ 10 28+ 4 37+6
46+11 51+7
75+ 0 112+ 6 150+0 225 +0
4+9
9+5
PER SEC
24
32
48
64
96
SEC
18+ 10 25 + 0 31 +3
12+6 18+ 10 25+0
37+ 6
18+ 10 37+ 6 56+ 3 75 + 0 93 + 10 103+2 ................ . . .. 150+ 0 ~25 + 0 300+0 450 + 0
3Smm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS

APPROX . 180 0 SHUTTER - FOR STATIC SCENES
For 90 Sweep With Various Camera Speeds and Oifferent Fo ca l Length Lenses
EXAMPLE: 24 f. p.s. with 50mm Lens Should Take 23 Seconds 10 Pan 90 " Sweep
FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS IN MM
CAM ERA
SPEEO
FRAMES
PER/ SEC.
8
12
16
20
24
32
48
60
75
90
120
150
18 to 20
25 to 28
35
50
40
75
150
85
100
2:5
3.0 -"""'"
2.0
1.5"'' ' ' ' ' '-'
70
60
45
30
24
19
16
12
10
300
180
PANNING SPEED
Unshaded Numbers : SECONDS
55
45
27
36
30
18
27
23
13
22
18
11
18
15
9
14
11
7
9
7.5
4.5
7
3.5
6
6
5
3
5
4
2.4
4
3
1.8
3
2.4
1.4
60
42
32
25
21
16
11
8
7
6
4
3.5
/"'" 1.5 -""-"" '\t"2.0 ,,'

70
54
55
41
43
27
36
23
27
20
18
13
14
II
12
9
10
7
7
5
4
6
1;5
70
60
50
38
25
20
17
14
10
8
Shaded Numbers: MINUTES

4.0 _-,co '-',_,_ ""' S.O l /iMM
2.5 T: 3.5
2.0 ',; i: 2.5
1.5 ""- ',,, 2.0
80
60
40
32
26
21
16
13
r ~.o
3.0
\91.5- %2.5:"
75 1 /! 2.0
75
55
40
60
50
35
40
29
30
22
25
17
3Smm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS IN DEGREES PER SECOND

(For Static Scenes)
Approximately 180 0 Shutter
For Various Camera Speeds and Different Focal Length Lenses

EXAMPLE: 24 f.p .s. with 50mm Lens Should Be Panned 3.6 0 Per Second or 36 0 in 10 Seconds, etc.
LENS FOCAL
LENGTH: mm
17
25
28
32
35
50
75
85
100
125
150
180
300
500
24 f.p.s.
60 f.p.s.
80 f.p .s.
100 f.p.s.
120 f.p.s.
9.9
7.0
6.3'
5.5
5.0
25.0"
17.5'
15.7"
13.7 "
12.7"
8.7"
6.0"
4.3'
3.9'
3.3
2.8"
2.4 '
1.5"
0.64 "
33.3"
23.3
20.9'
18.2'
16.9
11.7
8.0
5.8
5.2
4.3
3.7 "
3.2
1.9
0.9
41.6
29.1"
26.1'
22.9"
21.1
14.6
9.9
7.2
6.4
5.4
4.6"
4.0'
2.4
1.07
49.9'
34.9"
31.3 '
27.4 "
25.4
17.5
12.0'
8.7 '
7.7"
6.5'
5.5'
4.7"
2.9"
1.3'
3.6~
2.4
1.7"
1.5
1.3 .
1.1 .
0.95
0.58
0.36
-~""',"l,g,5-""}:'
00
U')
oci
I---ClLOLOLOOO
LO
O'l
.0
Cl
<.0
Cl
O'l
LO
LO
Cl
00
M :i
Cl
......
Cl
o
N
LO
Cl
N
Cl
<.0
Cl
00
LO
O'l
00
......
Cl
LO
LO
<.0
Cl
00
LO
O'l
00
q
Cl
<.0
r-
......
..
00
CO'"
Cl
..,
CO
......
z:
U
<oJ
en
."
E
E
'"
C"")
.=
'"
N
......
00
......
Cl
......
LO
......
:::I
z:
"g
...'"
"g
.::
Cl
LO
Cl
N
......
LO
00
............
."
:::>
=
M
312
=
< .0
O'l
......
= =
LO
00
............
Light Sources
and Lighting Filters
by Richard B. Glickman, Consulting Engineer
AS Associa te Member
Th advent of faster film has dlangcd many of the
rules for well-establi hed lighting techniqu . Feature-film
photography is now ro utinely accompli h d in "natural
lighting" ituation, and night cenes are photograph d
with onJy the light available from treet Iightinu and hop
window. The p ed of the e new emw ion has made
po ible a new degree of reali m, and greater freedom in
selecting loca tion for photography.
Quality photography still d mands con istent lighting.
Consistency often d pends on CIJl und ers tanding of the
characteri tics of various tight OlU"ces. Light Ou rces may
be mixed in any lighting situation, so long a care is taken
to appl the appropriate Wtering to ensure a consi tent
color balance. The folJov.ring ecti ns \-vill deal with tho
requiremen ts.
Th u e of lighting filters, formerly re tricted to a few
blues and am bers, ha now advanced to the point wh r
relatively refi ned adju tments ca n be made in the specb"a l
energy output of the wide vari ty of SO lU"Ces. The use of thi
more sophistica ted range of ligh ting filters has been made
practicaJ by the dev lopment of convenient color temperature meter that produce relativel sophisticated information about light SOlU"ces.
Th actuaJ lighting of a cene i an arti tic proc
which i be and the ope of thi work. Tho artistic decision involve many considerati n , SUdl a the typ f
story being told, the d ired mood and the e motional content of the material. The cinematographer's ffo rts i.n those
directions, and the specific tools he or he us s, are the hallmarks of the work of an given inema tographer.
Characteristics of Light Sources

The predominance of location photography mak a
basic und rstanding of typically encOlUltered Iigh tsource
essential. Particula rly important, due to their widespread
use, are the AC endo d arc discharge lamps uch as HMftypes. Today's cinematographer must have a grasp of the
basic operational characteristics of these light SOLUTes.
313
COMPARISON OF SOME TYPICAL

COMMERCIAL/ INDUSTRIAL LIGHT
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
Description
Fluorescent Types
Daylight
Design White
Cool White
Deluxe Cool White
Natural White
White
Warm White
Deluxe Warm
White
Incandescent
Mercury Vapor
Types
Clear Mercury
White Deluxe
Warm Deluxe
Metal Halide
Additive Types
Multi-arc Tw ; Metal
Vapor 'w
Metalarc CTW
High Pressure
Sodium
Lucalox'w
Lumalux'w
Correlated
Color
Temperature
(OKelvin)
Correlated
Color
Tellperalare
(al raled
Yollage)
Mired
Value
Efficacy
tallens/wall
3200K
3350K
3400K
4800K
313
299
294
208
26
32
34
Carbon arc (225A Brute)

White flame, Y-1 filter
" "
no filter
Yellow flame YF 101 filter
5100K
5800K
3350K
196
172
299
24
' Xenon, high pressure DC short

arc
6000K
167
35-50
'Metal halide additive AC arc

HMI
CID
CSI
5600K
5600K
4200K
179
179
238
80-102
80
85
Description
Color
Rendering
Index
Efficacy
(t umens/Walt)
6500
5200
4300
4100
3700
3500
3050
79
82
67
86
81
62
55
60
50
70
50
45
70
70
2950
2700
73
90
45
35
5900
4000
3500
17
45
62
50
5900
3800
65
70
80-115
80-115
2100
Comparison of Photographic light Sources
25
70
80-140
For" del"i1ed explanation of the p"ramelers of Correlated Color

Temperature, Color Rendering Index and Efficacy, reference should be
made to page 319.
In thi ection, a wid rang of photographic, comm rcia l and indllstriallioht llrce will be dealt with in some
d tail. The accomp~ying tabl gi e the reader a brief idea
of th range of characteristics to be encountered.
Physical Characteristics of Light Sources

Figure 1 shows the various lamp envelope configuratior and the designations that are common t them. The
Incandescent
Standard and tungsten I
halogen
CP gas filled
Photoflood
Daylight blue photoflood
.Need flltenng for color photography.
u of thi figure reveal th envelope' configuration b

imply knOWing that th code letter as: ociated \ ith the
lamp de ignation are the dimen i nal descripti e data.
. ~e follOWing e ampl ar ffered to darify thi descnptrv process:
a.) R40 - This is a reflector flood ("R" type envelope),
wh ich j 4%ths of an inch in diameter.
b.) PAR 64 - The de ignation "PAR" refer t the
sea led beam lamp type (Parabolic Al uminized Reflector)
whidl i ''%ths of an inch in diameter.
c.)QlO00PAR64-Thi i theenvelopeas in(b.),but
the "Q" designates a tung ten halogen lamp of] 000 watt
inside. ("Q" is a hangover from the early da of tung ten
halogen when these lamp were referred to a Quartz Iodin .)
. d)QlO00T3-Atun ten halogen lamp, 1,000 watts,
WIth a tubular envelope Y. tl of an inch in dianleter.
315
Another important element in the construction of

lamp is th ba ing. Figure 2 shows the mo t comm n ba e
arrang m nt u ed on incande cent-type lamps (al 0 applicabl to c rtain di charge types). This figure can be helpful in e tablishing w hether a particular lamp can be mat d
to a given fi ture.
Canc;t
Me
SC
8~v
l)C hv
QCP,
sc PI
.... Sc
Mog PI
s
T
G
PAR
Rtet RSC
t~
Figure 1. Lamp envelo pe configurations.
Color Temperature
C lor t mperature describes the actual temperature of
a "black bod radiator" and thereby completely defmes the
p tra l n rgy di tribution (SED) of the object. When the
object becom luminous and radiates energy in the visible
portion of the pectrum, it is said to be incande cent. Simply sta ted, thi mean that when an object is heated to an
appropriat temp rature, some of it radiated energy i
i ible.
The c lor temperature is usually de cribed in terms of
degr e K Ivin. TI,i simply refers to a temperature cale,
like Fahr nhei t or C ntigrade (Celsius). It is in fact the abolute ntigrad (Celsius) sca le, w hich is the temperature
in d gre
entigrade (Celsius) plus 273 degrees.
Wh n m tal is gradually hea ted, the first visible color
is "dull ch rry red." As the temperature is raised, it vi ually b c m " ra ng ," then "Yellow," and finally "Whi te"
hot. Th actual eff ct of increa ing color temperature on the
p ctral n r y di tribution i best seen in Figure 3.
Sh'ict! p aking, tungsten filament are not true black
bodie . H wever, from a practical standpoin t, both standard incand scent lan,p and tungsten halogen typ can
be con id r d.
MSP
Con<!
DC'"
DCPt
EM"
. . ..,
......
EMfP
....
OCJUIlle..c:ontac:1 ba.,enel c ~ .
double-contact pretocus candIAbf.
vctended mogul end PJO"V
JP
MogSC
Mog"
M09 Pt
MS
Iem.ole~locl
.....am
..-...",ew
.... Pt
medLm prelocus
medium sa-wted
medium two P'"
mogul end prong
.... 2'
ME'
ST
"""""
Me
.... sc
M[P
MS'
Rec1ASC
RM2P
medium Drposl
RSC
....... ..,ow
............
..........-.'
--
"..,..Iuresu. .
(Wlth I.f.-..c.~)
(1Ibo lfuLJx: ~t!..... sa. .)
ftet. . . . .
......
recnsed "'91& conlact
""'lY'ICIU'Illwapn
''"'Met 1Ing6e contact
1.110"IW1g111!1 COOI.CI recesMdI
(also e:l:lenaed mogoIltnd
prongl
~l:.l~e
SC Bay
Iingk!-COr\lact ba)'Clr'*l canoetabfa
SCI PI
..-,gl&-conlllCl prelocus
Sf
Klew term.,,,.l
Ilubeam two P'"
TB2P
IrulOCUS (alSO lour PM\)

T,u-L.ac IYW'IlIIluf. lCfew
TI
TLMS
(alSO' RW\l.lute sclew ......'h ,.terence

\Yedgl!
wt!Oge
28
IwO bullan
2PAG
two P'" .. ;q
PI""
2PAGC
2PM
ZPP
3P
two
glAil.(cetamc
two PI" mn.lure
~I
t:OYIlt1
two pri pretoc:ut:

Nol..
lIY" prong
R 1AClCIi1" ~ '.once p(lll"il IOf 1..Cl. Nol. bMaw
fAR - a, 0 531 It'lCfl OIarnelet1
Figure 2. Common incandescent lamp ba es (not to calel.
One f th m t important characteristics of incandescent radia tor is that they have a con tinuous spectrum . Thi
:nean tha t n rgy i bing radiated at all the wavelengths
1I11ts p ctrum. alar temperature is only properly applied
to radiatin s Ul'ce that can meet this requirement. Th refore, for xampl , th application of the term "color temperature" to d rib the color of fluorescent tubes is incorrect f r the f 1I0wing r asons: Fluorescent lamp do not
ha econtinu u pectra,andfluorescentlampsdonotemit
vi ible radiati n due to incandescence (because of th ir
temperature). Ln practice the term i applied to many th r
ource . When it i applied to the e non-incandescent
urc , it r aJl ref rs to "correlated color temperature."
Correlated Color Temperature of

Typical Light Sources
Artificial Light
Source
Match flame
candle flame
Tungsten-gas filled lamps:
4Q-looW
2OO-500W
l000W
HOOK
1850K
~amera filter
26502900K 828 (looW)
2980K
82A
2990K
82A
Minds
588
541
317-345
336
334
Daylight
:>
Sunlight:
Sunrise or sunset
One hour after sunrise
Early Morning, late Afternoon
Average noon, (Wash. D.C.)
Midsummer
Overcast sky
Average Summer Daylight
Light Summer Shade
Average Summer Shade
Partly cloudy sky
Cl
a:
w
z
o
a
~
a:
100
400
700
1000
.. ullra,vlolel
'-v---J
visible spectrum
1300
1600
infra-red
Summer skylight
WAVELENGTH (nm)
Figure 3. Rela live radianl energ distribution for ources at various color
tempera tu res.
Correlated Color Temperature

Th term corr lat d color temperature is used to ind icate a vi ual match wher the o urce being described i not
a black body radiator. The term is oftenabu ed, an example
being its app licati n to uch light OlUTes as mercury vapor lamp .
Fro//l n photo~mphic stnndpoint, the correlnted color tell1pemtllre mn be ex/re//lely //Iislending. It is important to ke p
in mind that it
nnotation are visual. It i a l1LLmber to
be app roached with treme caution by the cinematograph r.
318
2000K
3500K
43001<
5400K
5800K
6000K
6500K
7100K
8000K
8000
-10000K
9500
-30000K
500
286
233
185
172
167
154
141
125
t25-100
105-33
Sunlight should not be confused wilh day light. unlight is the light of
the un only. Day ligh l is a combi nation of sunlight and sky light. These
va lu es are approxi mate s ince many factor affect the Correlated Color
Temperature. For co ns is te ncy, SSOOK is co ns idered to be Nominal
Photographic Day light. The difference between SOOO K and 6000K is only
33 Mireds, the same photograp h ic or vi ual difference as th at between
hou sehold tugsten ligh ts and nOOK pholo lamps (the approx im ate
equivalent of II. Blue or 'Ai Orange lighting filte rs).
The MIRED System

When dealing with unlight and incandescent sources
(both standard and tungst n haLogen typ ), th MIRED
system offers a convenient m ans for d aling with the problems of measurement when adju ting fr m on color tem-
'
perature to anoth~. This system is only for sources that can
truly be described as having a color temperature. The term
MIRED is an acronym for Micro Reciprocal Degrees. The
MIRED number for a given color temperature is determined by using the following relationship:
1,000,000
MIRED Value =
[10" ]
Color Temperature (degrees Kelvin)
;.K
As a convenience, refer to page 323, which is a quick

reference for determining the MIRED values for color temperatures between 2000K and 6900K in 1QO-degree steps.
Filters which change the effective color temperature of
a source by a definite amount can be characterized by a
"MIRED shift value." This value is computed as follows:
MIREDSruftValue= (
[~]
- [;] )
Tl = Kelvin temperature of the original source.

1'2 = Kelvin temperature of the original source as measured
through. the filler.
MIRED shift values can be positive (yellowish or minus blue filters) OJ; negative (blue or minus redl green filters). The samefilter (representing asingle MIRED shift value),
applied on light sources with different color temperatures, will

produce significantly different color temperature shifts. Occasionally, the term I>ecamireds Will be found in use for describing color temperature and filter effects. I>ecamireds is
simply MIREDs divided by 10.
C~lor
Rendering Index
The Color Rendering Index (CRl) is used to specify.the

stated characteristic of a light source as it might be used for
critical'visual color examinations such as in color matching or inspection of objects. The CRI is established by a standard procedure involving the calculated visual appearance
of standard colors viewed under the test source and under
a standard illuminant. The CRI is not an absolute number,
and there is no particular relative merit to be determined
by comparing the CRIs of several sources.
The CRI is ofimportance photographically only when it is
between 90 and 100. This is accepted to mean that such a
source has color rendering properties that are a commer-
320
(")0>
",0
~O
0-0
g",
n
'"
00>
",Ul
<0
::0
EXA PlES OF MIRED SHIFT VALUE (FILTER) EFFECTS

Initial Source
oK
Mireds
Filter '
Mired Shift
10,000
6,000
5,000
2,600
2,900
3,200
100
167
200
385
345
312
+112
+112
+112
-21
-21
-21
Filtered Source
Mlreds
oK
Kelvin
Change
212
279
312
364
324
291
4720
3600
3200
2750
3090
3440
5280
2400
1800
150
190
240
Mired Values of Color Temperatures from 2000-6900 0 K
VJ
oK
+0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
500
333
250
200
167
476
323
244
196
164
455
312
238
192
161
435
303
233
189
159
417
294
227
185
156
400
286
222
182
154
385
278
217
179
152
370
270
213
175
149
357
263
208
172
147
345
256
204
169
145
~--
cial match to th reference source. For example, the HMl

lamps have a eRl of 90 to 93, referr d to the 055 tan~ard
ill uminant (055 i th artificia l match to standard dayligh t
I
of 5500K).
,....--
---,.---,- -.------,r - -- . --
' 120,OOO
90 ,000
Spectral Energy Distribution

TIle pectral energy distribution (SED) is the standard
means for exhibiting the relative amOtmts of energy being
radiated by a source a a ftmc tion f wav leng th. This is
sometimes called the spectral power distribution (SPO).
The visible pectrum (see Fig. 4), which is also the useful phot graphic spectrum, compri es the energy who e
wavelengths ar between approximately 400 and 700 nanometers (run). Wavel ngths shorter than 400 nm are in the
ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and tho e longer than
.
700nm are in the infrared regiort
The electromagnetic radiant energy spectrum IS
hown in Fi!!Ur 4. The SED for a lamp at 3000K is shown
in Figur 5. c rnpari on of the spectra l energy distrib.utions of 3200K, natura l daylight and a carbon arc (whlte
flame carbon) can be seen in Figure 6.
60,000
30,000
Angl e from centerline
Figure 7. Luminaire intensity distribution-rectangular.
Illumination Data
The purpose of this section is to explain simple general rule for dealing with illtU11ination da ta. In particular,
it will provide the means for interpreting data offered by
manufacturer and for interpolating readings ba ed on
measurements made by the cameraman.
1. Lighting Quantities - Intensity

Intensity i mea ured in units of "candelas." An earlier term for thi i candlepow r. ormally, a value for candelas is also accompanied by directional information. In
former times the ~l ten ity on axis was referred to as center
beam candlepower.
The uniqu property of intensity relative to the source
of light in a given direction i that it is not dependent on
distance from th source. The intensity is the same no matter how fa r away. The only restriction is that it has reduced
accuracy if m a urements are made closer to th source
than apprOximately ten times the maximum diameter of the
lighting unit. For example, for a 12 fresnel lens spotlight,
the intensity figures are only accurate at a distance greater
than about 10 feet.
324
60
20
20
0
Figure 8. Luminaire intensity distribution-polar.
There are two ways that the intensity information is

normally shown. Examples of these are sho~ n in F!gw'es
7 and 8. The only difference between these IS that U1 one
case the data is presented in a rectangular coordinate format, and in the other polar coordinates are used. Most lighting manufacturers supplying instruments to the motionpicture ind ustry tend to presen t their data in a rectangular
format. The polar presentation is more likely to be enCOlmtered with commercial / indllStrial type fixtures.
Where the intensity distribution of a lighting source
is known, the illumination produced by the unit can be
325
calculat d u ing the inverse quare law. This is expressed

a foll ow :
TIIumination (f
Ma xim um Intensity
intensity (candelas)
t candle) = - - - - - - - - D~(D = distance in feet)
50 ~. of MaXimum
IntenSity
Intensity (candelas)
IllLUnination (Lu -) = - - - - - - - - IY(D=distance in meter )
(E ample:
fiture is described a ha ing a center
intensity ( r cent r beam candlepower) of SO,OOO Candelas.
hat i th illumination at 25 feet? What i the ilIuminationat10m t ?
SO,OOO
SO,OOO
(a) at 25 f t = - - - = - - - = 0 footcandles
25 25
625
SO, 0
50,000
(b) at 10 meter = - - - = - - - = 500 Lux
10 10
100
2. Lighting Quantities-Coverage
Alili htin fixtur ha e a lighting distribution which
ma be vi ibl a pr jected on a flat wall. Often this is expres ed a -hown in Figure 9 and defined a an illumination distribution urv . The important standard measuring
points f r uch a di tributi n are as follow:
B am overage: This i de o'ibed a the limit of the
area covered to within 50'}:. of the maximum intensity.
Field
verage: Thi i described as the area covered
within 10% of the maximum intensity.
f the two ar a de cribed above, the beam coverage
is the mar important photographically. It de cribes the
arca that i illuminated at a level that is not lower than 1
stop down from th center intensity. The assumption is
mad, wh re a illgle distribution is shown, that the di tribution pattern i
entiaUy circular.
al ulatin
ov rage from Beam Angle: The following e pr i nail w th computation of the coverage diameter (W) fran di tance (D) and a given beam angle
(Refer to Figure 10). Th _pr sion is:
W = 2 . (0) , [Tang nt (If! Beam Angle)
----jr----t--_ _-'--_ _--+

-
10. of
--o--Maxlmum Intenslly
Beam Coverage
Field Coverage
Figure 9. Definition of inlensit di tribulion curve.
(Example: For a distance f SO f t and a known beam

angle of 26 degrees, what i th coverage diamet r of the
beam (50% of the center)?
D = SO feet; Beam Angle = 26 degr
~ Beam Angle = 13 degree
Tangent of 13 degre = .231
W = 2 x SO x .231 = 100 x .231 = 23.1 f
3, General Comments on Calculations

Most manufacturer are now offering both candela
information and angular coverage. This is actually uffident information to make om approximations of what to
expect from the lighting fixtur u ing the procedure outlined above.
In the event that it is nece sary to convert fj'om footcandles to lux, the value of footcandles h 1I.Id be multiplied
by 10.8. To convert lux to footcandle ,d ivide lux by 10.8.
Usually, lux va lues w ill b a 0 iated with distances
measured in meters, and footcandles w ith di tances meaured in feet. 1n the case of the illumination calculations
above, the use of feet or meters a th units of distance will
au tomatically yield illumination va lue in footcandle or
lux resp ctively.
327
~I
'2
BEAM ANGLE
T
W
1
Figure 10. Definition of tenn for calculating coverage.
TANGENT FUNCTION
Angle
Tangent
Angle
Tangent
Angle
Tangent
Angle
Tangent
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
018
035
052
070
12
13
14
15
16
213
231
249
23
24
25
268
26
287
306
325
344
27
28
.425
.445
466
.488
.510
.532
.554
.577
34
35
36
37
38
39
675
700
727
754
.781
.810
.839
.869
088
105
123
141
158
176
194
17
18
19
20
364
21
22
384
404
29
30
31
32
33
.601
.625
649
40
41
42
43
44
45
.900
.933
.966
1 DOD
been scattered and filtered in the ea rtll's atmosphere. Since

tile shortest wavelengths are the on s I a t fi ltered by the
atmosphere, this results in the blue sky. Figure 11 represents the spectral energy distribution for th u.n compared
to a 5400K source.
Dayljght conditions are highly varied, from a photographic viewpoint, based on til loca l atmo pheric conditions, location on tile earth, tim f year, hour of tile day
and the amOlmt of almo pheric pollutan that ma be
pre ent. brief summar of me of th po ibilities i
presented on page 319.
In addition to color t mperatur variati n ,the degree
of diffu ion in daylight varies from the lea t to tile m t
diffuse lighting conditions that can be experienced.
LeastD.iffuse-lnclearcl udl
unJight,the unas
th main lighting ource (ke ) i truly a point. This produces tile hardest, most distinct hadow . The incident light
Ie el from tile sun on uch a da can be a mucll as 9,500
footcandJes. The k light contribution (fill) i about 1,500
footcandles. This produces ali hting ratio of about 7:1 (key
to fill).
Lighting control in the e ituation may require
booster lighting or the use f c rtain grip d vices such as
large overhead scrim .
Most Diffuse - A completel 0 er a t day is e entially shadowless lighting. The entir ky, horizon to horizon, becomes the light source. The incid nt level may be
as low as 200 footcandJe .
Photographic Light Sources

The urc
overed in thi section include the mol'
familiar man-mad t p ,such as incandescent, carbon arc
and A arc di charge lamp a well as an expo ition on
natural daylight.
The gcn ral characteri tics of each type ar~ d .t.ineated
in moderat detail, including spectral energy distnbutJ n
and electrica l characteri tics. In addition, any special considerations for th cinematographer are carefully not d.
Eacll ub- ecti n on a particu.lar cia s of light ource closes
with detailed information on fi ltering the source.
atural Daylight
atural da light, on a clear day, is the urn of unlight
and sk light. Th unlight is directly from the sun, who e
surface i ab ut 6,000K. Skylight i from unlight that has
54000K. __ - ~
,,'
....- .... ,
. . ...
.-
/sun
>OJ
.Wc
~,
"", ...
"-
OJ
OJ
>
1-1ii
Qj
IX:
300
400
500
600
700
800
900 nm
Figure 11. Similarity of su nlight to a theoretical 5400 K light ource.
328
329
Filters for Control of Natural Daylight
ti c films or as rigid acry li c s he t . Normally they can be

ob tained in densities whidl reduce the incident light by Y2,
1,2, or 3 s tops (ND.1 5, NO.3, NO.6, and NO.9).
family of material, mos tly on polyes ter p ia ticba ed film, a re made for light control in tllC C situati ns.
The are normal! uppli d in roll that are from 48 to 58
inchc widc (122 to 1-/.7 em). In addition, the 85, and 03,
06 and 09 t pare al 0 available as rigid aa lie panel , u uall -/. b
f et in ize (1.22 x 2.+1 meters).
Refer nce should bc made to page 323 and 27 in
tion. Pag 23 Ii ts the l\iIIRE0 hift alu
readin thi
for the variou matcriaIs, and tl1cir effect on urc of hvo
differcnt color temperatures. Page 27 ummariz the filter r quir m nts for each clement of the lighting y t m
and amcra for intcriorcin matograph a!!Clinstda lighted
\ indm .
Wh n prop rI appli d, harp focus can be carried
thr l17h window treated with either the pia tic film material or the acrylic panel. The panel are particularl
u ful \ h re wind r trong air movement ma cause the
pla tic fi lm t mov and produce visible highlights.
Combination Filters
Combinations of 5 and n utral d n ity r CTO with
n utral density are also available. TI1e are utilizcd to reduce tl1e number of material which mu t b in tailed in
order to accomplish both the con e ion and the reduction
of lighting level.
Incandescent Light Sources

The incandescent source is characterized b ha ing a
filament tructure tl1rough which current i pa d to produce heating.
When the filament is heated to ,. r high temperatures
it radiates i ible light a a part of i radiant energy output Figure 12 show the relati e pectral energy distribution for orne incande ent lamp at variou color temperatures.
Incandescent ources, relati e to the vi ible pectrwn,
radiate at all wavelength in tl1at pectrum. Th e proportion
Conver ion-Type Filters

Thc ' mat rial are intended for application a t opening (door, window , etc.) \. here natural daylight i entcring an int ri r which i to be photographed at a 3200K
balance. Th "full" con er ion material availabl are
known a " T "and" ." In USA lighting practice, the
" 5" ha b en the typc most widely applied (it i really a
Wratten 5B quivalent). TI1e European practice has b en
to u e th d pcr correction SUdl a the "CTO." The d 1 ice
of filt r will obvi u I b detcrmined by the actual daylight
cond ition bing dealt with, or by artistic considerations.
Fi lt r wh i h acco mplish less than the full correction
to 320 K arc al 0 avai lable, and are widely used to deal with
the variati n in daylight conditions that may be enCOW1tered oTh ya r also used where the arti tic effect wanted
i different fr m "natural" daylight (page 367).
>-
w
z
w
60 t - - - - t - - - - j -- - +- - - .
> 40 t---- t----j-- ~~"""""7'O<:: ~
....J
W
a:
20 t---r----:r-7f"-"7'"9~,..e. _+--+--+_ -___l
eutral-Density Filters
Wh re it i desired to use a daylight balance inside the
pac in \ hi h ph tograph is taking place, the only filter
n rma ll indi atcd f r thc window will be neutral d nity. Th c arc u uall required due to the overpowering
Icvel of s unlight which are often encOlmtered in natural
. tting . Typica ll these fi lters are a ailable as eitl1er pia -
330
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
Figure 12.. Spectral energy dist ribution curves for incandescen t lamps
at various color temperatures.
331
of energy at the different wavelengths (the sp ctral energy

di tribution) is olely dependent on the Kelvin temperature
at which the filament is operated. Some of the typical filam nt configurations encountered in the photographic types
of ources are hown in Figure 13. The designations for the
various conformations are tandard in the USA.
Incandescent sourc rna be operated on either alternating or direct current. A ery wide range of light sources
ha been designed with nominal operating oltages to meet
th requirements of both US and international requirements. There are two ba ic ubdivi ions within the class of
incandescent sourc .
m ~ ~
C-2V
C( - 2V
(-6
(( - 6
(-8
CC-8
2C-8
2CC-8
....
.00.
Jf CTION A A
C-ll
CC-ll
(-13
CC-13
(-13B
CC -13B
C-130
A color film and 3200K lamp are used for all professional
color motion picture films.
Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
The tungsten-halogen lamp is an incandescent lamp.
Its radiant energy output i ba ed strictly on the temperature of its filament, but it offers an important difference in
operating principles when compared to the standard incandescent type.
The addition of a halogen gas in the fill plus the use of
high temperature materials in the envelope of the lamp
(quartz or fused silica, and recently hard glass), has r ulted
in a design which does not experience the blackening effect with age that is characteristic of the standard incandescent types. Due to the pre ence of the "halogen cycle"
within tl1e lamp, the tung ten is not permitted to deposit
on the bulb walls (as long as the wall temperatwe is above
250 degrees C). It is, in fact, re-deposited on the filament
(See Figure 14). The results of this development have been
manifold:
1. Tungsten-halogen lamps have minimal loss in lumen output and no significant shift in color temperature
during their entire life.
2. Tungsten-halogen lamps with similar configurations, wattages and initial lumen outputs as standard incandescent types are now produced with ub tantially
longer useful life.
3. Because of the requirement for high bulb wall temperatures, it has been necessary to shrink the en elope size
of these lamps, resulting in completely new familie of
lamps with much maller external dimensions than the
tandard incandescent equi alent.
Figure 13. Common incandescent filament forms and their

designations.
Standard Incandescent
The standard incande cent source utilizes a tung ten
filament in a gas-filled endo ure of commercial gla . These
ba ic lamp type have b n available for many year of
m tion-picture production. It has been traditional to produce two ranges of Kelvin temperature for professional use
in these types of lamp . T pically, at the rated voltage (Le.,
120 volts), a 3200K and a 3350K design have been available.
3350K lamps are dose to the Photoflood balance of Type
332
Figure 14. Diagram of Halogen Cycle within lamp.
333
In all other respects, th tungsten-halogen lamp should

b considered the same a th tandard incandescent. They
ma be operated on eith r alternating or direct current.
ar hould be taken during in tallation to prevent fingermarking of the en elope incc there is a tendency for ome
degradation of the en el pe to occur if fingerprints r dirt
ar I ft on during operation.
?i
+ 80
:;
a. + 60
:;
+ 40
+ 20
..,.3
CD
iii
0
-
20
a:: - 40
Incandescent Lamp Operation
o _ 60
Following are m characteristic CUf\ which will

e plain more clearl the relati nship of various of the param ters associated with incandescent lamp operations.
Th
curves are applicable t b th tandard incandescent
(wh n the lamp is relativ Iy n w) and to tungst n-halogen
lamp .
Color Temperature Degrees Kelvin
3800
CD
g> -
III
80
.r::
40
60
80
100
Rated Vollage of Lamp ('Yo)
120
Figure 16. Curve showing change of lumen output of lamp as voltage is

changed . T his has been normali zed so that the percentages of lumen
output change to percentage change in rated vo ltage can be easily
related .
Q"
3400
3000
...V
2600
e...
~ + 200
CD
a.
E +100
{E
/""
220C
+ 300
(;
0
- 100
0 - 200
1800
12
16
20
24
28
32
Lumens Per Wall
Approximate Lamp Efficacy (Efficiency)
36
CD
0>
C
III
- 300
.r::
80
90
100
Rated Vollages (0,<
110
120
Figure 15. Incandescent lamp effieac a a function of color temperature.
Lumens are a mea ur of the total light output of a

ource. In the case of incande ent lamps the lum n output depend almost entirely on the temperature fthefilament and the amount f pow r. The efficacy of th lamp
(lum n /wa tt) i almo t entirely dependent on th temperature f the filament, and because of this relation hip
the color temperature and lum ns per watt (efficacy of the
lamp) can be related. Thi is demonstrated in Figure 15.
TI,e r lationship between the lumen output and the
op rating voltage of the lamp can al 0 be demonstrated as
hown in Figure 16. This ha been normalized so that the
334
Figure 17. Curve showing change of color temperature (degree

voltage is changed.
K)
as
percentages oflumen output change to percentage change

in rated voltage can b ea ily related.
There is a direct relation hip between the hift in
Kel in temperature and the operating voltag of an incand ent lamp. This i h wn in Figure 17 in t rm of an
ab olute change in color t mperature for a perc ntage hiIt
in the rated voltage. The rule of thumb that ha been u ed
with 120- olt-rated lamp i that a one-volt chang (up or
down) results in a 10-degr Kelvin shift. This approx.ima-
335
standard mortality curve for incand scent lamps is shown

in Figure 19.
100
Tungsten-Halogen Lamp
80
~
c'"
Standard I
nCand
eSCent
60
Boosted-Voltage Operation
amp
It is possible to over-voltage a wide range of standard

UO-volL, 280D--2900K lamp types and convert them effec-
'"
E
:>
...J
40
'E
20
0
20
40
60
100
80
Operating Life (%)
Figure 18. Curve showing lumen output of lamp during life.
100
~,
"'~
--:
0>
C
.;;
:;
80
:;
\.
en
~
E
60
'"
...J
40
'\,
E
20
.....
~
.... 1::::-:-.....
o
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Percenl of Rated Average Life
Figu re 19. Life expecta ncy curve for tungsten fi lam en l lamps.
tion is rea onably accurate as long as the percentage d lange

in voltage i within 10-15% of the rated value.
Figure 18 compare the percen tage of initial lumens
ver u tlle p rcentage of operating life between conventional incand cent and tung ten-halogen lamps. Note that
tlle twlg t n-halog n type has only a very nominal shift in
the lwnen output during the course of its entire life compared with ilie tandard incandescent lamp.
The life rating of all type of incande cent lamps is
ba ed on th following concept: if a very large group of
lamp i tarted at ilie same time, the life rating represents
the time at whidl 50% of ilie group will still be burning. A
336
tively to photographic lamp types. This system ("Colortran" boosting) was widely in use in many places around
the world until the substantial ad ent of the tungsten-halogen lamp. Although little-used in the USA now, it is still in
wide use in other parts of the world and offer some interesting advantages. There are many ituations in which this
system may be both cost-efecti e and functionally desirable for particular circum tances.
The system is designed to utilize tandard UO-voltrated tungsten filament lamps whose rated life at 120 volts
is 750 hours or more. The systelll 11I11 t 1I0t be IISed with stalldard hmgsten-halogen incalldescent types, IIl1less there is a certainty that the lamp has been specifically desiglled for lise ill a
boosted-voltage system. Using the tandard incandescent
types, a very broad range of lamp types, including many
of the sealed beams and the "R" series a well as many other
standard incandescent lamps, may b utilized and operated
at 3200K or higher.
Typically, when lamp are operated at 165 volts, the
color temperature should be approximately 3100K to
3200K. It is possible to continue th boo ting operation, and
some lamp types will actually yield 3300-3400K when operated at approximately 185 vo lts. Due to the low pressure
in tlle standard incandescent, long-life lamps, this is a safe
type of opera tion .
In tlle past, equi pment wa manufactured to accomplish this vol tage-boosting function wi th p ush-bu tton control of a tapped autotransformer. The Colortran converters
usually provide input voltage lection (provision is buil t
in to adjust the unit for input voltages between 100 an d 250
volts) and adjustment so that the full boo t range was available under any of these input cond itions. Thi permi tted
the use of the same lamp anywhere in the world . This
equipment is still in use in many place, and should be
given consideration where economics and function dictate
ilie feasibility.
A further advantage of thi y t m is iliat tlle standard
incandescent types utilized in it tend to be very much less
expensive than the photographic lamp typ that are rated
337
at3200K at the operatin g voltage. Further, the xp ct d life

of many of these lamp at 3200K operation is directly comparable to the life that can be pected from 3200K type
photographic lamps operated at their rated voltag .
Filters for Incandescent Lamps

Th e filter are t picall applied to incand cent
urc , \vhich rna be "quartz," tandard incandescent or
"b ted" incandescent types. These filters are normaJJy for
th purpose of changing th ED to an appro imation of
da light. The are referred to as conversion filters (see page
67).
TIl original tandard for thi conversion wa a glass

fi lter, the MacBeth "Whi terl ite" type. This filter transmits
only about 35% of the light, and has been largely uperd d by the d 'chroic type which transmit about 50% of
the incident light. The dichroic is an interference-type filter, and most of these convert the 3200K source to ap proximately 5000K to 5200K.
a re must be exerci d in the use of th didlroic filter ince they do not have the same filtering characteristic f r light incident on the fi lter at widely varying angles.
When u ed on ome typ of focusing light (particularly
ome of the open reflector "quartz" types), there may be
chang in color a the light i focused . GeneraJJ ,the light
at the edge of the field will how some hilt in color on
wide-beam f100dligh using dichroic filter .
There ma al be ufficien t difference between
dichroi
thatilusedonmultiplekey inthesam scene,
there could be significant nough differences in the variou ar as being lit. A three-color type of color m t r hould
b u d in making the m a urement in uch circumta nce .
range of very go d conver ion filters to meet thi
r quir ment is available in th form of sheets and roll of
c lor d polyester material .TIle polyester film show good
hea t re i tance even when applied to relatively high-powr d luminaires. The u e of me of the multiple-lamp fixture (Mini-Brute ), with the requirement for orne degree
of diffu ion material, ha r ulted in a diIfu ion material
which incorporat the con ersion color for this and imilar applications. Reference hould be made to page 367 for
a d tailed Ii ting of the filters available.
on ersion filters - 3200K to daylight: The converion fi lter i used where it i d irable that the c nverted
338
NATIONAL CARBONS FOR STUDIO LIGHTING

flxl.,.
Typ.
Carbo.
HI.
Poslll"
Doscrlplli.
CarbOA
Ho.
HI,.live
Dlscriplioo
Arc D.C.
Ellclrical
AalPIIU
Rall.g
Volls
Ouatc
8mm x 12 In.
CC MP StudIO
7mm x 9 In.
CC MP Studio
40
36
M.R. 90
13.6mm x 22 .n.
HJ. Studio
7/1610. x 8... In.

CC P Studio
120
58
M.R. 170
16mm x 20 ,n.
H.1. Studio
M.R. Brute
16mm x 22 In.
Super H.I. Studio
PosiliveWhite
Flame
16mm x 22 in.
Super H.1. Siudio
PositiveYellow
Flame
16mm x 25 In.
Ullrex HIWF
Studio
M.R. Titan
10
." in. x 8'.. in.

CC MP Studio
150
68
11
17/32 in. x 9 in.

Special CC
225
73
350
79
300
73
12
16mm x 25 In.
HIYF Special
Studio
11/16 in. x 9 in.

CC MP Studio
Unoon Carbide Corp. Carbon Products DiVision
color temperature be approximately 5500K. The Light I

a sociated with th
type of filters is approximat Iy 1 to
l-Yl top These filters are referred to as "full blue 50," "fuJJ
blu "or "CTB."
Partial Conver i n Filt r - 3200K to Ie than daylight: These material are r Jated to the conver i n types,
in that they proVide a pa rtial conversion. The e are made
in several grades to p rmit a range of choic fo r the cinematographer.
The application of the e materials allow for adju tment in Light source due to voltage variation, th fading
of dichroic coating on certain type of lamp, and to
achieve desired a thetic effects which requir I than a
"full" daylight conver ion. These filters may also be u ed
to adjust the spectral energy distribution of th com merciaJ / industriallight urc
0 that they match tandard
photographic color balance (3200K or 5500K).
339
DC Carbon Arc Sources

The open carbon arc remain in wide use, and in particular the 225 ampere "Brute" fresnel lens potlight. The
table summarizes the various carbon arc units, as well as
the type of carb n necessary for each type. There is also a
summary of th electrical characteristics of these arc when
properly operated.
Electrical Operating Characteristics

All of the ~arb on arcs described operate from direct
current only. The actual arc voltage of these wLits is typically about 72 volts. They are normally utilized from 120volt DC sourc s by using a re i tive grid (ballast) to drop
the supply voltage 48 volt .
More recently, specially wound or tapped generators
have been utiliz d which produce the arc voltage directly
and eliminate the need for the grid or ballast. This is a significant! more efficient mod of operation in terms of
power utilization but does require special equipment.
Color Temperature
In the Brut and Titan tile carbons are available in both
white-flame aqd yellow-flame positives. The correlated
color temp ratUJe with white-flame carbon is 5800K. The
correlated color t mperature with the yellow-flame carbon
i 3350K.
Filters
The use of the e filters, originally a gelatin-based
types, is well-established practice. ew, more durable filter material are now available to accomplish these functions. Thes filters are used witl, the different carbons in
order to provide lightwhid, is a better match to "daylight"
or 3200K. in so~ne cases, the arc color is adjusted in order
to meet the requirements of matching "daylight" at earlier
or later times of the day. The ba i.c conversions a re as follows. The designations are the most commonly accepted,
although some of the filter manufacturers have chosen to
create new codes:
Y-1: U ed with white-flame carbon to provide a better match for"daylight." The Y-1 is pale yellow in color, and
has about 90% transmission. An La Yellow filter may also
be used.
340
MT-2 + Y-1: Used with white-flame carbons to convert

to approximately 3200K for color negative. (Filtered light
is slightly blue for 3200K reversal types.) The MTY filter is
available which combines these two in a ingle material. An
LCI Yellow plus Full CIa may also bused.
Other fil ters, particularly the !h MT-2, may be used to
"warm" the arc color as deemed necessary by the cinematographer. The CIa series of filters are all applicable to the
arc witl, white-flame carbons for various degrees of adjustment.
Enclosed AC Arcs
These are end osed light sourc whid, are ba don
the principle of a medium length mercury arc to which
various materials have been added to modify the spectral
energy distribution. The additives typically are metal halides.
All of these lamps are operated from alternating current only, and require tile use of a high-voltage ignition
device to start and to re-strike them when hot, as well a a
ballasting device to limit the current.
As a general characteristic, all of these lamps t nd to
have a light output which is modulated in relation to time.
This is due to the fact that the light output follows tile current, and these lamps are operated on alternating current.
As the current rises through zero and up to a maximLun and
back down through zero to the opposite polarity peak, tile
light output tends to modulate between a minimum and a
maximum value. The degree of modulation is different for
the various sources.
This characteri tic is important, ince it can b the
source of "flicker" problems. Witl, orne of the lamps it
becomes necessary to be sure that the power source t the
lamp and tile framing rate of the camera and the shutter
angle are held in c rtain specific r lationships. Ther is a
detailed analysis of this phenomenon in a following section
(page 376).
Another common characteristic of these source i that
they are approximations of daylight. Typical correlated
color temperatures are approximately 5600K. There will be
some variation in tl1i ,as well as in the manufacturing tolerances for color temperature for the individual lamp types.
The following sections will offer more detailed information
for each type.
341
HMFM Lamps
The most widely u ed of the new type of photographic enclosed-arc C di charge lamps are known a
HMIs. Thi term is a trademark of Osram, but has become
very much the generic term for thi family of lamps. Some
sources are
of the oth r trademarked brand names for th
BRITEAR
YMAX, TRU-ARC,. MSR and DiLite. An
assortment of these lamp IS shown U1 Ftgtue 20. These ar
fundamentally mercury arcs with metal halide additives to
adjust th c lor balanc . All of the various size of this lamp
are rated b the manufacturers at approximat Iy 5600K (see
Figure 21) . This is normally stat d as ha ing a plus or minu 400 D K tolerance. Color Rendering lode (CRI) of th
lamp i greater than 90 for all type . As will be noted from
the color temperature and its tolerance, th re can be some
variation in the color rendering characteristic from lamp
to lamp. Also, account must be tak n of the age of the lamp
since thi tends to re ul t in a red uction of the color temperature. In normal da light fill applications, these variation
are probabl not significant.
,01
as adju tment of the color temperature. With the proper

meter, and the right filter materials at hand, it is literally a
matter of minute to balance lights to an extremely close
match. If this practice i not followed, it is po ible to ha e
significant variation in color rendering from two keys in the
same scene. Refer to the section on "Filters for Arc Sources."
,.,~m'!J
,1,
~wtj 11~ vj
400
500
wavelength A
600
700
nm
eoo
..
Figure 21. (al Relative spectral power distribution of radiant energy

of HMJ 575-W a nd pectral radiance distribution (b) of daylight at
6500 K.
__~!,". 200 WATIS
_ _ __
575WATIS
~!!!!"!~1iiiii"' 12oo WATIS
2500WATIS
4000WATIS
Figure 20. Comparative ize of some H
I lamps.
Where more than one light will be us d as key in a

ene, and these ar likely to be een in a ingle shot, it is
strongly recommended that the keys be measured with
a three-color type of color-temperature meter. Appropriate filtering material are availab le for application to the e
wuts that all ows correction of gre n-magenta hilts as well
342
Page 345 is a brief summary of the elecbical and physical characteristic of the lamps comprising the full range of
HMI sources. Figwe 22 is a graphic pr en tation of the
variou parameter of HMl amp expre ed in terms of
percentage chang in the upply oltag . It is of particularinterest to note that the color temperature increases with
decrea ing voltage.
Like all metal vapor lamp , HMllamp require a c rtain period after starting until final operating conditions are
reached. The warm-up period varies with the lamp wattage, but typically i of the order of a minute or two from a
cold sta rt. Fig we 23 hows curves of th lech:ic and photometric data during warnUng-up of the lamp in operation
with a tandard inductive ballast. After ignition the lamp
current at first increases. Power consumption, operating
voltage and luminous lux, howe er, are lower during the
warm-up stage than when in full operation. TIle warm-up
period after igniting a hot lamp is considerably shorter.
Lighting fixtures have been designed pecifically for
these light sources, due to their particular requirements for
cooling and the arran gements for mounting and electrica lly
343
120
00
C>
C>
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115
'"
110
.
-'~~:-: " '"
---- ---
PL 105
'"
d>L
.......'
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... -;,.;".iJ'
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95
"" .. ""
90 1--~~
.. ...::....-~-.~+-----4-----+------i
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I----:-..:.."'- - - + - - - - - - + - - - - - - - l r - - - ----l
/
C>
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ci
PL d>L
L-=-_
90
_ --l
---I.
95
-l.
100
Supply
vollage
105
(00) Uv
-l
110
Figure 22. HMI 2500-W power consu mption PL, luminous flu x OL,
current intensity IL, nearest color temperature TF, and operating voltage
UL (relative value~), as a function of the s upply voltage Uv.
cmmecting the e lamps. Also, to utilize the s ub tantial light

output of these fixtures with any degree of efficiency requires some pecial considerations. Fixtures are made by
a large number of manufacturers at this point and include
conventional fresnel lens potlights, flood lights and even
orne softlight configurations.
ormally the lighting units are supplied with a mating ballast, although this equipment can be purchased separately. TIle balla ling system are normally conventional
inductive types. TIlese ballast types have no effect on the
tendency for Jlis light to modulate as a fLUlction of time
(flicker).
When perated on a standard inductive type ballast, this
lamp modulates approximately 83%. That i to say, the
minimum light utput is approximately 17% of the peak
value. Thi modulation characteristic, which is shown in
Figure 43 (page 377), is r ponsible for the "flicker" phenomenon which can occur when proper attention is not
paid to the ynchronization of the power line frequency for
the lamp, the hutter angle and framing rate of the camera.
This particula r problem i dealt with in some detail in a fol-
344
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345
160 ,..---....,..-r----~---T""""--___,
%
140 ~----I-----+---_+--___1
40
;: /
h:~i,~
. - -+-----+----t-------1
it
20
.' I
I--"
min.
Warm-u p time - - -- Figure 23. IiMI 2500-W power COil umption PL, luminous nux OL,
currenl in tensit IL, nearest color temperature TR, and operating voltage
UL (relative values), as a function of time after starting the cold lamp.
I wing section (page 376). Man types of electronic balla ts

are now a\ ailable for the full range of HMl-type lamp . All
of th
can be considered /lflicker-free" in the normal range
f cam ra operation.
The ervice life of th HMJ t pe lamp depend to
me e t nt on the number of tarts and might e en ceed
the alues given in the tabl . H wever it is mainl g e~ed
b th P rmissible toleranc of c lor temperatur (which
ma very according t application). During lamp life, the
color temp rature will drop at an average of appro imat~ly
1 d gree Kelvin per op rating hour. The Color R ndertng
lnd will remain lmchang d and the decreas of the luminous efficacy and lumin u flux will be very low (Figure 24).
rMllamps that h ave had long use can, with the use
of a three-c lor color temperature meter and the appropriate correction filter , have U1 ir color temp ratur and
green-magenta balanc adjust d . Thi practice will a ure
that the end life for these lamp is the moment at which they
can n longer be tarted using their specified ignition and
balla t equipment, rather than the point at which ~eir
unfiltered color balance i no longer acceptabl . AdJust-
ment of U1e color balanc of HMllamps is done with U,e

rang of fi] ters describ d herein. A number of U,e types of
I ctronic ballasts offer a limited range of /lcol or temperatur adjustment./I Caution hould be exercised in using
these controls relative to green-magenta axis shifts, and in
particular where applied to ke lights.
CAUTIO :
1. The HM.l sourc i
tremely rich in ultraviolet
en rgy. All commercial fi ture presentl old have
been carefully designed t a ure that there is no leakag of the ultra viol t nergy. There must be a I ns or
ever glass of appropriat c mpo ition over the opening of this fixture in order to creen out Uus ultraviolet.
All of U,e commercial fixture in lise have interlocking
y tems which assure that U,e lamp will not operat if
any f the lens open ing or access doors are no t properl y closed. IT IS EXTR MELY IMPORTANT THAT
THESE INTERLOCKS BE RESPECTED. SINCE EXPOSURE TO THESE HIGH LEVELS OF ULTRA VIOLET CAN RESULT IN SEVERE SU BUR I G
A D PAJ FUL EYE BURNS.
2. All commercial
tems of HMl equipment are
electrically grounded (earthed). This independ nt
ground circuit must be r peeted, ince there are circumtances under which hazardoll voltages may b preented to an operator if UU connection i onlitted.
Wher HMI equipment is operated from a portable g nrator, a grounding take mllst be used to assure that
th generator and its structure are properly grounded_
UNDER 0 CIRCUMST
CES SHOULD TIllS SYSTEM BE OPERATED U LESS A COMPLETE
GROUNDING CIRCUIT I 0 NECTED.
DCFM- DC Metal Halide Arc

Discharge Lamps
DCfTM lamps are repre ented as silent and "flickerfree." These are generally ery irnilar in their phy ical appearance to HMl types, and a number of U,eir operating
characteristics are the Sa.I11 . The are rated at 5600 degrees
Kelvin, with a Color Rend ring Index above 90, and life
ratings are very similar to HMI lamps of sinU1ar wattage.
TIle electrode configuration is irnilar to that found in IX
1m
W r - - r - - , - -....- ......-~-----,.--- -........,
F~=9--+--+--+--+"""=.w
100
80 t--+--+---+---+--+-~~-~
60 t--+--+---+---+--+
-~r--H
40
20
t--+---+----+--!----+--+--+--l
'-_...-._----L_ _L-_....L..._~_ _.l...__....L.......J
100
200
300
400
500
600
700 750 h
Operating lime
Figure 2'1. Luminous efficacy of HMI 575-W as a function of operating

time.
outputrepresents 90 lumens per watt. Lwnen maintenance

(the amoun t by which the light falls off during life) i
claim d to be 90%. The tolerance pread for the correla ted
color temperature (which i not true color temperature)
would indicate t11at the lamp c uld be anyiliin~ from 3800K
t 4600K as received from the manufacturer.
When operated on a tandard inductive type balla t,
iliis lamp modulat approximatel 62%. ll1at i t sa , the
minimum light output appro imately 38% of the peak
valu . "Flicker" can be a problem under sam circumtanc , and appropriate precautions should b taken.
hort arc Xenon lamp . There are, however some ignificant differences between OCT and HMI:
a.) Due to the fact that the lamp operates on DC, the
arc ource is located at on I ctrode all of the time, which
yields a malleI' effectiv source size, and should show
ome improvement in utilizing the lumen output of this
ource. Further, because the arc is operating on DC, it can be
/I ed at nny cnmera frnming ratef1'O/111 to 10,000frnllles per sec-
ond without concern for flicker.

b.) The DCI lamp ballast will be much simpler, and
hould therefore more reliable and less expensive than the
om what comple flicker-free ballasts required for the AC
arc .
c.) The claim for ilent operation is based on the DC
operation of the lamp a compared to the HMJ typ when
p rated on square-wa e type baUasts.
Thi lamp has only rec ntly appeared, and i currently
pI' jected to be available in 8OOW, 1500W, 25OOW, 5000W,
and 10,OOOW sizes. At thi writing, the lamps have been
succ fully fitted to e i ting HM1 Fresnel Lens Spotlights.
CSI Lamps
The Compact Source Iodide Lamps (CSI) are al so
metal halide additive-type lamps. Typically, the e are available in either a single-ended configuration or in a PAR 64
( eal d beam) enclosure. The configuration of t11 various
lamp in this series is hown in Figure 25.
Thi particular lamp ha been used more widely in
Europe fuan in the USA. It i pecified as having a correlated color temperature of 4200K plus or minu 400K.
Clearly it is necessary to do me filtering of fue light to use
it ither in a "daylight" balance situation or for 3200K application. The efficacy of the lamp is high and its initial
348
8 7 --
~_
._
'
.
hokJIrtg
689~
_
'-
ledge
.._.... _
'53
j
Figure 25. Configurations and dimen ions for the llJOO-W CSI and CID
'amps.
This discharge lamp i available in a sealed-beam

(pAR 64) enclosure which afford imple handling and ha
mad it attractive for large area lighting of locati ns and
ports ettings for both t I ision and film.
Appropriate filtering f r CSI lamps is availabl from
t11e range of light source corr ction media Ii t d on page
367. Because of the charact r of the radian t energy di tribution of this source, it i sential fuat a three-eolor reading color temperature m t r be used in order to a ure that
CAUTIO :The same cautionary note as shown under
the HMI lamp type relati e to ultraviolet expo ur and
to grounding and electrical safety is applicable to the use
of these sources. The sealed beam PAR 64 bulb emits
no UV provided that the outer bulb is intact
349
reasonable correction are bei ng achieved with the

fo r critical color w rk.
Typical spectral power
lCUl1 PS
X l o'
2.---.--- ,--r--r-----:----::--:------,
Spectral Power Dlslrlbu tlon _ _
CID Lamps
of lkW CIO Lamp.
Thi m tal halide additive-type lamp utilizes the iodides of tin and indium. Th phy ical configurations ar
identical t th
Ilamp (ee Figure 25), except that in the
cm type, a 2500-\ att ver ion i al 0 a aiJable. This is pictured in Figur 26. The pectral power distribution and
tran i nt tarting characteri tics are hown in Figur 27
and 2 .
The c rr lated color temperatme of cm lamp i
5500K plus r minus -lOOK throughout life. It i claimed that
CID lamp can be dimmed to 40% maximum output (using llitable balla t) without affecting color temperature.
The claimed lumen maintenance for thi source i 90"10 for
all of its ty
and ariations.
hen op rated on tandard inducti e ballasts, the
lamp modulat to -!5%. That is to sa ,the minimum light
output i appro irnately 55% of the peak. This represen
a ignifi ant ifllpro ernento er the basic modulation char-
Recon,mu,ed Oal'toghl a1
S500 D K 1Q551.
c=::J
o 4L-+--+--~-~-~.--.>__-+-_+-y
400
450
500
S50
600
650
Wavelength lnml
700
Figure 27. Typical spectral power distribution for CID lamps.

140 r----""T'"---~-----.,r----~
120
100
.2
"
>.,
80
.,
Ol
c:.,
60
Q;
0..
+,
40
o
o
20
.,;
30 sec.
1 min . 1 min . 30 sec.
Time from switch-on
-r1.125"
' -L~
Figure 26. 2500-W compact iodide daylight (00).
2 min.
Figure 28. Transient characteris tics of lamp fro m switch-on .
acteristi of the HMl and CST typ ,but precautions regarding flicker must still be ob erved.
Filters for adjusting the pectral nergy di tribution of
CID lamps are listed on page 66-367.
351
Light-Souroe Filters
ll1ese light sources vary not only in color temperahtre,
but there are likely to be significant green-magenta shifts.
It is reconunended that anyone regula rly working with the
types of AC arc discharge sources delineated above sho uld
have a three-cglor color temperature meter. With s uch an
instrume nt, and the system of filters created by Rasco Laborat~ri~s, inc., itl iS po~sib l e to deal properly with all of the
vanatlons tha are lIkely to be encoun te red w ith these
lamps.
TIle possib le range of lamp-ta-Iamp variations in color
balance is p rimarily due to aging and manufacturing variations. In many situations, it will be highly desirable or essential to assure that the lamps in lise will have the sam e
co lor rendering characteristics.
So me claims have been made for s i.ng le con version
filters for the HM1 and CSI type lamps, bu t it is difficult to
tmd erstand how a si.ngle filter could even come close to
m eeting th e wide range of possi.ble lamp color balances that
are likely to be encotUltered within a given type. The range
of available m~teri.als has been proven in prac tice to meet
the requirements of color balancing lights so that minimum
variations are presen t.
High-Pressure DC Short Arc Xenon Light

Sources
This source is the best commercia lly availab le li ght
somce for use in higher-powered projection systems. The
very small size and very high brightness of the arc source,
and the stabili~y o f the arc location d ue to the DC operati on, make it the source of ch oice around the worl d for
motion-pictur~ projection.
The efficacy of high-pressure xenon sources (lumens!
wa tt) ranges from 35 to 50 LPW. Ballasting is very simple,
CAUTION: ll1ese lamps have high internal pressure even when col d. They are s upplied with a protecti ve jacket ov~r the bulb, and this should not be removed
tUltil the lamp is full y insta ll ed. It is required that a suita.ble face shield, body jacket and ga untlets be used any
time that the protective jacket is removed. When removing a lamp the protective jacket should be insta lled before steps are taken to disconnect and rem ove the lamp.
352
requiring only a current-limiting rectifier that ca n produce

DC that has less than 5% ri p ple. A high-voltage igniter is
necessary to start these lamps, and they can be hot re-struck.
TI1ese lamps permit the creation of an intense focused beam
of pure, slightly cold daylight co lor ba lance light (about
6000" K), and have a Color Rend erin g Index of 95 to 98.
They have fotUld some limited applica ti on in motion-picture photographi c lighting. The source is available in a wide
variety of wattages up to 10KW.
Stroboscopic Lighting
Stroboscopic ("strobe") lighting for motion pictures
has been avai lable commercially for abou t 30 years. Typically these utilize xenon flashtubes which produce a good
approximation of dayli ght (about 6000"K), an d a relatively
stable color temperature th roughout life. Due to the fac t that
the flashtubes that are s uitable for this application are either long slim sources or helical shapes, they can really only
produce soft lig hting. They can be color-corrected or adjusted using the same filter materials described for application to any of the normall y util ized lig ht sources and
lighting ins truments.
It is common practice to utili ze continuous sources
(such as tungsten) wi th strobes. Typical practice is to light
2 stops und er the strobe wi th the hmgsten lighting up to
one stop over. The more tungsten ligh ting, the softer the
image. The con trol equipment for these light sources permits an exposure duration of between 1;50.000 and Y1 OO,OlXl of a
second. 111is perrnitsstop motion wi th extraordinary sharpness of various phenomena, and delineates detaiJ in realtime movement that is a blur in normal photography (even
wi th very small shutter angles). 111e sha rp ness of results in
slow-motion effects is tmm atched by other teclmiques.
The strobes must be synchronized to the cam era shu tter. Usually the strobes are driven by the shutter pulse from
the camera, and it is imperative that the un its Aash when
the shutter is fully clear of the gate (otherwise a parti ally
exposed frame w il l result). To check camera synchronization, the lens should be removed, and the cav ity illtuninated
with the strobe wi th the camera turned on. The sh utter
should appear to be frozen in one posi tion.
The control equipment for these s trobes permits the
addition of d elay to the pulse in d egree increments. The
position of the shutter will either move forward or back-
353
wa~d.
in relationship to th gate until it is in the proper

po than . For refle camera th trobe fires twice for each
frame, once to iIluminat the ubj ct and a second time to
illuminate the viewfinder.
C U!'lO : People with photo en itive epi lep y
hould be informed that trobe lighting will be in use.
lighting. (Alternatively, most lilboratories could corr ct for

the temperature deficiency in printing from c lor negative.)
If used,supplementallightiJlgcan be reduced in c lortemperature to match the ambient light; this would be done
010 tea ily by the addition of filters to the luminaire . It
could also be accompli hed by the use of a dimm r.
Commercial/Industrial Light Sources
AC Discharge Lighting
This section will pr nt information about the rna t

commonl encountered type of commercial/indu trial
light urces whidl ma b found in location ituation .
For man e teri r ituations, there is little or nothing
that can b: dO~le about th color of the existing light (e.g.,
r adw~y Il~hbn9 ~r large-area ex terior lighting). In many
ther ItuatlOns It I comp let Iy practical and/or po ible
to apply filters to the light urces that are encountered in
a I c~ ti on setting. Thi s ca n r suIt in minimizing th problem 111 the et-up, and achi ving a more natural look (mor
nearly a the scene app ar t the eye).
Furth ralternativei th useofcamerafiltersto compen ilt for the color balanc f the available light. [n order~ou . eco~l . entionalph t graphiclightsfor uppl mental hghtmg, It I anI nec sary that they be filtered 0 that
th ir color balance i the me as the dominant ambient
Ii htin o . This approach milke it po ible t r tain the
"character" or "look" of the I ation lightin o and till al~ow ~ c:eative fr edam to add urn uppl~mentallight
mg a mdtcated for the d ' ired dramatic or artistic effect.
The cinematograph r on location a igrtn1 nt is more

and more likely to enc unter variou t p of discharge
lamp . These may be in use for both interi r lighting in
tor and commercial buildings and for exteri r lighting
in ports stadiums, parki ng lots, shopping mall , and for
treet lighting.
Many of these typ of light sources give excellent
color rendering for th ye, and the manufacturers often
urce. This
give a correlated color t mpera tme value to th
"Kelvin" temperatu re usually has no meaning f r th pmpo s of color photo raphy.
The following tions offer the means for d aling with
these light sources to a me acceptable photographic rcults that should be well within the laborator tolerances
for correction of color negative film. (See" I r Balancing.")
Domestic Incandescent Lighting

Non-photogrilphic typ
f incandescent lighting t nd
to have color temperatur that may range from 2400K up
through 2900K or so at their rated voltages. TIle color temp rature i' directly related to the wattage of the lamp, wi th
very-I w-wattage types hav ing the lowest color t mperatur . Refer to page 319.
1f the~~ source are pr viding sufficient ligh t for xpour ,a nd It 1 fe~t that no upplemental lighting is requir d,
th n a camera filter can be used to correct the lighting balanc to iln appro imation f 3200K. Typicall ,thi would
repr nt application of on or more of the Wratten 2 serie filter. The table on page 230 !!ives an approximation
of the appropriate Wratten filter or filter required and the
effect f that filter on the color temperature of the ambient
Existing Fluorescent Lighting on Location

11Us is probably the 010 t widely used type of interior
lighting in commercial and industrial ettings. It i not
unusual to fmd commercial or industrial locati n which
are lighted to 125 or so footcandle using fluor cent lighting. Considering the pe d and other rnaracteri tic of the
n we t film emulsions, thi level is certainly sufficient to
obtain reasonable po ure settings.
By making use of the ambient fluorescent light, the
cinematographer can maintain the lighting quality and the
character of the setting, that is to say, a more n arl y"softlighted" appearanc .
Most fluore cent illumination, because of its discontinuous pectrum, i not well-suited to color cinematography ( e Figures 29 through 34). The correlated color temperature of a fluorescent lamp may pro ide a i ual color
match for a tungsten lamp of similar color temperatur ,but
photographic color r uI will be quite dissimilar. Expoconditions
ure may no longer be a problem under th
355
Figure 31. Cool White Deluxe F4OCWX.
Figure 30. Warm Wh te F40WW.
Figure 32. Warm White Deluxe F40wwx.
but color renditi n remains a serious consideration with

fluorescents fo d in commercial or industrial situations.
H color film is exposed without filter correction, the
results will have a blue-green cast with weak reds, even
with daylight
emulsions. The result isnot at all what
the viewer
to see in a fluorescent-lighted setting.
Mercury Vapor and Color Improved

Mercury Lamps
356
The clear mercury vapor lamp will not produce acceptable color photographic results with any d~ of filtering. The reason for this can be seen by exammmg the spee-
357
Fluorescent Lighting
for Motion Pictures
by Freider Hochheim, President of KinoFlo,. mc.
Figure 34. Incande cent Fluorescent F40lF.
trum in Figure 35. Note that there is essentially no light

output in the r~ portion of the spectrum and only line
spectrum outp t in the blue and blue-green portions. Obviously, there i no way to compensate for the lack of red
energy, so that . source must either be overpowered with
358
Fluorescent lighting has traditionally had the

reputation of being an inappropriate light source for
motion picture production. The primary criticism has
revolved around noisy ballasts, poor color rendering,
green skin tones, 60Hz flicker and low light output.
These criticisms are now a thing of the past. Technology has advanced to the point where high-quality
fluorescent products are now being produced specifically for the motion-picture and television industry. The cinematographer can now consider using
fluorescent lights not only in situations which are
motivated by existing location fluorescent environments but rather in any situation requiring either
daylight or 3200 Kelvin light.
The flliorescent lamp by its very nature has an
indirect or ambient light quality which.is desirable
in situations calling for natural light quality. Instead
of bouncing the light from an HMI or an incandescent fixture, the cinematographer can utilize a fluorescent light source which embodies the characteristics of a bounce board. The light is soft and has a
spread and drop-off very similar to bounced light.
Finding this quality of light in a long narrow light
source which can be easily hidden in a set opens up
new lighting possibilities and provides new solutions
for old problems. The low heat and low power requirements give this technology added appeal
amongst actors and electricians alike.
KinoFlo provides some of the most recent innovations. It is producing a line of location and studio
lighting systems offering lightweight and portable,
high-frequency flicker-free, color-eorrect fluorescent
lighting instruments. KinoFlo offers a broad selection
of color-eorrect lamps in sizes ranging from the micro at 100mm in length to the KF55 at 8 feet and in
5500 Kelvin and 3200 Kelvin color temperatures.
359
other lighting or allowed to render its subjects with only

blue/blue gr n energy.
A numbe of other types of mercury lamps have been
made in whi a phosphor coating has been put on the
inside of the 0 ter jacket of the lamps. In principle, this has
worked very tPuch like a fluorescent lamp and has resulted
inan~prov ~ color rendering capability. A number ill
these types, s ~ch as the Color Improved Mercury, have
sufficiently c( ~plete spectral energy distribution so that
they are now finding application in certain types of commercial interi ruse.
1OlIO.
J
J
4
35ll
14
t U i 3 - ... 1454
~ 14J4
50
I--
50
I--
0
30
I--
20
I--
~I
550
1m
-.gr.nNoro.-s
50()
650
100
Olb Renoemg ......-47
Figure 36. spectral energy distribution of 400-W Warm Deluxe mercury

lamp (H33GL-400-Wmo.
_ 9Iot--~--+---+---a--~~I---+---l
~ 1I01t---+---+--t--f:~t-- J-+---+----1
\
1098
I
I
I--
1M
~
4SI
~Olb""""'~
a : ~ . XIy - 3M!
.;..
4lIO
to
...
50()
550
1m
w-IInglh In N8rlor.-w
Q:Q~
II
- 320y - 319
.j
650
100
Q:Q flIIndIImg Incleoo-22
Figure 35. Spectr iaI energy distribution of 400- W Clear mercury lamp.
1825
lOt---+---+--+--f~ :-+---+---1
1IOI-"-I-_+---+-4:S--... :-+---+----1
.J
_~...t+_-;_-l
:D10...
... 201-. .- . . . .-+---+--1
Spectral ~ergy distributions for some of these lamps

areshownin ~igures 36 through 38. It is evident from the
examination( f these distributions that there is a substantial improven ent in the availability of energy at the intermediatewav ~engths between the mercury lines. This results in impr( :Ved color rendering.
Figure 37. Spectral energy distribution of 4DO-W Color Improved

mercury lamp (H33GL-4OOC).
Metal Hal de Additive Lamps
distributions for these types are shown in figures 39 and

40.
Themet halide additive lamps known by a variety

oftrademark d names such ~ Metalarc, Multi-Vapor and
HQI, for eX!Ple, are essentially mercury vapor lamps
which have d small additions of various metal halides
made inside e arc tube. These lamps have generally high
efficacies (ap roximately 85 lumens per watt typically).
These la1pps are widely used in sports lighting as well
as in shopping malls, and a wide variety of other commercial/industri applications. Some typical spectral energy
360
35ll
XI
450
50()
5S)
Em
~nNlrclrt-.s
eor-Olb~~
JII3y .,g
OlbRerdemg nclex
a:~
Sodium Lamps
High-pressure sodium lamps have become an extremely important light source for roadway and large-area
lighting such as parking lots. These lamps are known by
various trademarked names such as Lucalox and Lumalux.
These are high-efficacy lamps, up to 120 lumens per watt.
They have a charac~ristically yellow-orange color. A typical spectral energy distribution is shown in Figure 41.
361
2Or--r---,r--....-:----,r----r--~-____.
lOD,I===!J:==1~=+"i212.:n78ii1~;;;;:iJ4===+==l
E9
5! 8(j....-~- . .+---+---II......., l-4--l----l
!
i'll11---*-......H - - - 4 -......1- 4 ....--+------l

601---#-"+---+--111---" -+---~--1
J:
12.
450
500
56Il
fDl
~Il~
eca ~-GlO'K
500
eca Rendemg 1nde><--43
Spectral ene<gy dislriblAion oI4()().Wd Melalarc Clear ~
Figure 38. Sp
energy distribution of 400-W Brite-White Deluxe
mercury lamp (H33-400DX).
2O.------r-+---.---..,....---r------,.----~--..,
I~~++---+---+---+-"
100
5i5O
~i'I~
- x - 3lI2 y- 3ll5
U---I----l
$I
r~
I
al energy distribution of 400-W Metalarc clear lamp.
Low-pr ure sodium lamps have been widely used

in Europe forlmany years for the same applications. There
are some insltions in the US. This is the highest efficacy
commercial I p available (approximately 160 to 180 lumens per wa ).
The s
al energy distribution for this lamp reveals
that it is mo~omatic; in effect, this is a yellow-only
lamp. No degree of filtering will permit proper color rendition. These .ght sources are easily recognized (the source
is quite larg and relatively low brightness, particularly
compared to e high-pressure sodium).
Figure 40. Spectral energy distribution of

(coated).
tooo-w MetalardC lamp
2Or--..,.--~--r_-..,--~--"T"""-__.
18t---t---t----I--+____.
:-----+~
lil 12t---+--+--~-_4 ~
.t---t---+--+--+-!
Figure 41. Spectral power distribution of 400-W sodium lamp, similar

to types known as Lucelox or Lumalux.
Color Balancing for Photography

. A series of ~pp~~esis outlined in the following sections to deal WIth lighting when any of the commercial/
industrial AC arc discharge or fluorescent sources are encountered as the dominant ambient lighting environment.
Exceptions are pure mercury and low-pressure sodium.
363
A. Leaving the Ambient Discharge Lighting

With Standard Photographic
Lighting Equipment Used Supplementally
monly followed in newsgathering or documentary situations.
Where the ambient illuminati n i adequate for exposme, and as uming (1) r asonabl Luliformity in the typ s
of lamps in the installation, and (2) that no supplementaJ
lighting wiJl b u ed, it would only be nece ary to apply
the appropriate filtering to the camera. When using color
negati e film and the required correction at the camera is
small, it is po ible that no camera filter be used, and the
laboratory told to mak the nece ary correction.
If omesupplementallightingisrequiredornece sary
for dramatic or artistic reasons, the suppl mental light
should be filter d to match the dominant col r balanc of
the ambient lighting. It i also po ible to utilize the ame
type f lamp a the ambient lighting, on fI r stand , for
upplemental lighting (e pages 66-375 for camera and
lighting filter ).
CAUTIO
1.) There may be significant color variation encountered between the various types oflamps and even
between lamps of tlle same type made b y the same
manufacturer. Some of the reasons for these variations
may be age, burning position, temperature and manufacturing tolerances. A three-eolor type of color temperature meter is necessary for accomplishing the measurements required for some of the approaches described in the following section. (If the lamp can be
identified, the tables noted below provide filter data for
most situations; the 3C meter may then be u ed to
verify the baJance between lamps.)
2.) It is strongly recommended that film tests be
run wherever there is greatconcem for color accuracy.
These tests should be done under circumstances such
that the anticipated operating conditions of the aChtal
production are well duplicated.
3.) AC lamps are subject to the "ilicker" phenomenon. That is to say, there is variation in the Hght output .....lith time. For 24 fps exposure (crystal-eontrolled),
where the power to the lamp is derived from a stable
60 Hertz source, there is very little likelihood of a ilicker
problem. Overcranking, very small shutter angles and
some other combinations involving power upplied
from unregulated generators may re ult in flicker. A
more detailed treatment of the flicker problem can be
found elsewhere in this manual.
"0
II -
B. Mixed or Unknown Types of Ambient

Lighting as the Dominant Light Source
Many int riors arc lighted b mixed types of fluorescent lamps, or the f1uore cent illumination may be mixed
with da light or tungsten lighting. In shopping maU , it is
pos ibl to en unter e era! types of high-intensity discharg lamps. The use of a three-c lor type of color meter
shou ld make it possible to establish what the dominant
color balance is. Some of the same procedure described
abo e ill (A) would then b applicable.
C. Filtering the Ambient Light Sources

Where the acces to the ambient lighting fixtures is
rea nable, and the quantity of th m not to great, the mdividual light r fixtme can be filtered to ither a 3200K
or a 5500K balance. It is then po sible to utilize standard
photographic luminair for supplementaJ lighting.
D. Overpowering the Ambient Lighting

Directly iULLminate the subject with or 5500K illumination. If this i done at a level such that this lighting becomes the dominant source for the exposme of the subject,
then daylight-balanced film can be used without any camera filters. The background would, of course, be blue-green
in color but this may be acceptable. This practice i com364
Filter Selection
Filters for color balancing commercial/industrial lighting sources for color photography (tables 366-375) wer
deri ed and confirmed photographically by David L.
Quaid, ASC, and c pyrighted by rum.They are accurate for
the particular lamps tested; see the caution paragraph
above about variation and testing, and page 238 about exposure m ter variation. Deviation of typica l exposure
meters is indicated in T-stops next to certain filtered lights
in tlle tables. When measuring incident filtered light from
these lamps, adjust the ASA on the meter to compensate.
365
Neutral Density and Combinations (for windowsl

Neutral Density
Stops
Rasco #3415
Lee #29B
Rasco #3402
Lee #209
Rasco #3403
Lee #210
Rasco #3404
Lee '211
Lee #299
N.15
.15ND
N.3
.30ND
N.6
.60ND
N.9
.90ND
1.20ND
Lee #207 Full CTO t .3ND

Lee #208 Full CTO t .6ND
Rasco #3405 Roscosun 85N.3
Rosco 3406 Rascosun 85N.6
.15
.15
.30
.30
.60
.60
.90
,90
1.20
1/2
1/2
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
Mired
t159
159
t131
t1 31
EHect on
5500' K 6OOO' K
2930' K 3070' K
2930' K 30700 K
3200' K 33600 K
3200' K 3360' K
lighting Filters
GreenlMagenta Adjusting for Arc Discharge
& Fluorescent (Used with Blue/Amber Color Temperature Filters)
Green Filters (Decrease Red/Blue [magentaD
Rasco #3304 Tough Plusgreen
Lee #244 Plus Green
Rosco #331 5 Tough 112 Plusgreen
Lee #245 Half Plus Green
Rosco #3316 Tough 1/4 Plusgreen
Lee .246 Quarter Plus Green
Rosco #3317 Tough 1/8 Plusgreen
Rasco #3306 Tough Plusgreen 50
Lee #241 Fluorescenl5700' Kelvin
Lee #242 Fluorescent 4300' Kelvin
Lee #243 Fluorescenl 3600' Kelvin
CC Equivalent
CC30G
CC30G
CC15G
CC15G
CC075G
CC035G
CC04G
CC30 Gt85B
CC30 G+80A
CC30 GtBOC
CC30 G+B2B
Magenta Filters (Decrease Green)

Rosco #330B Tough Minusgreen
Lee #247 Minus Green
Rosco #3313 Tough 1/2 Minusgreen
Lee #24B Half Minus Green
Rosco #3314 Tough 1/4 Minusgreen
Lee #249 Quarter Minus Green
Rosco #331 BTough l iBMinusgreen
CC30M
CC30M
CC15M
CC15M
CC075 M
CC075 M
CC04M
Rasco #3310 Fluorfiller
366
(CC30M t85B)
lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting

Increase color temperature (Blue)
Ellecton
Mired
3200' K 2900' K
Value
(312
(345
Mired)
Mired)
Lee #201 Full C.T. Blue
Rasco #3202 Full Blue
Lee #281 3/4 C.T. Blue
Lee #202 Half C.T. Blue
Rasco #3204 Half Blue
Rosco #3206 Thind Blue
Lee #203 Quarter C.T.Blue
Rasco 3208 Quarter Blue
Lee #218 Eighth C.T. Blue
Rasco #3216 Eighth Blue
DiffusinCi Blue
Lee #224 Daylight Blue Fros
Rosco #3017 Full Blue Frost
Lee #221 Blue Frost
Rosco 3013 Tough Booster Frost
Rosco 3012 Tough Booster Silk
Lee #217 Blue Diffusion
Decrease Color Temperature (Amber)
-137
131
1 13
78
68
49
-35
-30
18
12
5700' K
5500' K
5000' K
4270' K
4100' K
3800K
3610K
35SOK
3400K
3330K
4Bl0' K
4670' K
43WK
37SOK
36100K
33800K
32300K
31800K
3060"K
3OOOK
-1 37
-131
-49
- 49
18
5700K
5500' K
38OO' K
38OOK
3SSOOK
333O'K
4810' K
4670K
3380K
3380K
31800K
3OO00K
Rasco "33407 Rascosun CTO

Rasco #3441 Full Straw (CTS)
Lee #204 Full C.T. Orange
Roscolt3401 Roscosun 85
Lee #205 Half C,T. Orange
Rasco 1/3408 Roscosun 1/2 CTO
Rasco #3442 Half Straw (112 CTS)
Lee #206 Quarter C.T. Orange
Rosco #3409 Roscosun 1/4 CTO
Rasco #3443 Quarter Slraw (1/4 CTS)
t 167
+167
t159
+131
tl09
+ 81
t 81
t64
+ 42
t 42
2B65K
2B65K
2930' K
32000K
344O'K
38000K
38000K
4060' K
4480' K
4480' K
3000"K
3000"K
3070'K
3360K
3629K
4030' K
40300K
433O'K
480O'K
480O'K
-30
lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting

Mired
Value
Ellect on
5500' K 6000' K
(167
(182
Mired)
Mired)
Lee #223 Eighth C.T. Orange

Rasco #3410 Roscosun 1/8 CTO
Rosco #3444 Eighth Straw (1/8 CTS)
Rosco #3414 UV filler
Lee UV
+26
+20
+ 20
t 8
t 2
4600' K
4950' K
4950' K
5260K
5440' K
5180' K
5350' K
5350' K
5710' K
5930' K
RedAmber
Lee #236 HMI (to Tungsten)
Lee #237 CID (to Tungsten)
Rasco #31 06 Tough MTY
Rosco #3102 Tough MT2
Lee #238 CSI (to Tungsten)
Rosco #3115 Tough 112 MT2
Rasco #3134 Tough MT54
+134
+131
+131
+110
t 49
t 38
+ 35
3170K
3200K
3200' K
3425K
4330K
4545' K
4610K
3226' K
3360' K
3000 K
3790' K
4640K
5210' K
5290'K
Decrease Color Temperature (Amber)
367
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting

VJ
&j
Camera filters : Symbol " .. conversion or light balancing series, " CC " Color Compensating series (Pages 124 and 125) EI
column ISe posure compensation ,n T SlOPS for filters
Photo lamp filters : (Pages 366 and 367) EI column IS devrallon of tYPical e posure meters due to color Imbalanc When
readIn e posure In fil tered light from these units, reduce the ASA/ISO meter se lling (I e Increase the light level) y the number of
T stops Indicated Where correction IS "minus" (-), decrease the light level (Increase the ASA/ ISO seltlngl
-c DaVI'd L Qua Id ASC

Filtering fluorescent lights to
match photo lights (- Cpage 241)
Using existing fluorescenl lighting unfiltered

(f Apage 241)
Camera filters
(Kodak or equivalent)
Manufaclurer
lamp type
3200K film
5500K film
EI
Pholo lamp filters

(Aosco Clnegel or equivalent)
-EI
3200K
Camera filter: None

(Tungsten negative
or reversal)
5500K
EI
EI
Camera filter:
Tungsten Negative: #85
Dayllghl OIm: None
To match 3200K EI
To match 5500K EI
Durotest
Color Classer 75
# 81EF
+ CC05M
+#85
# 818
113 +CC10M
Full blue 50
Third blue
'I,Minusgreen
Sun 85
2f3 + Y2Plusgreen VJ + %Plusgreen 0 + 'I4Minusgreen '13 + Sun 1/8 CTa
+ Quarter blue
+Sun 1fe CTa
Durotest
Vltalight
CC10M
+#81
+#85
CC10M
1 +# 81
Full blue 50
Quarter blue
Sun 85
'13 + %Plusgreen 113 + 'I2Plusgreen '13 + 1/4Minusgreen
+ Sun 1fe CTa
'13
Durotest
aptima 50
# 85
# 82A
2f3 + CC05M
I/,Plusgreen
Full blue 50
2f3 + Sun % CTO 113
o + Quarter blue
Durotest
aptima 32
# 81
+ CC05M
# 80C
113 +#82A
Quarter blue
111: + UV Filter
General Electric
Chroma 75
# 81A
+#856
# 818
1 + CC05M
General Electric
Lite White
CC60M
+#81C
+#85
~ '13
General Electric
SP-41
CC50M
+ # 818
+ # 85
2fJ
Sun CTa
Third blue
Full blue 50
0 + Eighth blue
2f3 + Quarter blue '13
+ V4Minusgreen
Minusgreen
Third blue
Full 81ue 50
2fJ + Plusgreen 2fJ + 'hMinusgreen
1 + Half blue
+Sun '12 CTa
+ 'hPlusgreen
+ 2x(Plusgreen
+Sun VB CTa
+ Eighth blue
+ 1f4Minusgreen
+ V4Plusgreen
Minusgreen
Plusgreen
Full blue 50
2f3 + Plusgreen 213 + Third blue 113 + Sun '12 CTa
+Sun 1fe CTa
+ 'I,Plusgreen
+ Quarter blue
Sun '12 CTO
'I,Plusgreen
Full blue 50
213 + 1f4Plusgreen 0
0 + '14 Minusgreen
+Sun 1fe CTa
CC50M
CC30M
Sun '12 CTa
o + Sun V, CTa
CC10M
CC05M
1 +#82A
+#81
+#85
All Mfrs- Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Deluxe: See page 167
General Electric
Chroma 50
Sun 'h CTa
IhMlnusgreen
V4Minusgreen
V4Minusgreen
+Sun 1/8 CTa
Half blue
o:+ Quarter blue
Sun '18 CTa
113
113
'13
'13
Minusgreen
a + 'I2Mlnusgreen
'13
Mlnusgreen
0 + Eighth blue
'13
- V,Minusgreen
1/3
Quarter blue
113
Using ulsllng fluorescent IIghling unflllered

Camera fillers
(Kodak or equivalent)
Mlnuflcturer
Limp type
3200K fihn
r-
5500K film
EI
Fillering fluorescent lights to

malch photo IIgMs
Photo lamp ftllers

(Rosco Clnegel or equlvlllntj
nOOK
EI
r-
Clmera filler: None

(Tungslen negilive
or reversal)
5500K
EI
EI
To IIIllch 3200K EI
General Electric
White
CC50R
+ CC10M
General Electric
SP-35
CC50R
+#82
CC30M
% +#82C
Full blue 50
1'1: + Plusgreen
General Electric
SPX-35
CC40R
+#81A
CC15M
1 + CC30B
Half blue
1'1: +2x
('I2Plusgreen)
+Third blue
General Electric
Regal white
CC30M
+#85C
CC50B
1 + CC05M
+#81
Half blue
Plusgreen
12/: + Plusgreen '13 +Sun 'Ie CTa '13
+ Quarter blue
General Electric
SP-30
SPX-30
CC30M
I + # 81EF
CC50B
1 + CC05M
Half blue
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
121: + Plusgreen '/3 + '/,Plusgreen % + Sun 'Ie CTa
Sun 1f< CTa
+ UV Filter
+ '/.Plusgreen
+Quarter blue
CC30M
h% +#82B
CC35M
GTE Sylvania
Lite White Deluxe
CC50M
+#82A
+#85B
D%
GTE Sylvania
actron-41K
CC30M
+ # 81A
+#85
213
GTE Sylvania
Design 50
CC05M
+#81
+#85
CC10M
1 +#82A
GTE Sylvania
Deluxe White
CC40M
+#82A
+#85
CC30M
l 'l. +#82B
GTE Sylvania
Natural White
#85C
CC30M
+#82
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
1 + Plusgreen 1/3 + I/,Plusgreen 0
+ 'I,Plusgreen
+ Quarter blue
Plusgreen
0
'13
Plusgreen
'13 + 'hPlusgreen 0
Clmera filler:
Tungslen Negallve: #85
Oayllght film: None
To malch 5500K EI
'f.!
Minusgreen
Minusgreen
+ I/,Minusgreen 0 + Quarter blue
+Sun '12 CTa
+ Eighth blue
'hMlnusgreen
Half blue
+ Sun 1/, CTa
0 + lhMinusgreen
+ I/.Minusgreen
+ %Minusgreen
+Sun 'Ie CTa
Minusgreen
+ Sun 1f< CTO
Half blue
0 + Minusgreen
+ Eighth blue
- Half blue
,] + 2x
(lhMinusgreen)
+ Eighth blue
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
Minusgreen
2fJ + Plusgreen % + IhPlusgreen % + '/.Mlnusgreen 0 + Eighth blue
+%Plusgreen
+ Quarter blue
+ Sun 1/2 CTa
+Quarter blue
+ Sun 'Ie CTa
+Eighth blue
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
Minusgreen
Full blue 50
1 +Plusgreen '13 +Quarter blue 0 +Sun '12 CTa
0 + Quarter blue
+ UV filter
+ Sun 'I, CTa
'/,Plusgreen
Full blue 50
% + '/<Plusgreen 0
Minusgreen
Minusgreen
+ 'hMinusgreen 0 + Ouarter blue
+Sun 'I, CTO
+Sun 'Ie CTa
Sun '12 CTa

- '/,Minusgreen
+ 1f<Minusgreen '3 + Quarter blue
1/3
113
0
-
'3
+Sun 'Ie CTa
# 82C
'13
1'1:
Minusgreen
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Plusgreen 213 + 'I,Plusgreen 0 + Sun 'I, CTa
1f<Plusgreen
+Sun 'Ie CTa
+Sun 'Ie CTO
Half blue
2/3 + Eighth blue
'/,Minusgreen
o -I UV Filter
All Mfrs-Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Delu xe: See page 167
Sun 1f< CTa

+Sun 'Ie CTa
Third blue
0 + Minusgreen
- Half blue
I]
'3
'3
Using exlsllng fluDrescenl IIghling unnllered

Camera nllers
(KDdak Dr equivalent)
Manufacturer
lamp type
GTE Sylvania
Warm Lite Deluxe
GTE Sylvania
actron 31K
32DDK nlm
c-
55DDK nlm
PhDID lamp nllers

(ROSCD Cinegel Dr equivalent)
32DDK
c-
EI
EI
CC40M
+ # 810
# 80C
'!J +CC30M
+#81
Half blue
2 + Plusgreen
+ '/,Plusgreen
+Quarter blue
CC30M
+#85C
CC508
1 + CC05M
+ # 81
GTE Sylvania
3K Royal White
CC35M
+ # 81EF
GTE Sylvania
Incandescent
Fluorescent
# 82C
#82A
+ CC05M
n'l3
CC508
+ CClaM
#80A
'13 +# 82C
+ CC05M
Filtering nUDrescent lights ID

match phDtD IIghlS
121:
c-
EI
55DDK
Plusgreen
Plusgreen
121: + '/.Plusgreen '13 + '/,Plusgreen
+Half blue
Sun 'ie CTa
+ Quarler blue
Sun CTa
Minusgreen
+Sun %CTa
+ 2x(UV Filter)
a + V2Minusgreen a
Mlnusgreen
Sun V. CTa
Third blue
Half blue
+ '/.Minusgreen
+Eighth blue
Half blue
+Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
Full blue 50
+ Y2Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
'13
'3
Fluorfllter
+Sun 'Ie CTa
Minusgreen
+ Sun '18 CTa
Mlnusgreen
+ Sun Y2 CTa
+Sun 'Ie CTa
'13
Minusgreen
'1,Minusgreen
'13
'12Mlnusgreen
+ '1,Minusgreen
+Sun 'I, CTa
'3
Sun '12 CTa

+ '/,Minusgreen
Sun 85
+ Y2Minusgreen
+ UV Filter
CC30M
2 +#818
Full blue 50
1 + Plusgreen
+ Third blue
North American
CC5aR
Philips Ultralume 41 +#818
CC30M
2fJ +#82
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
1 + Plusgreen 2fJ + '1,Plusgreen
+ Quarter blue
+ Eighth blue
North American
CC3aM
Philips Ultralume 30 +#81EF
CC508
1 +CC10M
Half blue
121:2
(V2Plusgreen)
+ Quarter blue
CClaM
1 +#82A
b2f: +Sun V, CTa '/3 +Elghth blue '13 +Elghth blue
North American
CC50R
Philips Ultralume 50 +#81EF
North American
CC05M
Philips Colortone 50 + #81
+#85
Verilux Corp
# 81EF
Verilux
+ CC10M
+#85
Camera niter:
lungslen Negative: #85
Daylight nlm: NDne
EI
To match 32DDK EI
TD match 55DDK EI
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
Half blue
+ 'hPlusgreen % +Sun V, CTa
a +Minusgreen '3
+Sun VB CTa
+ Eighth blue
Half blue
Plusgreen
Plusgreen '13 + %Plusgreen
+Quarter blue
+Sun '/8 CTa
+ Elghth blue
Sun 'Ie CTa
Camera nller: NDne

(Tungsten negallve
Dr reversal)
Full blue 50
2JJ + '1,Plusgreen
Plusgreen
'13 +Third blue
a
a
Plusgreen
+ '1,Plusgreen
+Sun 'IeCTa
'1,Plusgreen
Half blue
+Minusgreen
+Eighth blue
'13
'3
'1,Minusgreen
+ Quarter blue
'13
'1,Minusgreen
+ Sun 'Ie CTa
'/3
+ Sun 'Ie CTa

CC10M
'/3 +#818
Third blue
Full blue 50
2fJ + %Plusgreen '13 + '1,Plusgreen
+Quarter blue
All Mfrs-Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White , Warm White Deluxe: See page 167
Color Balancing for Commercial/Industrial

High Intensity AC Arc Discharge lighting
Mfr.
lamp
Camera filters: Symbol " iI " conversion or light balanCing serres, " CC" :
Color Compensallng serres (Pages 230 and 231 ) EI column IS exposure
compensa tion 111 T Stops lor fill rs
Photo lamp filters : (Pages 366 and 36 7) EI column ISdeviation of typical
exposure meters du to color Imbalance When reading e posure In Jiltered
IIghl from lhese unllS. reduce the ASA/ISO meter selting (Ie Increase the
light level) by the number of T StOps Indicaled
Note: To aVOId e cesSlve foltrauon. the use 01 daylightbalanced film for
Metal Halide and Mercury IIg1111ng IS advised If the lab can accommodate.
and exposure IS accurale. some or all cam fa filters may be left off
David L. Quaid. ASe

Mfr.
lamp
Camera Filters
Photo lamp Fillers
3200K EI 5500K EI
Film
Film
3200K lamp
EI
5500K lamp
EI
3200K EI 5500K EI
Film
Film
3200K lamp
EI
5500K lamp
EI
HIGH
PRESSURE
SOOIUM
GE
CCSOB
2 (Plusgreen)
" BOA
LU2SO/0X 1CC3OM 2'" t CCSOB 3'>:
~CCIOM
Sun GTO
Plusgreen
'I>
' .l'Iusgreen
+Eighlh blue
GE
LU250
n80C
+CC50M 2
nBOA
2x (Plusgreen)
+CC50B 3'}, I Sun V, CTO
I tt82A
GTE
LU250
,,80B
CC30M
+CC40B 'IJ , CCSOB 3
'I,
'~Plusgreen
+ ' d'lusgreen
Sun CTO
+Plusgreen
'IJ
Sun CTO
Plusgreen
I
Plusgreen
'I>
,},
2 (Plusgreen)
+Hall blue
+ Thlrd blue
,},
Full Blue 50
+2 (I'tusgreen)
+Sun'OCTO
1~
Full blue 50
3x(Plusgreen)
+Third blue
'"
MERCURY
METAL
HALIOE
GTE
MM4001
BUHOR
Pholo lamp Fillers
Camera Fillers
CC50M
~ 85B
CC35M
1'" ,,,810
Full blue 50
11,)
PJusgreen
t "
1,J
Plusgreen
I +Third blue
GTE
M4001
C/U
CC40M
CC35M
+=8IB 1', ,=8IA ..,
+=85
GTE
MS4001
3KIBU
ONLY
,, 81EF
" CC IOM "
Full blue SO
' Plusgreen
Ouarter blue
CCSOC
Hall blue
JCC25M 11'3 ,'I. Plusgreen
, Eighth blue
GE
MVR400/
U
CCSO
CC35M
1+=85B 1', =81B I '
Full blue SO
Plusgreen
t I tPlusgreen
t Third blue
I Eighth blue
GE
MVR400/
C/U
CC50M
CC30M
, ,,85B 1'1
Full blue 50
t Plusgreen
"
+ 14Plusgreen
,},
"
"
Hall blue
Plusgreen
,'. Plus green
~ Ouarter blue
Half blue
PkJsgreen
,},
CC50R
CC55M
+ CC40M 2'}, ,,81A
+ tt BIA
GTE H37
CC85M
KC2SO/0X 1+n85B 2
CC60M
It ,,810
Full blue 50
1~ + Half blue
I
GE H2SO/
OX37
0
Third blue
+Plusgreen
' ,flIusgreen
i Quarter blue
"
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
t Third blue
1'}'
" Plusgreen
,SUIl ,~ CTO
, Sun ', CTO
Hall blue
Plusgreen
GTE
H37KC
250/N
Not
recom
mended
CcaOM
+tt85
+3 (Plusgreenl
+ Third blue
Not recommended
2'1
'"
I
"
Third blue
+Eiohth blue
375
100
50
OL..
...
Supply Cycles
Fig ure 43. Waveform for an HMll amp.
Figure 42. HMI applied lamp current and vollage with resultant light
output ver u time; result for s tandard reactance-type ballast are
represen ted.
[Example: Th flrst listed fluor cent light n page 368

(Dm otest oJor Classer 75) ca ll s fo r fil ter adj ustment of 1 Y:J
stops; using 3200K film at El 320, read the exposLLre meter
a t El 125 for the ambient fluorescent ligh ting. If fi ltered incandescent upplementary lights are used, the El column
posure m t r to 100 to read them.
calls for ~ t p, set th
If arc r HMJ supplementary liaht are used, no further
adju tment i required, 0 use the meter at 125, the same
a for ambient lighting.] After color balancing a directed
by the table, a Minolta olor Meter Umay b used to det ct and c rrect for differences between indi vid ual lamp
if desired.
AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem

All of the AC phot graphic arc lamps described in th
Lighting
tion and in the Comm rcial / Indu triaJ light
sources ecti n can exJ1ibi t the n flicker" phenom non.1hi
includes fluor cen ,mercury vapor, metaJ halide additive
types, and hjgh-pressure sod ium as well as th e p ho togra phic typ like HMJ, CSI and ill.
100
50
O L-
......I
Supply Cycles
Figure 4-1. Waveform for a lOOo-W
I lamp.
All of the noted typ of lamps requ ire the us of a

balla ting system to provide current limiting after th arc
is s tr uck. Th e mos t co mm o nl y enco untered ty p of
balla ting device i the induct r or "clloke." Wh~1I II e.d .on
sill/pIe inductive bnllnst systems, nll ofthese lnll/ps W ill exll/b~t n
clwrncteristic which is properly designnted ns tl/l/e-lI/adulntlOn
of the ligltt Ol/tpl/t ("flicker"). Th.is is due to th fact that th.e
light output of the e type of lamps follows the current
wav form . The degree of modLuation, or amou nt of
"flicker" is dilferent for each f the n oted lamp type .
Referen ce to Figure 42 sh ws the effect as it is d isp layed for an HMI la mp. Not th voltag waveform whjcll
377
A 24 fps
N=1
65
60
m= 5
,;.
u
""
u"
55
>Q.
0.
50
0.
45
60
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300

camera shutter angle , degrees
B 25fps
I N=1
N =2
65
" 60
in the case of the HMI lamp shown in Figure 43, note

that the modulation at its minimum represent nly]7%
or of the peak light output. With the CSllamp, thi number is approximately % of peak (F.igure ~), ~nd for ~e
n werCIDtypes,itisr ported that this quantity
nI 55 Yo
of the peak light output. Obviou I ,the depth of th modulation will determine th amount of toleranc th re ma be
in filming with this li ht relative to the n
sar d~gree
of c ntrol of those param t rs which affect the teadllles
of th e posure.
.
.
The time-related factor that are involved III a urlng
Ulat a wliform exposur from frame to frame i guaranteed
u ing th se types of light ources (i.e., flicker-h'e ) are the
following:
1. Stability of Ule power frequency to th lamp ballast;
2. Ca mera fram ing ra te;
3. Stabili ty of cam ra peed;
4. Camera shutter angle;
5. Phase of shutt r relative to light (particularly at
high camera peed).
:t:
,;.
'"u""
.::'"
55
>Q.
0.
.,"
0.
50
m=4
45 ~~....-4~~~_~_~_~~~~~~,......J
60
90
120 150 180
210 240 270 300
camera shutter angle. degrees

Figure 45A an d B. Co n tours of safe la mp su p ply fre qu e ncie for one
rip pl e ra ti on value. m is the nea rest who le numbe r to th e number of
ripple cycles in th e came ra fra me pedod. N is th e neares lw hole number
10 the nu mber of ripple cycl es in th e expos u re in te rval.
i d,aract ristic of the effect f an inductance in a circuit,

and furth r that the amperag i generally inu oida!. The
light output do Iy track th amperage waveform (not
g ing negative). The result is that there are two light pulsations for each full c de f th power line fundamental
per
frequenc (for 6O-cyde y t rns, there are 120 pul
second; for a 5O-cyde y tern, th re are 100 light pulses p r
second).
378
Simply stated, it i n ce sar to be ur<; that th ame

number of light pulsation are present dun~g.each e p?ure interval of Ule film. The amount of vanahon permItted is different for diff r nt values of the parameters noted
above.
In the case where a v r table pO\ver lin i avai lable,
a i true in mo t technically advanced countri , operating from the normal p wer net with a camera Ulat i crytal-eontroLled, the hutt r angle may be vari d through a
very wide range. Th re ha certainly been ad quate te ting of this principle for hutter angles betw n 90 and 200
d grees.
It is important, how ver, to be aware that th rare
condi tions w here on ly CI light vCl riation in one of. the PClrameters of power line fr quency or camera fram ll1g rate
wi ll result in flicker. Wh re po sible, it is desirable t tay
at the hutter an Ie h wn in the "window " that can be
b erved in Figures 45 and 45B.
These "windm " how where the range fop rating
tolerance i great t. F r example, in Figure 45 th intertion on the pr ntation at60c des per econd and 144degr
hutter angle represen~ ~e middle of a"~ indow."
When operating at th
condlhons, a sub tanball large
379
variation i po ible, probabl plus or minu 5%, on all the

parameter which are ubject to variation.
In a practical en e, operating with a 24 fps camera
from a gen era tor where there i uncertainty about its degr e of r gulation, it would be prudent to op rate with th
144 hutter angl . In uch an instance, moderate variations
in the frequen of the generator output will not produce
flicker. Plu or minus 2 cycle in th output power frequ ncy wou ld probably be acceptable wh n operating
withi n the w indow locati n for a 144 hutter angle and 24
fp . A imilar presentati n is made for the 25 fps operation
in Figure 45B.
Although the data hown is sp ifically for HMI, it
mu t be r iterated that it is applicabl for any AC arc discharge ource. The window opening in Figure 45 are specifically determined for HMl.
The would ~ nd to be very conservative for CSl, even
more con er ative for cm and po ibly for some other
commercial sources. However, particularly where one is
encountering lamps op rated from single phase systems,
caution sh uJd b exerci ed. This chart can provide the cinematographer with tho e points of operation which will
give him or her th maximum protection against the flicker
phenomenon.
Electronic and some other types of balla ting systems
whidl pr vide flicker-free balla ting are now available for
a limited range of wattages of the HMJ light ources. Some
of these ballasts are con tructed in such a way that they
increase the operating frequency of the power to the lamp.
Th result of thi i that there ar many more pulsations per
sec nd 0 that mall variations in the number of pul ations
per hutter opening become unimportant. In addition, and
of at least equal importance, the output waveform of essentiall all of these devie is an appro imation of a square
wa erath r than being inusoidal. Thi further reduces the
"off" time and with it the tendency to flicker.
The 200-watt HMl flicker-free s t ms have been in the
field for the long t tim of an of these types of ballasts.
There is now uch equipment for HMl at everal other
pow r level .
Luminaires
In this ecti n a brief description i offered of the optical stems and g neral performance characteristics of the
basic type of luminaire utiliz d in cinematography.
380
Fresnel Lens Spotlights

Fresnel spotlights are made for standard incand scent
and tungsten halogen incandescent sources, and also for the
range of HMI, CID and CSI arc discharge lamp . The range
of wattag , taking into account all types is from 200 watts
or so to 12,000 watts.
Filament
Spherical
Reflector
./
/
Flood
Beam
Specular
Finish
Figure 46. Optical sy tern of tandard Fresnel Spotlight when in full

flood position.
Filament
Spherical
Reflector
Specular
Finish
Fresnel
Lens
Spot
Beam
1--- - - d ----""'..".-. 11
Figure 47. Optical sy tern of landard Fresnel Spotlight when in spol

position.
These luminaires r pre ent the mo t widely u ed

motion-picture lighting units. They provide the means for
changing the beam diameter and center intensity through
a relatively broad range. U ing standard incande cent
lamps, the" pot" to "flood" ratio ma be of the order of 6
to 1 or so, and with a tungsten halogen lamp, it may be
381
Wide
Flood
Beam
Tungsten-Halogen
Lamp
Figure 48. Optical sys tem of Fresnel Spotlight when adapted for
Tungsten-Ha loge n lamp.
:::>
-J
Narrow Spot
<5
<J)
Q)
uc
ro
U
Medium Flood
::-
'iii
c
Q)
E
- 10
-5
+5
+ 10
Coverage (Ft.)
Figure 49. Characteristic intensity curve of Fresnel Spotlights.
possible to extend this ratio to 8 or even 9 to llU1der some

cirCWllstances.
The optical y tem of these lwninaire i the same for
all the variations that may be presented. The light source
and a spherica l reflector are located in a fixed relationship
to one another. This combination of light source and back
reflector is designed so that the spherical reflector reflects
the energy being radiated toward the back of the housing
tlu'ough tlle filament and towards tlle lens. The effect intended is that tlle energy being radiated to tlle lens appears
to come hom a single source. The combination of the reflec tor and light source are moved in relation to the lens to
accomplish tlle focusing.
Figures 46 and 47 sh ow the op tical system of the

fresnel in tl1e spot and flood positions. Note tllat the fl ood
position is accomplished by moving the light source/reflector combination very close to the lens. When the h.mgsten
halogen light sources are utilized in these systems, due to
the fact that the envelope is much smaller, it is possible to
move the light source/reflector combination even closer to
tlle lens resulting in a wider flood beam distribution. This
is shown in Figme 48.
This is a very attractive feature, since tl1e highest efficiency is acl1ieved in tlle flood position, and there need be
no sacrifice in the spot performance. Typical efficiencies in
the beam (the portion of the pattern that is witl1i.n 50% of
the center intensity) in "spot" focus for fresnels wo uld be
from 7% to 9% and in tlle "flood " posi tion from 30% to 40%.
One of the most important features of the fresnel lens
spotlight is its ability to barndoor sharply in the wide flood
focus position. This property is less apparent as the focus
is moved towards a spot (at spot focus it is not effective at
all). The bamdoor accessory used witll this spotlight provides the cinematographer w ith the means for convenient
light conb:ol. The sharp cutoff at the wide flood is, of course,
due to the fact that the single-soLuTe effect produces a totally divergent light beam. The action of the barndoor then
is to create a relatively distinct shadow line.
Occasionally it may be desirable to optimize the spot
performance of these units, and for tl1is situation "hot"
lenses are available. These tend to produce a very narrow
beam with very high intensity. It is important to remember that the flood focus is also narrowed when tllese lenses
are used. Figure 49 hows characteristic intensi ty curves for
hesnel spotlights.
Dedolight
The Dedolight, introduced within the last several
years, is a lighting instrument whose concept is W1ique, and
which offers a remarkable range of performance combined
witl1 small size, and low power requirements (see Figure
50).
The optical system is shown in Figure 51. Note that the
moving element in tl1e system is tl1e light source wi th a
collection mirror behind it, and meniscus lens opposite. To
change the focus of the W1it, tl1ese tI1ree elements, which
are fixed witl1 regard to each other, are moved as a wut
relative to a clear fixed condenser lens.
7000 Lux
Ic
600
6000
500
Fig ure 50. Th e Ded o lig hl.
5000
Condenser Lens
Spherical Reflectors
400
Filament
Meniscus Lens
--'I
4000
~/\
"
I~II l
,'1
Ht,il
'1'- - "
' /
' -
\\
1 1-
300
r~ : -',I I
\\
3000
\"'1 i _ I_ LlL,
:\{
,,
2000
Figure 51. Dedolight Optical Sy te rn .
The performance of the light ' hown in Figure 52,

where the 25:1 foeu ing ran e can be seen, and the unusuall flat, e\'en and ft-edged ilJwnination field ar evident
at aLI foeus po iti n .
When fitted \ ith an acce or proj ction a ttachment,
the beam can b controlled ftuther by the u e of an iris or
framin gshutter . ltprojects Ro co " M"-sizegob and ~ i1J
pr ject pattern wi th hard ed g and without c .Ior ~'IJ1I?
ing. Where a d iff use or soft- dg d pattern projecti on IS
desired, the fron t lens of the proj ction acce ry can be
adju ted to accomplish this effe t.
The Dedoli ht is made a ither a 12-vol t r a 24-volt
ISO-watt unit. The lOO-watt unit can uti lize a famil of
lamp indudm (at12\ olts) 20, SO and 100 watts. The units
can be battery operated or can be used from 120- or 240\'olt C uppli offered for u e \ ith the lumi naire
whidl permit lection of 3000 K, 3200 K or 3-IDQK operation.
0
1000
200
100
Figure 52. Dedolight performance with 100w source, 10 fl. d i lance, spot
3.4 , flood 40 .
Open Reflector Variable Beam Spotlights

Th e are typicall the tungsten-halogen open reflector potlights. Ther ar also some low-wattage HM I-types
avaiJabl . These non-len ystems pro ide "foeu ing" ac-
385
The great a ttraction of these lwninaires is that they a re

substantially more efficient than the fre nellens spotlight .
Typical efficiencies in the spot po ition gi e 20 to 25% of
the ource lumens in th beam (50% of the center inten it)'
area) and in flood, effici ncies of 45 t 50% are not uncommon. Figure 49 how typical inten ity distributions for
the e units.
T pical spot to flo d intensity ratio for these type of
wlit is b tween 3:1 and 6:1.
"'
15
'"
CD
Spot Posit ion
Wide Flood Position
(5
Figure 53, Optical y tern of non -lens pollight (variable beam).
:?:
'iii
c
Ii)
CD
Gl
c:
15
c
U
Coverage (Ft.)
'"
SpOl Position
(5
o
~
Figure 55. Characleristic intensity curve of tungsten-halogen floodlight

(broad) (horizontal axis).
Wide Flood
Position
Tungsten-Halogen Floodlights
Coverage (Ft.)
Figure 54. Characteri tic intensity curves of non-lens spol\jght (variable
beam).
tion, and therefore a variable diameter beam, by moving

the light source in relationship to the reflector (or vice
versa). These types of wli ts are available for sow'ces ranging from 400 to 2,000 wa tts. Refer to Figures 53 and 54. One
of the drawbacks of this system, when compared with the
fresnel lens potlights, is that there are always two light
ources operative. The illunlination field produced by these
ystems is the sum of the light output directly from the bulb
and the energy reaching the field from the reflector.The use
of the bamdoor accessory with these lights does not produced a single hadow, due to this double-source characteristic. Typically a double shadow is cast from the edge of
the barndoor. Figure 48 shows the optical systems of these
open reflector poUights in both the spot and wide flood
positions.
A variety of tlmgsten-halogen flood lighting fixture

have b n developed, taking advantaO'e of th e compact
SOLLrce . Two of the more typical forms are treated here.
The fj tures are a ailable in wattage from about 400
through 2,000 watts.
Th o-called "broad" normaII u e a linear SOLLr e
and represents a relativel high efficienc y tern. Barnd I'
control of the light is effective with the edge of the door that
is parallel to the light urce. Typical characteristic int nity cW'v for the br ad i hown in Figure 55.
~r----------------- -------,
15
c
'"
U
(5
~
~
'iii
c
CD
EL-- - -- ------+- - - - - - - -----'

Coverage (Fl. )
Figure 56. Characteristic inten ity curve of "mini" floodlight OlOrizonlal

axis).
387
There are typ of" mini" floodligh ts using the coiledcoil short filament tlmgsten-halogen lamps which provide
very even, flat coverage with extremely sharp barndoor
control in both directions. Due to the design of the reflector in this system, the light output from this fixed-focus
flood light appear to have a single SOllfce. This accounts
for the improv d barndoor characteristics. The intensity
characteristics of the "mini " floodlights on the horizontal
axis is shown in Figure 56.
Painted
Surface
(Q~~~f-- Reflector
Painted
Surface
Cone Light
Tungsten- Shield
Halogen
Standard Lamp
Incandescer
Lamp
Folded " Solt" Light
Painted Surface
Distribut ion Shown lor Unit 3 It.

From Vertical Surface
Ii:
Q)
en
'"CD
- Distribution Shown for Unit 10 It

From Vertical Surface
>
TungstenHalogen
Lamp
o
U
" Soft" Light

Intensity (Foot Candles)
Figure 58. Optical system of various "soft" lights.
Figure 57. Characteri lic i ntensity curve for cyclorama light.
lil
Q)
Cyclorama Luminaires
i5
c
These lighting fixtllfes were originally developed for

lighting backing in television, but have broad application
in similar types of situations in film. Because of the design
of the refl ctor system, it is possible to utilize these futllfes
very do to the backing that is being lit and accomplish a
very LU1.iform distribution for a considerable vertical distance. TypicaJly th e lmits are made for tungsten-halogen
linear SOLU:ces ranging from 500 to 1,500 watts.
Based on th variations in design, some of these may
be used as close a ' 3 to 6 feet from the backing being illuminated . The pacing of the luminaires from one another
along the length of the backing is in part determined by the
distance of the e fixtllfe from the backing itself. A typicaJ
intensity distribution i hown for a floor positioned unit
lighting a vertical backing in Figure 57.
Soft Lights
The oft light, which attempts to produce essentially
shadowl illumination, is now a fundamental tool in 00-
Umbrella Ught
{;
'"
'5
~
z:'0;
c
Q)
E
Coverage (Fl.)
Figure 59. Characteri stic inte nsi ty curves of "soft" lights.
ema lighting. Cllfrentl y, these are made in wattages from

500 up to about 8,000, and typically utilize multiple 1000W
linear tube tLU1gs ten halogen lamps.
The degree of softness is det rn1.ined by the effective
area of the SOllfce. All of these fixtllfes are indirect, in the
sense that no direct radiation is permitted from the light
SOllfces into the beam of illumination. The "reflecting"
sllffaces vary in finish from matte white paint to a variety
of sen1.i-specuJar surfaces. The degree of pecularity of the
backing is not as important a the size of the reflecting sur-
389
face which i uniforml l illuminated and ref! ct the energy

which makes up the illumination beam.
Formerly these were availabl nly in the form of the
Cone Ligh t, but now a variety of other configmations have
been developed largely due to the availability of the linear
soW"ce tungsten halogen lamp. Figure 58 shows the configuHl tions of some of the types of ft lights in current u e.
Typ ica l intensit distributions are hown in Figure 59.
There are several typ of lioht urces which are upplied b the manufacture a ess ntiall complete lighting
tems.
The effectiveness of the bamdoor is reduced as the focus is

moved toward spot and is totally without useful effect at
the spot focus.
TIle ffectiveness of the barndoor as an acce soryon
other typ s of luminaires varies sharply with the design of
the specific item. In a number of the open reflector tungsten halogen systems (particularly floodJights) barndoor
effectiveness is limited to the edge of the barndoor whleh
is parallel to the ource.
Overall, this i one of the most important and useful
lighting accessorie available to the cin ematographer.
Sealed-Beam Types (PAR Lamps)
Scrim
Th most popular of these are the PAR 64 and r AR 36

conJiourations. These lamps hav a parab lic reflecto r
\ hich ha a high reflectance aluminized coating, and a
pri matic t p of front lens. T picall theyar supplied in
P (ver narrow spot), SP (narrow pot), MFL (medium f! ad) and WFL (wide flood) lens yst 111 They are
eXhell1ely effi cient optica l ystems.
Fi xtLLres are ava ilabl which assemble ll1ultipl s of
these typ of lamp for da light fill applications or for longthrow tadiurn and arena lighting requirements. Both
3200K type and the dichroic coated version of these (approximatel SOOOK) are available.
The type of scrim referred to here i placed directly in

the accessory mounting clips on a luminaire. This type of
scrim is normally wire netting, sometimes tainless steel
wire, which is u ed as a mechanical dimmer. There are
normally accessory clips at the front of the luminaire to
accept the appropria te size crim.
The advantage of tile scrim is tllat it permits a reduction in light intensity in several steps (single and double
crims) without changing tile color temperature or the focus of th luminaire. Contrary to popular belief, it is not a
diffuser.
The half-scrirn is an extr mely useful variation on the
full scrim. It permits the placement of a scrim material in
only half of the beam, and is widely used on he nel spotlights. It overcomes the problem encountered when the
fresnel is used at fairly high angles. The portion of the beam
striking the floor or objects near the floor do est to the
lurninaire produces intensitie that are too high to matdl
the desired level at the distance associated with the center
of the beam. The r ason for this, of course, is th ubstantial variation in the distances tha t the illumination energy
travels. The half-scrim applied on tile portion of the beam
impinging on the nearest objects can overcome this problem.
Light-Control Accessories
Th most typica l lighting acces o r supplied with th
luminai res of variou t pe describ d in the pr ced ing ctions \ auld b th barndoor and rim. Provi ion i made
for mounting these acces aries on nearly all of the luminair de cribed.
Barndoors
These have been bri fly described in the section n
fresn I I ns potlights. Th purpo of thi acces or i to
prevent the illumination b am from the fixture from readling certain portion of the t. It is intended tha t a relatively
well-defined edg can be e tabli h d defining the end of
an illuminated ar a and th beginning of an Lmilluminated
zone.
Barndoors are most effective when used on fresnel lens
potlight when the spotl ight is in th wide fl ad position.
Gel Frames
DiJferent forms of these holders are made and designed to fit into the accessory clips on tile front of most
luminaires. They permit the convenient use of various types
of plastic filter materials to modlfy the characteristics of the
beam. Color media may be put in these holders for effect
391
color and a wid ra nge of diffusion products are ava ilable

which may al 0 b mOtU1ted.
Grip Accessories for Light Control

T pi all ,grip quipment for lighting control repreent d vi
n t direct! mounted to the light.
Diffuser
fo r ~se as et illtllTtina~i on. Refle to r come in a w ide range

of SJzes and constructlOn ,aJ1d a nu mb r of djfferent surfacll1g material are ava ilable for ace mpli hing the reflecting urfaces.
These boards have b cn tll'faced with variou reflecting media, including sign paint r' I af. H wever, the b'cnd
now i toward pia tic laminate for thi purpose. 111cse are
nov.' a ailable from Rosco in urface fini h ranging from
of difan ab olutely clear mirror throu h vari u degr
fusion of the mirror charnct ri ti .
These variations permit the lecti n of urfaces wruch
accomplish both reflection and diffusion. A aded series
of these is available and areal ,du toth laminatedc ntruction, very stable repeatable urfa . Th are not damaged by weather or by dust r dirt ince the can be ea iJ
cleaned.
In addition to being able to r flect and diffu e at the
ne\ laminate matesame time, there are versions of th
rial wrucl1 also do color filtering. One ersion of a "soft"
reflector has a slight blue tint wruch corrects the sunlight
to a closer approximation to da light. old reflector are
tem.
also available in these
Gobos
obo come in the same form as the arious a im,
d t , finger, butt rfli and overheads, but are opaque. In
this form th yar utilized to keep light from fa ll ing in a
givetHr a, and peflTtit very fine adj ustmen t of the lighting
ina larg arca . Th amea ortmen t of holdersands tands
is ava ilablc f r m unti ng these dev ices.
A sp cial ized variation of the gobo is the cucolori ,
wh ich i a cut- ut pattern placed in the pa th of the sp tlight in ordcr to a t a hadow that might be comparable
to the light c min throu h the leaves on a tree. Severa l
v r ion of th e devices are available.
Reflectors
Rcflect r board are widely used for redirecting SW1light and modifying its charactelistics so that it is suitable
392
393
Special Visual Effects

Recent year have brought a high level of sophistication to th mechanic of pecial visual effects, allowing cinematograph r 'imagination a greater degree of freedom.
Thi chapter i intended to give the cinematographer an
overview of the techniques a ailable, including front and
rear pr j ti n, the ptical printer, motion control photograph ,and digital image manipulation.
Shooting Background Plates

n pr j ted n a translucent screen and re-photo raph d a a background for a Ii e-action foreground
have been traditi naIl called "plat "or "ke ." Guidelines for the ri inal photograph of such enes also apply v hen th
en are to be compo ited b mo t of the
meth d discu
in this ection.
General Requirements
pin-r g i t red motion-picture camera should be
emplo cd for fi lming all stationary background plates.
ince the plate will later be re-photographed in combination with a Ii e f regrowld cene, often employing the use
of a olid t pi e, the lightest amount of film movement
due to po r r gi tration will be readily detectable. It i not
absolut Inc ary, but de irable, that a pin-regi tered
camera b emp lo ed for filming traveling plates. full
cam 'ra ap rture i de irable, although an Academy aperture may be cmpl yed if it i the onl y size available.
Vi taVi i nand 65mm cameras are also often used. The
larg I' n gativ ar a I ad t finer-grained, sharper compo ite image. Medium- p ed emulsions are the usual elloice
of mo t ba kgr und plat camera men for grain and harpne . High- pe d negative may be used tmder special circumstance .
E pure h uld be on the ful l side; if in doubt, slightly
overc p
rath r than underexpo e. A crisp, full-scale
p rint with rich blacks and elean highlights is desirable. A
mudd print made from a thin, wlderexposed negative is
unsati factory and would be very difficult to match when
the compo it c ne i lat r photographed. Backlighted
c n ,e ept f r effects Uell a wilight shinLmering on
water, should be avoided. Background plat s fall into two

distinct categories: stationary and trav ling.
Stationary Camera
A tationary plate is photograph d witll a rigidly fi ed
camera, tied down and firmly brac d . Kn wing e acHy
how and for what purpo e the plate will be used i a great
aid in setting up. An imp rtant fact r in fi lming tationary
plates is recording the proper p r pective, with ti,e correct
ani hing point, to pr vide an appar nt match with the
foreground scene in the final comp ite pictur . Unles the
ani hing point is properl p ition d, th linear com'erg nce in ti,e foreground scene will n t matell that recorded
on the plate.
Camera elevation and tilt and h riz n placem nt must
be given erious consideration in order to meet these requirements.lfindoubt, or if th plate i for library use, place
the h rizon dead center ince it rna be moved up or down
\ hen
composited and allow the mo t leewa in fittinu0
.
anous composite situation . The ideal ituation, of course
is to film three plates: one with the k ~ from the top, one
with the horizon centered, and one with the sk occuping Y-; of the frame. This will a llow fran eventuality and
give ti,e director added scope if he d cid to hoot up or
down. U ually, hm,,'ever, the h riz n is plac d about lA of
tILe distance trom ti,e top of th fram . It' advi able to have
slightly more foreground , wh ther water, pavement, or
enery. If sufficient foregrowld i n t provided on ti,e
fi lmed image, it may be nece ary to blow up a p rtion of
the picture to provide it, re ulting in increa ed grain and
poorer image quality.
Platesshottoscriptar u uallyord r d with ufficient
data for the cameranlan to do the job pI' perly. tock plates,
filmed for library use, are a little m re difficult since they
must be photographed in a mann r tha t wi.1I a llow using
tI,em 111 a more genera l way to fill variou ituation .
BackgrolUld images hould b iz d so that tILe fulle t po sible area of the fil med fram ca n b utilized . This
provides the finest photographic quality, lea t grain and
harpe t picture, and result in a top qua li ty combination of
plate and foreground . It i inadvi able to employ a lens
horter than 35mm (for 35mm phot !!"raphy) unle only a
partof the image is later utilized . me background scene
hot with an e h'emeI wide-angl len ma pr ent er
difficuJt match ing problems when compo ited. Slightly

longer lenses, on the order of 40mm and SOmm, are best.
(Len es of comparabl angle are recommended for
istaVision or 6Smm ph tograph .)
An excellent method for securing an accurate match
for a plate shot to script is to use stand-ins .P.o itio~ed exactl the same as the playe will later be posItioned m fr~nt
of the background. A few feet of film houJd be hot With
the tand-ins in po ition and they then hould be mo ed
out and the plate photographed . This will ~ive the
compo iting cameraman a good idea of h?w th fmal shot
houJd look and is particularly valuable If the plate cameraman i on an extend d location trip and might not be
available houJd que tions arise. While the plate is being
hot, be certain that no one walks closer to th camera than
th positions occupied by the stand-ins. If someone were
to walk between the stand-in position and the camera, ti,e
p rson would appear to large, upsetting the required diminishing per pective. To b afe, keep everyone te~ feet
or more behind the position ccupied by th t?Jld-ms.
Background view seen through a door or wmdow are
Ie critical to shoot, sinc the iew is a distant on and does
not require an perfectl int grated relationship with the
foreground. The camera angle must be correct, however,
and present the prop r vartishing point. A scen supposedl occurring in an offic on the 20th floor houJd have a
window plate p sessing a view taken ~om t~at appa~ent
Ie ation, and presenting the proper \/Iewpomt. While a
considerable amount of "cheating" can be tolerated ( uch
a hooting from the 10th floor of a building), th i w preented shouJd be one that wouJd appear normal t a pern on the live t looking ut the window. TIl pla~e camra couJd not, for in tance, be angled up or down; It m.ust
be shot dead level so that a " quar e on" view with vertical
line i recorded. A sp cial backgrowld slate should be u ed
to film all pertinent da ta: prod uction number, scene nu mber, ca mera heigh t, camera angle, sun angle, ~ocall e~gtIl
of lens, et cetera. 11Us data will be a help later m duplicatingthesetupwhenthec mpo itesceneisfilmed. Thebackground plate camerap r n h.ouJd bear in.~d ~at he is
not expected to record b autlful compo ltion m themlves. He is impl furnishing the background to back up
th combined scene.
Moving Camera
Traveling backgrowld plates for rear proc
pr jection are used in combination with suppo edly movmg vehid , airplanes, train or boats. They may be film~d with
eith ringle or muJtiple camer~. In or~er to pro~lde. the
arious plates necessary for hooting anous combmations
of group hots, close-up, 0 er-the-shouJder cen , etc.,
se eral angle mu t b filmed from the moving camera
platform. It is ad isable to use a in~le camera who ne~er
p ible to allow "cheating" the sunlight 0 that a time mterval between run may b chosen which will record each
plate with the best light condition. C~mera car p~ed may
al be varied, if de ir d, for the vanous angl , If plates
ar hot individually.
Single cam ra plates wiJI usually suffice, ince tJ;e
change in cam ra angle w hen th e process s~ene IS
p hotgraphed is u ually ufficient .to co~e~ any nusmatch
that exists. Rem emb r that the audIence ISm tent on watcl,ing the fo reground action and the background plate will
not distract W1le s som thing very jarring app ars. Normally, a considerable amount of "cheating" is p rmiss~ble
(indeed, often required) in order to record the best pOSSible
t of plates, in the proper light, at the .correct rate of peed.
Sometimes a single id of the treet LS filmed to ser e for
both ide angles - b hooting left rear going one way and
right rear going in the opposite direction. Or, a. ingle plate
ma be turned over in projection (if no telltale 19:t1S appea~)
t
rve both ides of the treel. Turning the plate over IS
u ually reserved for country road, ince its u on tr~Jfic
lad n streets may be more obvious (parked car on eltl,er
ide of the street will point the same direction).
Of great importance in filming moving plat is ~h at
th camera be at the correct height. For auto the heIgh t
hould be at ti,e shoulders (not the eye level) of a person
sa ted in the car w ho w ill later be seen in ti,e rea r projected
com posite shot. This w ill vary, for example, with low-slung
ports cars and bu e . It wouJd not d o to look outsid.e a
port car window a nd see the roofs of car foll.owmg
(which wouJd re uJt if the plate camera were too hIgh).
On the other hand, a low-angle shot shooting up into
tr
and buildings i equally bad because it is n t feasible
to angle a camera in a car to photograph seated p pIe and
see this perspective through the window. ~e plat~ camera hould be tilted light! downward - JU t a trifle be-
397
low hori zontal. The va nishing point of a straight-on shot

wo uld b just ab ve dead center of the screen. Remember
it i alway b tt I' to have a Little more pavement than sky.
A set-up may require tiJting down on a mock-up car, 0
add iti nal image in the lower corners of the frame is desirable. Traveling plate hould b photographed witl135mm
or -lOmm I n
on side and three-quarter angle shots. A
35mm, or m tin1 a 50mm if only a small area of the
plate will b utilized, i used on traight-back hots.
Speed vs. Angle

The camera angle on a moving hot affects the apparf th projected image. Plat hot from traight
Ide angl appear to move much fa tel' than those filmed
from eith I' trai ht fon ard or traight backward an.,.les
- ev n if the peed of the vehicle from which tile hots
were mad \Va the ame. It is often necessary, tl)erefor ,
to cheat tile cam ra vehicle peed (not tile camllfa peed)
o that all an I - \ ill appear at the same relative peed
\ hen I' ar-proj ct d. This effect i less apparent in open
countr than in city treets with closely packed traffic and
nearby building . It i advisable to use normal 24 frame
per econd cam ra p d whenever possible 0 that pedestrian . appear to b moving normally. It may be necessary
h ts to undercrank ince this is the only way
on wLld cha
to record ul tra-fa t vehicle peeds with safety.
The following diagram will be useful for estimating
cam~ra car. p eds for various camera angles. This is for city
traffic. Vanou angle plate may be filmed in open COUlltry at the ame ca mera car speed for all angle if nothing
clo e to the ca mera appears in the plate.
60%
80%
~t peed
100%
100%
60%
80%
For e ampl , if tile camera car travels at 50 mile per

hour for the traight hots, it hould travel at 40 mile for
398
the three-quarter angles and at 30 mil s for the side shots.

Be certain to set the camera at the same height and with the
same slight downward tiJt for all angles.
Plate Print Preparation for Back Or Front

Projection Or Aeriallmage Compositing
Color matching is affected by the lenses, arc mirror,
quartz protector plate, cooling water cell, and by the screen
itseU. Preproduction te ting is suggested. Plate prints
should incorporate color ra tio correction for projection conditions. Print contrast may be lowered by flashing and/or
using low-eontrast print (IV) film; both will also affect color
aturation. Masking has also been uggested (American
Cil1ematographerMagazine, ov. 1984, p.109,J. Danforth).
Prints should be on B & H perforated stock.
Front-Proj ection Process

by Petro Vlaho
The front projection process of composite photography was made possible by the development of a highly
directional reflective material by 3-M (Scotchli te #7610).
Scotchlite is a glass beaded reflex reflector that returns
most of the reflected Light back to its source. The gain of
Scotchlite is so high that a fraction of a footcandle of background image intensity is s ufficient to balance a 2OQ-footcandle foreground illumination .
Although the projected image falls upon foreground
subjects, its intensity is so low that it i not vi ible on the
subject. When the camera is xactly aligned on the optical
axis of the projector, it will not se the hadow cast by tlle
foreground subject. The very low level of illlllTIination required by the Scotchli te screen makes possible background
screens as large as 30,000 sq. ft. when using an arc projector.
The practical use of front projection requires careful
alignment of the camera and projector lenses to (optically)
superimpose their fro nt nodal points. When the nodal
points are misaligned, or when the ubject is too close for
a given lens focal length and f- top, a dark halo is developed. The appendix at the end of this section defines a safe
399
minimwn object distance a a function of screen di ta nce,

len focal length and f- t p. B observina the limitations
of th front-projection proc , excellent r~ults ha e been
obtained.
Geometric Relationships
.
TI,e hadows cast b an actor, or any foregrow,d obJ t, are largel obscured b the object as the proj tor i
b~ought do to the camera. The hadows are completely
hidden from the camera wh n the camera and projector
len . occupy the same po ition.Since this is not ph icaIJy
p Ible, the axes of both I nse are made to coincide optica ll b the use of a mi-transparent mirror. The arrangement of the camera, projector, mirror and screen are hown
in Fig. 1.
The function of the emi-mirror is to bend th axis of
th projector in a right angle 0 tI,a t the light which reaches
the r n appear to originat from within the camera lens.
Sil~ tI~e ca~,era cannot
arow,d or bel1ind a for ground
object, It WIll not see tI,e hadow cast by tI,at obj ct if the
ha~ow i confined strictly to tI,e area behind tI,e obj ct.
PlaCIng the projector axis coincident ....ri th the camera axis
accompU hes this objective wiiliin certain limitations tI,at
5COTCH LITE
\
SCR EEN7
I FOREGROUND I
08../ECTS
I
"
'Q
I
II
I
\
I
\
I
\
I
\
\~I MIRROR
BLA CK
ABSORBER
S C REEN
" " , ,\
{eJ1
---u
\
---
-).\1 1
J.
PRD./ECr~
CAMERA
Figure t. Arrangement of camera, projector, mirror and screen.
will be desa-ibed. Although the projector is loca t d to the

right of the camera in Fig. 1, it may be located on either side
or may project into th mirror from above or below. It is
al permissible, fr m a functional point of vi w, to interchange the camera and pr jector locations.
The mirror, at 45 to the projector and cam ra axis,
r flects the projected image onto the screen; but the mirror, being semi-transparent, allows about half of the projected light to go dir tI through the mirror onto the neare t wall and be" a t d . uch wa tage is unavoidable ince
the mirror must be emi-transparent to permit light from
the foreground scene, a well as from the background itIf, to reach the cam ra In.
The 45 mirror i al a partial mirror a een by the
camera, and provid to the camera a view of th ide wall
f the stage as well a a econd image re ulting from the
projector waste light. To eliminate these secondary in,ages
a mall, dull black scr n is placed opposite th proj ctor,
a hown in Fig. 1.
Introvision (Hollywood) replaces portion of the black
sa-een with a piece of Scotchlite sa-een. Suppl mentary
I nses permit focusing the projected image onto th supplementary segments. When matched to black flat on tI,e
main set, it is possible to have actors appear to em rge from
doorways and from bel1ind objects in the projected background.
Another development by Courier Films Limited, the
Zoptic Process, employ a zoom lens on the camera and the
projector and interlocks the zoom control . B imultaneous zooming of the foreground and background lenses
in the ame direction, objects in the field appear to move
toward or away from the camera. This technique was used
tensively in the 1978 production of Superll1an. Th transmission / reflection ratio of the mirror is not critical; howev r, for best utiliza tion of foreground and projection illumination, transmission should always equal or exceed reflection. Their relation hip is shown in Fig. 2. Th projector light that finally enters the camera experiences a reflection at the mirror to get to the screen, and then a transmision through the mirror to get to the camera. Utilization is
ilierefore a function of the product of ilie reflection and
transmission percentages. Even if one assumes no losses,
th maximum efficiency cannot exceed 25% and it occurs
at a SO/SO ratio. In front projection, one hould expect two
stops of light loss.
401
25
20
Nofel-EFF.
F.6. - r
"'ote2-LOSS~O
10 15 '20 25 30 35 40 45 so 55 60 65 70 r/lANSltf/SStCW %
90
50
70
60
50
-40
3AJREFl.CTANCE "1'0
Figure 2. Front p rojection mirro r; transmission/reflection ra ti o and

efficiency.
Since film expo ure of foregrOlUld objects requires a

given amount of light at the camera, any transmission loss
through the mirror must be made up by increasing the illumination of the foreground. Thus transmission should be
as high as po ible. The efficiency of utilization of the foreground (FG) illumination is a linear function of transmision and increases a the transmi ion increa es. An increase of transmission from 50% to a val ue of 60% results
in a 12% increase in the utiliza tion of the foregro und illumination. It can be een from the figure that this change
from 50 to 60% in the transmission results in a drop of only
4% (25 down to 24) in the utilization efficiency of the background (B ) illumination.
Th scene being projected onto the screen is also being projected onto the foreground object and actors.
Whether or not the scene being projected on foreground
objects will be visible in the photography depends upon the
intensity f the projected light relative to the intensity of the
foreground illumination. A specific high-gain intensity relation hip i thus far olely a property of the Scotchlite
screen.
The Scotchlite Screen

The pedal properties of the front-projection screen
make front projection practicable. One screen made by the
3M Company, commonly known as Scotchlite, Type 7610,
is a reflex reflec tor - that is, it has the property of reflect-
402
ing light back to its source. A reflex reflector can be made

by using comer mirrors or gla beads. Th 3M screen u
glas beads. The limHed angular ilistribution of reflection
is illu trated in Fig. 3. Becau of the controlled angle f th
reflect d light, the screen has a ry high gain. If on observ the screen from a vantag point not more than about
yt0 fr m the axis of the proj ctor, it will app ar to be nearly
1,000 times brighter than wou ld a matte wh ite surface receiving the same illumination. Because of this high gain of
Scotchlite, ver little illumination is required from the projector; therefore front projection can pro ide background
of aIm t any d ired ize. A 13o-A arc lamp project r can
ea iJ illuminat a 30,000 q. ft. screen of Scotchlite to baln. lllUS, screens up t 120
ance a 2OQ-fc-ke foreground
X 250 f t can be used.
1400
1\
1200
1000
_\
\
\
800
600
1\
400
200
' I'--
r--
0 0.5 0 1.00 1.5 0 2.0 0

DIVERGENCE ANGLE
Fig u re 3. Relati ve a ngular d istri b u tion of re fl ect ion of 3M Scolchl ile

reflective s heeting Type 7610.
The ability to u e large background screens is on of

the principal advantages of front projection. By comparison, rear projection was limited to a screen ize of 20 to 30
ft., even when illuminated b three high-powered projectors. Even considering the 10 es of the emi-mirror, one
need only use ab ut one footcandle of illumination on the
screen to balance a foregrOlUld key light of 200 fe. Thi i a
net ra tio of about 200:1 and i more than ad qu ate to result
403
in invisibili ty of the image projected on foregro lmd objects

- even a white shirt. If one considers a white shirt to be
nearly 100% reElective, and the reflectivity of black velvet
, to be approximately 2%, this represents a ratio of only 50:1.
Thus a white shirt is so dull compared to Scotchlite (200:1)
that it appears to be blacker than black velvet when the
Scotchli te is illuminated to the brightness of the foregrOlmd
scene.
The Scotchlite material is available in two-foot-wide
rolls. The screen can be constructed by simply papering the
material onto a wall-like surface or wooden backing or
hanging it in horizontal strips. It is only necessary to cover
all of the screen area. Butt edges are not required, and pieces
may be overlapped. It is advisable, however, to prepare a
screen from the same production batch since a second batch
may differ slightly in brightness gain.
800
Alignment of Nodal Points

The practical usage of front projection requires careful aligrU1lent of the camera and projector lenses. All multielement lenses, whether for camera or projector usage, have
two or more nodal points. In the front-projection process
we are interested only in the front nodal point. For the pro-
404
---
400
0
10
20
30
40
INCIDENCE ANGLE
'AT 0 INCIDENCE
Figure 4. Gain of Scotchlite screen as a function of the angle of incidence,

for a constant d ivergence angle of 1(,. between incident beam and
measuring axis.
Tesselating The Screen

Irregularities in reflection of the Scotchlite material
may be minimized by cutting or tearing the Scotdtlite
into small pieces, scrambling the pieces, and reassembling them into a mosaic. This, however, is wasteful of
ma terial and is labor intensive. Apogee, Inc. has designed a die which cuts ScotchJite into symmetrical
hexagons with curved edges; with the aid of a template
the tiles are mounted on a prepared Dacron and Mylar
sheet with a 3% overlap . The completed screen is
dlecked by photographing it using a ring light and highcontrast film in order to exaggerate any imperfections
that might exist. (Apogee, Inc. holds a patent #4,548,470
covering this method of screen fabrication and supplies
either the complete screen assemblies or separate tiles
for the user's application .) It is not necessary that
Scotchlite be absolutely flat or square to the camera since
its gain is quite uniform over a rather wide angle of incidence, as shown in Fig. 4.
---l----
600
\'
( .
jector lens, the front nodal point is that position within the
lens from whidl the light appears to emanate. For the camera lens, the front nodal point is that point within the lens
toward whidl all incoming light appears to converge. Since
the camera lens has a finite field angle, and since it is possible to have foreground objects anywhere within the field
of view of the camera, there is only one position of the camera lens that will eliminate shadows for all objects witl1.in
its field of view.
This position is obtained when the front nodal point
of the camera lens is effectively coincident in all axes with
tlle front nodal point of the projector lens. If these nodal
points are not effectively coincident, a black shadow line
will appear at the edge of foreground objects.
Where there is only one foregrollild object in the scene,
and that object is located symmetrically on the camera axis
(as in a doseup of one person), it is possible and sometimes
desirable to place the camera nodal point al1ead of tlle projector nodal point. The desirability of this procedure will
be explained later, in the discussion of shadow gradients.
The camera and projector each have three degrees of
freedom in h'anslational motion. A sliding movement of the
camera or projector to the left or right is a translation along
the x-axis. Similarly, a change of elevation is translation
along the y-axis; movem ent toward or away from the
screen is h'anslation along the z-axis. Adjustment of the
position of the camera or projector along these three axes
is required to obtain effective coincidence of their lens nodal
405
pint . An adjustable ba e for the projector or cam ra faci litat this adjustment.
It is the virhtal, or reflected, nodal point of the projector that i to be co-located with tile nodal point of the ca mera lens. Thus any adjustment of the mirror's placement or
an Ie hifts tile positi n of tile projector nodal point with
I' p t to that ofthe camera. ince the nodal point of a len
i a ingle point somewh r within the lens, it is n t acccsibl for making a direct m hanical alignment. Ther fore
it i nece I' to make the alignment optical! b using test
targ t I cated in the camera field. The degree of permisible error in the alignment of the lens nodal points i a n.U1Cti n of everal variabl .
. The principal va riabl is th separa tion of for grow1d
bJ ct from tl1e screen. When the foregrOlU1d obj ct are
quite close to tile screen, on may misalign the ca mera by
a . ~nu ch as an i:nch. in any direction without induci ng a
Vistbl hadow Ime LL1 photograp hy. As foreground obj cts
approach the cam era, the aIignment becomes more critica I,
until onl y Yn in. of a li gnm nt erro r can cau e a vi ib le
shad w line. Thus, when aligrunent targets are u d, tlley
hou ld be placed clo e to the camera to simplify the a lignment pI' ccdure and to a ure alignment accuracy.
The t pe of alignment target used can impose orne
pI' blem . 11le use of whit card requires separat illumination, and balancing the brightn can be a bit of a chore.
mal! ections of the
tdllite creen may be us d, but
ince the briahtness varie in er el wi th the square of tl1e
di tanc , they are over-bri ht when brought cia to the
canl ra. good procedur i to top down the projector
and camera lenses to f!22, if po ible, and tip the Scotchlite
targ t well past-l5. At a very teep angle, tlleiJ' brightness
ca n b made to match that f the sa-een. Under til s c ndition ,a misalignment of a little a YJ2in. can b readily
obs rv -d.
The source of light tha t produces a shadow Une origi':,ates fro m the projector len ", which in tum receives it light
h'om the lamphouse and it optics. The alignment of the
lamphollse and its optic hould resul t in symmetrical illumination f the exi t pupil of the projector lens. When the
exit pupil i not symm trically illuminated, the center of the
em rging light blmdle is not a t the lens center. And while
thi off-cen ter illuminati n in no way affects the backaround scene, it does r ul t in hifting the hadow to one
id or tl1e other, just a though ne had shifted the projec-
406
tor. Any change of the projector lens iris then acts not only
to dlange light level, but produces the equivalent of a shift
in x or Yof the whole projector. An iris change on a projector with a poorly centered lamp can result in up to :-2 in. of
apparent misaligrLment.
A computer-generated table has been prepared to
show the aligrLment error that induces a 0.cXJ02 in. hadow
line on the camera negative under a variety of conditions.
This dimension (0.0002 in.) represents the thr hold of visibility of a line projected on a large screen. The primary
utility of this data, found in the appendix on page 413, is
to show the relative influence of the object-to-screen separation, and to indicate the magnitude of alignment accuracy required . The actual aUgrLffient error tha t can be accepted is reduced by the halo effect, which will be discussed
a little later.
Alignment of Anamorphic Lens

The use of anamorphic lenses introduces special problems in front projection. Such lenses have two front nodal
points, one associated with the vertical tilt motion and the
other with panning motion. Both nodal points exist in the
camera and projector lens, since these lenses have, in effec t, two different focal lengths. If these nodal points in ilie
camera and projector lenses are not equally spaced, there
is no way to simultaneously superimpose both sets of nodal
points.
The problem can be minimized by splitting ilie distance between front nodal points for each lens and co-locating this median position. Simultaneously, one should
keep foreground objects relatively dose to the screen,
whereby rather large misalignment of nodal points can be
tolerated wiiliout introducing a shadow line.
Pan, Tilt and Zoom

It is possible in front projection to pan and tilt the camera during photography, provided that the x, y, z relationships of the nodal points are maintained. To do this, it becomes necessary to use a nodal-point camera mount that
permits the front nodal point of the camera lens to be located at the center of rotation for both pan and tilt motions.
This requirement of maintaining a co-location of projector
and camera lens nodal points also applies to a zoom lens.
407
Beca use th fr nt nodal point of a zoom lens may shift

by several inche during a cl1ange of focal length, it is neces ary to hift th camera body an equal distance, in order
to maintain a fi ed patial relationship between the two
axe of rotation and the nodal point. An alternative, of
cour c, i t limit th zoom range, and to place all foreground bject eto e to the creen, thus taking advantage
of th r ultant in r ased tolerance of nodal-point po itioning, a m ntioned earlier.
--------------- - ---------------------- ---
resolution and increase in grain, it will look like a 16mm

.
.
.
backgrow1d.
If, on the other hand, th entire background Image IS
projected onto a sma ll creen that r pr nts, for example,
a window then one can zoom in until th window fills the
camera \ri~wfinder. At thi pint the cop ratio has again
dropped to 1.0. Figure 5 illu trat the .r lative 10 of image quality as a function f the c p ratio. te the advantage of using a 65mm BG.
The Halo Effect
TYPI CAL RA n o IVHEN 35......

SEES Yz OF 3 5 ..... PLATE
to
I."
CO PY' .. RATI O -
2.0
IWNI
E6-
VI.
3.0
PLATE/ NN NEG.
Figure 5. Relative loss of image quality as a function of copy ratio.
Problems of Grain in Front Projection

There are ratl1 l' evere Limitations on the use of zooming in a front proj ction cene and these limitations are
caused by image grain. It mu t be remembered that the
scene bing proj cted wa once photographed by a camera on negati film. In front projection, this scene is being
copied onto th film in the camera and this film is a negative. Thu th background part of tJ1e scene is a dupe that
ha been made on camera negativ rather than a fine grain
duping tock. The graininess is therefore increased.
If, for xample, both the camera and projector films are
35mm, and if the ntire projected scene just fits tl1e full
aperture on th camera ground glass, then there is a oneto-one rela tionship between the image on the projected film
and tJ1i same image a it is being exposed in the camera.
In this ca we ha e a 1:1 copy ratio. If one now zooms to
twice the initial focal length, only ~ of the widtl1 and ~ of
tJ1e height (or Y4 of the area) of the projected print is being
copied. This i in r alitya 16mm area. Owing to the loss of
From the earlier discu i n on the alignment of nodal

points, we ma ha e implied that once e ac: aligr~m.ent is
achieved there \ ill be no vi ible hadow Ime; thi IS not
necessarily the case. Perfect alignment of nodal points asures the absence of a hadow line onl when both the projector and camera lens apertu~es ar a . mall as pinholes.
ormal Lenses do not apprQ)omate a pll1hol~. Actu~ entrance pupil diameters are in the order of one mch, a IS the
case for a 100mm lens at f/ 4.0. Since lenses have aperture
dimensioflS significantly larger than a pinhole, tl1eir depth
of focus is limited as a fW1ction of aperture.
When a foreground object i in focus and the background is not in focu , a black halo f?rms a~ound ~1e foreground object on the camera negative.. ~s halo I not.a
black line, such as is experienc d by ml ahgnment, but IS
best described as a brighme gradient that faUs to 50%
intensity at the edge of the foreground object. The halo is
most often seen on closeup .
As objects recede from the camera and appro~ch the
screen the halo shrinks to a faint lin and, at some distance
it see~s to disappear. This edge-gradien.t halo is most conspicuous when the background cene I a clear sky or a
blank wall. It is less noticeable on background uch as dark
..
.
foliage.
The halo phenomenon IS explam d by ref~ence t? FIg.
6. If tl1e camera is focused on a foregrow1d oblect, tJus object will be in sharp focus at the film plane. If ~ne as~wnes,
for the moment, that the projector aperture I a pmhole,
then the shadow cast by the foregrow1d object will appear
quite sharp on the screen. In tJ1e c~era, tJ1e ~rojected background image and tl1e shadow wLlI botl1 be m I:arp focus
at some plane ahead of the film, but ~ot on tl1e film: Fr?m
the diagram it can be een that th light ray , contmwng
408
409
BLUR. WIDTH OF POINTO
F. G.
--.......
O dJECT
---
- - ----::::: ::: .;.:::: :. =- -=- - -
1.
- A
S CREEN- - . .
FILM P L A N E
A ND
r. G. FOCUS
SHA DOW GRADIE N T
~ '00r-_---...:A~~~Or---_/ --- - IOO~
~
~
~
~
"
50 %
UNSWARP B . G.
SCREEN IMAG ES
~ OL------..=-~
S H ARPL y
FOCUSED
F. 6 . 0/VECTS
'-."......--J
_0
' " CAMERA IVEGATIVE

Figure 6. The halo phenomenon.
past this plane of focus, di erge as they reach the film plane
and become a blur on the film. Point A on the screen can
be seen b aLI of the camera len ; but point 0, the edge of
the harp hadow, can be seen by only half the lens. Thus
A i at full intensity at th film plane, but as point 0 is
reached, the light has fall n to half intensity on the filn1
(because half the len has b n ocduded). This gradient i
shown in the lower part of th figure and exist for aLI object .
The edge gradient described above is prod uced by the
cam ra lens aperture alone, beca use the projector wa asurn d to be a pinl101e. In practice the projector aperture is
not a pinl1ole, but ha ome finite diameter. This real diameter of the exit pupil of the projector lens causes the shadow
on the screen to ha e a oft edge and this edge spreads out
for orne real distance on the creen. However, the gradient already produced by th camera lens aperture does not
this second gradient (produced by the projector lens)
a long a the size of the projector lens aperture is equal to
or maller than that of the camera aperture.
This conclusion wa verified by computing the size

and shape of the edge gradient for two extreme conditions;
one condition wa a knife-edged screen hadow, while the
oth r condition was a uniformly increa ing shadow extending from A to B. These hvo conditions cover aLI po ible
pr jectorlens apertur up to and equaling that of the camera aperture. The gradient on the camera negati e was
id ntical in size and in hape for both cases. Th edg gradi nt halo is therefore a function of whiche er I n aperture i larger.
In practice it can be conduded that one should always
stop down the projector until its exit pupil diam ter is less
than the diameter of th entrance pupil of the cam ra. If
both lense have a foca l length of two inche (50mm) and
th camera is at f/4.0, then the projector can b at f/4.0 or
5.6 or any smaller aperture. But if the projector len has a
four-ind l focal length (100mm), it must be stopp d down
to f/ .0 to match the entrance pupil d iameter of a two-inch
camera lens at f/4.0.
Minimum Foreground-Object
Distances
A table has been prepared that pecifies the closest
distance that foreground objects may approach th camera
for a 0.0002 in. half-gradient halo as a function of creen
distance, camera focal length and lens aperture tting. This
table appears on pag 413.
After the camera and projector nodal point are
aligned in all three ax (x, y, z) by the method d ribed,
one must then be concerned with the halo eff ct. Appendix I may be used as a practical guide to determine afe
object distances that will not result in a visible halo. ~e
Appendix is organized by lens focal length. After electing
the table corresponding to the cam era lens, find the ca mera-to-screen distan ce loca ted in the left-hand colum n. The
row of nunlbers oppo ite the screen distance repre ents the
do est dis tance obj ct may safely approach the camera
without developing a visible halo. This distance i listed for
everal lens stops. These lens stops are for the camera, or
for the projector lens if its aperture is the larger. ( ote: f/
2.8 is a larger relative aperture than f/4.0.)
The near distance limits listed in the tables of Appendix I will result in a halo around the object of 0.0004 in. on
the film. Since the halo i a gradient, the first half of the
411
gradient b tween A and 0 (Fig. 6) i flow visibiJi ty. Therefore, ani the teeper half of the gradient i considered as
capable of producing a vi ible hadow. The tables, therefore, defin an object di lance for which the teeper half of
the gradient will produce a 0.0002 in. hadow line on th
n gative; th re is ah a
orne qu tion a to how much
halo can b present b fore it is i ible. The 0.0002 in. value
has been u ed by T hnicolor, f r example, a a limit for
color regi tration. It r presents ~ in. n a 50-ft. CTeen. Th
exact width at which a hadow lin i visibl or invisibl
depend upon hm do one its to the creen, the quality
and harpn
of th projection lens, contras in the picture, and of course n' own visual acuity.
Perhap the m t ignilicant ariable affecting the visibility of halo is pictur contrast. The most critical scene i
white again t white, ince these bj cts matd, in color and
are at high luminance. The daJ'ker and more mottled the
backgrOLmd, the les vi ible the ha lo. The Appendix is for
the worst case, whit against white. Most cenes do not
present th e criticaJ brightness c nditions. It i therefore
practicaJ in man cases, where th background is dark or
mottled, to accept the nearer doseup limit indicated for the
next mall r top. With a dark f liage background, even
closer ubj ct-eamera distances can be tolerat d .
Z-Axis Displacement for Closeups

Wh n it is e sentia l to make a rather extreme doseup
of a singl bject or per on, it can be done without a halo
by obser ing a pecial rule. If the ingle foreground object
e tend outward in all directions from the center of the
camera-I ns axi ,it then becomes p ible to mo e the camera forward b e eral inches, placing it well within the
hadow c n of the projector. 1h.i action would normally
produce a vere shadow on the in ide edge of all off-center objec . But the singl object ( r person) that extends outward in all direction from the camera center has no inside
edges, and thus no had w line or halo will be vi ible.
Brightness and Color Matching

Segments of th front-projection screen material can
be placed in position f rward of the main screen for certain special ffects, sud, as doorways. It should be remembered that the inverse quare lawai a applie to Scotdilite.
If one pia
a piece of the ma terial at half the screen dis-
412
AppendiX I
Minimum Object Distance (in ft.) for O.0002-in.
Half-Gradient Halo.
Screen
distance
25mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
32mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
40mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
50mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
75mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
100mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
150mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
Lens aperture and object

distance
II
II
II
5.6
8.0
11
16
5
6
4
5
8
8
6
6
6
11
6
9
5
7
17
12
13
13
13
II
2.8
11
4.0
8
13
19
23
25
27
28
11
16
18
19
20
21
10
12
14
15
15
16
10
11
11
11
8
14
20
25
27
29
31
15
24
30
34
37
40
9
16
28
36
43
48
52
9
15
25
31
36
39
42
9
17
12
17
20
22
23
24
8
14
22
26
29
32
33
9
16
26
18
31
42
52
59
29
38
45
50
66
55
10
19
36
51
64
77
88
10
18
34
48
59
70
79
69
10
19
37
54
70
85
10
19
36
52
67
80
99
93
10
19
35
50
63
74
85
10
20
10
20
38
56
74
90
106
39
57
75
93
110
33
38
42
45
9
18
32
44
54
62
10
19
38
55
71
87
101
6
8
10
14
15
17
18
8
12
18
21
23
25
26
8
14
22
28
31
34
36
9
17
30
39
47
53
59
10
18
33
46
57
67
75
10
19
37
53
68
82
95
11
7
11
15
17
18
19
20
8
13
19
23
25
27
28
9
16
27
35
41
45
49
9
II
8
9
9
9
10
6
9
12
13
14
14
14
7
11
16
18
19
20
21
9
15
24
29
33
36
39
9
18
32
43
52
60
17
29
38
45
50
55
10
19
36
51
65
10
18
34
48
59
70
66
77
88
79
413
tance, for cxa mple, it will be 4X (2 stops) brighter than the

main crc n. Thu all such application should strive to
keep suppl mentary creen ma terial close to the main
screen.
A in r ar proj ction, the eye is not an adequa te instrument to dc termine c lor or lighting balance between foregro~nd and background. Where the background is simply
pa mg scen r, e-balance rna be sufficient. When the
fo reground i a continuation of the background, photograph.ic t
h u1d be made to ensure a good color and
brightn
match. Lens coating, the ultra iolet cutoff of
optical gla and the pectral sensitivity of color negative
material are all inilu ntial in determining color balance of
~. The c I r r p nse f the hunlan eye is ignificantl
differ nt from that of color film. TIle eye, therefore, i not
an accurat predict r f the film' color rendition in thi application.
Steps to Avoid Shadows and Halos

1. lign cam ra and projector lens front nodal poin
b pl~cing targpt of otchJite at the f/16 distance of AppendIX 1. Placc tar cts at left, center, and right of camera
field. Tip targ ts until th ir brightness matche thatof main
screen. top down camera and projector. Position ca mera
and project r for no h.adow on any target. Camera is correcti located on nodal head when the camera is panned
to place right target at left edge of camera field and no
hadow appears.
2. t cam ra I 115 to de ired f-stop . Set projector len
t a mall r f- t p. Rech ck for hadows at edge of target .
Ann-uniform field of ligh t into the projector lens will
cau e a hadow line a projector stop is changed.
3. b erv minimum object distance of Appendix I to
avoid halo. Proj ctor exit pupil should not be larger than
camera entranc pupil. (Pupils are equal when tile depth
of field i th arne f r both len e . Use lens tables.)
4. If u ing a zoom len , line up shot at maximum focal
length to be u d in til h t, and then check for shadows
at minimum f cal l ngth.lf shadows appear, reduce zoom
range or u pr per nodal head that couples to zoom control.
S.lf pr j cted inlage is larger than camera field of view,
background plate negative hould be larger than camera
negative,otherwi background will be grainy.
414
6. When using anamorphic camera lens, keep objects

close to screen and co-locate a median point between the
two front nodal points of the camera lens with nodal point
median of the projector.
7. 1 camera is moved forward of normal nodal point
location to make an extreme closeup, the object must be on
camera center and have no inside edges (i.e., no space between arms and body).
8. Supplementary screen set forward of main screen
should be kept very close to main screen to avoid a brightness change.
9. When background is a continuation of foreground,
photographic tests are needed to assure a good color and
brightness match.
Additional information on front projection and on
Scotchlite front projection screens 7610 and 7615 high contrast sheeting is available from Safety and Security Systems
Division/3M, 225-4N-14, St. Paul, Minnesota, 55144-1000,
(612) 733-4433, (BOO) 328-7098.
Compositing
William Han ard
ASC Associate Member
President, Hansard Enterpri es
Rear-Screen Projection
Rear-screen projection proc s essentially consists of
filming live foreground action against a pecially photographed background "plate" which is being rear-projected
onto a translucent screen.The following items are required:
1. Special backgrowld projector with camera-type registration and 220 volt, 3-pha e, AC sync motor.
2. Motion-picture camera with crystal-controlled motor with a cameralprojector electronically pha eable shutter sync box.
3. Specially prepared print on print stock with B & H
perforations, made from plate n gative filmed to production specification or from stock library plate material.
4. Translucent projection screen.
Proce s shots usually are filmed on a motion-picture

stage or in a warehouse. Portable process projectors and
creen can be rolled nto any set and employed to back
up the action by fumi hing the "view" seen through a window or door of a hou e, plane, train, automobile, etc.
Camera and projector are electrically locked 0 that
imultaneously. The projectheir hutter open and do
tor d
not have a "flicker blade" as in theater proj ctors,
tint rrupt the creened imaae and shorten the dark interal b tween frame .
Process projector have camera-type hutter and
010
m ntsso that the individual frames are in perfect ync
with the camera' fi lming action. This results in a vi ual
"flick ring" picture but a photographically perfect image
inc each frame of film is proj cted for the entil"e interval
the camera shutter is open and therefore provide maxiIllum light exposure fram fo r frame. If the projected image i a stationary plate itmu t perfectly regis tered, because
any unsteadiness would be readily discernible when filmed
in c mbination with a fixed f reground set.
amera and projector must be lin ed up so that the screen image is

photographed with equal brilliance across its full width. Camera #2 will
phot'ograph screen"A-B" with even brilliance. Camera 1 will record the
" B" ide of the screen darker. Camera #3 will record the "A" side of the
screen darker.
Traveling plates need not be critically registered sinc.e

their movement wi ll u ually cover any inherent un teacUne . A tep printer (with camera-type registration) should
be employed to print stationary plates. A continuous
printer may be used for tra eling plates. A center line is
drawn on the stage floor 0 that camera and projector may
b
t up in line with each other. Generally speaking, camera and projector should be lined up, although the screen
ma be wung at a ligh t angle, if desired, to the foreground
set. If the camera is not squarel on the projector center line,
416
an unevenly illuminated screen image, with one side

dal"ker, will result. However, yo u do have th liberty of
getting off center line app roximately five degree on each
idewithaHi-Trans cr en and 45 degrees with a Lurniflex
screen.
There is absolutely no ubstitute for e p rience in
photographing proce scenes. They cannot b done "b '
th book" - too many technical and arti tic factors are involved. It is up to the dir ctor of photography, along with
the process coordinat r, to ba decisions on previou experience, inherent kill and ba ic knowledge of the many
variables in each setup.
One ba ic problem is balancing the light on the screen
with the foregrOLUld illumination. The angle, hadoweffect and light quality f the illumination on th live set
must match the projected plate to form an acceptable overall pictwe. Care must to taken to keep all ligh t illuminating the foregrOLUld set off the background scr en or it will
wa h out the projected picture.
Screen brightnes will vary with the plate in use. Meau.ring is a matter of balancing by eye,preferably with a
m notone viewing filter and an out-of-phase sync box for
dil"ect viewing through the camera (to achieve perfect balance while the camera i running without film). The screen
i illuminated onJ half the time, while the for ground set
is constantJy illuminated. The screen image i projected
with a carbon arc light, which requires a daylight film index for black & white film , and the foreground is lit by
tungsten lamps. "YellowFlame" carbons are used for projecting color plates so that tJlei.r color temperature matches
the tungsten-illurninat d foreground set.
The camera should be positioned at an elevation relative to that employed by tJle camera used to filmed the
original plate. The floor of the set should be regarded as the
camera floor - do not use the stage floor if the et is built
higher on a false floor. Pr serving the relationship between
foreground and background is of paramount importance
- elements must appear to have been photographed together. Best results are achieved only when camera angles
and lighting are matched to preserve persp ctive, space
relationship, convergence of lines and photographic tonal
values.
On stage, short focus lenses should be avoided. The
doser the camera is to the process screen, the more brilliant
the center of the screen, causing what is known as a hotspot.
417
Longer focal length lenses on both camera and projector

wiUproduce the best results. A 5-inch projection lens and
a 2-inch camera lens is a popular combination. A 40mm lens
sh uld be the shortest employed on the camera if the full
screen is being filmed . A wide-angle lens may be u d on
a large set where the proce screen is only partiaUy used,
or when a relatively maU projected image is used for a
view through a window or door. Care should be taken to
keep the camera and projector lined up when filming a
partial creen image on one side of a live et. The foreground set and the play r hould be positioned a dose
to the screen as possible, a that the projected picture is
photographed as sharp as the available depth of field permits.
Camera and projectormu t be lined upwhen the camera is panned &om

a screen image on onesideofa live sello the action on the opposileside.
Projedorll2 is correctly positioned . Projector #1 would result in a darker
image on the "B" side of the screen.
Another advantage in working with the action dose

to the creen is that it requir a smaller projected picture.
Th result is greater image compression, lending colors
richness an d brilliance. O n moving background h ts, sud1
as a ro ki ng boat, rocking th e camera sligh tly aids the illusion of motion. Such rocking m ust not be apparent, but give
the appearan ce of integrat d motio n of foreground and
background action.
Print density will depend on the subject matter. It is
advi able to have two prints for 35mm and three prints for
VistaVision. One copy should be of good, rid1 normal denity with normal color, and the second copy should be 2;'3
of a stop lighter in density.
OveraU creen brightness can be controUed by varying the amperage on the projector arc, adjusting the projection lens diaphragm and by employing neutral-density
418
filters. V ry little can be done to al ter the tonal c ntra t inherent in an individual print.
A impl rul f thumb for calculating projection distance and f cal len th of projection lens for a particular
cre n iz : th pr jector leI foca l length multiplied by the
screen width plu 10% equals the projection distance give r tak a f w f et. Thus a 5-inch lens will fill a 20-ft.
screen from appro imatel 110 feet awa .
tatic background en can be handled with greater
econom b u ing a 4" 5" tereopticon slide projector.
ed behveen takes ince the film does not ha e
Tim is
to be r w undo I ,color lides ma be used for black &
whit film ph t graph ; in fact the are often preferable
becau th pI' nt a I grainy image and better black
& whjt eparation. Rear projection tide projector are
u uall equipped with arc lamp, although ometime
tung ten bulb are employed for mall aeens. Specjally
prepared W' .f' r 4" 5" slides are used. The emul ion
i removed from th base and transferred onto Pyrex gla
to elirrunate burrun or bleachillg of the transparency; this
also r ults in harper focus and facilitates cooling of the
transparenc and gla mOlmts.
One final note: the profes ional result of any process
ene i onl a good as the background plates provided.
Photographing Miniatures
by Dennis Muren, ASC
The rece nt increase in the use of miniatures in motion picture mean that live-action cinematographers
may now b ca ll d upon to photograph miniatures, an
area usuall y ha ndl ed by peciatists. Today's pinpointsharp In , very fine-grain color negatives, and crystalclear 70mm reI a e prints can reveal flaws, and the olution require th utmo t attention to detail by every member of the effect team. The cinematographer should talk
to the dir ctor, the live-action director of photography,
and the effect crew. He or he should look at a much
footage from the job a possible, especially immediatel y
preceding and f 1I0wing the miniature shot. Based on thi
material, h h uld then visualize how the shot would
have been photographed had it been built fuJI- ized and

apply that information to th following:
1. The notion that miniatur look big when photographed with w ide-angle len e from a low viewpoint is
somewha t true. But when cut into a equ nce filmed from
above cr with long len es the hot may look ut of place.
2. A s mall f-stop is u uall nec ary to hold the
depth of field needed to keep the model in focu .
3. The entire model and et mu t appear to be in focu ,as it probably wou ld hav be n if the cene had been
buHt full-size.
4. When shooting a full miniature hot, a 0-1 filter
on the camera can give an artificial atmo phere which
enhance the sen e of reality.
5. atch the preceding and following Ii e-action
photography as closely as p ible. Lighting umts should
be placed at the scaled di tanc from the model to duplicate natural light fall-off. Small unit help the scale.
6. rtificial smoke can b u d to Lightly cloud the
atmosphere in a miniature and give a reali tic aerial haze.
In instances where more control i ne ded, bridal veil
material can be tightly tretched within a set and separately lit.
7. Panning, til ting, trucking, even jol ts and shakes can
add greatly to a shot if they are appropriate with that
moment.
8. lligh-speed film tack allow for extra stopping
down. Perforation size a nd location can be checked on
each roll to help insure rock- teady image, if nece sary.
9. For high-speed hooting any rental cameras
should be loaded and te ted by th assistant who will use
them. Registration s teady te ts hou ld be made at the
chosen speeds, if necessa ry.
Model Size
Water, fire, and exp lodiJlg model should be as large
as the budget and safety allow, ven half-size if possible
and shot high-speed. In ten e wind ca n help break up o ut
of scale water droplets and in ome ca es, fire. Exploding models should be pre-broken, rea embled, and exploded within slow-moving, low-powered, and colorful
pyrotechnics preferably with two or more blast. Other
types of models can be built just big enough to be ad equa tely detailed and till carry depth of field .
421
Miniature explosion and fire can be dangerou becau the camera may need to be in close proximHy to the
mi.njature. Plan accordingly.
Shooting Speeds
there i no motion on the miniature, it can b photographed at an pe d. Water, fire, explosions, and falling ffects are usuall done \ ith large models and camera peeds up to 360 fp . The exact peed depend upon
the cale of the model and the effect desired . The accompan ing chart i a starting point, but for the be t re ults,
te t hould be made (page ill) .
High-speed hots can often be expensive and w1predictabl vents becau e of th W1certainty of r quired
cam ra peeds, pyro technic, winds, mechanical quipment, human error, and th ne d to seq uen ce events in
mu ch faster succession tha n they will be viewed . If an
xpl ion is photographed at four times norma l p ed (96
fp ), then all other con trollab le actio ns wi thin the shot
must happen four time fa ter. Achjevi ng an adequate
Ie el of good-looking lighting can be very difficu lt if
h ting high-speed at a mall f-stop. If using HMls,
make ure that there will be no flicker at the filming
pe ds. Scenes \ hjch ar upp ed to take place outdoors
hould be shoot outdoor if weather permit .
With top-motion, h ting is accomplished at one
fram at a time with the object being light! mov d by
hand between each fram . One-fourth- econd exp ures
or more per frame allow for great depth of field in low
light I vels. Stop-m tion photography is used to giv a
fr dom of movement and e pression to an object or figure.
Motion-control photography is used w hen an object
or fig ure is moved by computer-controlled motors at very
sl w peeds. Long expo ur limes per frame allow for
very sma ll f-stops. The computer can repea t the m vements of t!1e motors, which allows for multiple expo ures.
An facet of a shot can be i olated and wedg d for intenity, c lor, filtration, and atmosphere. The image can be
built lip tl1rough multiple e posures made from the choen w dge frames, while th computer repeat the ame
motions each time.
Go-motion hooting i u ed when shooting animal
or cr ature model . The major b dy parts are attached to
rod which are moved b computer-controlled motors.
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423
Detail movem nt are aJlima ted b y hand each frame.

Single fram h ting a ll ows for sma ll f-stops a t long
verage at various angles and camera
exp ure tim.
speeds i e p iaLly u efu l to help cushion the risks on
high- pe d hot .
Calculating Camera Speed

Explanation of table (Page 424)
The al f the model ma be stated as "inch per
foot" or a a fra ti n f full ize. In photographin a a miniature, portra ing an motion when the speed of that
01 ti n d p nd on gravity, the frame rate of the camera
. govern db. the cale. Thi indude falling objects or
\ ater, wave acti n, fire r moke, explo ions in which
objects ar thr \ n into the air, etc. On the other hand, an
object (for instance, an automobile) moving at a controllable peed can b related to the selected camera peed
in the fir t in tanc (gravit), the camera frame rate is
incrca d a the inv r e quare root of the cale fraction
(the quare root of the relation of full ize to miniature).
For instanc , f r a miniature Yib full size (%"=1'), the inver e of th fraction i 16. The square root of 16 is 4 and
the frame rate hould be -l normal = 96 fps.
In the ame et, an automobile portra ed as traveling 60 mile p r hour hould 010 e Yi6th that speed because f the cale, but increa ed 4 times because of the
frame rate.
n) x (portrayed speed) x (frame rate)
(normal frame rate)
Yib
60 x "6h~ = 15 mph (or 22 ft/sec)
Motion-Control Cinematography
by Richard Edlund, ASC
Moti n-eontrol has become an inseparable part of film
grammar. In pen ive solid-state digital electronics, a technology b m f the space race in the late '60s, made it possible to ac urately record and play back motion with sufficient reliability to achie e the robotic camera system nec-
424
essary to produce the space equenc in Stnr Wnrs, the

success of which brough t on a rena is ance of motion-picture vi lIal effects. Since that time a maj rity of the top ten
b x office grossers hav relied on motion control for crucial scenes. Prior to the ad ent of digital technology, the
control of motion had been attempted with ariou degrees
of succe by using analog electronic, I yn motors and
gears, even by hand-cranking mechanisms using a metronome for synchronization!
To define it, motion control i an el tronicall controlled mechanicals tern that allow theph ical motions
of a camera and/ or other objects to be recorded, enabling
uccessive passes to be photographed "on the fI " with the
corresponding motion blur characteristics of normal motion-picture cameras, so that c mp it can be created in
an optical printer or digitall . The comp 'tes may comprise separately phot graphed act r , miniatures, backgrounds, and a myriadofoth rcreativepo ibiliti . TI1U ,
traveling matte systems of var ing kind can be used, foreground and background of differing scal can be used
with a moving camera, and when ynchronized with video
playback systems, actors can perform within impossible
sets and locations, interactiJlg with creatur and miniature shot previously or sub equently. In practice, the production company will generally contract with a visual effects company to carry out specific hots and sequences that
will require this equipment and tlle e tedmiques.
Several companie ha e developed field recording
units, hybrid sy terns which have variou facilities, such a
speed and distance of travel, tracking, panning, tilting,
booming, follow-focus, remot op ration, pr -progra mmability, ease of set-up, quieble of op rati n for oWld, and
adaptability to various formats Udl a 65mm, VistaVision,
or 35mm. SUdl a company wil l a ign a visual effects sup rvisor to work with tlle director, dire tor of photography
and other appropria te crew memb rs to achieve tlle proper
set-up time for any given plate. Of cour e th r is responsibility implied to achieve a given p late w ithin reasonable
and predictable set-up time, and for thi reason carefu l
preproduction planning i neces ary between tlle effects
company and the V.P.M. When hooting actor within the
principal production schedule, usually blue-screen photography is required and in these ca es even the wardrobe
should be discussed with the vi ual effects upervisor.
425
Motion-Control Equipment: Field

in the field (defined here as outside the wall of an
effects tudio, with the cam ra operating at sound speed)
there are different requirements. The director will u ually
want a moving camera if he/ he can have it, but this h~
been (and till is) difficult to achie e in effect hots. If this
is to be done, the following equipment is required:
1. A teady camera, usually o.f a larger !ormat than ~e
production is originating with, WIth a sP:Clal motor that.IS
lavable to the motion-control electrorucs, and that will
provide frame/shutter position accuracy in s ucc ~ ive
pa
. Though not imperative, the camera should b: silent,
dialogue can be record d, and it should have a calibrated
videotap viewfinder.
.
2. A reliable follow-focus system that IS repeatable.
Double-pass shots must exactly repeat with higl., re olution.
3. A pan-tilt head which by any of a varIety of.t~ch
nique can provide caleabl lens entrance-pupal pOSitiOns
for ub equent repeat passe on less than full-scal propr or miniatures. This pan-tilt head should ~ave a ren:ote
operating console witll hand-wheel and VIdeo mom~or .
U ually uch a head will ha e DC servo motors to proVIde
real-time normal to highpeed pan/tilt range.
.
4. A dolly with track, having a powerful tracking motor, motorized boom, and positional encoders for both axes
which allow for either dolly grip control as in normal hots
or remote operation or pre-programmed moves. Th above
equipment should be as tandard as possible in appearance
and operational characteri ti ,and operate on standard
production dolly track.
.
5. A motion-control electrorucs console, operated by
a uitably wizened technician who can efficiently log and
stor motion files, shot-by- hot, invisibly to the rest of tile
production.
.
.
6. A videotap flick r-free console, wluch will store
shot on tape or laserdisc, as tile hots are mad ,and play
back irIStantly for dir ctorial scrutiny. This system should
be able to provide on-tIle-spot video composites for compari ns of A to Bscene action, and the ~bility to pl~yback
while recording B, etc. The video requrrements Will vary
witll the hot requiremen .
7. A bookkeeping detail which will log actors' _positi ns and distances, camera and track positions Within.tile
t, and other mathematical and geographical informanon.
Again, this should happ n sy tematically and invisibly to

ti,e re t of tile production. Thi i crucial to tile cr ation of
til r t of tile jigsaw puzzl of elements tIlat mak up any
gi en hot.
Motion Control Equipment: Studio

ersatile motion-eontrol
tern for photo raphing
miniatures consi ts of a t ad pin-registered cam ra, built
into a pan-tilt-roll head \ herein the entrance pupil of the
lens can be situated at tile erte of all a es, hung fr m a
boom arm, all mounted on a track of at lea t 50 f tin
I ngth. Various model mover, rotator, or p Ion are u uall m IUlted on anoth r hack f 20 feet or SO t P rpendi ular to tile camera track. Again, tilere are many variation on tlli basic them inc rporating vario u I vel of
ngi ne ring prowess witllin the industry and th preci ion
and reliability of such y tems provide the operator Witll
diff r nt levels of creative h edom.
An electronic syst m run the motors (usually tepping motors IUUess con id rable peed or power i needed,
in wllich case DC clo ed-loop ervo motor are u cd), then
tor ti,e motion fil laid down by ti,e operator and enabl the operator to int ract with the stem_Tl,ere are
many bells and whistl wllich include mo e- m otlung
programs, graphic tablet, and pecialized oftwar ad
infinitum.
tudio motion-eontrol equipment often ha pr i ions
to control tile camera hutt r angle over a wide rang in
ord r to control ti,e apparent motion blur. The exp ure
rang i from about Y.!
nd to e tremel long. Mo t
t m have several way to program moves and any or all
of the following metllod may be u ed.
Joys ticks (usually pot ntiom ters or rotary optica l
haft ncoders) are us d to manuall y move the mot rs tI,at
opera te the various parts of the y tern. The joystick might
contr I the speed or po ition of one or more motor at a
tim and all tIlese motion aloe r corded for future playback.
Tlli is similar to remot controlling a model airplane orcar
and making an exact record of what happened.
Th joystick might b u ed to move th y tern to a
ri of fi ed positions while a record i made of th
key
positions. The system could later generate a matllematicall
mooth path through the e points. Tllis i imilar to an
427
animator drawing key frames and then creating all the inb tween automatically.
If th Y tern ha a compu ter keyboard, then a move
could be creat d u in only start and end po itions with
ea e-in and a e- ut mud1 like an animator' exposur
sh t. Mud1 m r comple methods of move generation
ar a ailable using computer graphic . TI1e move file can
be edited and modified in a man ways as there are motion-e ntr I t m . me computer-eontrol sy tem have
graphi whim all \ the operator to preview the shot before th camera i used.
number f commercial electronic motion-control
tem are a ailabl ,as well as mechanical s stems. Som
f the maj r vi ual effects tudio build their own motioncontr I
terns. Although the use of motion control in
modem eff ts w rk i commonplace, the proc
can be
e pen i e and time-c nsuming, but when properl approamed, hi h-quality \ i ual effects can be produced at
budg t and n tim .
Motion Control Extends Cinematic

Capabilities
Motion-control ystems are used in many way for
vi ual effects. Th following list is certainly not exhaustive:
1. Th abilit t program model shots so that the motion of object in an effect cene is believable, and to previ w th e mov and modify them as needed for approval.
2. Th abi lit to repeat these cenes for front-light/
back-light or fr nt-light/ front-light matte passes if needed.
3. Th ability to repeat these scenes for enl1ancement
effect Ud1 a nine pas e , rwming lights, smoke-ro m
eH ct ,filtrati n, etc.
4. Pr ci i n fly-by and extremely close approaches to
object can b accompli hed smoothl y and in perfect (pr grammable) f cu .
5. top-motion animation can be included in cenes
that have fi Id-r corded moving camera.
6. o-moti n animation is made possible by using
extremely com pie mechanical systems with upwards of
50 motion-c ntrol channels to create impossible creator
in motion. Thi y tem was pioneered in Dmgonslayer.
7. Mo-m tion - a y tern wherein field recorded
en with pan, tilt, track, boom are combined with par-
tially motorized rod puppets (controlled mostly by puppeteers). TIUs technique was developed fo r Alien] It also induded a laserdisc video processing ystem capable of converting any filming rate, from 1 fp to 48 fp ,back to 24 fps
on the spot so scenes could be vid o-eomposited during the
hooting day to enable interaction of a Y.3 -scale Alien puppet with live actors in field-recorded scenes.
8. Optical printers can be equipped with motion control so that optical pans, tilts, zooms, fades, diffusion, wipes
and dissolves can be repeated for uccessive passes.
9. Animation cameras can become mum more versatile, ince all axes can be programmed; objects, miniatures,
etc. can even be shot against miniature blue screens; and
can be accomplished.
front-light/backlight repeat pa
Motion-Control Technique
When working on Star Wars, we tarted with an empty
building and had to amass, modify and build our motioncontrol equipment before we could produce any images.
We had built up visual "violin" and had to learn to
play them. Fortuna tely, the picture hit and a large audience
showed up for our motion-control recitals. Since then,
many irmovations have come about in the equipment
(whim are not seen directly by the film-going public) and
many good motion-eontrol cinematographers have developed.
There are two main techniques for programming
motion files: One is to use start and end positions for eam
axis of motion (there could be any number up to perhaps
16) and have the computer generate the moves. The other
allows the cameraperson to generate the move by joystick.
It is my opinion that the compu ter-genera ted method is
superior for graphics and animation purposes, and the
human interface is best for most miniature and model
photography. If shots are crea ted using a computer, tl1e
moves will have mathematically perfect curves, slow-ins,
slow-outs, etc., and no heartbeat or verve - especially in
a~tion sequences - therefore becoming subliminally predICtable and less interesting to the audience. Human operators do not produce tlus mathematical perfection; instead they tailor the camera move to what is interesting in
their viewfinder. TIUs human sense of curiosity is present
in the work of a great operator, and this transfers to the
audience.
Traveling Matte Composite

Photography
by Pctro Vlah
In thi typ of comp
and Bill Taylor, ASC
ite photography, the compo iting i done on an ptical printer. Both the fo reground and
background
ne are printed onto a dupe negative. A
illl0U tt (male) matte i employed to prevent the backgrowld ene from po ing the area occupied by the FC
action. cover (female) matte is used to protect the background en fr m veiling when the FC action is printed
onto th dupe n gative (see figures 1-5).
There are h 0 basic technique for generating the
matt : dual film, and single film. The dual film technique
emplo a dual film camera and beam splitter. A color
negative record the action, and a black & wh ite film
record a matt ( ilhouette) of the action. The backing behind thc actor requir
pecial illumination which will expo th B & W matte film, but will not expo the parate color ne ative. ariou illuminators have been used
including Ultraviolet, Infrared, and Sodium.
The odium
tem is b fa r the most-used dual film
matte ystem. A originall used in England, it req ui red a
back ing illuminated b monod1romahc odiu m light.
Didymi um gla fil ter were required on all set lamp to
ubtract th odi um wavelength From the foreground lighting. Thes filt r ca used a light loss of about two stops.
An im provcd odium sy tem initially in trod uced in
1959 employ d a p cial beam plitter and narrow band filter in thc ca mera. It d
not requi re filters on the set lamps
and do n t ignificantly affect exposure. This improved
sodium y tem wa u ed extensively at Disney Studios and
is stiJlu d occasionally, a in the feature Dick Tracy.
The od ium y tem (or any d ual film system) has the
basic di ad antage of requiring separa tion between the
backing and th a t r. The actor must be kept well away
fro m th backing a not to be contanlina ted by sodi um
illlU1lin ati n. For thi rea n the actor (and hi fee t and hi
shadow) cann t get into and among the elements of the
background en . t pieces may be photographed wi th
the actor and matt d into the backgrowld scene along with
him, but it i er difficul t to perfec tly matdl ( ay) a foreground fI r to a fI or in the background Wi tllout a test.
430
Development of dual film ystem has not kept pace

the blue screen ystem, and beginrung 111 the Star Wn rs era, tile blue creen system became
overwhelmingly the metllod of d loice.
~itll ~)l provements in
Blue Screen Process

The Color Difference Traveling Matte Stem is the
mo t flexible of all compositing techniqu .It can be used
witll any pin-registered camera, and with normal w1filtered
set lighting lamp. The only proal requir ment is that one
must paint the backing an appropriate blue. The bluescreen traveling matte technique prior to 1959 had as its
trademark a blue halo foil wing all moving objects (and
frequ~tly non-mo ing bjects). TIle Color Difference yst m eliminates the blue halo and pro ide nearly all the
ad antages offered by other compositing s stems but without their disadvantages or limitation .
The Color Difference Traveling Matte 5 tem properly
mattes rapid motion, moke, gla ware, water, fine detail,
and so fo rth. lt also permits an act r in the FC to move in,
among and behind objects in the backgrowld scene. Further, the actor's shadow can be cau d t fall realistically
upon the objects in the B ene ven when that cene is
in rea li ty a miniature. ooth r compo iting techniq ue offers this range of flex ibili ty.
The theory of the Colo r Differenc ystern i based on
colorimetry, and is sta ted a follows: (1) Excep ting the color blue and magenta, all color have a blue cont nt that is
equal to, or less than, th ir green content. (2) All the remaining color except yellow and gr en have equal blue and
green content.
When the blue and green cont nt of a scene is equal,
the blue and green B & W sepa ra tion will be identical.
Thus, there i no n ed to mak a blue separa tion to reprodu~e such colors as reds, fi e h ton ,a ll shades of pink,
wl1Jte, gray, and all sa tw'a tions of cya n. Since the blue and
green separations (for these pecifi c color ) ar identical,
one would simply use the g reen paration twice; once as
the green printing separa tion, and once as the blue printing sep aration.
When this select group of color appears in the fo regrowld of a bl ue-screen hot, th g r n separa tion has one
uni que diffe rence as com pa r d to the blue separation.
Whereas the blue screen area is essentially d ear on the blue
Fig. 2. Female matte of action

in Fig. 1; also called "matte
master."
Fig. 3 Male matte f action on

Fig. 1. (In practipe. a print
from film shown in Fig. 2.)
Fig. 4. Background scene to

be combined with foreground
action in Fig. 1.
Fig. 5. The final composite

print; Fig. 1 plus Fig. 4, via
Figs. 2 and 3.
separation, this area is quite dense (black) on the green

separation. Because of this density, the blue screen reproduces as a black screen when the green separation is substituted for the blue separation. Very little cover (female)
matte is needed1because of the high density on the green
separation in the blue backing area.
A cover matte density of 0.6 to 0.9 is generally sufficient when using an excellent blue screen such as the rearilluminated Stewart T-matte blue. The problem with the
blue separation is that it is essentially clear in the blue back-
432 .
ing area and requires a very dense cover matte which rarely
fits.
The green separation is an almost ideal replacement
for the blue separation because of its high density (blackness) in the blue-screen area and because it has the correct
density for all of the foreground colors except for yellow
and green.
The green separation would be a perfect blue replacement if a way could be found to add a little extra density
where green and yellow objects occur. The addition of this
needed extra density for green and yellow is the function
of the Color Difference matte. The Color Difference matte
is otherwise a clear film except for a few spots of density
where a yellow or green object existed.
The Color Difference matte is made by printing with
blue light through a bi-pad< consisting of the original negative and the green separation positive. The only areas that
are simultaneously clear on both films are those areas that
were green or yellow in the original scene.
When the Color Difference matte is laid over the green
separation, and their combined densities are compared to
the blue separation, they will be identical in all areas except
the blue-screen area, which will be black instead of clear.
Thus, the Color Difference matte together with the green
separation area makes a perfect replacement for the blue .
separation. This "synthetic" blue separation is perfect because it has all the correct densities for foreground colors
while remaining essentially black in the blue backing area.
The only limitation of the system as described is that
it cannot reproduce colors in which blue content exceeds
green content, e.g., blue and magenta. Desaturated blues
(like blue jeans) reproduce acceptably.
When it is necessary to reproduce a saturated blue in
the foreground, a green backing may be substituted for the
blue one. While this is a common practice in video matting,
it's harder to get a good result in film because the blue
record (the grainiest of the three layers) must then be used
twice. Good pure-green illuminators are not widely available.
Because all three separations (with blue being replaced
with the synthetic blue) are essentially black in the bluescreen r:egion there is no need to use high-contrast, highdensity cover mattes. The mattes should be made on film
stocks having essentially the same gamma as the B & W
separations. The male matte should be transparent to the
433
Screen Types and Lighting:

Back-lit screens
A p r~ t blue backing \ ould expose only the bluen iti la l' f the color negative. Crosstalk in the negative la er ,imperfect illuminators, and spill light on the t
aU compr mi thi ideal. evertheless, thanks to the joint
effort of the vi ual eff cts community and film manufactur rs, the b t current combinations of screen illumination
and negative t p ield backing of unprecedented q uality.
Eith roftw type ofbJu backingscan beusedinthe
blue-s l' n matt pr ce . Jf the backgrow1d scene is one
into whid1 the actor (or ubject) will not enter, then a simple
vertica l bluc urface i all that is needed for matting. An
excellent blue ba king for this purpo e is the rear-illuminated Stcwart T-matte blue r en.
The be t illuminator available today are bank of
narrow band fluor cent tube driven by high-frequency
(flick rI s) lectr IUC balla ts. These tubes can be filmed
at any cam ra p d witho ut frarne-to-frame variation in
illuminati n. The pho phor in the e tubes are formulated
to produce a harpl -cut blue light that will not expos the
green nsitive la er of the 5248 and 5296 color negative to
any harmful d gr e, and will not expose the red-sensitive
434
layer at aU. TI1ese nearly-perfect blu illumina tors allow the

use of the thinnest possible cover matt for best results in
reproducing smoke, transparencie , blowing hair, reflections, et cetera.
Manufacturers of these special purpo tubes and fixture include the originator, Jonathan Erland, at Composite Components Co. in La Ang Ie , who can also upply
fabric and paint. Lightweight fixtur and high frequency
ballasts are a ailable for rent from Kinoflo in Sun Valley,
California. Ballasts made by th e companie can be
dimmed; a great convenienc in adju ting reen brightn . The only drawback of these tup i co t.
Fair re uLts (at much les e p n ) can be achieved
with commercial da light-blue flu rescent tubes wrapped
with deep blue Rosco or other manufacturers' filter sheets.
The combination of the Stewart reen and th filters eliminate most of the green Light from th tub . AJthough commercial blue-print tubes have also been used, this is not recommended because of their v ry hi h UV output.
Regular 6O-cycle balla ts can be used with any of these
tubes at the cost of weight and power efficiency. The drawback is that 24 fps filming mu t b crystal-controlled to
avoid Licker, and any high-speed work mu t be atcry taJcontrolled multiple of 30 fp . Th
tubes are somewhat
forgiving of off- peed filming becau
f the Light " lag"
of the phosphors.
In the past, Stewart translucent screens have been Lit
by large banks of Par reflect l' fl od . Since incandescent
lamps are a very inefficien t ource of blue light, the fluorescent system has made thi method b olete.
Front-lit Screens
The principal advan tage of the l' ar-ill uminated screen
is th instant wuform illumination btain d at the flip of a
switd1. Uniortw1ately, few tudio have permanent facilities for large back-Lit screen . A front- illuminat d bluepainted surface is also acc p tabl f r traveling matte photography. It has the advantage f availability. Any mooth
surface that can be painted, including flat, a canva backing, and so forth, can be u ed a th blu backing.
An increasi ng ly popular illuminator for front-lit
screens are arrays of the pecia l-purpo blue fluorescents
described above. The broad, soft-light nature of f1uorescents
makes it relatively easy to illuminat sa ens of 100 feet or
435
more in width. More CaTe must be taken to eliminate spill

illumination on front-lit creens. With care, front-lit screens
can produce a r tut every bit as good as back-lit scenes.
Blue cr en can also be front-lit with blue-filtered
HMI or Carbon Arc Lamp . Getting even illumination with
the e ources i a tim -consuming challenge, and filters
mu t be caTefully watched for fading. Photographic resttlts
aTe good to fair. Lea t d irable by a large margin (for film
purposes) is a blue urface front-illuminated with white
Hght. Whit Hght, however, is essential when the actor and
his shadow must appear to enter into the backgrOlUld
scene.
Blue Floor Shooting

U the actor i to get into and walk about in the background en , then the floor must also be painted blue. The
same type of (white) Hght and Hghting fixtures that light
the actor (subject) are also used to Hght the blue floor and
backing. A hadow cast on a blue-painted wall or floor by
the subject can b transferred (when desired) into the background cene tog ther with the subject.
Hoor shooting is the most difficttlt kind of traveling
matte hot to light. It i also the most rewarding because it
permits the actor to walk or sit upon objects in the background a well a to enter or exit doorways, even when the
background scene is a miniature. When the actor's shadow
is made to fall upon the ground or other surfaces in the
backgr und scene, the composite scene is readily accepted
as real.
Matte c ntra t must be high in a floor shot to achieve
separation from the contaminated blue of the floor. The
problem i often compounded by glare from back lighting.
Cover matte mu t be heavy, and will take on a "cut-out"
appearance unle s measures are taken to soften the edge.
Nece arily, reproduction of fine edge detail will suffer. An acceptable compromise between edge softness and
detail is sometimes impossible. When it is possible to reproduce the actor' hadows, the shadows are often unacceptably grainy. Industrial Light & Magic's tiny "brownies" in Willowar the most successfttl white-light blue-floor
composites to dat , partly because the costume color was
controlled to tay on the warm side of the spectrum. Even
so, their shadows had to be entirely hand-animated. The
fine t-quality blue-floor hots are yet to come, from electronic compo iting (see below).
Front-lit Blue Screen Materials

Composite Components and the Dazian Company
upplya useful screen material in blue or green; the fabric
is sHghtly stretchy and has a fuzzy urface that helps to kill
reflections of foreground lights. It is not the preferred choice
for a white-lit floor. An acceptable blue paint is the 5720
Ultimatte Blue from Rosco Laboratories.
A new backing material is the Stewart-Ultimatte Blue
Screen designed for front illumination. It is a plastic sheet
material that can be rolled or stretched on a frame. It is
tough enough to walk on and is washable. This material is
slightly photographically superior to any of the paints for
matting. It is available in sizes up to 40' x 90'. Since this
material is quite expensive, it is best used for floors where
its scuff-resistance is most valuable. The material may be
used with walls and backings painted with high quality
blue paint.
Front-Projected Blue Backings

Blue backings of almost unlimited size may be frontprojected onto Scotchlite material using a beamsplitter and
a special blue illuminator. A refined system of this type is
the Apogee Blue Max projector, now owned and operated
by Sony Studios. An ingenious extension of this system,
known as Reverse Front Projection, can create a blue backing that will not reflect in even the shiniest foreground
objects. Space helmets and compl tely silvered props were
matted using this system in 2010 and other films. These
systems are described elsewhere in this book.
Light Level for the Stewart T-matte

Blue Translucent Screen
A paper gray scale and a Wratten 47 blue filter may
be used to set the light level on the translucent Stewart Tmatte screen. When the paper gray scale is in the position
of the actor and illuminated for normal exposure at the desiredf-stop, the blue backing illumination shottld be adjusted
when the gray scale and screen are viewed simultaneously
through the 47 blue filter. The illumination is proper and
sufficiently urtiform when it falls within the range defined
by white and the first step below white on the gray scale.
437
Note that the blue creen negative density should be

the ame at all f-stop . A pot meter may be calibrated for
use with the appr priate blue filter to read f-stops directly.
Lighting a Front-Illuminated Backing

Backing illuminated parately from the subject, such
a tllO lit b blue fluor cent lamps, may be balanced by
the same procedure a the translucent screens above.
If one i u ing a relative! efficient blue surface lit with
white light, uch a the tewart-Ultimatte Front-Lit blue
screen m ntioned earlier, the proper incident light level on
the backin i the me a that illuminating the subject.
Thu , whatever value is used to light the actor' face is also
the correct value for the backing.
Lighting Procedure for Holding the

Shadow
I. Turn on the key light so a to ca t the de ired
shadow.
2. dju t th fill Light in the hadow to achie e the
desired hadow den ity.
3. Mea ur the brightne on the floor just outside the
meter and blue filter).
hadow (u a pot brightn
4. Light all the r t of the blue floor to this measured
brightne . while adding a little Light as possible to the
hadowar a.
5. Light the bl ue wall to adueve the same brightne
a the fl oor.
6. R duc fi ll in the hadow, if necessa ry, to re ta in
shadow d nsity. hadow density is controlled by adjusting th fi ll light, n t by adjusting the keylight.
Out id the hadow, the entire blue set should appear
to have qual and wliform intensity as seen h'om the camera p ition.
Since th human eye has a fast automatic iris for mall
Light dlan , it i n t a good measuring device. It i nece ary to u a pot brighbl s meter and blue filter to check
for uniform brightn . A Polaroid camera with black &
white fi lm and a blu filt r i also useful for making a quick
check of lighting wliformity. Becau e of the relatively flat
angle betwe n the camera and floor, the fl oor will not appear to be a bl ue a the back wall. A diffused, polarized
whi te light component i reflected by the floor because of
438
th flat angle. For holding good hadows it is essential to

u e a polarizing filter over th ca m ra lens. The HN38 is
recommended. Rotate tile filter tmtil th floor gla re is canceled .
Lighting to Eliminate the Shadow

1. Light the entire blue t unif rmly with large area
diffused light sources.
2. Check uniformity a noted in the preceding paragraph.
3. Place the actor in p ition.If he ca ts a hadow add
additional low-level lighting to return th Jiah t I eJ ~ the
hadow to its original level.
0
~. Add a modest ke light to create desired modeling,
and Ignore the hadow it ca . The added ke light will
e, but because the ke
cause a hadow to be visibl to th
light did not reduce the blu in ten ity of the floor (in tile
hadow it has creat d), the hadow can be made to dropout in the matting proce .
Lighting to Match the Background

. There is more to lighting a con in cin g compo ite than
Imply ma tchin~ the ~irectio~ and color of the lights on the
background. It IS not lffiffiedlately ob ious, but for practical purp.oses, a pe~son on a blue tage is (from a lighting
standpomt) standing on and/or in front of black elvet.
Since the ~atting proce drop out the blue backing and
the blue kick from ~e edges of th F object, the object may
a well have been 111 a black tage. T hi blackness causes
no problem if the background cen i a night scene that is
essentially dark.
~owever, if the backgrotmd i to be a light da y scene,
then If t~e person had really been in that day environment,
thaten vlfonment would have pr vid d back and edge light
well as refl ected Ji~ht to light up the hair and to provide
the normal edge bnghtne along arm , sides of the face,
etc..The cinen:atographer mu t back- and side-light tile
subject to proVlde about the am amount and direction of
lighting the environment would have provided. If this is
not done, edges of arms and I g and faces go dark and the
scene looks like a cutout.
Inappropriate lighting will compr mi e a hot the instant it comes on the screen, while faulty compositing technique may be noticeable onl to experts.
439
Other Lighting Considerations

Blue illumination and blue reflections from the screen
on the subj ct mu t be minimized for top-qu~ty results.
It should b noted th at illUlllination and reflection ar separate issues!
.
Blue illumination from the screen can be mad negligible by m ving the actor a~",ay from the screen (at least
15',25' is better) and by rna king off alJ the screen area that
i not actually ne ded behind the actors..(The re t ?~ the
frame can b fill ed in wi th wi ndow mattes LIl comp sltmg.)
Reflections can be controlled by reducing the screen
size o r di guised with dulling spray, but om~times cannot be eliminated. In the worst ca e, reflectIons make
"holes" in the matt whidl must be filled in with hand work
in compo i ting. Of cours when the actor must st~d ~ n~e
middle of (l blue-painted set, some blue contam mabon 1S
lLllavoidable.
Using the UltiMatte Video Previewer

UltiMatte is a video matting d vice that can pI' vide a
preview of the final composite ene on.a color .m~rutor
prior to and during photography. TIle Ul?Matte elil~lm~te
much of the g ue work and uncerta mty 1Il pho~og[aph~g
comple cenes in which the actor must b reali ticaLIy 1l1tegrated among people and object in the backlfollild
ene. Prior to UltiMatte,complex blue-scr n hootmgwas
low, difficult, and often unsucces ful.
A small color video ca mera is u ed to observe the scene
to be photograph ed. Avid ocassette player is used t? provide a backgrollild cene. if the background scene. ls lLllavailable, UltiMatte generates a test scen . The Ul~atte
accepts and matte both cenes to how the comp~ lte on
a color m nitor. The UltiMatte g nerate electronJc male
a nd female ma ttes which are th equivalent of the mattes
g nerated by th Color Difference Blue ~creen Pr?ce s.
What one ees on th monitor correlates qwte well Wi th the
ub equ nt film compo ite.
The UltiMatte Previewer does the

following:
l. It observe the blu backing and ind ica tes visually
an a rea that are wlder-illuminat d. This reduces lighting
to a fraction of th normal time.
2. It di pia the male matte and determines wheilier
or not the subject can be matted. It show exactly where a

dullil1g spray or a change of angle of a set piece is needed.
3. It displays ilie fully matted picture and indicates
what lighting adjustments may be needed to successful ly
hold or liminate a shadow.
4. It permit exact positioning of set pieces to match
positions of objects in the background scene.
5. It permits ali the problem on the set to b detected
and corrected before shooting. Thi is a prerequisite to getting a good matting job from the lab. After ilie quality of
the foreground image is ascertained thr ugh the UltiMatte
previewer, a motion pictw'e camera replaces the video camcontinues in the conventional marmer.
era and the proc
Laboratory Procedures for

Compositing
The Color Difference Blue Screen Traveling Matte
System permits a high level of realism. To maintain iliis
realism in such items as moke, glasswar , fine detail, and
so forth, special care mu t be exercised in selecting the density and gamma of the eparations and mattes. All separations (and certai.n matt ) are to b mad n a black & whit
panchromatic film stock at a nominal gamma of 1.0. (wiili
all printing factor , s uch a the "CaLlier Q Effect," taken into
accOlLllt). The Ea tman 5235 film is suitable. Each positive
separation of a gray scale, when uperimposed over the
color negative, should I' ult in a constant density-sum for
aIJ steps on ilie scale. Furthermore aIJ the step on the gray
scale must lie on the stra ight line portion of ilie D-Log E
curve for each layer of the color negative and for all th.r
eparation positives.
Upon exanLining the red separation positive (Red+) it
will be seen that the film is quite dark in the blue-screen
region. TIle Red needs very little additional density to fu lly
protect the dupe negative. Depending upon the I' d contamina tion in the blue backing, a cov I' matte adding
as Little as 0.3 to 0.6 density may be adequate to prevent red
veiling.
The green epa ration will be less dense in ilie blue
backing region a nd will require additional density to protect the dupe negative from veiling. The fact tha t as much
as 0.9 add itional density may be needed indicate a subs tantial green leakage. If the added density is obtained on
a separa te piece of film having density of 0.9, this low-den-
441
sity female cover matte may be under-sized, resulting in a

greenish edge that may be visible against the background.
If the additional density is added as additional exposure before de eloping the green printing separation, normal edge growth is achieved and no green fringe occurs.
The female matte should have a gamma of 1.0. It may be
made directly or printed from a male matte.
The green cover matte is generally too dense to use for
printing the red separation. If the same cover matte is used
for this purpose, tran parent objects and the blurred edge
of moving objects will have a cyan tint The density difference between a white object and the blue backing (with
cover matte) hould be the same for both separations.
The gamma of the color difference matte must be arrived at bye periment to match tl1e contrast of the separation positives. A gamma of 1.0 is a good starting place. The
color difference matt can exist as a separate film, or be
combin d with one of the other films.
The male matte should be just dense enough in the
subject area to avoid print-through, while being relatively
clear in the blue backing region to permit printing in the
BG scene. Depending on the nature of the two scenes and
the lack of purity in the blue backing, it may be necessary
to increase the gamma of the male matte to as high as 1.5
to 2.0 to obtain enough density to avoid print-tl1fough.
The gamma of the male matte should not be increased
more tl1an is necessary to prevent prinHl1fough because
excessi e gamma causes noise in shadow areas, a loss of
fine detail, and a 10 of transparency range.
The f llowing table li ts alternative methods that may
be used to produce the arious mattes and printing records.
Choices are determined in part by the colors in the FG
scene.
Current Fil m Stocks ar :
Color Negative:
B&W Separalions:
Matte Films:
Color Dupe Negative:
442
Eastman EXR 5248 & 5296

Eastman Panachrom, tic
Separation Film 5235
Eastman Panachromatic
Separation Film 5235 & 50202
developed 10 high gamma or
Eastman High Contra t
Panachromatic Film 5369
develop d 10 a low amma.
Eastman Color Intermed iate 5244
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443
Electronic and Digital Compositing

Becau e Vltimatte ideo composites are much more
forgi ing of contaminated backings, it was a natural progr ion to adapt Vltimatte matting logic to create film
compo ites by both analog and digital means.
The Sony high-definition cameras, together with the
30 Mhz. high-definition Ultimatte-6, have produced some
scen for theatrical motion pictures in Japan and Italy.
More recently, Son Hi-Definition Facilities, lnc. in Culver
City, California has oHered a film-to-film service u ing the
same high definition ideo equipment. Feature films using
thi compo iting proc
are in production.
Already the line between optical effects companies,
computer graphics companies and video post hou es has
begun to blur as digital film composites become widely
available from these sources.
Most visual effects companies, such as ILM and Boss
Film have developed proprietary sys tems. Computer
Graphics creators such a th pioneering Digital Film Company and Pacific Data Images provide digital composites
along wi th their other services. Composite Image Systems
in Hollywood offers tI,eir "D.O.T" process, another 1000+
line, film-to-film system.There are certainly many more to
follow.
At this writing, a most advanced digital film-to-film
ystem i being demon trated as a pilot project of the
Ea tman Kodak Company. Their Cineon system can create digital dupe negatives indistinguishable from the original on the screen. Ultimatte Compositing technology is
employed in their work tations at Kodak's Cinesite, which
offer a 4000 line ultra high-resolution film-to-film scanrung, printing, and compo iting service. Effects teams for
everal feature films, incl uding Super Mario Brothers, have
u ed Cinesite services.
Ultimatte Digital Compositing, which now includes
creen correction, repre ent a major advance in image
compositing. Ultimatte Cinefusion compositing software
i available for several computer platforms.
Digital compositing greatly expands the scope and
application of blue-screen photography. White-lit screens
are much less of a problem. Ultimatte Screen correction, at
the touch of a button, provides instant lighting un.iformity
on walls and floor having non-un.iform illumination and
varying shades of blue.
Particularly exciting i tI,e prospect of shooting frontit outdoors in natural light; it's relatively easy to get good r ults in the electronic realm, but
nearly impossible with present purely photo-mechanical
m thods.
With all that said, even in thi digital age, we hould
n t forget that first-ela composites can till be made on
in pensi e, wideJ available optical printers. ln J nathan
Erland' phrase, optical printing i "parallel proc ing at
the peed of light!"
I~t blue screen compo
Black & White Self-Matting Process

TheStewartT-matt translucentbluebackingpro ides
a blue of sufficient purity to make possible a self-ma tting
process. The subject is illuminated with yellow light and
IS photographed on Ea tman 5248 color negative, or a color
r v rsal fi lm. When th n gative is used, a color print is
made. (The yellow fi lt r hould pass no blue light in the 400
to 500 nanometer range.)
. TJ:te color po~itive i printed to a B & W dup negabv u mgyellow bght. Th blue field on the print is its own
cov r matte, and no exposure occurs in tI,e blue fi Id area.
~t, the color po itive i u ed as a male matte through
whJch the B & W background scene is printed on the ame
dupe negative with blue light. The color print pr vents
e po ure in the subject area b blue light.
In this system, no other parations or matt are required. The proc
hold moke, glassware and hair detem in an era when almo tall
tail.lt i not an imp rtant
film are made in color.
The Future for Traveling Matte

Composite Photography
by Jonathan Erland, FSMPTE
Executive Vice Pre ident,
The Technology Council of the Motion Picture/ Tele\li ion lndustry
The 1977 release of Star Wars precipitated a new era

of visual-effects wizardry that continues to the pr nt. In
~act, with ~e adv~nt of digital film scanning, electronic
trnage marupulation and computer-generated imagery
445
(CGl) added to the still-growing wealth of evolving photochemica l and in-camera compositing technique, the art
and craft of cin matography finds itself in possession of
unprecedented power over the moving image. Impl.icit in
th.is newly acquired capability is a requirement for an increa ed awarenes and ensitivity to the new and evolving
technolog n the part of all the craftspeople involved in
cinematograph . Composite cinematography hould be
preceded b careful analysis of both the method and the
material mo t appr priate to achieve the desired result.
Film Stock
Impr vern nts in film stocks are now occurring with
such rapidity a to predude the prior practice of providing comparative data in this manual. Instead, guideline for
use in selectin and testing appropriate stocks for compo He phot graph will be discussed.
The imp rtance of color difference matting in compo ite phot raph ha now been uffic.ientl well establi hed
that all manufacturer ha e made efforts to achieve the
requi ite chromatic discretion in their product. Recent years
ha e seen the ad vent of a major breakthrough in fil m stock
con truction. Thi is attributed to the development of tabular- haped ilver halide cry tal, commonly called "T"
grain, in which the cry tal is as little as one-tenth as thick
a it i wide. The goal of the new crystal design is to provide a relatively larger target for a given mass of crystal.
Thi ha two ffect: one, the speed versus grain ratio is
increa d, producing a finer grain image for a given peed;
two, the variou layers tllat make up the total emulsion are
relatively thinn r, pr viding for less light scattering wi tl1i.n
the em ul ion and producing a clearer, sharper image
(greater acc utance).
The n w gra in tructure is a s ubstantial improvement,
and stil l b tte~' p rform ance is promised for the future.
How ver, cinematographers intending to produce composite photography must be aware that SUdl enhanced performance is accompani d by increased susceptibility to instability; tI,e v 'y high-speed film stocks are sensitive to physical tres. ertain type of camera movements disrupt the
silver-ha lide cry tal ' w itl, in the emulsion, cau ing w,even
expo ure of one or more color records. In twlgsten stock ,
this i u uaLly th blue (and fastest) record. In normal coneIltional production, the effect is usually so subtle as to be
446
inconsequential. However, in the far more critical realm of

composite photography, such effects can be very serious.
Thus it is ever more important to test bOtll tI,e film stock
and the camera prior to embarking on any composite cinematography.
Split-screen compo ite are particularly susceptible to
high-speed emulsion stress Yl,drome, as til two (or more)
elements wiJJ be acq uired from diff rent takes. Since the
effect is erratic, the resultis to real tI, split. In blue screen
composites, the effect can cause the matt (usually derived
from the blue record) to beat (fluctuat ) from subtle size
changes.
Therefore, film stocks and camera under con ideration for the production hould be ubjected to a simple
test. Expose the candidate film tock in tile camera of choice
o tIlat a uniformly illuminated 1 percent grey card fills
tile frame. Indude a slate in tile field to record pertinent
data. Make two successive takes. In take one, allow tile
camera to fW1 normall for veral econds. In take two,
allow the camera to come to speed and then intermittent!
interfere with the feed pulley of tile magazin by pinching
tile pulley witll tile fingers. This action has tile effect of
sending a hock wave tluough the film a it passes through
the camera, exacerbating any tendency on the part of eitller
the film stock or tile camera to emul ion tress syndrome.
On projection, tile print may exhibit density and colorimetry changes corresponding to tile int rf rence applied to
tile magazine. If tile print does exhibit uch changes, it is
probably the result of emu lsion stress.
What is occurring i a tran i nt disorientation of the
sil ver-halide crysta ls due to th ir uniquely thin and fla t
structure. The consequence i a piezoelectric effect in which
electrons are momentarily disl cat d. Thi temporary phenomenon affects the relative spe d of til emulsion, whid,
translates into the d,aracteri tic flu ctuation in image density. The degree of fluctuation ob rved will indicate the
magnitude of risk. If fluctuation s ar observed in the initial and unstressed take, the tock should be absolutely
avoided . If needed, a careful analysi can be mad e by ha ving black & white color eparation positives made from the
negative on a high-contrast stock ud, as Eastman 5269.
This test wiJJ more readily reveal the degree of density fluctuation in the separate color records of tile stock. Alternatively, the negative may be run on a telecine, permitting any
fluctuations to be observed on a waveform monitor.
447
Remcmber that the tr

syndrome is a function of
b th the t ck and the camera, 0 that a change f either
ma rectify the problem. In ome cases the necessary camera modification i quite imple. For example, the modificati n for the Mitchell Standard i the ubstitution of a large
diameter (.700") fir tidier r 11 r for the stock (.366") roller.
The camera must al be rigorousl tested for teadin
of the movement and h uld preferabl ha proviion for the inclusion of a film clip in the viewfinder y tem t facilitate the lineup f the other elemen of th como.
p ite photography.
C lorimetry tests hould n w be conducted whidl will
d t rmine the suitabilit f r the color differenc travelingmatte technique. For the t t , the frame should consist
of a blue field of the type anticipated in produ tion (a di cus ion f variou type of backing follows) . Also included
in the frame should be an 18 percent grey ca rd, as w II as a
black void. The black v id i created by lining a box, tin can
or other ve sel with black velvet and displaying it to the
camera in such a way that no light falls on the interior, the
object being to proVide an ar a on the negati in w hich
no exposuJ"e has occurred.
TIli particular test i u ful i.n revealing any tendency
of the len to" eil" blue light aero non-blue area of the
image, and also to indicat the presence of exces ive ultraviolet radiation cattering in the lens and camera body.
While the ultraviolet can be blocked with a filter ( uch as a
ratt n 2E), nothing much can be done about a lens that
i veiling blue, and in uch a ca an alternative lens hould
be selected. tf possible, the frame hould also contain a pure
blue r ference. For the te t nly, both the blue backing field
and the gray card hould b illuminated equally when read
b a p tmeter. A wedge hould be shot extending two
stop above and three stop below nominal at half- top incr m nts.
Th developed negativc shou ld be read on a color
d n itometer, preferably in c n ultation with the t chnician
r ponsible for the compo iting process. For impLicity, the
d n itometer can be nulled to zero on a clear, unexpo ed
portion of the negative. Thi permits subsequent reading
to prod uce values for eadl record above 0 min. For a phot ch mical compo ite pr ce , the candidate film tock
h uld exhibit a high d gr of color discretion. (For an
electronic compo ite pr
different criteria apply, and
th
will be discussed paratel). Sanlple reading from
448
an actual desirable film stock are: Red .02, Gr cn .16, and

Blue 1.20. This yields a Blue/Green differenc of 1.04 density LUutS. Sample readin from a less-than-de irable film
tock are: Red .0-1, Green .44, and Blue 1.24., yielding a B1ue/
Green difference of.80 density units.
As is observed in Petro Vlaho . tutorial on blue screen,
the degree of green dcn ity in the blue-screen area will
determine the density f the cover matte, which in turn
determines the quality of the final composite. Thus the low
green reading of the first ample i very d irable compared to the considerabl higher reading of th econd
example.
If the wedge r veal that a desired balance betwecn a
low green density and a ufficient blue density r ult in
an underexposed gray card, then an adjustment to the luminance of the blue backing is called for. In practice, tlus
fr quently results in a blue backing luminanc about one
stop lower than the foreground illumination. om optical
camera operators pref r a lightly overexposed foregroLUld
cene, which can increa e till further the pread between
foreground and blue backing. On the other hand, other
op rators prefer a lugher backing luminance. Moreover, the
luminance of the background plate will influence the selection of backing luminance value, with high-luminance
plates (i.e., bald sky) requiring higher lunUnance backings
and night scene calling for lower backing level . The lesson here i to consult with the operator at the earli t po ible opportunity.
While the catalogue of technique for enhancing the
results of blue ser en proc
i too extensive to e plore in
thi tutorial, tllere are tw r latively imple tactics that can
make a significant diH renc . TIle first procedur i to reo.
rate the film stock to half its normal rated p ed, tllu overexpo ing it by one stop, and tllen compensate for this overexposure by instructing the lab to pull proce one top,
tlluS reducing the developm nt. This maneuver results in
a normally exposed n gative but with a notic able reducti.on in graininess and improved resolution. The econd
procedure is to lect a fine-grain daylight-balanced stock
for the blue screen photography. This require eith r Eghting with HMI or filtering tlU1gsten light appropriately. The
main reason tlUs i effecti e i that the blue screen process
make use of the blue r cord of the negative to derive
mattes; and while thi i a fa t, relatively coar e-grain
record in a tlU1gsten-balanced stock, it i a v r fine-grained
449
r cord in a da light-balanced stock. The tradeoff for both

of these maneuvers is the r lativel e tea agant use of light.
Video and Electronic Scanning

The criteria f r backing exp ures for telecine transfer and lectronic cannin intended for computer image
manipulation can differ quite si nificantly from photochemical requirem nts. [n general, a negative proper!
e p sed for film compo iting will ha e a blue luminance
level at, or above, the upp r limit for optimum vid a matling. A ophisticatcd vid matting y t m such as the
Ultimatt i capable of producing a matte from a little a
,I() I.R.E. video uni , which would occur at about four top
lower backing luminance than for a film blue scr n camp ite. id "c1ipping" ccurs at about 100 1.R.E. video
unit . Thus, with a high-luminance blue backing, the blu
l vel will rcach clip and cannot increase further, whjJe the
ine itable reen density may continue to rise, reducing the
degree of paration between green and blue. Moreover,
e c i"e luminance of the backing threatens the image
d tail at the matte dge, \>\ hich will detract from the quality f Ihe omposit . A targ t, then, i a point within the capability of both the optical and video proce ses, and this
oc urs at the 1.20 den it w'lits ab ve D min. in the blue
record. Blow thi point, film compo iting becom difficult, while above it, video mattin uffers.
Ultimatte uScreen Correction"

Video matting from film via the Ultimatte can also
avail itself f the reen-e rrecti n featur . To use this attribute, a take hould be prepared f the blue-screen scene
e actl as it will be hot for the production, with a lockedoff cam ra but without an of the live action. If th cene
require camera moves, a m tion-control y tem should be
provided f r the cam ra, and the ca libration take run with
the motion-contc I program for ach hot. 0 further
changes hould b made t uch m tion-<:ontrol programs
un1
another calibration take i al mad .
[n the po tproduction compo iting proces , the calibration take will b used I "map" the blue- creen area and
correct f r any defici ncie . Thereafter, actual pr duction
take witl u thi information a a reference and correct
the deficiencies for all sub quent takes. The main ad antag of th.i procedure is to Ie sen the burden on the stage
450
crew in providing effective matting backings, thus speeding setup and reducing co ts. Permitting this technology
to become a panacea, however, entails risk; if the Ultimatte
i unavajJable or the calibration take i lUlusable for any
reason, it will then be difficult to fali back on more conventional techniques. The result witl be very costly and tim consuming to overcome. It' a good idea to make cr ncorrection calibration takes while also making every rcaonable effort to pro ide a functional blue screen in the
original photography, r lying on the screen correction only
as an insurance policy.
Electronic Scanned Film for FeatureQuality Composites

A this edition of the manual goes to pr , a vari ty
of digital electronic film canning systems are making th ir
appearance in the feature film industry . Th Eastman
Kodak facility, Cinesite, is one. Others include: Computer
Film Co. (Land n and La
ngele); Component Video,
(Los Angeles); Pacific Title, (Los Angeles); Pacific Data
Image, (Los Angeles); Video Image, (Los Angeles) and
Sony High-Definition Facilitie , (Los Angele ). Vari us
other facilities are prov iding work stati ns for d igi tal i1nage manipulati n. As with photochernicaland video matting technique, these new sy lerns ha e their own optimal
performance parameters.
While it i theoretically true that digital lectronic
matting can be performed on any color coordinates, the
afer practice i to select ne of th three primary colors. The
main determinant in selecting the backing color will be the
color content of the for ground scene. Howe r, other i ues t be considered are: the matting performance of the
particular film tock, th software program on which the
camp ite will be performed and th circum tances in
which the matte will be acquired. In the latter ca e, a variety of new options will become available to the cinematographer. Green backin , for example, can be pr vided for
effective daylight exterior traveling mattes more readil
than can blue.
Ultimatte composites including the" cre n correction" feature ar also ava ilabl on wo rkstation that have
licensed the process. Feature-film productions intending to
use this method of compositing hould observe the guide-
451
line for preparing for video matting via Ultimatte, and the
lower backing Iwninance val ues generally apply.
. It i. alway wi e to hoot a wedge test, if the opportunltye 1St . u h te t hould include foreground detail
imilar to th actual sh ot. Thus costume ma terials and
col I' ,a well a pI' p , hould be included where po ible.
Stand-ins for principal pla ers with similar hair and other
characteri ti ar h Ipful. Th foreground hould be proper! e p d 0 that an ] % gray card will yield proper
LAD#' . (Laborator Aim Den ity alues are read from the
de elop d n gative and hould be approximately: Red 80,
Green 1.20 and Blu 1.60). rti ticall desired "deviati ns"
from thi "n rmal" expo ure and development can more
e.ffe.ctiv I be acc mpli hed in the ubsequent image proc ing than in original ph tography, where they can comannin pr
promise th
A rie of hort tak i then made in which the luminance of th backing creen is progres i ely adju ted
from "par" with the foreground to two and a half top
belm par, in half- top iner ments. This test is then scanned
and t t comp it made on the workstation of choice. In
~ractice, it may b m re practical to adjust the foreground
light than the backing illumination, compensating for expo ure via NO filte .
The cin matographer hould make it a practice to indude the gra card and gray ale at the head of each take.
It i convenient to di play the e to the camera along with
the late unle th late is illuminated with a separat slat
light. Additionally, the running camera should be briefly
"capped" a to provide a short length of film devoid of
expo ure, so that a D-min. reference is produced to a ist
in ca libration at th carmer.
Front-Lit Backing Materials

As w!t~ fi lm toc~s, backing materials currently w'dergo rev Ision too rapidl y to permit full discussion here.
The new ly m rging I ctronic matting processes will
make u e f paint, fabric and plastics only now being
developed. Inquiry directed to the following provider of
sud, material wi ll yield current information: 7-K Color
(Lo Angel ); Composite Components Company (Los
Angeles); Daizian ( ew York and Lo Angeles); Gothic
Color ( w York); Paramount Paint (Los Angeles); Ro co
(worldwid); tewart Filmscreen (La Angeles).
452
Transmission Blue Screen

JJ:1 transmission blue scre n, th ource Light, power
supplie and color of the creen it If ha e all een changes.
Incandescent Lights, impractical b ca use of their low blue
c.ontent, have been replaced by fluor cen t lamps, in particular by lamps containing the ingle pho phor trontium
pyrophosphate: Europium. Such lamps hav a narrow
band output peaking at 420 nanomet !'S. The ma be obtained from the major lamp manufacturer and are identilamp (infied by the prefix SOB (Super Diazo Blu ). TI,
deed all fluorescent lamps) emit a c rtam amow,t of ultraviolet light; therefore, it i wise to use a Wratten 2 at the
camera or a comparable UV filter at th lamp.
It hould be mentioned that there i
me evidence to
ugg t that the blue end of the pe.ctrum, particularly the
acc lerated aging of
area a~ound ~ nanometer , cau
the rebna. This should not be confused with cataracts and
problems that relate to hort-wa e ultra iolet. There is no
cause for concern for people who are ca uall e posed to
blue light, such as actor or tage crew, " ho may only
pend a few days a year working around blue creens.
H?we~er,. I:'eople who pend many weeks a year working
With slgl1lflcant amounts of blue light hould take some
precaution to limit their exposure. Excellent fil t red glasses,
known as "Blue Blocker ," are now available that will completely block ~ot only the UV but most blue light.
Stewart Filmscreen can produce tran mis ion greenscreen material; a polychromatic creen can be made from
Rosco black-screen rear-projection ma te rial and illumi nated with the appropriate filtered light to achieve any
desired backing color.
The strobing associated with GO-cycle AC-driven fluoresc~t I~mps may be essentially overcome by the us of
speCIal hlgh-frequency solid- ta te p weI' uppli s.
Reverse Blue Screen

This process was developed in I' sponse to a requireto be able to matte objects incorporatin g highly reflective surfaces, such as glossy paint (even blue paint) or
specular metallic material as well as details sucl, as mesh
thin w~e~, and the !ike. Such cl,aract risties have proved
to be ~cult, and m some ca e ,impo ible to matte by
conventiOnal blue screen or frontlit/backlit proces . The
process requires a sophisticated motion-control ystem
~ent
capable of multipl passes ~ re~tr~tion, and consequently

calmot be used for live-action filmmg.
.
Rever blue screen derives its name from tile baslC
concept tl1at, instead of trying to ph?t?gra~h an opaque
object again t an illuminated cree!', It IS desll'able to p~o
tograph an illuminating ource.agamst~ bl.ac~ or o~erwLSe
contrasting background. In tlU way, lirrutation inherent
in th blu sere n process, notably the tend ncy of.the
screen to reflect off tile surface of the foregrOlmd subject,
can be a\ oided.
TIle subject to be photoQTaph d, for .e xample a model
on a motion-control tage, i coated Wl tll a h'ansparent
med iwu, uch a lacqu l' or acrylic, conta~nin~ one or more
pho phors which are invisible Lmder white light. ~e s~b
ject i phot graphed, illuminated b normal stage lighting
ources. A second pas i tl1en filmed, on tlle.same film I ~d,
but consecutive to it. This time th stage lights are extlJ1\rui hed and tl1e subject is irradiated Witll ultraviolet radiation ~f a wa e lengtl1 of about 360 nan~llleter ~black
lioht). Thi proces i applied to top~mohon by ~Imply
filming alternate white light and bla~k light &:an:es ~ tead
of c mplete sequence. The ulh'avlOlet radlClhon 1 convert db tl1e phosph l' on tl1e surface of tl1e ubject from
360 nanometer to either -150 (blue); 550 (green); or 650 nanometer (red) and re-emitt d a visible light. If a color
sto k (such as EK 5248) is bing u e~, this wi~l usually be
red 0 it wi ll record on tile finest-gram emulSIOn laye r.
The ubject is n w functioning a a!' illumil~atin.g
ource ratl1er tl1an a a reflector of light fallmg upon It. It IS
this ource which is photographed. Further refined by .tl1e
u e of a color sepa rating flit r at the ca mera lens, tile ~
ag i formed primarily by tl1e selected pho phor coa.ru:g
on tile surface f tile model, witl1 relatively little ve tigtal
imaging from the model itself. (In tlle ca of red, a Wra tten
23A; blu , a blue dichroic plus a Wratte~ 2E; and gr en , a
gt'een dichroic alone.) In this way, va riations on tl1e mo?~ l
brought about b paint col r, texture changes, tc. ~~ mmImized, as tl1e bject is to produce a mon.ochrom~tic tmage
Witll as unjform a den ity as possible. It 1 ometirne .helpfu l to reduce th contrast range in tl1e subject to aVOid .the
juxtapo ition of briHiant white and jet black area (I.e.,
pace- huttle model ). but ~s sh~uld usually be ?one a
a matter of course in preparmg subjects for comros1~ photography, ince tile ensuing op~cal processes will build up
contrast in tl1e final compo Ite Image.
In addition to tl1e desired elirnination of restrictions on

s ubject characteristics, thi method of obtai ning matte
provides the followin g advantages: First, tl1ere are fewer
steps and fewer pieces of film required in tl1e optical compo ition sequence. Second, e en under some extreme conditions, uch a a subject l' ceding into the distance and
beco ming quite small , tl1e matte image r tains its int gri ty
and refu s to disintegra te, as happens when tlle same hot
is a ttempted via conventional blue screen. Third, camera
freedom increase, in that a backing scr n is not required
to be kept in tl1 camera view; cOrlSeq uently, tl1e cam ra can
make a 360-degree rum around a ubj ct.
The procedure in tl1e optical deparbnent is straightforward, fast and conomical. The original negati e matte
unage i printed to a high contrast tock \ria tl1e appropriate Etlter. The exposw'e of b st con trast between the deal'
subj ct ar a and the opaque backgt'oLmd ar a, llSually a
density of app roxima tely 2.6 to 2.7, is printed. TIle selected
den ity tends to "pindl" tl1e subject image slightl , thus
affording a tight fit. TIle reverse i then print d from tl1is
matte, completing the set. The fu- t matte, or "burn-in," is
tl1en simply bi-packed with a positive of the o rigin al negative, printed and followed b a bi-pack of tl1 background
scene witl1 the "hold-out" matte.
A more complex version of this process provides for
tl1e addition of a contrasting pho phor backi ng (u ually
blue) and model mount which is recorded ia tl1e appropriate filter onto tl1e previou I recorded pho phor image.
Or, with appropriate filtration (Wratten #31) botl1 phosphors may be r corded slinultan ously. The result is th
creation of an inlage capable of providing b th male and
female lllattes in one generation. One ituation in which tl1is
is helpful i tl1e case f a model with extreme texture or
holes that carmot be adequa tely penetrated b the black
light. U us d alone, such an incomplete image would result in holes in tl1e m atte. However, when each side of tl1e
set of mattes is made from its own respective ph phor, tl1e
result is that dark area of tile burn-in matte r main dark
and do not permit th print-through of the background
scene.
SUdl matte can have the added property of containing lightly but importantly different information from
each other. Subtracting one matte linage from the o ther
therefore yields a third which represents the difference
between its two predecessors. This is known as a "matte-
455
difference-matte" and may be used to create additional

eff ct ( uch a the re-entry glow on a spacecraft). Further,
it naturally follows that thi concept can be extend d to
include the green record, obtaining a total of thrce original
matte plu an number of permutational d rivati es.
pogce, Inc., holds a Patent (#4,.H7,791) on Re erse Blue
under license.
reen and upplies th proc
Front Projection Blue

This proces pr vid a method for producin a blue
r n f e ceptional purity, with great econ my and, if
needed, on a truly large scale.
Demand made for v ry large- cale blue creen compo it prompted Apogee t build a dedicated, high-power
blue flux front projector. Thi device, known a "BlueMax," incorporates th be tfeatures of both blu screen and
fro nt-projection compositing. From blue screen, we acquire
the ability to composite a final image in whjcll the foregrowld and the background are of the same gen ration one
to th other. From front pr jection, we acquire the ab nee
of blue pill and the almo t unlinnted screen size plus the
mod t expense of operating a 5OO0-watt lamp rather than
a large tran nussion creen . Moreover, we can perform
multi-plane effects Wrudl permit the actors to appear both
in front of and berund portions of the blue fi Id, or we can
u flags to obscure apparatus uch as lights and rigging.
t th same tin1e, we ha e di pensed with the front-prajection restrictions of poor re-photography of the projected
plate. B using a narrow band interference coated beam
plitt r designed to plit nI the de ired matting line, we
can I iminate the necessity f lighting the foreground scene
one top hotter to comp n ate for the one- top los of a
conventional beam plitter.
The "Blue-Max" con ists of the following ba ic element:
1. The light sourcc, a 5000-watt Mercury-Xenon hortarc lamp.
2. A light collecti n and delivery system ba d on a
modified Abbe illlllrunation y tern in wrudl the arc is reimaged b an optical integrator and from there m dified
to conform t th characteristics of the camera 1eJ1S
b lei
in use.
3.
rie of filters d igned to isolate with great accuracy the selected matting color: Red, Yellow (f rSodium
ap r two- trip proc ), Green or Blue.
4. An a tt~ u ation s~ tem Wrudl can modify the output ?~ the projector dunng a shot in order to maintain a
peCIfied screen brighble level.
5. A selection of bean1 plitters of various reflection and
trcu: ~ sion ratios, induding some having the prop rty of
plJtting only the matting line in use, so as to reduce unnecessary foreground light I
.
6. A light ~ap incorp rated with the projector so a to
allow for relab ely unlimited camera movement.
The set~up for a "Blue-Max" shot is ery imilar t that
for co~ enbonal fro~t pr.i tion. It is perhap e en more
essen.tial to keep ambient Ii htcontamination off the screeJl.
The light I.evel at .the scre n i measured on a ground glas
mounted m ~e film gate by use of a fiberoptic probe connected to a light meter. In fr nt-projection blue, it i not
nece ary to carry focus to the screen as in conventional
fron t projection.
Reverse Front Projection

In both front projection and tra nsnUssion blu - ereen
compo iting, extreme clo e-ups have presented various
pr blem . Indo e-up ph tography via transmi ion blue
?Iu~ spi~ is the principal villain encowltered. In front pre:
Jec~on, if a subject appr ach very dose to the camera l
pro~ect~r apJ:>aratu , the pr jected light will record on the
ub!ect m spite of the va t difference in gain between the
ubJectand the Scotchlite reen. Furthermore certain rul
have lo~g existed in front projection technjq~e regarding
th patial relationsrup between the camera, the ubject
and t!"'e screen. (See Fr nt Projection section.) The e rules
are duected at preventing th fringing of the subject that
re ult from having a soft hadow rendered at th ereen
the consequence of a relatively short subject-ta-camera di ~
ta nc: :,er us a relatively long ubjecHo-scre n di tance.
~dd l tlonal p~ob l ms are in tr duced if the subject includes
hlghly reflective surface, e.g., si lver lame dothing or pace
h Imet ; and all the e problems are exacerbated if th subject i backlit.
In "Blue-Max" compositing, these difficultie can be
: o!ved by the adoption of "Reverse Front Projection." In
Its. Imple t ter~ , Rev r e Front Projection can be de~I?ed as a radical rearr.angem nt of the ba ic front-proJection setup. In conventional front projection, in whicll a
camera and a projector are di po ed at 90 degree to eacll
other with a beam plitter arranged between them at 45
457
l.IGtflS
BEAJolSI'UTIEA
tPLATE GlA$S\ ~-4-~~
SCQTCHLIQHT
SCREEN
...
Figure 1. Diagram of reverse frOllt projection.
degre to both, a subject t be photographed i po itioned

in front of the camera/projector apparatus, and a frontprojecti n creen on which th proj ctor will form an image is deplo ed be ond the ubject. TIle camera is thus able
to record and combine both the returning projected image
and th foreground ubject.
J.n Reverse Front Projection, the Canlera and projector
ar till at 90 de rees to each other, but separated b a coniderable di tance, and th for ground ubject i placed
between a very larg beam splitter (whicll may be plain
<>la s, or preferably a pellicle) and the camera. The frontprojection screen faces the projector instead of the camera,
while the camera faces the light trap normally confronted
by the projector. (See Figure 1.) TIle effect of thi~ arrangement i to take the diverging projected cone of light from
the projector and deliver it a a converging cone of light,
having turned it90 d grees. W then po ition the camera
so that the nodal point of its lens coincides with the focal
point at which the projected cone of light con erges.
B this proc , we acquir all the advantages of frontproject d blue, in terms of the plll'ity of color as well as the
absence of blue pill, withouthavi..ng to project the blue onto
the subject. We have also eliminated the fringing resulting
458
from poor alignment of projector and camera nodal points,

a there is no shadow at all cast upon the screen by the foreground subject. Fwthermore, we have elimina ted the hal ing resulting from the backscat-tered light that occurs
when the ubject is backlit. This is due to a "diode effect"
produced by the arrangement f elements in Reverse Front
Projection. In normal front projection, a ray of light striking th back surface of a foreground ubject is reflected back
to the Scotchlite scr en and then r turns again along the
sa me axis, plus or millu om 2%,. Therefor some of the
th ubject,
light I' trikes the ubject, while ome pa
making its way back to the camera to produce the objectionable halo.
By contrast, the "cliode effect beamsplitter" handle the
ituation in the follOWing manner: a ray of light striking the
rear of the foreground ubject i reflected back toward the
b am plitt 1'; approximately 92% fit i pa sed through
the beam splitter to the black velvet screen, where it is abrbed . 111 remaining 8% is reflect d back to the Scotchlite
screen, and from thence return to the beam plitter, where
again 92% is passed through and 8Ic, is reflected towards
the foreground ubject. Thus, only 8% of 8%, or .64%, is
made available to the camera to record a halo. To be sure,
only 8eyo of the projected blue light is being made available
to the cam ra a l 0, but that i not a erious problem to the
Blue-Max with its massive output. It should al 0 be borne
in mind that ill conventional front projection, only a theoretical 25% of the projected light survives the journey to the
camera, so we are, in fact, sacrificing approximately one
and a half tops.
We sacrinc some d gre of camera flexibility in using Reverse Front PI' jection, as the camera cannot move
from the nodal point defilled by the projector unJe provi ion is made to move both the camera and projector in
synchrony. in some cases, it may be easier to move the subject in relation to the camera. Zooming is certainly possible,
a are all nodal-point move for the camera, and the e
should co rmo t requirements for close-up . Apogee has
applied for patent protection n Reverse Front Projection
a well as the "Blue-Max," and both are available to the
industry under licens .
Current backing mat rials include th following paints
and fabrics. Paints: Pal'am lUlt Ultra-Marine Blue #8580 (a
tough surface paint that resists cuffing, but i more applicable to television than to fiim, as it lacks sufficient color
459
aturation); 7-K Infinity Blue (for years the industry standard); Apogee Process Blue, Rosco Ultra Blu and Gothic
Ultra Blue. Fabric: "FRP 100" (flame retardant) and
"Tempo," (not flame-retardant though it ha uperior color
saturation and a felt-like te ture with a thin foam-rubber
backing), both avaiJable from Dalzians in ew York alld
Lo Angel ,and a new material from Ro co. Be ides these
there is a vinyl pia tic sheet material from St wart called
Ultimatte Front Lit Blue. Thi material, besid providing
a very clean blue, is also very durable - sturdy enough to
drive vehicl on.
Digital Effects Cinematography

by Denni Muren, ASC
The arriva l of theatrical-quality digital image manipulation bring to the cinematographer new re ponsibilities.
It is important that we do om be t to under tand and eventually master the capabiliti s of this new t I. On the set,
we will soon b asked, "Can we keep shooting and fix it
digitally?" or "Can't w ju t paint out the wires?" As of
now, there ar no industry-wid stalldard defining image
quality, and there are only a halldfu] of computer artists
who know our e pectations. Our participation is vital. Perhaps within thi decade entire films will begin passing
through a digital printer, where the choices of color timings
will be only one of a dozen possible alterations. The cinematographer will need to be at these sessions to follow through
on his vision. He may have dlosen to light and xpose the
negative in pecific ways, knowing that with digital manipulation h wi ll later alter the image to be t create a specific mo d or Hecl.
MaJ1Y of these technique are avaiJable for TV at video
post houses. But we have no control over how a home
viewer dl00 es to adjust hi TV. In feature films, it is the
cinematographer who Call have the final say, because he
works wi th the color timer and often appro es the release
prints.
For a few years, digital mallipulation will be restricted
to pecial instances where the expense is justified. The work
will be don at a film effect house or a high-end video
hou e. One way to begin feeling comfortable with this technology is to tour a number of supplier' facilities. Ask to
ee their sample reel on film, not tape. Then trust your own
eye in evaluating the work. Since equipment co ts change
as technology advances, pricing should not be a umed.
Feel free to consult experts whom you trust. There is till
no ubstitute for experience on a el. On a show with difficult effects work, an experienced expert hould be there
wh never possible. Later, you may Wallt to check the final
manipulated fUm that has been cut into the workprint, and
project it if possible. It should be up t the video house to
ensw:e that a shot will intercut, but they may in fact have
very little film exp rience.
Here is a brief wnmarY of th three steps needed to
transfer fUm into a computer alld back onto film. Each tep
i controlled by a c mputer:
1. Input: The original negative or interpo itive i
scanned by a sensor, which produces the electronic equivalent of a photograph. Each frame is subdivided into millions
of discrete dots, alld each dot's position, color alld brightne s i stored on digital tape or di ks.
2. Manipulating:The digital tape or disks are read into
a computer where the image is reassembled on a monitor
for viewing. It can then be mallipulated with computerpainting alld image-processing programs, either by an artist a frame at a time or preprogrammed and recorded unattended, alld then tored onto digital tape or disks.
3. Output TIle digital tape or disks are read into a computer where the image is put back onto film, either through
photographing a high-quality TV image or by laser allning onto film alld reconstructing each dot' po ition, color
alld brightness. The film is then proces ed alld print d for
viewing.
It i during step two that we have all opportunity to
alter th image. We work with a computer artist who rLms
the computer, much like in a postproduction video suite.
For now, monitors are not exact representations of w hat
will how on film. But their usefuln
lies in making judgments of images relative to one allother or within the frame.
As we have learned to interpret how a set will look on film
by using our eye, we will need to Jearn to interpret how a
monitor's image will look on film. Today, the proc sing
of the images happen much more lowly thall in a post
suite. So before a job i completed, a wedge of one fraJne
Call be requested alld checked for final approval before
461
rwming the job. Here are a few p cillc manipulation tecl1niques now available:
Lmage Proc ing: This will become both a creati e tool
and a worry for cinematograph r . Color, contra t, saturation, harpn , and even the apparent hape of objects can
be altered. ingl color can be changed, area can be is0lated, and the changes will onl affect that ar a. These tools
may eventuall be in the printing laborator , which will
make a compl tely new negative to be u ed for release
printing.
Painti ng: Wires or supports can be painted ut and not
appear on the film. This can make stunt work afer. Unwanted objec can be painted out. If a difficult effects shot
has an artifact, it might be easi r to paint the defect out than
tr to correct it at an earlier tep.
Comp i tin : For bl ue-screen work, in me cases the
quality of the blue background need not be prefect if the
compo ite i t b made digitaU . This means we can set
reen can be po itioned in difficult places
up fa ter. Th
r at extrem angles. Green or r d creen may work bett r, depending upon the color in the subject. Mattes can
be made from differences in color and brighhles at the
sa me time. Since the process i elf-contained within the
computer, th r are no problems wi th film shrinkage, unsteadine , expo me fluctuation, or photochemical development as there are with optical printing. The composite
i viewed on a monitor and adjusted at ever tep. When
pr perl photographed, comp iting can now be perfectly
e ecuted.
High-Resolution Electronic
Intermediate System for Film
by Don Mi kowich
Ea tman Kodak Compan ha developed a high-resolution electronic intermediate y tern designed for the contemporary need of the motion-picture industr . This s tem can be used to scan and digitize frames of motion picture film 0 the can be interactively manipuJated and
compo ited at c mputer workstations. The digital pictures
can be recorded back onto fiJrn without compromising

image quality.
There are many ignilicant advantages to this technology. By converting film to digital form (1's and D's in the
computer), fue imag can be end! Iy manipulated wifuout losing quality. The system is capable of accommodating fue full-resolution and dynamic-range of analog pictures captured on currently a aiJable fine-grain 35mm
films. Witll tlUs technology it is as feasible teclmically to
combine 25 layers f imagery as it is to combine a imple
foreground and backgrow1d.lmage input and outpu t time
is approximately furee econds per frame at full resolution.
Th ystem can al 0 be used at one-quarter and one-half
resolution, which i comparable to NTSC/PAL and HDTV
image quality.
Applications faU into furee general categories - painting, image processing and compo iting. Painting includes
such applications as guide wire and artifact removal . It i
also po ible to repair ccatched or otherwise damaged
film.
Image proce ing includes such ap plications as tl1e
manipulation of colors, contrast, satura tion, sharpness and
even the apparent shape of images. Single colors can be
altered in isolated areas of individual frames. While tlUs
capability can be u ed to resolve problems, it also is a potentiaUy powerful arti tic tool which gives fue cinematographer a second chance to alter fue emotional content as
well as fue quality of images.
.
Digital image compo iting hould make fue bigge t
tmpact. There will be I stringent requirements for tting
up blue-screen photography since it i possible to olve
many problems at fue image compo ing workstation. For
example, blue-spill- blue reflections on shiny objects that
get to close to the blue screen - can be eliminated at tl1e
image-computing workstation.
The Kodak sy t m has fow main componen t: a film
scanner, an image computing workstation the nece ary
software, digital data cassette recorders, and a film recorder.
The scanner uses a proprietary CCD trilinear nsor
with furee linear 4096-pixel photosite arrays. The array are
covered witl1 red, green and blue filters. These are optimized to match tl1e dyes in contemporary color negative
film . A xenon light ouree and integrating filter provide
high-power diffused illumination.
463
The scanner also employs unique ignal proc ing

electronics and a proprietary transport design using frameind ed, pin-regi tration and film- urface p itioning. The
latter features are crucial for seaml
compo -iting of different picture elements.
The image computi ng work tation i ba ed on currentlya ailable technoI gy. It incorporates a Sun rnicroproc
r platform with VME backplane and UNIX operating
system. The workstation can be in a stand-alone or network d environment. It pro id a previewing capability
on a id 0 monitor.111is allows th operator and members
of the creative t a m to make interacti ve deci ions in a very
tight loop. They can look at images compo ited in various
ways, make d eci ions, and view the resul in minute .
transput r-based, image-proces ing accelerator was
developed for the wor tation to pro ide highpeed imaO"e manipulation. In addition its capability was extended
to provide direct memory access (DMA) on the edge nodes.
The d ign fJ xibility a llows user to size the transputer
processing array to match their budget and their inlageproce ing interactivity and productivity needs. The system i configur d with a minimum of 8 gigabytes of parallel disk torage and uses a highpeed, industry-standard
SCSI-2 data bus for data transfer. On-line di k storage can
be increased b adding disk dri es to the array. Industrystandard peripherals can be used, including the E abyte
8mm data recorder, and 00-2 digital cassette recorders
which can support data transfer rates in exce of 15 megabytes per second.
State-of-the-art oftware has been developed for the
work tation. It use concepts and ymbol familiar to
people already working with images at video postproduction faciliti , computer-generated image houses and
optical effects facili ties. Main features include interactivity
with lectable windows providing immediate updates of
proce sed images.
The software use flexible image proce ing tools, including color grading, filtering, resizing, repo itioning and
painting. !mag can be imported from and exported to
other major software packages. Kodak has also licensed the
use of adjustable algorithms for blue screen compositing
developed by the Ultimatte Corporation. Ultirnatte has
been a leader in the development of flexible programs for
electronic compositing at NTSC, PAL and HDTV resolution. This is the first use of these programs for making film-
resoluti n comp ites. The latest generation of U1timatte

ofhvare provid filmmakers with greater fl xibility for
creating credibl compo ite .
. .
Previou Iy, blue screen photography wa limited to
silhouett -style shots against rear-li t, perfect blue scre n .
The new algorithms allow actors to m ve in the foregro~ d
of front-lit blue creens and cast shadows. They can c11mb
on and around blu set pieces, and move within the background instead of just performing in the foreground.
111 final component is the film recorder. The recorder
uses three visible gas lasers to copy digital pictures onto a
high-re olution color intermediate film . Blu light is provid d by a 458nm Argon laser; gre n li ght by a 543nm
Helium Neon laser; and r d light by a 633nm Helium Neon
laser. Th film r corder also uses unique lenses and beamhaping optics optimized for this application. ~e proprietar transport d ign employs the ame preo e frameindexed pin regi tration and film urface po itioning used
.
by the film scanner.
Both the scanner and recorder are deSIgn d to work
at are olution of 167 pixels p r mm in the film plane. Thi
was sel cted to preserve the resolution of the original camera film, and also to pro ide the maximum sample siz of
4096 pi els acro full-width forma uch as Super 35 and
VistaVi ion. Pr rving the aspect ratio of the Super 35
camera apertur , the system prOOuc an image with ~6
pixels across and 3114 lin Sdown. This is mor than twIce
the horizontal ampling of the 1125 line HDTV form at,
which has 1920 amples horizontall and 1035 visible line
vertically. The following table sununarizes th image dimensions for the formats upported by the scanner and the
recorder.
Forma t
Super 35
Academy
Aperture
CinemaScop
Vi taVision
Horizontal
Lin
Vertical
Lines
Aspect
Ratio
4096
3112
1.32:1
3656
3656
6144
2664
3112
4096
1.33:1
2.36:1
1.50:1
For example, an Academy-aperture 35mm fram i

scanned to capture 3656 lines ofh orizontal resolution with
2664 picture elements, or pixels, on every line. To record
465
the range of density captured on the negative, while pro"headroom" for creative digital image manipulation, the sy tem accommodates up to 10 bits of information
in each of three color record every pixel.
Thi feature requir some 40 megabytes of magnetic
c mputer storage for e ery frame of 35mm film. One frame
would use the entire hard-disk capacity of many popular
pe onal computers. It' enough data to write om 8-10
milli n words in the English language. Remember, both the
anner and recorder can handle one frame of film in appro imatel three second .
There are other flexible alternatives. For example, the
y t~m pr~vides an ~ption for caruUng, storing and proce mg 8 bits of data ill eadl color record of every pixel for
applications not requiring headroom. The user can also opt
to work at one-quarter or one-half resolution, which requires only Y<!.or V,6 of the storage space, respectiv Iy.
The eqLupment has b n designed in an op n arcl1itectw mode wmch provide compatibility with tandard
perip.heral. interfa.ce used in the computer industry. Also,
a ~gltal picture file format wl1ich simplifies th exchange
of Imag between workstations and between different faciliti ,has been developed.
ther applications for the mgh-resolution electronic
intermediate y tern include restoration of intage films
that have been marred by cratches, blotche and other
?arna e. It i~ even pas ible to r tore tom imag or missmg parts of Lmages based on the image information in adjacent frarnes. This hould prove to be a valuable tool for
protecting and preserving film that have cultural and/or
hi toric ignificance or that have potential value for future
r di tribution.
.
onsiderable intere t ha been expressed to establish
Imag da tabases of stock f otage from live-action and comp~lt~r-generated image Iibrari s. Stock foo tage tor d in
dlgl t~l format would then be ea ily accessible. Th image
q.uabty ~ould be equiva l nt to first-generation nega tive
ftlm . Th iS would assure that s tock footage intercuts
moothly with live-action photography.
~er the long t~rm, it could eventually become prac.
tical to mtegrate a mgh-r lution electronic interm diate
. tern into the print distribution chain. A digital intermed,at~ could ?e used to generate a high-quality intermediate film ~~ch would be used as a printing master. This
would elimmate several generations of film from the re~iding
466
lea e-printing process, r ulting in a significant improvement in image quality.
Computer Graphics
by Michael Whitne and Allan Peach
Computer-generated imagery (CeI) ha become an
important addition to the w rking world of th cin matoo-rapher. ~eI is the i~LLlation of real or imagin d objec~
and envIronmen ts u lI1g computer-based mathematical
mod 1:;. Just as a director and cinematograph r light and
compose shot on an actual three-dimerlSional t the CGI
dir ~tor ~orks with an in teractive computer di piay to set
the Ilghtll1g and block the shots on a simulated et. The
d!rector c~ then transf r th computer created imagery to
VIdeo or film .
Computer simulation of reality can be quit eff ctive,
but imulated objects, lighting, and en ironmental effects
o.nly appro~te r~ality. Ligh.t may pa right through a
Imulated object Without castmg shadows, olid object
ma~ themselves pass magically through one anoth r, and
envLfonmental effects ma drift from the reali tic to the
comical within the same
ne. The computer arti t needs
to be aware of the imperfection in the software' imulation ?f the world. Typicall , the more accurately th director Lmulates.a scene, the longer it takes th computer to
generate the I.mage. Because of this, the computer artist
mu t be cogrnzant of the co t of "reality" in tting up a
hot.
Cel for motion pi ture is an inherently ex p nsive
pr?Cess because ~f the time it takes to generate and r cord
a mgle frame of film. AIthough 11igh-end p rodu tion work
i till be t ser ved by sup rcomput rs and advanced worktations, computer-graphic oftware is fas t becom in o- a
prevalent commodity in th p rsonal computer world.
tr nd, coupled with the proliferation of faster and more
in~perlSive.comput r ,i lowly reducing the c t of producmg quality computer grapmcs.
TILi
Basic Tools and Terms

The. atomic .unit of computer grapmcs is the pixel (a
contraction of picture elemel/t). Low-resolution di play,
467
often found in personal computers, have resolutions f 640

X 4 0 pixels. This resolution is ufficient for mo t NTSC
video work. However, m tion picture work requires higher
r olution display with resolutions of 1280 pi els X 1024
line or greater. Upcomin high-~efinjtion tel~ ision ~s
tems will have display approaching 2,000 honzontal pIXels b 1,000 vertical lines.
Th computer calculates the color for each pix I and
displa it by varying the inten ity of the Red,. Green and
Blue (RCB) ignal. To repre nt color as percelv~ ~y the
human eye, each pi el mu t pan a range of 16 mLUlon to
68 billion colors (256 to 4,096 intensity values per R, G, B
component). internally the computer stor~ the RGB ~al
ues in memory, with between and 12 bits repre entmg
each R, G and Bvalue. Each pix I, therefore, requires 24 to
36 bit of storage. Even for th low resolution of NTSC
video, the computer mu t ca lculate and then store over 1
m gabyte of data for each frame. A single Academy-apertur 35mm color n gative frame, at the theatrical screening r olution of 4,096 pixel 3,072 Lines, require around
56 megabytes of storage. A 65mm 5-perf motion-pi~ture
image requires a screen r olution of 6,000 X 2,500 pIXels
or higher. With 12 bits per R, G and ~ value, a ~ame would
require 67.5 megabytes of memory, l.e., 6,000 pIXels X 2,500
lin
3 colors (RGB) X 1.5 bytes (1 byte = bits). The computer must calculate this data then move it.from its internal memory to the displa memory of the film recorder.
The film recorder display the data on a cathode-ray
tube (eRI) or writes directly to the raw camera tock with
a anning RGB laser. Thi mean that in order to make
comput r graphics economical, you must not only have an
e tremely fast computer, but you must al 0 have high
bandwidth pathway (called c"mll1els) between storag.e
devices, the computer and the film recorder. For companson, personal computers with 2,400 baud mod ms transfer data at 240 bytes per second. A high-performance CRTba d film recorder, in order to record a single 35mm frame
in appro imately six seconds, needs the channels to transfer 56 megabytes of data at 10,000,000 bytes (10 megabytes)
per
ond.
Currentl , no comput r can create computer graphic
fram at film resolution in real time. Often a frame may
take from everal econd to many hours to compute and
record. Whole scenes often take day to weeks of computer
time. Because of these factors, computer graphics can be
expensive, but the virtue

weigh the costs.
f computer imagery often out-
2-D and 3-D Images

Two-dimensional computer graphics are a taple of
video postprod uction houses. The low resolu tion of vid~o
allows real-time manipulation of images by the graphic
tem is
artist. The user interface of a two-dimensional
usually a graphics tablet. Th artist uses an electronic tylus
to draw or painton the tablet much as a painter would use
a brush and canva . Because of this, these computers are
called paintbox sy tems. Video artists use paintbox sy tem
to create special effects and to manipulate the original video
ource material. For example, a paintbox system can retouch tape dropouts or remove unwanted object .
Digital frame stores are memory devices that can and
store complete frames of video in a digital format. ~veral
companies make two-dimensional computer graphics systems, such as the ADO, that utilize digital frame store to
do freeze frames, zooms, video compression and expansion, video positioning, change of aspect ratio, programmable patterns, picture flips and tumbl~, etc. .
Three-dimensional computer graphics are b mg used
more and more in the motion-picture field. From pioneering efforts such as Tron and The Last Starfighter .to more recentspecial-effects extravaganzas such as Terl1llllato~2 and
LnulIlmuwer Man, three-dimensional computer graphiCS can
create images that would be impossible to produce using
normal special-effects technologies.
Modeling
The creation of three-dimensional computer graphics
involves several steps. The first of these i the modeling
process. Modeling refer to the creation of t1:e simula,t ed
objects in the computer' memory, the modeling f o~ti,ca l
elements such as Light, tran parency, shadows, r fl Ctivlty,
etc., and the simulation of camera placement and movement within the computer-generated world.
The computer constructs objects from a seri of p .ints
defined by the model maker. Th points represent locations
in a Cartesian coordinat
tem. Often the model maker
may use several coordinate ,Ysterns to facilitate ~he contruction and interaction of bJects. These stored POints (the
object database) can represent the vertices of polygons or the
469
control pints of m re complex can truc uch as plines

or 1IIIrbs (mathematical repr entations of complex curves).
The computer can create a implifi d version of th object,
ca ll d a wire.frame, by simply coml cti-ng the poin t with
Lin . This wire-frame model is a useful representation of
the object as the co mpute r can render the wire frame
quickl . This all w the computer artist t pre i w the
c ne in r a l time or near r al tim . Eventually, howe er,
the computer must create surface on the objects to facilitat realistic lighting and shading.
The c mputer artist assigns attribute to the object's
surfaces. The e can include color, hinine (non-reflective
to highl reflecti e), and opacity. Recent features in CGl
ftware allow for more realistic-looking atmospheric effects and the creation of organic objects uch as trees and
hrubbery.
Object may have pictllre textllres projected or wrapped
on their urfaces for a more natural effect. These textures
are h o-dimensional pictur that give the urface of the
obj t the appearance of being made from real materials
such as, for example, wood or concrete. Parameters for
blimp moppillg are also mod led in the computer. An example of bump mapping might b the dimples on a goLf
baU or the pitted urface of an orange. Procedural urface
effects are formulas for creating urfaces and are useful
replacements for scanned te ture maps.
lmulated in the modeling tage. The
Lighting is al
computer artist mu t take into acc Wlt many of the concern of a traditi nallighting dir ctor. Computer lights
corne in many forms from distant lights that simulate the
lm, to point lights and spot lights that slmulate man-made
light ourc . Lighting the scene invol es placing the lights
in the simulated three-dim nsional pace, adjusting their
inten ity, the angle of their cone, their direction and their
color.
The computer can also imulate camera attribut s such
a depth of field, focal length, aspect ratio, etc. Once the
obj ct models are in place, the modeler can po ition the
camera an where in the imulated thre -dimensional
space. Thi is a major advantage ver tw -dmlen ional
animation, whele acll cllange in camera position I' quires
a new drawing of all the obj cts in the scene. The computer
modeler doe not n ed to reconstruct the objects to create
a new shot. He can imply reposition the camera.
The next step in the modeling proces is specifying the

movem nt of any animated objects and any movement of
the camera. The computer can be an excellent aid in this
animation process. The computer animator crea tes key
.frames and tells the computer the method of interpolotio1l .
The computer then creates the in-betweens.
In addition, traditional animation studios are turning
to computer graphics to a ist in the cel animation proces .
With CGl, the anin1ator can create a computer aided camra move through a three-dimensional world and then
print the cene as two-dimensional perspectiv drawing
directly onto ani-mation cels. Artists can then use the computer-generated lines as guides to ink and paint the cel
or use other specialized computers to do the ink and paint
work. The e proce ses can save hours of an animator's
time in figuring ou t complex motion and perspectives and
red uce production costs. Recent examples of computer-assisted animation and digital ink and paint include Beauty
and the Beast, Femgully and Alnddi1l.
Rendering
Rendering consists of taking the digi tal attributes of the
model, tlle lighting and the camera and crea ting an image.
Rendering is a complex proces and requires much more
computer power than the modeling stage. Before expending the time and money to render an entire shot, the computer artist may wish to render ingle key frames of an
animation sequence to check that the simulated i-mage is
the desired one. The artist may also render wire frame or
low-resolution approximations of the shot to get a feel of
the look of the animation befor fully rendering the scene.
Because the objects in the computer-generated seen
are only lmulations, they act quite differently from realworld objects that must obey tlle rules of physics. If not
properly anirnated in iliree dimensions, computer objects
may interpenetrate one another, destroyi-ng the illusion of
solid, real objects. If not properly constructed, seam may
show between supposedly seamless parts. The artist may
dlscover unwanted artifact created by the ize and shape
of the plxelS, the can Lines of the morutor, or errors in texture mapping or sW'face generation for th first time in the
rendering process. The modeling and rendering cycle is
often an iterative and illteractive one, with the CGr designer
returning to the modeling tage to correct problems that can
only be detected after rendering.
471
Final render d images can range from simple wireframe appro imations of bjects, t highly faceted bjects,
to reali tic SII/OOtil shaded objects. The tyle in which an arti t renders an image is often a factor of aesthetics tempered
by the pragmati m of m eting a production deadlin or
budg t constraillts.
During th renderin proc , the computer may also
control a scanner to digitize film fra me and to compo ite them with the computer-aenerated images.
Scanning
The scnltlter i a devi e that translates an lmage from
prev iou lyexpo ed film into a di gita l format. Current device u c a CRT or la er to can a film frame on a pOlntto-polnt basi or use a charge-coup led de ice (CCD) to
digitize the frame by area or line b line.
The CRT or laser is the II/oving pot illumination source
that an the imaae at a c nstant intensity. Controlling the
bean1 diamet r can determine the ize of the pixels and thus
t~ler . 0 Iution ofil thes~aIlJ1~dimag . As the beam scan the
film frame p Ixl?1by plxel, Light gathered by an optica l ystem pa ses through dichroic filter and plits into red, green
and blue components. Th intensity of the light hitting R,
G & B light sensor converts to an analog eJ ctrical ignal.
An analog to digital conv rter translates the analog signal
into a digital value for ead1 color.
CCD SCallJlerS utillz a technology employed in professional video ca meras. Instead of a scanning light source,
the CCD scanner use an incandescent or xenon Light source
similar to the ptical printer. The number of pixel elements
in the CCD arra determines the r olution of the canned
image. Grid nrmy of 2,000 pi els by 2,000 lines or 4,000 pixel by 4,000 Lin enabl canning an entire frame wIllie
holding the film on fixed registration plns. Lille nrrays of
2,000 t 4,000 pixels require that the film be rolled past the
CCD t scan th entire film frame.
The computer captures the number stream produced
by the scanner and creat a pixel array database in a format compatible with th database of a simulated image.
The time requir d to scan a fram varies from under five
econd to se ral minutes depending on the device and
the re olution.
The computer can composi te both foregrmmd and
backgrolmd el m nts in what might be call d digital fillll
prill till . Although the computer can use any color to ex-
tract a matte, it is most practical to use a pectrally pure

color uch as U1timatte blue or green. However, it is not
nece sar to have a blue- or green- creen exposure limited to one color record of the film a is needed in filmbased matting sy tems. The same qualification applies,
howev r, in that the backgrmUld screen color cannot be
in the foreground s ubject.
Recording
CRT and la er-based fillll recorders progr ively expose eadl pixel onto film by electronically controlling the
position and intensity of a CRT beam or by m chanically
deflecting R, G, B laser beams. Recorders (and scann ers)
that deflect in both the X-axis and Y-axis us traditional
registered pin film movements. Other laser recorders deflect in the X-axis only and rei on roIling the film smoothly
in the Y-axis to record the film frame area. nce the mechanical tability problem are re 01 ed, an advantage of
laser-beam record ers is that they have sufficient light output to expose higher resolution lab intermediate film stocks.
Film exposure time in exi ting film recorder vary from
under ten seconds to severa l minutes per frame depending on the device and resolutioIlIt is important to addr
several issues before filming
a CGI hot: how the computer will translate the calculated
pixels into color expos ure val ues and how the spectral
emission charact ristics of the cathode ray tube (CRT) or
RGB laser beanls will match the film s nsitivity curves. The
computer can d efine coLor values according to a system of
hue,lllll1inance and saturation, or according to a system of
Red, Green and Blue values. In either case, three sets of
numbers describe the color of each pi eJ in the final image.
Color calibratioll, which is the relationship beh"leen the ca lculated color space and the actua .l film exposure, is
achieved tlu'ough the use of a color look-up table (CLUT),
and otl1. r matrix transform color corrections.
Th CLUT i a graph of film density plotted against
calculated color exposure. The technician doing color calibration derives the CLUT from carefully plotted cur es
determined through densitometry of the exposed negative.
Using the CLUT the technician matdles the emission energy of the CRT or laser, combined with high-efficiency
RGB filters, to provide exposure in the straight-line portion
of tl1.efilm exposur CltrVe. The computer accomplishes this
by translating coLor space numbers into the RCB exposure
473
values determined from the color look-up table. It is posible, through the use of the ClUT, to precisely control film
image contra t. It is often useful to use logarithmic repreentation fo r the pixel value . Logarithmic pixel values
translate ea ily to logarithmic film density during calibration of scanning and recording devices.
One problem that is typical for high-resolution CRTs
i the creation of an unwanted halo by internal glass reflections in the CRT facepla te. The h alo affects the image in the
form of an unwanted exposur surrounding the highlight
areas. Tedlniqu s to reduce thi problem indud the addition of a neutral-density p anel bonded to the sw-face of
the CRT, the ti n ting of the CRT faceplate, and the bonding of a thick cl ar panel to the CRT faceplate.
Image Processing
Image processillg, a branch of computer graphics, in
orne way represents the rever of the computer graphics process we have been describing. Image processing involves the computer modifying the data from a traditionally shot piece of .film or video. A film canner or a digital
video process fir t digitizes the images into a form the computer can lise. Th computer can then manipulate the digital representation by changin g the attributes of the pixels
that make up the image.
Image-proce sing teclmique can sharpen or defocus
an image, olarize or reverse an image's colors, or reposition the image. Additionall ,one image can be transformed into another through a technique called /IIorplrillg.
For year the aerospace indu try has used image processing tedmiq ues to enhance satelli te space footage taken
under sub-optimal viewingc nditions. Today, image processing creates fantastic effect for rock videos and specialeffects films.
Summary
Producing effects for motion pictures is at the high end
of the computer graphics world. It i here that all the toughest problelllS ofCGI OCClli. Although computers are becoming more powerful, the software needed to create realisticlooking envirolUuents, effects and character is still technically difficult to produce. Recording and scanning motion-picture-resolution film requires complex equipment,
wh ile generating, moving and s toring the enormous
amounts of data needed by the computer can be time-con-
474
suming and expensive. Still, CGI is here to stay, and ver

evolving!
It is important that the cinematographer under tand
the vocabulary of computer-generat d imager . As the
computer artist tak a place beside the traditional pedal
effects artist, the a thetic goal remains the same - creating vi ual magic that will intercu t with the camera imagery of the director of photography. To fully utilize computer
sim ulation, it will b c me necessary for all those involved
in the various phases of the moti on-p icture industry to
lUlderstand its grea t creative potenti al, as well as its limitations and cost.
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer

by Linwood G. Dunn, ASC
Former president, Film Effect of HollY""ood
The earliest optical printers were custom built by the
major studios and fi lmlaboratorie ,and were usually d sign d and made in their own shop to fit their particular
requir ments. Mod rn tandardized optical printing quipmen t, capable of creating the innumerable effects heretofore pos ible only in the major studios, became available
to the entire motion-pictw-e industry in 1943 with the introduction of the Acme-Dunn Optical Printer, designed and
built for the United States Armed Force Photographic
Uni . later the Oxberry, Producer rvice, Research Products, and other optical printers appeared on the market.
Commercial availability of this typ of eq uipment greatly
stimulated and widened the scope of the spe ial- ffects
fie ld. Even the sma ll st film produc rs now could make
motion pictures with p cial effects limited only by theLr
imagination and budgets, utilizing the rvices of growing
numbers of indep ndent special-effects labora tories which
could now operate competitively u ing equipment available to all .
Developments 0 er the years f more sophisticated
equipment,new duplicating films, pedal-purpose lenses,
and improved film-proce sing techniques, as well a
skilled technicians, have in creased the use of the optical
printer to a point where its great cr ative and economic
475
value is common kn wledge in the motion-pictLlIe industry. In more recent ars, the adaptation of computer technolog to the opticaJ effects printer has ba ically simplified the control and accuracy of some of its important functions, thu making it much easi r to produce certain complex visual effect at lower cost a well as to greatly expand it creative scop . This ha made it po ible to pr gram, record, and to l' p at the movement of certain of its
device with such a degree of accuracy that area-blocking
nmcti n can now produce trave ling-mat te compo ite
scenes that were her tofore highly impractica l, if not impo ible. ne can trul sa that the creati e capability of
the modern visual effe ts optical printer is onl limited by
the creative talent and technical kills of tl1e operator. In
recent ar such major film productions as Star Wars, Tile
Black Hole, The Empire trikes Back, and COCOOI1 have all utiUzed tl1e full capabilities of tl1e modern optica l printer to
create a whole new w rld of imaginative creativ ity through
their extensive u e of ery sop hi ticated motion-pictLlIe
vi uaJ effects. The foil wing list of ome of the work that
is done nth modern optical printer will illu trate its vast
scope and tremendous importance to modern filmmaking.
specific action in fights, falls, chases, etc.; hold a specific

frame for freeze effects and for title backgrounds; add f otage for comedy effects; rever e direction of printing to
lengthen action and for special-effects use; extend scene
through multiple-frame printing for action ana lysis in instrumen tation, h'aining and educational film .
Transitional Effects
Superimposure
Emp loyed to create a definit d1ange in time or location be tween scenes. The fad e, lap disso lve, wipe-off,
push-off, ripp le di lve, out-of-foc us or diffusion disolve, fUp-over, page turn, zoom di olve, spin-in and out,
and an unlim ited variety of film matte wipe effects, are all
typical amples of th man optical tran itionaJ effects
possible.
Superin1posure is tl1e ca pability used to print an image from one or more fiJms overlaid on one film . Thi is
commonly done in positioning title lettering over background. Also u ed for montages, visionary effects, bas
reUef; adding snow, rain, fog, fire, douds, Ugh tning lash ,
sparks, wa ter reflections and a m riad of oth r light effects.
Change of Size or Position

May be used to elimina te w1wanted areas, obtain
closer angles fov extra editing cuts, reposition action for
multiple- xpo ure framing, ind uding montage, and background f r ti tles.
Frame Sequence Modification

Screen action may be ped up or lowed down in order to: con ert old 16 frames-per- econd il nt film to
standard 24 frames-per-second sound sp ed; change
speed of action and I ngth of certain scenes or sections of
scenes; prov ide spot-frame mod ification to give realism to
476
Optical Zoom
OpticaJ zoom is used to change frame area coverage
and image size dLlIing forward and reverse zooming action
in order to: produce a dramatic or impact effect (according
to speed of the move); counteract or add to the speed and
motion of camera zooms or doll hots; re-frame by enlargement and/or add footage to eith r end of camera
zooms or dolly shots by extending the range of moves;
momenta rily eliminate lffiwcmted areas or objects by zooming forward and back at specific footage points (such as
when a microphone or lamp is accidentally framed in dlll'ing part of a scene); add opticaJ zoom to tatic scene to
match camera zoom or dolly in a uperirnpo ure. The outof-focus zoom also is effective to depict deliri um, bUndnes ,
retrospect, transition, etc.
Split-Screen
Employed for multiple image, montage effects, dual
roles played b y on actor, and for dang ro us anima l
shown appearing 111 the same scene with people, as in
Bringing Up Baby, which shows Ka therine HepbLlIn working with a leopard throughout the picture (in this film, the
split screens move wi th the action). Ma tte paintings often
utilize this technique when li e-action ar a require manipulation within an involved composite cene.
Quality Manipulation
The quality of a scene, or an area wi thin a scene, may
be altered in order to create an entirely new scene or spe-
477
cia! effect or to match it in with other scenes. There are innumerable ways to accomplish this, such as adding or reducing diffu ion, filt ring, matting and dodging area, and
al tering contra t. ften libraly stock material must be modified to fill certain ne ds, SUdl as creating night scenes from
day; r producing black & white on color film through filtering, printed rna ks, or appropriately coloring certain
areas through localized filt ring; and the combining ofcertain areas of tw or more cenes to obtain a new scene, SUdl
as the water fr m ne ene and the terrain or clouded ky
of another.
Adding Motion
Employed to creat the effect of spinning or rotating,
as in plane and auto interiors and in certain montage effects;
rocking m tion for boat action, sudden jarring or shaking
the scene for e pI i n and earthquake effects; distortion
in motion through p cial lense for drunk, delirious and
visionar effec .
General Uses of the Optical Printer

The preceding represents some of the special categorie of effect that can be produced on the optical printer.
The following are a few of the more important general technique empl ying thi u eful cinematic tool.
Traveling Mattes
U ed to matte a for growld action into a background
film made at an ther tin1e. The various matte systems in
use today require the optical printer in order to properly
manipulate the parate films to obtain a realistic quality
matclling balanc b tw n them when combined into a
composite. U of this process has greatly increased as
modern t c1lll i q~l e produce improved results at reduced
costs. Motion COflb'ol, referred to earlier, has greatly w idened the scope i f thi visual-effects category.
Blow-Ups and Reductions

TIle fixed et-up optical printer is used for 16mm reduction negativ s and prints, and for certainlirnited release
printing from 35mm originals. This is utilized when small
volume makes thi procedure more economical than
through a convert d negative, and when maximum qualit i of gr ate t importance. Enlarging from 16mm to
478
35mm color or black and w hite is a very importcU1 t nmction of the optical printer. Many fin theatrical films, SUcll
as the Academy Award-winning The Sen Around Us, The
Living Desert, and Scenes From n Mnrringe, have been photographed in 16mm, and have enjoyed great financial success through 35mm release prints made from 35mm blowup internegatives.
Special new lenses, film raw tack and il11lnersed movement printing have enhanced the overall quality to a
point where the 16mm-35mm blOW-Up medium is presently enjoying very successful commercial usage. Conversions between 65lJUll and 35mm also are an in1portant function of the optical printer. Production made in almost any
film format are being relea e-printed in different types to
meet certain fueatrical distribution requirements. The Concert for Bangladesh was the first feature-length film to be
enlarged from 16mm color internegati e directly to 70mm
theater prints.
Anamorphic Conversions
The standard optical printer equipped with a specially
designed "squeeze" or "unsqueeze" lens can be used to
produce anamorphic prints from "flat" image, or to reverse this function. The possibility of the "flat" or spherical film being converted for anamorphic projection without serious loss of quality has greatly widened this field of
theatrical exhibition. The manipulation available on the
optical printer also make it possible to can and reposition
any scenes that require reframing wh n converted to or
from wide-screen proportion.
Doctoring, Modifying and Salvaging

Some of tlle important uses of the optical printer are
not recogrLized as special effect in th finished film, an d
often are not apparent as such even to skilled motion-picture technicians. One of these applications is tlle field of
"doctoring" by modifying scenes which, for a variety of
reasons, may not be acceptable for use. This includes salvaging scenes tllat are completely unusable due to some
mechanical failure or human error during photography,
and also the modification of stock film material through the
various methods noted to fit specific requirements. Many
expensive retakes have been avoided by the ingenious application of such optical-printing reclamation teclmiques.
479
llle liquid, or immer ion, film gate produces dramatic l' suit in th r movalof cra tches.
Citizen Kane i an e cellent example of scene modification cr ated n th optical printer during the po tprod ucti n period. ew idea were applied to exi ting prod uction scen for which new supplemen tary scene were
photographed and integrated to enhance and create arious new c nc pts.
In It' . A Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, an inlportant en
was ph t graph d in which a truck was upposed to back
into a hack and kn ck it over. The breakaway hack was
riO'O'ed to collap \ hen wires were pulled on cue. Signals
becam cr sed, and th hack was pulled down well before th truck t uched it. very costl retake was indicated,
so th ptical printer wa called to the rescue. The task of
correctin th IT r thr ugh a plitscreenseemed relati ely
imple until it \ a di 0 ered that the camera panned with
the fallina hack. It th n became necessary to plot and move
the plit matchin point frame-b -frame on the optical
printer to f II \'\1 the pan. Through thi tra eling pHtcreen t hniqu , the progres of the shack' falling action
wa d la ed until tile truck had readled tile point of impact. Perhap tile ntire co tof the optical printer was a ed
by thi al aging job alone. Such dever techruques have
been u ed man time to bring e plosions dose to people
working in a Cen , Udl a in aile Mill lite to Zero, where a
Line of -call d r fug
was "blown to bits" by artillery
shelling. plit re ns in motion, and trick cuts, with superimposed sm ke and flame, did the job in a most effective
manner.
N ew Systems
Th pti al printer i being used to develop new h rizons in til creation of p cial camera moves within an
over iz d ap rtur . Thi i particularly effective in tile creation of cam ra movement in a compo ite scene, sudl as
one involving a matte painting, thereby giving a greater
illusion of reali ty. Vi taVi ion and various 65= nega tive
format, including 16-perforation Inlax and 8-perfora tion
Dynavi ion, a well a standard 5 perforation frame lend
tllemselve t thi techruque.
Copying ont 4 p rforation 35mm makes po sible
pectacular pan, z oms, doUy shots, etc. without sacrificing cre n quality, and with full control 0 er such movements, aLI of ~ hich i created on tile optical printer in the
internegative stage and mad e dw-ing the po tpro-d uction

period . Use of tlus tedlJuq ue make it possible to avoid
time-consuming and complicated s tup during production, with the added advantage of fl ibiLity in later dlange
of id as.
Probably ilie most exciting new ptical printing development has been in tile field of el ctroni . The adaptation
of video image transfer through phi ticat d high-resolution canning sy tems in conjunction with the new developments in cailiode-ra tubes, I n , film-moving mechanism , special-purpose film raw tocks and the latest research in electronic image compo iting, have opened up
exciting new vista in pecial isual H cts. The modification of filmed color motion-pictur imag through computerized electronic transfer back to film i making it po ible to create photographic ffec
n fUm or tape faster,
more economicall ,and with a ope of creativity heretofore not po ible. The ability to ea il and quickl transfer
areas or moving objects from one film to another through
their instantaneous electronic ' lati n and If-matting will
be of tremendou economic benefit in this area of film production, as well as in stimulating creati ity in the wider use
of special effects.
Aerial Image Cinematography

by Mehrdad Azarmi, PhD.
An image which is form d by a I ns in the air instead
of on a film or on a grOlUld glass i kn wn as an "aerial
image." Such an image can been and photographed but
it cannot be touched or felt. Th image which is observed
through a telescope, a nlicroscope or a imple magnifying
glass is an aerial image. Because of it clarity, sharpness and
it intangible presence, it has led the cam eraman to tile
development of ilie tedlJuque of "a rial image cinematography," which is, in fact, a meiliod of combining two images: an aerial image, and another image which i recorded
on film. The aerial image can be modified, enlarged, reduced or distorted when combin d with the cine action
footage. Aerial image can origina te from a film, artwork or
simply from an object. Selecti n of the tool and tile tech-
481
nique is determined by the combination of the elements

involved. The technique of aerial image cinematography
can b divided as follow :
The Technique
Film-t -Film
Film-to-Artwork
bject-to-Filrn
The Required Tool

erial Image Optical Printer
riallmage Animation
Stand
bj ct-to-Film A.I. Optical
Printer
R gardle of th m thod used, an aerial image produ d b a lens i alway up ide-down but not flopped
ov r. This imple rule of thumb aid the cameraman in
correct po itioning of the obj ct, the artwork or determining the head-tail and cell- mul ion orientation of a roll of
film wh n thread ing an a rial-image projector.
Film-to-Film
TIl most predominant a rial image teclmique i filmto-film, and the use of an aerial image optical printer i inevitabl . The praces is u d in a variety of effects whenev r two r more elemen are involved, such as traveling
matt , titles, wipes, multi-panel and split screens. TIle tool
emplo ed for this purpose i either a dual-, triple- or quadruple-head optical printer which combines image axes
through partiall reflecting mirrors. An addition to thi
equipment, a well a to the animation stands, i a multiaxis electronic motion-eontrol y tem with a memory bank
and pia back system which allow for automatic
r photography of certain effect and complicated, timecon uming moves. The dual-headed aerial-image optical
print r is used predominantly throughout the industry, and
it has proven to be adequate for most purposes. The tripleand quadruple-head printer find their greatest application in composite photography of traveling-matte shots,
SUdl a the blue-screen prace , where the operator can actua ll y photograph the background and foreground element irnultaneously with their respective matte . The
cameraman, in this case, ha the pri ilege of observing the
compo ite image before hootin~ in order to reassure himIf of an accurate matt fit. He can then zoom, enlarge or
reduce during the same operation.
482
In spite of the ver atiUty of tI,e triple- and the quad ruple-head printer f r traveling-matte shots, m t cinematographers prefer to work Witll a dual-head a rial-imag optical printer becau of the loss of light in th beamplitter modules and tI,e complexity of its alignment. Composite matte hots are photographed on a dual-head printer
in two parate operations. fter a perfect one-to-one, first,
th foreground and the female matte are photographed;
til n, the background and th male matte are hot in nc
on the same piece of film. In order to a oid the po ibiIity
of any misalignment during both operations, the matt - are
intentionally threaded in the arne projector head, preferably in the front module, b which the matte ar generated.
Bef re actual compo it photography, the op rator
may check clippings of th male and female matt bi-pack
in sync in the main projector, looking for a very thin and
v n white margi n wh re the mattes fit together. H may
ven go further to the extent of rwming botl, matte in ync
and bi-pack, carefully looking for tile consistency of the
ame contour and possible matte hrinkage. Since various
el ments are photographed in eparate modul in film-tofilm aerial image cinematograph, two ad antage are inherent in the system:
1. The proces eliminate the possibility of ewton
ring, a phenomenon \ hich frequently appear wh n two
pieces of film are sandwiched together in bi-pack.
2. The elements d not necessarily have to be of the
same ize. Thirty-five miLlim ter titles, for e ampl , can be
reduced to fit a 16mm footage . By the ame token, a
hrunken matte sometim can be modified in ize to fit the
action footage.
Film-to-Artwork
The tool for thi In thod i basicall y a n animation
stand with an aerial-i mage projector installed on its side
below tI,e stand. A 45-degree mirror carries tile proj cted
imag through the conden er lens above the mirror and
brings it into focus at the same level as the animation eels.
TI,e serial image, in this case, is percei able only through
the camera lens. The cam raperson tanding on the ide can
ob rYe the image by placing a tracing paper on th peg
Wlit; otherwise the image i imperceptible. Anew addition
to some of tI1e recent electronic motion-eontrol systems al-
lows for an interlock horizontal rear-projection onto the

artwork.
Many optical effects can be ach.ieved through this
method, particularly combining live-action footage with
artwork, wh re the movement of animated artwork has to
correspond to that of the live-action frame by frame. The
projector whidl is equipped with registration-pin movement carries color positive or eparation master. The camera carlies color negative stock. The artwork, which has a
self-matting function, is illLLminated from above front. The
top lights have no effect on the background image sin ce
there is no reflecti ve smface involved in the projected aerial
image. Nevertheless, polarizing filters are recommended
for the top lights to eliminate multi-reflections from the field
lenses.
Byero -wedging the artwork together with its background image, the proper expo me and filter combination
is achieved for each element. TIle color aberrations often
observed in such tests are normally due to improper flatness of cels. It i e entia!, ther fore, to select the proper
material for thi purpose. Kodak Triacetate #21 has demonstrated con iderable stability with respect to this problenl.
Film-to-artwork aerial-image Cinematogra phy has its
own di advantages. The camera-field lens-projector in the
aerial-image animation stand hould be considered a single
optical system with a fixed central optical axi . The aerial
image must b centered on the condenser lenses and in
sharp focus on the cel area. The camera lens mu t be centered and focu d from the proper distance to cover the
field conden er lenses. Any de iation of the aforementioned elemen can produce les -than-satisfactory results.
Ae~ial-I~~ge Zoom for Oxberry

Anlmahort Stand
I
Although it is not pos ibl to zoom the camera while

u ing all. aerial image on an animation stand, it is possible
to zoom the aerial image itself. TIle area taken by the camera lens will still be the same 10 Y.z field of the table top conden er, but the aerial image generated will be a zoomed
version of the frame in the aerial-image projector.
To generate a zoom aerial image, the standard aerialimage projector i replaced b an aerial-image configuration very similar to that of an optical printer. A 150mm
PROJECT/ON LENS
,I
<..
FIELD LENS
\..
1', . . . /
STATIONARY
PR.OJECTOR
..y .........
AERIAL IMAGE PROJECTOR ZOOM
printing ikkor lens i used to enlarge or reduce the frame

by over four diameter and this image is then projected by
a syst m consisting of a field lens and a projection lens. The
projection l~I1S.system must stay at a fixed position to generate the aenallillage, but the 150rnrn lens and projector can
be moved to enlarge or reduce the generated image. The
zoom aerial image unit is available with an automatic follow-focus system. In order to keep the light intensity constant during a zoom, an automatic lightvalve system is also
available. This lightvaJve operates off a cam that is shaped
to keep the intensity of the projected inlage constant over
much of the zoom range.
485
LIVE fOOTAGE
Special Techniques
Aerial Cinematography
by Jack Cooperman, ASC
PROJECTOR
Object-to-Film
Thi method allow th aerial image of an actual obct to be comp ited w ith live footage. Th r quired tool
i an aerial-image optical printer in which th ae rial proj ctor is replac d by a tandard animation plate mOllllted
ome ten feet a\ a ' from the main projector. Thi distance
allow ad quate reduction of an object mow1ted upsidedown on the gr w1d glass whil permitting suffici nt depth
f field for sharp focus through the aeria l-image lens installed behiJ1d the main projector aperture. L1 one pass, the
footage in th main project r i recorded w hile the object
is backl it, thu appea ring as a iJhouette who e backgrolllld
illumination er es as printing exposUl'e for the film. The
footage is then r mo ed, and the object backed by a black
card or ve l t i then frontlit and photographed on the
ame piece f film. The result appears as a matte hot with
a perfect fit.
In ord r to achieve a well-balanced expo ure and contrast, both th bject and the footage must be cro -wedged.
with "Film-t -Artwork" previously describ d, the projectorfilm m u t be color positi ve or separation masters. The
backgrolmd exp sure can be filtered behind th main projector apertur J' r large filter can be mount d directly in
front of tl1e li ght SOUl'ces or b hind tl1e animation g lass.
When fron t-lighting the object, adeq uate attention must be
paid to the contrast. Flat lighting is preferable, ince a real
object is photographed with a prerecorded film.
This m th d can al 0 be used for combining animated
art work \ ith live-action footage. However, because of ilie
lack of requirements for depth of field in the artwork, an
aerial-image ani mation tand may prove Ie s cumbersome
for tlti particular purpose.
486
Motion pictures often require sc nes photographed

from the air, principally utilizing fixed-wing planes and
heUc pters.
In addition, there are occasional demands for shots
made from gliders, ba Uoons, and wltile skydiving. Many
fixed-wing aircraft have been adapted for various cam ra
mountings.
When photographing air-to-air it i necessary to consider which camera aircraft is correctly matched to ilie aircraft being pictured in r gard to safety, peed and maneuverability. The cinematographer must also decide what i
ilie right kind of camera mount for the job, budget and type
of camera ship available.
Most fixed-wing aircraft permit operating the cam ra
from one side or ano tl1 r. An exception would be specially
adapted aircraft with a photographic nose section and / or
open tail. In any type of fixed positi n, rigid mow1ting is
desirable to minimize vibration. All crews, nuts and bolts
should be safety wired or taped.
The Astrovision y tem permits the use of a relay lens
unit through eiilier the top or bottom of a Lear jet. Zoom
lenses carmot be used with tI1is system. The maximum lens
opening i f/6.3/T-7.2. The Vectorvision wtit, another relay lens system, will zoom as well as roil tl1e horizon 3600
witl1 a maximum lens opening of f/2.8 / T-3.
Helicopters are ltighly favored for aerial photography;
they perntit a large range of movability and air spe d s.
Tyler Camera Systems is a major manufacturer of helicopter mounts; a listing of these and other makes are found on
page 256. The door /side mounts allow for h'ee movement
of the camera in all axes as well as control of camera and
zoom lens functions while using ilie mOllllt. Tyler has two
size mounts; Middlemount for video, Arri 16mm, Arri liC,
Arri 35 III; and the Majormount, for Arri nc, Arri 35 ill,
Mitchell Mark II (with special horizontal magazine
adapter), as well as Imax, VistaVision, 65mm and other
heavier camera packages. Continental Camera also has the
M & M side mounts for most video, 16mm and 35mm can1-
487
era . The Magnum Elite mount handles cam ra packag

up to 100 pOlmd .
arious bell mow1ts (\ hich fit under the helicopt r)
are available. A quick mount/ relea e nose mount by Tyler
Camera ystem offer remote controls and camera readout iJ1Cluding tilt and video-a i ted viewing. Larger than
norm al formats uc h as Vi taVisio n, 65mm Imax,
Omnimax, etc., ne d to be mOLU1ted fairl y far forward to
clear the kids and nose from the field of view. Most no e
and belly mow1t require the us of a prime len or a very
short ran 'e zoom. Zoom lense hould ha e remote controls for focusing a \ ell as focal length adjustment. Remote
aperture control i advan tageo us on all lenses. The
Wescam, pacecam and other ball mount units incorporating gyro copie and r mote control operation are especially
useful for making extremely LU1d rcranked hots, long len
shots, and ~~t'Tining certain angl s not available from other
mount p slbons.
Tyler ha a new, three a i gyro-stabiLized ball type
mount (kygro). ompared to previou mounts of this
tyle, the Tier gyro mount has a fa ter pan and tilt rate and
is designed to allow the heLicopt r wilirnited flight maneuvering. The mount can be automatically locked into po ition, which allow the shot to go from gyro-stabilized and
level to b coming part of the h licopter and going off-level
as a POV of thEl helicopter. The mount does not have a separate out ide housing and window like previou mOlU1ts of
this type, thereby eliminating aJ1Y chance of seeing re.lected
Light on the inside of the window.
Sk diving cinematography i done by p cially qualified skydivers, usuall wearing a helmet-mounted camera
or cam ras. The m t common 35mrn camera used for this
purpos i a modified and motorized B II & Howell
Eyemo.
lncid nt Light readings CaJ1 sometimes be taken in
aerial situations. It may prove necessary to have the piLot
turn or tilt the aircraft for this pmpose. Most exposures are
based on a consideration of spot meter readings and calculation of ubject gray scale. Light conditions may change
during a hot.
ll1e pilot of the aircraft ha to under tand the shot and
how the cinematographer plMS to photograph the scene.
He will be flying the aircraft for the positions needed. It is
not usually safe for the cinematographer to directly control
an aircraft being photographed; he should commwucate

through the pilot of the camera hip to the other pilot.
Wh n working in the United States it is important to
know that there are Federal A iation Administration regulati~ns requiring certification of anything that is added to
an auuaft. (Most other cow1tri have similar regulation .)
.. 1: 337: Field inspection of a specific mount on a speCIfic aircraft must be done before each use.
2. STe: Allows mOlU1ts on any 11lU11ber of a particular make and model of aircraft.
Before the flight, pilots, camera crew and all other concerned parties should discuss all hots for safety and efficiency. Familiarity with the safety guidelin et up b the
Industry Wide Labor Management/Safety Committee i
essential.
Guidelines: Fixed-wing Aircraft,

Helicopters, and Skydiving
1.
Except where necessary for takeoff or landing, the

FAA prohibits the operation of an aircraft below the
following altitudes:
A) Over Congested Areas
o er any congested area of a city, town or settlement, or over any open air assembly of persons, an
alti tude of 1000 feet above the highest obstacle
within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft.
B) 0 er oth r than Conge ted Area
An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, e cept
over open water or spar Iy populated areas. In
that case, the aircraft may not be operated clo er
than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vel1icle, or structure.
The pilot must obtain a proper waiver before operating an aircraft in the situations outlined above.
Thus, the pilot must either have his/her own FAAapproved motion picture manual or operate under
an FAA-approved company manual A certificate
of waiver, which i usually incorporated in the
manual, must be in effect.
A) Before a snmt or sequence is to be performed
all persons involved shall be thoroughly briefed.
There should be a dry mn on the ground at the site.
489
B) Per FAA guidelines, the persons nec s~ary for

the filming wi ll be briefed as. to any po~en~al hazard and af ty questions pnor to the filming.
C) A pre-planned stunt will not be changed in any
way without th authorization of the pilot and the
aerial c rdinator, if any.
D) If th re i a question as to the safety of any aerial
filming quence involving low, over-the::amera
hot . a bri fing will be held between the pilot and
c ncerned per ons as to whether the use of a
locked-off camera is necessary.
3. Onl pers ns and crew necessary for the ~urp se
of filming will be in the area. F~ regulabons require all oth r personnel to be fi e hundred <S?O)
feet awa fr m the lying aircraft. All persons WIthout written or erbal permission hall be excluded
from the area.
Communkation
between ground and air must be
4.
maintain d at all times during the operation of th
aircraft.
5. Wh re required b the FAA-approved man~al or
appropriate governmental agency, there will ala be an aerial coordinator on the ground when
an aircraft i in the air or taxiing. An aerial coorilinat r will be appointed by the holder of the manual
or the d ignated chief pilot.
6. If af ty b comes a que tion at any time, the aerial
coordinator or the involved pilot shall have the authority and re ponsibility to call an abort of the operation.
7. A) Aircraft engines shall not be started and the
aircraft hall n tbe taxied in spectator, castor crew
area unl
appropria te measures are taken to
p reclud cr ating a hazard to specta tors, cast or
cr w.
B) a t, crew and equipment shall be pr~~ected
from debri thrown back by airplanes taxtmg or
taking off.
C) If an aircraft i being filmed with the engine r~1
ning, adequate safety precautions shall be taken m
connecti n with activity in fron t of the propeller.
which includes designated ground personneL
8.
9.
No smoking is permitted within one hundred (100)

feet of the aircraft or upport truck.
A) Aircraft structures can be damaged easily whi le
on the ground. Never push, hand! , it on or in, or
lay any objects of any kind n an aircraft without
the pilot's permis ion.
B) If a foreign object fall into Or against an aircraft,
report it immediately to the pilot or aerial coordinator.
C) ever allow cast or crew to occupy an aircraft

while engines are tarted or running, unle s the
pilot is in full command.
1o. E~cll end of an opera tiona I runwa or landing area
should ~ cleared during take-off and laniling and
appropnate afety equipment when fiJming the

take-off or land ing.
11. Acrobatic maneuvers hall be conducted in a direction which will mo t nearly parallel the boundaries
of the designated crew and equipment areas or in
a direction away from uch area .
12. The front of the tudio call heet hould contain a
statement to the effect that "An aircraft i being
used and will be flown in clo proximity to crew
and equipment. Anyone objecting will notify the
production manager or 1 t AD prior to an filming."
Helicopter Safety Procedures

1.
Communication betwe n growld and air hall be

e tablished at all tim dwing p ration of the helicopter using one ground contact.
2.
The inilividuaf attached to th h licopter uppo rt

truck shall be designated a th p r on to supervise
afety arowld the helicopter.
No smoking within 50 feet of th helicopter.
Unless you are needed - r main at lea t 50 fe t away
from the helicopter.
3.
4.
5.
Ex~rcise extreme caution when working arowld

~elico~ters especially wh n the helicopter engine
IS runrung. Leave and approach the helicopter from
the front-with caution. At all tim ,keep your eye
and head forward .
491
6.
Avoid rear and tail ections of h elicopter a t a ll

times.
7.
ever walk under tail ection of helicopt r.
Do not e tend an equipment verticall into rotor
blades, uch a cameras, lights, ound bo 01, etc.
Carry all equipm nt parallel to ground within 50
feet of helicopter.
10. Pilots are the authoritie concerning all helicopter
operations-if ou have questions a k th m .
11.
ever, under an circumstances, throw anything
uch as grip tap , dothing, paper, etc. around the
helicopter-wheth r it is nmning or not.
12. The landing area hould be deared of debri and,
where nece sary, w t down.
13. Avoid rear area of h licopter at all time.
14. Protect your ey a well as your equipment w hen
helicopter is landing or taking oH.
15. Plot plans and graphic will be prepared to locate
landing sites, and location, as well as type of explo i es or quib .
16. The pilot in command will have final approval as
to aerial traver and hovering po itions of the aircraft.
Safe Practice: Parachutin~ Skydiving

The following rec mmendations and guidelines are to
aid in the promotion f f ty with respect to parachuting
and kydi ing film sequ nces. Adjustments may have to
b made in any glv n ca e as circumstance warrant for
the safety of the per on involved in the parachuting or
kydiving activity or on the set or location.
1. Radio communications shall be maintai ned between th aircraft carrying the jumpers and the
landing site at all times. Grotmd signal (Smoke,
panel, etc.) hall be provided a a backup.
2. The "parachuting coordinator" hall be a qualified
jumper. When nl one jumper is employed, that
jumper hould b the coordinator.
3. The parachuting coordinator hall determine
whether or n tsecurity is necessary to e dude none ential crew and non participating pectators
from. the land~ng area . Open field landing may not

requlIe secunty.
-l. The pro~ucer ha!l require each parachutist or
parachutmg coordmator to hold a United States
Parachute
'ation profes ional exhibiti n rating, or present satisfactory evidence of th n cess~ exp.erier:ce, knowledge and kill requir d to
attam this rating. USPA Exhibition Rating ar iued to members who have a Class D license who
~ave ~ccompJi hed 10 ucce si e pre-declared
Jumps mto a 10-m ter (32 foot) diameter targ t area
landing ~10t mor than 5 meters from target center:
Alliandmg mu t be made standing up.
A ~um of 350 jumps on the canopy ty pe to be
used IS recommended.
5. Parachutist wh hold a USPA Class D licens with
an Exhibition Rating, who certify that they will use
a stee:able squ~e main and reserve canopy, will be
permitted to eXit vel' or into a conge ted area . ll1e
selected landing area must permit the jump r to
la~d not?oser than 16 feet from any pectatorand
will not mvolve pas ing over non-participating
persons on the urface at an altitude of les than 50
feet.
6. All jump hall be c nducted in accordance with
Federal Aviati n Regulations Part 105.
7. The parachuting coordinator will d e termine
whether ~r not t~e visib.ility, ~oud ceilin height
~d v~oo,?, of wmd, a It applies to the particular
Situation, I afe or w1safe. (Landing area ize,
ca~opy type, ~umb r of jumpers and plann d tunt
Will be taken mto consideration.)
8. ~efore each jump is to be performed, all p rsons
mvolved shall b thoroughly briefed. There should
be a dry rW1 on the ground at the site.
9. All equipment, prop, wardrobe, etc., shall b made
available to the co rdinator prior to the stunt/jump
fo~ safety evaluation. Final safety approval rests
~ Ith the coordinator with respect to equipment and
wardrobe u ed in the jump.
10. The coor~inator hall have the respon ibility to
temporal'll hold or cancel the authorized opera-
493
tions if at any tim the safety of per ons or property on the grolU1d or in the air is in jeopardy or if
there is a contra ention of the terms or conditions
of an FAA letter of authOlization.
11 . The FAA requir that eacll reserve parachute be
packed b an appropriately rated paracllute rigger.
If a parachuti t ha a malhU1ction on the job and
use hi reserve chute, a spare parachute or the
presence of a certified rigger can usually sa e many
shooting hour .
12. All operations involving fixed wing aircraft and
helicopters shall c nform with the guid lin s established by the Labor Management Safety Committee.
13. All pilots must b famibar with the d ropping of
jlU11pers, including the peculiarities of the operation
to i.t1C~~Jde flight with the door removed, FAR Part
105, rehearsals of all exi t , all grOlU1d igna ls, signals to abort jLUnp, pilot's respon ibilities, provisions of all Lette of Authorization or waiver .111e
pilot must anal ze weight and balance of the aircraft with jumper in exit position.
14. Jumps near or into p tentially hazardous landing
areas (water, power lines, etc.) should b considered carefully.
Pickup boats and flotation gear should b available
when the po sibilit of a water landing exist and
each boat pi) t hall participate in the pre-jump
briefing.
On intentional water jumps there hall be one
pickup boat for each jump r.
] 5. Lighting for night hot should be reviewed with
the Parachute oordmator. 111e landing ite for a
night shot should b viewed duri.tlg daylight h urs
before jumping.
II the above gllidelines aJld procedur are intended to conform with applicable law and governmental regulations and in the event of aJ1Y conflict, appbcabLe law and governmental regulations
will prevail.
494
Underwater Cinematography
by Jack Cooperman, ASC.
All good underwater cinematographer must have
one thmg in common; they must also be experienced ruvers.
It is not enough to put good cinematographers underwater and expect good resul ts. They should be good enough
divers with enough experience underwater to enable them
to be unconcerned with ruving techruques. They must be
at ease with the camera under all conditions, anticipating
being swept around the ocean floor aJld still be able to operate the camera efficiently.
And it is well to remember that underwater filming
can be - and often is - hazardous and difficult. Experience underwater counts for a great deal.
Not enough can be said regarding safety. Knowledge
of diving physics, awareness and common sense are mandatory. Following are the safety guideb nes set by the
Industry-Wide Labor Management Safety Commjttee for
situations where scuba equipment is used in filming:
1.
2.
3.
The finalization of an underwater location shall

depend upon the safety and health conditions of
the location as determined by supervisory film industry personnel- one of whom shall be a certified
diver in consultation with the director.
Any person using scuba equipment while filming
or being filmed underwater shall be a certified
ruver, with the exception of players who are essential for an underwater close-up. When this exception arises, for safety reasons, these players shall be
under the supervision of a currently certified instructor, and shall have received sufficien t instructions for the job a t haJld. The ap propriate depth for
safe filming shall be d etermined by the certified
insb.-uctor supervising the safety of the player or
players. Players who are not certified divers shall
not be required to work in depths in excess of ten
feet.
All safety divers shall be duly certified and when
scuba is used, he or she shall be equipped with an
alternate air supply, i.e., Octopus or bail out bottle,
etc.
495
4.
Any person performing a stunt where water safety

is involved hall r quire properly equipp d afety
diver or di er .
a. Any individual de ignated to log dive haJJ be

a certified diver and hall be knowledgeabl a to
proper logging pro edw'e .
b. The company will determine the neare t I cation of decompre i n chamber and meth ds of
transportation to that dlamber and notify aU concerned persons.
c. FlU1.ctional recall y tem equipment hall be
made available on ite.
ence such as a scientific xpedition or a documentary fi.ln1.

When working with a cript, actors and a director, and
being confined to telling a tory the situation doe not alway permit the freedom to photograph seen of reat
natural beauty unless th ria place for them in the script.
Filming may be done in a natural ocean location under
optimum condition or in a tudio tank with all th faciliti one usually associat \ ith a tudio operation. Th key
to a u
fuJ underwater production is planning. Fi t, the
dir ctor, and underwat r cinematographer r dir ctor/
cam raman and taJent talk over the scenes abov water.
After blocking out the action, the players (or their doubles)
walk through the acti n top ide.
0 that
Entrances, exits and tinting hould be rellear
ev ryone completely lmde tands the seene t b photographed .
ometimes the players are experienced enough in eith r skin diving or scuba diving to perform underwater
doubles or stLmt people will be
cenes, but in many ca
1I d . TIle sam e holds trll with directors. If they ar not
experi nced diver th y may leave the actua l filming to the
underwater cinematographer.
It hall be the resp nsibitity of the company to en-
Equipment
An person performing a tunt where the po ibility of being trapp d underwater exists hall have
tand-b breathin equipment immediatel available.
For dives below 30 feet each individual diver hall

be concerned \ ith foll wing his or her decompreshall
ion procedure a nec ary and safety rul
be available at appr priate departments and on the
job site.
7.
ure that an per on u ing re-breathing equipment or mixed !ffi Y terns \ ill have been properly
train d in the use of the equipment.
Scuba tanks when transported to and from location
wiU be secured in uch marmer as to pre ent them
from rolling or all wing the val
to be truck by
oth r objects.
9.
When not in u , cuba tanks shall be quipped

with valve cover and hall be stored in the hade.
LO. Adequate medica l oxygen (100% oxygen) and resllscitatibn equipm ntshall be available a t all times
when scuba equipm nt is in use. Do not u e the air
in the cuba tank a they do not contain 100% oxygen.
11 .
0 electrical power other than DC shall be u d in

the \Vater or in a vicinity which could lead to contact with the water.
In filming underwater theatrical or television productions the cinematographer i c ncemed with telling a fictionalized tory rather than photographing a real experi496
An good profe ional-type motion pictur camera

can be adapted for underwater cinematograph . Und r\Vat r fiJms have been ucc fuJJ made in all formats induding 65mm and 3-D. There ar many housing d ign , both
tubular and irregular cubic, for various purpo . For tability underwater the hould have lightJ n gative buo ancy. Film capacity of 400 ft. i mo t comnlonJy u ed in
underwater camera h using design. Such functions a focu ing, aperture, and cam ra peed ideally should b ontroll d outside the housi ng whi le operating LU1d rwater.
It is important to have ea y access to the ca mera so tha t
the lenses and/or filters an be changed or adju ted on
d ck.Filmandbatterie willn dtobechangedea i1yand
quickly. It is a great advantage to have a camera w hidl
permits through-the-len vi wing and offers a dar, ea ily
r ad image. A ports finder may be more convenient when
fast action is being photographed.
Th camera ideally hould be balanced in the hou ing
so that the cinematographer can take a deep breath and go
up or exhale and go down with it. Camera are quite mobile underwater.
497
The cinema tographer can become a crane or dolly

because of individ ual requirem en ts and familiarity with the
equipmen t, many of the people who make a speci.a lty of
underwater photography design and/or own theJI own
equipment.
Lenses and Lens Ports

Ports ar available both with a flat surface and as a
corrected dome. With a flat port the magnification created
by the wat r (air to water refractive index is 1.33) causes
the camera I
to assume the characteri tic of slightly
longer lenses and objects appear closer by ~. The corrected
dome port p rmi the lenses to function with their true
focal lengths. Th dome radius is critical ~d its center ?'lust
be on the nodal point of the lens to function correctly, if not
diopter will be necessary, usually a +2 will bring objects
into pr per focus. Th dome port can be of advantage when
working in areas of low visibility or in a confined pace or
\ ith extremel wide-angle lenses.
Both glas and plastic ports are available. Glass can be
more perfect optically and it is virtually scratch-proof. PIa tic i trong r, but is ulnerable to scratching (a cratch on
the out ide of th port will be filled by water and not be
apparent, but a scratch on the inside is a ~ferent ~a tter).
When the h u ing i used above or at split level With the
water, th front port (preferably flat) can be kept dear of
water drops with the us of a wetting agent. Wide-angle
or hort focu lens are usually preferred because of the
magnification due to water, and the necessity to .work <:!ose
to the ubject becau e of cattering and absorption of ligh t
by the water. The increased depth of field afforded is also
a factor. For 35mm film, a commonly used lens is the 16mm
Zeiss Distagon, and for extrem e wide-angle, a 9.8mm is
u eful, alth ugh di tortion is more apparent; a dome port
is reco mm nded for this lens.
ther len e up to 75mrn are useful for cl ose-up .
Con'esp nding len e for 16mm photography are lOmrn
and 8.9m.l11; th IOmm is relatively distortion free. For 35mm
anamorphic photography, the 30mm and 35mrn lenses are
preferred. A flat port i recommended for anamorphic
lense . Accurat und rwa ter focusing presents no problem
if the di tance i judged by eye; if the distance is measured
by tape, the lens is focused at 75% of the measured distance
(with no diopter).
498
Care Of Equipment
At the end of a day's work and if po sible when cl1cmging magazine the camera hou Lng h uJd be wa .hed off
wi th fre h water. This will help pr erve the hou mg and
will also minimize the chance of salt pray damaging the
camera mecharIism and in particular the lens. When the
camera and hou ing are removed from the water they
houJd be immediately placed in the hade. Thi is especially true in the tropic where even a mi.nim~ expo ure
to the sun can cause heat inside th camera housmg to dam.
.
age the film.
All film manufacturers now have fa ter, finer gramed
negati e emulsions a ailable in 16mrn, 35mrn and 65mm.
egative tack is preferred for und rwat~ r work ov~r reversal films as it has a grea ter e po ur labJude and lelds
better prints. It al tran fe~ well t~ ta~ and is id~al. for
tele ision production. For direct projection of the ongmal
high speed reversal col r film are available.
The Environment
Even under the best po ible conditions, filming lmderwater presents the cinematographer with numerous
photographic problems not encount red on lcu:d . Atmospheric haze, with the accompan ing de aturatJon of the
warmer color tones, 10 s of detail and contra t, ha its underwater counterparts in turbidity and color ca t. Turbidity, caused by suspended matt r arying from small and
particles to micro copic organi m 'uch a plarikt n, reduces light by absorption, diffu
the image, and reflects
direct front lig~t into the len ("ba~k catt r"). Turbidity
affects the quality of underwater cm matography more
than any other factor. Vi ibility may be reduc d from many
fee t to just a few, an d vice ver a.
Water absorbs the longer wavelengths of light (reds
and yellows); therefore, the farther th light must trav~1
from source to subject to lens, the Ie reds and yellows will
register on the film. This can b partia ll overcome by artificial lighting and sam tim by I ctiv use of !<odak
color compensating (CC lens flIt r . Photographic tests
f olorcontra tre uJtwith thesefiltersi ugg ted . L
ing from the selective filtration of underwater light can be
reduced through careful ubj ct color election.
This will appl to w1derwat r ts, pr p and even the
t pe of wardrobe worn b actor. alar intere t ma be
499
added t obj t beyond the range of red or orange b:ansmission thr ugh the u e of bright blue, green and yellow.
Whit must b u ed with care because its reflective q ualitie tog th r with underwater scattering will produce a
haze eff t. (Und Iwater visibility of production equipment
can al b increa ed b gi ing it a bright chrome yellow
finj
h.)
atural Light
Optimum underwater cinemato!!Taph is usuall obtained to a rna ' imum depth of 50 ft. At greater depths
thing app ar more m nochromatic. There are also more
diving pr blems and camera housings are subject to greater
tres. aturalli ht reach the ocean's surface either a
direct ra from the un or as light diffused b clouds or
other atmo ph ric conditions uch a du t and water apor. clear, and ocean floor is a great asset to good und rwater camera work becau e underwater light is reflected from the ocean floor back into the water. When
ho tin unden ater in da light conditions with tungsten
(3200K) film, with ut additional lighting, it is advisable to
use a # 5 camera filter. TIti ubtracts ome of the blue from
the water, p rmitting a truer rendering of kin tone on
humans in th c ne. If the negative is fully exposed, orne
further correction ma be possible in printing from the
negative.
TIle inten ity of daylight for underwater filming d pend als upon th amount lost by reflection from the
water' urfac.
TIli depend n SUcll variables a un angle, surfac
roughn ,and cloud cover. TIle light los due to reflection
ilea t wh nth lU1 i directly overhead and do not start
to become a pr blem unti l the sun is below an ang le of
about"'O d gre s. In tlle latitudes of the United States, SlU1
height i genera lly optimum between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. in
tl1e umm rand 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. in tlle winter.
Artificial Lighting
Und rwat r lighting is often necessary or desirable
both in tudi tank conditions and in tl1e open ea. Fill and
set lighting f r p rf rmer , night effect filming and other
conditions that require special Lighting are often a part of
underwater work. The u e of artificial light is an excellent
method f re t rin r correcting color in lU1derwater 00-
500
ematography. The effect of lmderwater filt ring varies from

area to area, but as a general rule r d is lost at about 10 feet.
Using artificial lighting will often add tl1e nec ssary color
compensation needed to record an lmderwater cene more
accurately. A number of excellent lmderwater lamps are
currently available on the market. Tun ten halogen w1its
are a ailable in 2000 watt and 1000 watt ize , witl1 aluminum reflectors in a pre ure re i tant hou ing. Smaller
lamps, usually battery powered, are al a ailable. These
w1its are generali 250 watt and are useful in hooting very
dose to the subject or as a fill light. Speciall constructed
HMI w1its are also available, e tra care and ground fault
interrupt protection is necessar due to C power source.
Large underwater area can al be illuminated by
uspending lights from an 0 erh ad grid r netting tationed at tl1e proper deptl1 b means of floats and anchors.
Submerging tl1em minimizes movement of tl1 light due to
wave action.
Lighting and Exposure

Lighting underwater i imilar to top ide lighting,
except that cross lighting i preferable to front lighting.
Front lighting should b a oided b caus it lights turbidity "backscatter." The e ception to tl1i i in crystal clear
water where a front light can b u d without difficulty.
Front light sometimes can be u ed for fill.
Either a reflected or incident expo ure meter i satisfactory. When taking an exposure r adin at the subject,
remember that water acts as a filter 0 one must compensate for the distance betwe n tlle camera and tlle ubject
and adjust accordingly. A rule of thumb' Y.l to Yz top. An
wlderwa ter reflected light met r whicll works on a gray
cale principle, SUdl as the Sekonic Marine 164B is ideal.
This type of meter requires no calibra ti n after tl1e shutter
speed and tl1e ASA rating hav be n et.
Under daylight cond ition, exp ure are based upon
tlle reading of the general area in whi h tlle c ne is staged.
The reflected light reading is made from al ngside the camera and directed toward tlle action. The importance of the
angle of the shot as a factor in calculating expo ure cannot
be overemphasized when working in ocean waters; there
will be exposure variance fo r up, down and horizonta l
moves.
501
Night Effects
Simple W1derexpo ure can prod uce acceptable W1derwater day-for-night photography. Liai on with the laborator hou ld help in producing the desired night effect.
Undere posure tend to increa e the sahtration of lmderwat r color and accentuat the blue component f open
water in th baekgrOlmd, thereby enhancing the night ff t. The illu ion can be int nsified if light ripples from thc
watcr urface are allOl ed t pIa aero the
ne. Scatterin will cau e them to appear a tiny light beam moving
through the water. When h oting night-for-n.ight, overhead lighting can be utiliz d for a moonlit effect
Studio Tanks
Mucll Lmderwa ter p I' d uction p hotogr aphy may b
done i.n studio tanks. These tanks w i ll vary in si.ze and may
eith I' b constructed insid as Lmd stage or bu ilt outd oors
on the stud io ba,ck lot. They are us ually about 40 or 50 fee t
indiameterwithdepth ran ingup to 140r1s feet. ut ide
tank are generally built above groW1d, sometinle with
provi ion for a painted backdrop.
M t tanks are equipped with straight r rcducing
port fr m which camera can be set up to sh t into the
tank. The traight port i a flat window looking into the
tank. Reducing p rts are primarily used in photographing
miniature or hooting into a confined LUlderwater et.
The arc c nca e gla s pI' viding an angle imiJar to that
fa \ ide-angle len, also pcrmitting more leeway in pannin . TIle gla should be cry tal clear. Since tcu1ks are 10cat d within the confines f the tudio there i amp le p rovisi n for usino- all type of tudio lighting units. I.n ide the
tarLk malleI' wl itssuch a ' tho previously mentioned may
bused.
Minia tmes are usuaJly photographed in a tank an d the
sam rules for filming spc ds apply as in topside min ia tme
p h to ra phy. In fil ming l11 inieltu res, to sim uJel te deep water, it i important to reduce light ripples by stretching a
aim over the tcu1k or letting it float on the water. The deep
ocean ha no ripple. Light that has not been diffu ed will
cause Welter ripple and give away the depth of the water,
thereby de troying the illusi n. lnc.identalJy, even though
tanks are quipped \vith h otin u ports the best angl and
ccunera movements are obtained by diving into the water
with the camera ju t a if on a natural sea location.
502
Safety Bulletin No.8: Guidelines

for Insert Camera Cars
1.
An Insert Camera Car shall be a vehide tha t is
pecifically engineered for the mOW1ting of cameras and other equipment for the primary purpose of photography from a stationary r moving vehide.
2.
A camera car hall be safety checked before and

after use on a minimum of a daily basis by qualified experienced personnel - specifically brakes,
tires, electrica l ys tem and towing equipment.
3.
All rigging of equipment shall be done i.n a safe

mCUlner by qualified, experienced per onnel.
4.
An Insert Camera Ccu' used for n ight fi lming shall

be provi.d ed with two portable tail light which
w ill be allixed to the towed vehide to provide recu'
lighting in case where said vehide's light are not
operati ve.
5.
Maximum passenger allowances - Operation of

Insert Camera
Cars Transporting Production PersOlln I: All involved per onnel should be made aware that, as
mandated by the California Administrative Code:
TIle number of emplo ees". .. transported on vehides ... shall never exceed a nW1lber which may
end anger the afe handling of the vehicle..." Accordingly, the Ind u try Subcommittee to lnvestiga te Safety Asp ect of Insert Cam era Ca r herewi th recomm nd the fo llow ing m aximum be
applied when transporting p ersonnel by Insert
Camera Ca r (dul' ing rehearsa l and principa l
p hotogra phy seq uen ces): That number should
never exceed nine (9) incl uding the d river. In addition, it is b:ongly recommend ed tha t any person not direc tly needed for actual shot sequence
. ot Be Allowed on The Vehide At All.
6.
Equipment not e ntial to the shots in progress

shall not be tran ported on the Insert Car .
503
7.
ommuni ation regarding In ert Car shall be

pr' ed d by a meeting on the site of the event
with all p pie concerned. This meeting should
in Iud a "walk-tl1fough" or "dry-run" with the
driv r and all f the per ons invol ed in the ev nt.
n und rstanding of the intended action, po ible
d iati n and auth rity to abort should be made
clear. Fall wing the above and before roUing camra , hould an ub tantive change become necar, ' the director will again cali ali per on involved in the hot to another meeting to confirm
c eryone' under tanding and agreement to aid
han
R ar t \ in - no per onnel not being ph tographed hali be on to' bar or exterior of towed
v hicle. This d
n t include towed cam ra platform uch a trailers designed for said \'.'ork.
It hall be ma ndatory that a cop of these rul
in th glove box f the vehicle at all tim .
be
10. It i recognized that there can be unforeseen or

uniqu ituation which might require on- ite
jud m nt diff ring from these guideline. Such
jud m nt may ha e to be made in the inter t of
the af t f ca t and crew.
Arctic Cinematography
Mo t of the difficulties encOlmtered when using motion-picture equipment in the Arctic are ca u d by extreme
cold and very low relative humid ity. Average te mperatures
may va ry from 45 0 F (7 0 ) to -45F (-43 C), temperature
as low as -80 F (-620 ) have been recorded. (Sud1 10w temperatu.re mayal a be encount red at very high altitud .)
The lubricatin oil u ua lly used in photographic
equipment in mar temperate climates will congeal in an
arctic nvironm nt that moving parts of cameras or other
equipment will not operate. Leather and rubber also become brittl at the temperatures. With motion-picture
films, 10 of moi ture from the film emulsion when the
original packin mat rial i opened may result in film
504
emu lsion shrinkage and brittlen s , and subsequent film

curl in the camera gate. SUd1 djfficu lti ar not minimized
by using films with a polyester ba e unle these films (or
those with a triacetate ba e) have a g latin coating on the
upport to compensate for emul ion hrinkage. It i the
effect of the very low relative humidity (Ie than 5%) and
its emulsion drying characteri tics that produces film curl.
(Small heaters are sometimes u d in camera to prevent
film brittleness when working und r condition of extreme
cold, but under certain condition thi practice could actually increase the chance of emulsion hrinkage by further
reducing the re!ative humidity in th film d1amber.) TI1e
film peed is also lowered b e tr m cold and rna be
about one lens opening lower at -50 0 F (-46 0 C) to -70 0 F
(_57 0 C) than at 60 0 F (16 0 C). Film b m progressive!
more brittle as the temperature drop belm 00 F (-1 0 C),
but there is no marked change at any on temperature.
E en at sub-zero temperatur , film emul ion that retain
its proper moisture content in the ori inal package (equivalent to equilibrium at -ill to 60% RH) i more fie ible than
film that ha been aUowed to becom too dry. Film can also
be bent with the emulsion side in with I chance of breaking than if bent with the emul ion ide out. Whether the
film emulsion cracks or the film upport breaks at very low
n the film i exposed
temperatures depends on (1) how
after removal from the original package; (2) the care taken
in handling the film; and (3) on the typ and condition of
the camera in which it i u ed.
Temperatures generally encountered in the Arctic will
not cause polye ter bas films to break.
Preparation Of Equipment
While the difficultie of photography under arctic condi tions can be severe, they are by no means insurmoun table. Careful advance prepara ti on will pay ric h d ividends
in the fo rm of easier and mol' I' liable quipment operation and better pictorial results. The first tep in preparing
for filming in the Arctic, high mOlm tain regions, or in LU1heated aircraft at high altitude i to elect th mo t suitable equipment with due regard for the work to be done
and the re ults desired .
Each kind of camera has i adh r n
seems to be outstandingly uperi r to th
considering the working conditi n , g
505
tates that the camera or cameras selected should be compact, lightweight, easy to use, dependable, adap table, and
portable. In choosing a 160101 motion-picture ca mera,
many arctic explo rers prefer the ease and convenience of
magazine loading. Threading roll film can be very difficult
under conditions of extreme cold. Certain camera mooels
are advantageous fo r low-temperature use because largeradius bends in the film path and low film accelera tions
help prevent broken film. For best protection of the film
emulsion at extremely low temperatures, film travel rollers sho uld have a diameter no smaller than Yz in. (13mm).
Electric power, if available from a reliable source such as a
genera tor or vehicular power system, is more dependable
than springd.riven o r battery power. However, under field
conditions, a spring--driven mo tor may prove more reliable
than an electric mo to r drive that depends on portable or
storage batteries which can fail when subjected to extremely
low temperatures.
Cameras sho uld be winterized for satisfactory service
under fri gid conditions. Some camera manufacture,rs provide a winterizing service for cameras that are to be used
at low temperatures over a long period of time. Winterizing is a hig hly specialized operation, best entrusted to the
manufacturer or a competent independent camera service
representative. Essentially, the procedure caIJs for dismantling the camera and removing the original lubricants. The
shutter, lens diaphragm, film transport mechanism, and
other moving par ts are then re-lubricated with materials
that will no t thicken when the camera is exposed to extreme
cold. Powdered g raphite is in some cases still used for this
purpose. However, so-called "broad-range" lubricants
(such as Teflon and silicone) are becoming increasingly
popular, not only because of their effectiveness at low temperatures, but also because they can be left in the camera
permanently. In fact, such lubricants are being used in
manufactu re. Hence, a camera that has been lubricated with
a broad-range lubrica nt, either in manufacture or as part
of a winterizing opera tion, need no t be de-winterized and
re-Iuhrica ted when it is returned to use under normal conditions. When cameras are s tripped down for winterizing,
weakened or damaged parts may be discovered and should
be replaced to avoid possible failure under the extra stress
of severe a rctic temperahlres.
It is also sometimes necessary to machine parts to allow grea ter clearance ben-veen components. This is because
506
aluminum and ce rta in all oys have greater coefficients of

thermal contraction and expansion than s teel. Since small
levers and knobs on cameras are difficult to opera te when
the photographer is wearing thick gloves, ex tensions can
sometim es be added to levers, and small knobs can be replaced with larger ones.
It may be helpful to ru n even recently win terized
motion-picture cameras for a period of three or fou r hours
to break them in thoroughly. A piece of film three or four
fee t long can be spliced end to end (to fonn a continuous
loop), threaded into the camera, and allowed to run during the breaking in. In cameras intended for use wi th film
magazines, the loop should be formed in a dummy magazine. After the breaking-in period, the camera should be
checked for speed and general behavior. It shou ld be noted
that, a lthough magazi ne-type motion-picture ca meras can
be Winterized, the magazines themselves are not winterized
and may jam und er condi ti ons of extreme co ld . If film
magaz ines are used, each day 's working reserve carried
in to the field should be kep t as warm as possible under the
cinematographer's parka. Another possibility is to carry the
film supply in an insulated thermal bag, along with one or
n-vo small hand warmers.
Before your location shoot, a test run should be made
in a refrigerator or freezer capable of reaching temperatures
as low as _300 F (_34 0 C) or -loa F (-40" C). Even "winterized" cameras can fail in use bccause some detail was overlooked in preparation, so this fina l test run is quite important. TIle film and camera sho uld be cooled for a t least 24
hours prior to the test. This long period of pre-cooling is
o ften overlooked, and the test becomes invalid.
Motion-picture ca meras sho uld be g iven as much protection from icy \,v inds as possibl e during use. When battery-dri ven motors a re used on cameras, the motors and
batte ries sho uld be kept as wa rnl as possibl e. A Aat black
finj sh o n the cameras has so me advantage in the Arc ti c
because it absorbs hea t w hen the sun is shining. Covers
mad e from black felt material o r fur and fitted w ith eyelets or other suitable fa steners protect the ca mera from
frig id winds and help to retain its initial wa rmth fo r a time.
Snaps and slide fasteners are no t recommended for use in
s ub-zero temperatures. Small magazine-type motion-picture cameras can be hung inside the coat to obtain some
warm th from the body; you may even need to wrap a
chemical heating pad a round the camera. Inspect the
507
camera' lens eCich time it i removed from the clothing to

take a picture. The C1mowlt of "body stCitic" genera ted W1del' cold, dry conditions can cause the lens to attract lint
from the clothing.
Tripod hould al 0 be conditioned properly for u e
in the Arctic. Wh n lubrication is required, there ar oil
available for u e at temperatures down to -70 0 F. Tripod
h ads for moti n-pi ture equipment should be winterized
if they include gyro, motor, or other revolving parts. As
noted previou I e treme cold causes leather and rubber
to become brittl. \ a leather dressing of good quality
should be rubbed int leather carrying cases and leatherCO\ ered camera to prevent the ab orption of moisture.
Rubber hould b eliminated wherever possible.
ilk or lightweight cotton gloves under hea y woolen
mittens are rec mmcnded . Gloves or mittens made from
wlborn lamb kin are excellent for arctic weather. Silk
glov will k ep the hand warmer and ",rill afford considerable protection when th outside mittens are remo ed for
10adin<7 the cam ra, adjusting the lens, etc.
Equipment and Filming Technique

In tlle rctic or on mowltain climbing expedi tions, as
the altitude and the subsequent cold increase, breathing
become difficult, and it involve a great effort to work
normall . R acti n are low. Therefore, everything perf the camera hould be made as simple
taining to th u
as possible. Expo ure stima tesmay be poor when tl1e faculties are dulled, 0 expo ure all d other data should be
printed on a card and fastened to the camera or its cover in
plain view .
C rtain general cold-weather recommendation are in
order for any a?l ra, ti ll or motion-picture. Breatlling on
a lens or any oth l' pa rt of tlle Call1era to remove snow 01'
other material will ca us condensa tion that freezes installtly
and is very diffi t ult to r move.
An important factor to keep in mind is the ever-present
danger of fro tbit ,a particular threat when hands or face
come in direct c ntact wi th the metal of the camera body.
Camera that are u ed at eye level and must be brought
close to th face for proper viewing and focusing should
have tlleir e p d metal areas covered w ith heavy electrical tape, pia tic foam, or ome otl1er insulating material.
Under no circwll tanc hould tlle photographer tOUcll the
508
ca mera or other metal equipment with ungloved hands,

becau e the skin will freeze to th - cold metal almost intantly. A painful loss of skin almost alway results.
A thoroughly chilled camera CaJU10t be u d in a warm
room Wltil its temperature equals the surrounding warmer
temperature. Conversely, a warm cam ra Calmot be taken
out into a blizzard because the bl wing and drifting snow
will melt upon triking the warm camera, and oon the
instrlunent will be covered witl1 ice. Loading film, even
during a driving snowstorm, can b accompli hed with the
use of a large, dark plastic bag, big enough to fit over tl1e
head and shoulders.
A deep lens hood ' very de irable for filming in tl1e
snow. It will help keep tlle len dry even during a fairly
evere storm.
Film
Great care must be used in handling film in sub-zero
weatl1er. The edges of cold, brittle film ar
tremel sharp,
and unless caution is ex rei ed, tl1 y can cut the fingers
severely_
It is important that film be loaded and exposed
promptly after removal ITom the origina l packing, not left
in the camera for long period of time. U motion-picture
film is allowed to stand in the camera for a day or so, tl1e
film may dry out and break where the loop was formed
when the camera is again started. The fi lm i adequately
protected against moistme 10 s a I ng a tll riginal packaging is intact. When loading tlle camera, make sme tlle
filmaJld the camera are at the same temperature - if possible, load the camera indoors.
Static markings are cau ed by a n lectros tatic disc1large, and they appear on the deve! p d fi lm emulsion
as mal'ks resembling lightn ing, tree braJ1Ches, or fuzzy
spots. When static difficulties occur they can usually be
traced to the use of film which has a very low moisture
content.
Static markings are not likely to ocwr if tliefillll is loaded
and e-tposed within a sliort tillle after tlie original package is
opened. In general, field photography lmder arctic conditions involves subjects of extremely low brightness scale
and very high levels of illumination. For tl1is reason, highspeed emulsions are not generally u ed outdoors. The best
choice of film is a mediwn-speed material such as Eastman
509
Plus-X egati e Film 5231 / 7231, Ea tman Color egative

Film 52-! / 724 , Eastman Ektachrome Film (Daylight)
5239/ 7239, Agfa Color egati e Film XT100, Fujicolor
egative Film F 125 5 0 / 630, Fujicolor Reversal Film
RT125 (16null I1ly-8427), or Fuji N gative Film FG 71112/
RP 72161 . Exposmes sho uld be held to a m inimum a nd
overexpo ure hould b avoided.
When pictures are to be made lll1der low-level lighting c nditions, uch a at twilight, r indoor wlder e isting artificial illumination, a highpeed film, such as
Eastman.J.-X gati e Film 577-l/ 7224, Eastman Color EXR
High-Speed
egative Film 5296/7296, Eastman
Ek tsch rom e High-Speed Film (Day ligh t) (16 m111 only7251), Eastman Ekrnchr me High-Speed Film (Tlll1g ten)
(16mm onl -72 0), Agfa Color egative Film XT320,
Fujicol r F 500 olor e stive Film 570/ 8670, or Fujicolor
Reversal Film RT 500 (16mm onl -842 ) h uld be u ed .
Storage
Ifs cold camers is tsk n indo r where iti warm and
humid, conden stion msy form on the lens, film, and camem part. If the camera i then taken back outdoor b fore
the c ndensed moistme evaporat , it will freeze and interfere \ i th op rs tion; th condensate can aI 0 cause metal
par to rust. On wa to olve th.i problem i to lea e the
camera, when not in u e, in a room at about 32F (DOC).
T. R. Stobmt, who fil med th fi rst conq uest of Mt.
Evere t, p refer to seal the camera i.n an airtight poly thylene or rubber bag and th 11 take the camera into the warmth
of ind or . An condensation tak place outside th bag,
not in ide, and the camera remains both dr and warm.
Thi method ha the ad anrnge of keeping the camem from
becoming" aturated in cold" for long p riods of time.
There is no problem Ul taking warm equipment back out
ultO the cold, prhvided the snow i n' t blowi.ng.
When a ca(T1era i left in its case outdo rs, the case
should be msd reasonabl airtight. In the rctic, blown
now becomes a fine as dust or iltandcan enter the mallest lit or crevice. If allowed to enter the camera arolll1d the
hutt r or other mm ing part, th now wiJl affect the operation of the quipment. The sp ed and tim ing of motors
shou ld be check d frequently. Batt ries should be checked
ev ry day and r dlarg d at a base every night, if possible.
Tropical Cinematography
Hea t and humidi ty are two basic sources of potential
diffjculty when using or storing photographic good s in wet
tropical climates. Heat alone .is not the worst fac tor, though
it m ay n ecessita te special equipment care and processing
techniques and may shorten the life of incorrectl y stored
light-sensitive materials. High humidity is by far the greater
problem because it can cau e serious trouble at temperatures only slightly above normal, and iliese troubles are
greatly increased by high temperatures.
Ass ciated with these conditions are several biological factors - the warmth and dampness levels en cOlmter d
in the tropics are cond ucive to the profuse growili of fwlgus and bacteria and encourage the activities of insect.
Many photographic and other related products are "food"
for these organisms - gelatin in films, filters, leailier, adhesives, and so on. Even if fwlgus, bacteria, o r insects canno t attack m a terials directly, tiley can develop an environment tlla t can . FWlguS can also eitiler directly or indirectly
induce corrosion in me tals, attack textiles and lea ther,
change tile color of dyes, attack glass, and cause a great
variety of other forms of deterioration. The probability of
damage is greater witil frequent handling and transportation, especially lll1der tlle difficulties met in hlll1ting and scientific expeditions and in mili tary operations. Ex posure to
harm is grea ter w hen equipm ent is used out of doors, on
tile grolmd, or in makeshift facilities.
Atmospheric con dition, wiili respect to moisture content, is usually described in terms of "relative humidity."
This is tile ratio, expressed as a perc ntage, between the
quantity of water vapor actually present in tile air and tile
maximum q uantity which tile air could hold at ilia t temperature. Thus, if a given sample of air contains only h alf
as much water as it w ould at saturation, its relative humidity is 50 percen t.
When tile temperature rises, a given space canaccommoda te more water vapor and hence, tile relative humidity decreases, and vice versa. When air (or an object) is
cooled sufficiently, a saturation point (100 percent relative
humidity) is reached , and below this tempera ture drops of
water or "dew " ar e deposited . In an y locality, the temperature is m uch lower a t high altitudes, 0 tilat dew is likely
to form on objects following tileir arrival by air transport,
511
e p cially when high relative humidity is present at ground

Level. In tropical climates, thi "dew point" is often only a
few deo-re b low the actual temperature during the day
and is ~eached when the temperature drops at night.
The amount of moistur ab rbed by films and by nonmetallic par of equipment i determined b the relative
humidity of the atmosphere. Therefore, the m i ture aborpti on of ph tographic or other equipment can be reduced by lowering the relati v humidity, either by removing some of th moisture with a desicca ting agen t or by
ra ising the tempkrature of the atmo phere wher the quipment is stored.
Extrem s of relative humidity are a serious th.reat to
aU photographic materials, even at moderate temperatures.
t high temp ratufes, the effects of high humidity are
greatly accelerated, particular! if the relativ: hLlmi~ty
remains above 60 percent. E tremel low relabve hunudity, on the other hand, i not quite 0 serious, but if it IaJ.ls
blow 15 percent for a considerable time, a is c mmon m
desert region , an electric humidifier should be in taJled
and set to maintain a relative humidity of 40 to 50 percent
in the storage area.
Storage of Iphotographic Materials

Sensitized photographic ma terials are peri hable products when stored under extrem conditions of high temp rature and high relative humidity. Proper torage is
therefore imp rtant at all time . Fortunately, adequate protection of sen itized materials can be accompli hed at relatively 10\,,' co t and without etreme method . Lightweight
portable rerigerat rs or other cooling wlits are a ailable
from expedition utfitters and other imilar quipment
uppliers. 0 iccants are available in bulk or kit form for
red ucing the m isture content of the ahn~sph re wh:r.e
film is to be tored. Further, p rtable electnc d hUl11ldifJer are also available to reduc the relative humidity in
larger quarter, uch as work r ms, to aid in the comfort
of the occupants. nd finaUy, the film packaging reduces
the pos ibilit f damage when the material i tored tmder recomm nded conditions. U ually, there will be Little
or no adve
effect to the film if it is stored and handled
as described blow.
Black & \vllite films can be tored atnormal room temperatures in an air-condition d room. Color film should
512
always be tored in a refrigera tor at 55 F (13C) r lower.

To a aid moisture condensation on the chilled s urfac of
the material, take film cans out of th cartons and allow
35mm rolls to warm up from 3 hours f r a 20F to 5 h urs
for a 75F temperature ri e above torage temperature.
16mm rolls take about l-3 those times.
When the origina l packaging eal has been brok n,
fiJms hould be exp ed and prace d a oon as pos ible.
Sinc the air in a refrigerator is moi t, partiaUy used packages should be returned to tlle reh'ig ra tor in a sea led contain r containing a desiccant to absorb the moistw'e wi thin
the container.
In general, d o not keep more fi lm than nece sary in
tack, particularly when good storag conditions are not
available. Photographic materials can al 0 be affected b
tile chen1ical activity of fumes and ga e . Consequently,
film hould not be t red in newly painted room or cabinets. All films hould be proces ed a oon as possible after e posure. If ou are lmable to do thi for some rea on,
enclo e the films in an airtight jar or can togetller with a
desiccant and place them in a refrigerator. Expo d films
can b kept for severa l days in tl1is way.
Preparation and Protection of

Equipment
To save time and avoid damage, cameras and other
equipmen t should b made read well in ad ance of deparhtre.lt is well worthwhile to ha e the equipment thoroughly overhauled and cleaned, pref rabl by the original
manufacturer, who hould be advi ed a to the type of climate in which it will bused. Ca e ,packing material, and
moi hlre-absorbing material (desiccant) should be obtain d
for the equipmen t and su pplies. Protection during tra nsportati.on and storag i rea dily obta ined by the us of hermetica lly sea led ca ns, metal-foil ba s, or other wa ter/vapor proof containers, and a suitable de iccating agent. Lf tile
containers have been properly sealed and contain an adequa te quantity of desiccant, they will protect the content
practically indefinitely. There is, how ver, one reservation
and caution: if preci ion instrument that require lubrication with certain typ of Light oil are subjected to high
temperatures wlllie in such packing, the oils may e aporate, lea ing a gummy r sidue on the instrument bearing.
This ituation may prevent proper equipment functi ning
513
wltil the equipment can be cleaned and re-lubricated properly.

The protection of equipment that is in active use requires a omewhat dillerent approach. The relative humidity can be lowered in an equipment storage cabinet that is
not used for film torage by burning electric light bulb or
operating an electric resistance heating unit continuously
in the lower part of the cabinet. The number of lamps
hould be adjusted to keep the temperature about 10" above
th a erage prevailing temperature. Air spaces and mall
hoi
hould be provided at the top and bottom of the cabito allow a slow change of air
n t and through the hel
t carry off moisture introduced by the camera and equipment. The positions of the hoi
hould be staggered on the
diff rent helves in order to produce a more thorough
chang of air. Since high relative humidity favor the
growth of fwlguS on lense , filters, and other surface, storage in such a cabinet wil l help red uce the fwlguS grow th
and may prevent it entirely.
Electric dehumidifiers are now appearing in store in
man of the larger citie in tropical regions. With the e
uni , whole rooms and their contents can be dehumidified,
pr vided they can be closed to outside air penetration. In
dehumidified room, the humidity will not increase rapidl during hort powerfailur , as it would in heated do ets or cabinets. In a mall, tightl sealed room, an average
Wlit in operation for 12 hours out of 24 can keep the relati e humidity below 60%. This hould be checked about
once a m nth with an RH meter or sling psychrometer.
When it is not practical to use a hot cabinet or electric dehumidifier, equipment h uld be tored in an airtight case
c ntaining plenty of d iccant. Two cans of silica gel the size
of shoe-poli h cans will do a very good job of drying equipment in a ealed ten-gaUon paint can (one with a ga ketand
a "p wld hut" lid).
A half-polmd bag of ilica gel works weU in a gasketed
55-gallon "open top" drum that can be sealed with a cover.
H wever, where shipment and handling are involved or
wh re the containers are to be opened briefly a few times,
d uble or even triple the quantity of gel will provide a rer e of protection. Properly dehydrated contain rs will
momentaril feel c 01 to an inserted hand due to rapid
evaporation of the normal kin moi ture. The sensation is
brief, but can be easil detected if one i looking for it. Its
ab ~nce means the silica g I needs replacement or regeneration.

if none of tllese m thod are practical, and th quipmen~ must o~ ~ece it be left in an atrno phere of high
r lative hunudJty, th equipment should be opened and
e posed to the un at frequent intervals in order t drive
?ut moi ture. ~e e
ur , however, hould be kept hort
111 order to a Old overh atin . Cameras load d with film
hould not be e posed t the un any more than nec sary.
Cameras should alwa be protected from e ce ve
h at because man of the lenses used on camera are compo ed of several elem nts of gla cemented tog ther. Becausesomecementsm Itat 140F (60 oq and begin to ften
at 120 F (49q, it i ob i u that the lens lement miaht
become separated or air bubble might form if the lens w~re
heated to such tempera tlLre . Cameras sh uld not be
han~ led roughly or subj cted to sudden jaJTing when used
at high temperatures b cause any slig ht shock might
c11ange the position of the len components.
Maintenance of EqUipment
. ~ne of tlle ~est'protective measures that can be supplted U1 tlle trOpiCS I t thoroughly deall ever pi ce of
photo~aphicequipment at frequent interval and pose
~t t alr and un when v r practical. Thi i particularl
Imp rtant for retardin the corro ion of metal urfac and
th growth of fungu or mold on lens surface and on
leather CO\ ering . Lens cI aning fluids and pap r n won
the market are recomm nded for cleaning len . During
the tropical dr sea n, r in an desert area, an du t
hould be removed from th len ltrfaces with a abl or
camel hair brush bef r th lens tissue i u ed, to a oid
ratche . Lens cleaning ti ues containing ilicon hould
n t b used for coated len . They leave an oily film that
~hang~s the c~l orcilaracteri tic of the coati ng and r d uces
Its anti-reflection propertie . Thi film is almo t imp ssible
to r move.. L~at h er covering and cases can be t b kept
cI an by wlpmg tllem ften and thoroughly with a clean,
dry d~th. Frequent cleaning and polishing will minima
c rro Ion on expo d m tal parts.
Black & White Film

The ~osure of black & white film in tr pical area is
trongly mfluenced b the illumination in the ubject
shadow areas. The m i tur and dust content of the atmo-
515
phere ar important b cause hadows are illuminat d only

blight cattered b particle upended in the air, except
\Vh re upplementary lighting or reflectors are used . Thu ,
wher th atmosphere i very dr and dear, objects that do
n t receive the direct light f th un appear, both to the
eye and t the camera lens, t be in deeper-than-normal
hadow. In relrio115 like th
uth\ tern United tat or
central e ico, for e ample, the brightnes range of average outdoor ubjec is much greater than it i in I dear
dimat . In photographing p ople, thi effect and th high
po ition ofthe sun combine to put the eyes in deep hadow
and e en sometimes give th ffect of backlighting. Theref re, it i be t to a oid taking pictures, particularly dos up f people, when the lUl i overhead; if you must take
cI -up of people, use refl ctor or booster light to often
the hadow .
Exposllfe meter shou ld always be used with a rea nable amount of judgment and experience, and this i pecially true in locations with uch unusual atmospheric and
lighting conclitions. In th jungle areas of South and Central America, the local farm r often clear and burn large
quantitie of trees and brush dllfing the dry ea on. TI,e
moke, compo ed of olid particle, hangs in the lower atmo phere and is not ea ily penetrated e en with filter.
I 0 , at the height of the wet ason in man localiti ,the
water haze become almo t a impenetrable as a heavy
doud . Distance photograph is best done a few weeks after th clo e of the \ et se on and before burning begins,
r a f \ weeks after the first rains of the wet a n have
ttl d the smoke particle and before the onset of th wet
ea n haze.
If exten ive photo raphic work in the tropic i
plarm d, the de elopment fa few test exposur may prev nt major fa illlfes. It i u ually sufficient to determine a
ba ic exposure which can then be modified to suit o~er
films or condition. Allowance hould also be made for
diff rent typ of subject. Bach scenes, for example, generally r quire about one t p Ie exposure than an avera
ubject.
c nditions and scene characteristic in the tropics which

ju tify special consideration.
1. During the rain ea on, a light haze is enerall
present in the atmo ph r . When this haze is present, the
di k of the un is clearl discernible and fairl distinct hadaware cast. Under th
conclitio115, the expo ure h uld
be increased by about ne-half stop over that requir d for
bright urilight.
2. Frequently the brightne of beach and marine
seen i appreciabl greater than that encountered in temp rate zones. With such cen the camera exposllfe hould
be decreased one full top from that required for a erage
subjects. It should be r m mb r d that th term "average
ubject" as used in exp me tables applie to a ubj ct or
cen in which light, m dium and dark areas are ro ughly
equal in proportion. It h uld not be taken to mean "u ua'"
for a particular location r area. For instance, the usual
d ert cene is a "light subject" rather than "averag ubject," and hould be xp ed as such.
3. When the un i high overhead, heavy hadow are
ca t across vertical urface, very mucl1like tho occurring
in ide-lighted subjects. Therefore, the expo ure h uld be
incr a ed one-half-stop m r than normal, just a is r commended for side-lighted scenes. For close-up having important hadow areas, a full- top increase in e po ure is
need d .
.l, Many objects in th tropi , not anI painted buildin and light colored fabri ,but even the leav of many
plants and trees, have a high reflectance for direct lighting.
Consequently, with front top or back lighting th
hould
be con idered a erage ubj cts.
5. Very often the col r of nearby objects will be affect d by the green light reflected from nearby bright gr en
foliage. Similarly, in courtyards or narrow str et , the side
that is in the shade get much of its illumination from the
opp site swillt wall, whid1 may b strongly colored . There
is litll that can be done to correct for this situation, but it
h uld be recognized a a po sible cause of poor re ult in
color picture .
Color Film
In general, the e p ur of color films should follow
the me ba ic recomm ndati 115 given for temperate zone
exp llfe, with due regard to Ii hting and scene classificati n. There are, however, om differences in th lighting
516
517
Day-for-Night Cinematography
The peed of modern color film makes it p ible to
hoot night-f r-night scen . However, there are night
cene that ar impractical to illuminate artificially and
actuaU . film at night. Shooting Udl cenes da -for-night
eliminate the additional pr blems and e pen of night
hooting and can deliver excellent pictorial re ult .
Tedmiqu . for filming day-f r-nightscen in color or
black & white var grea tl y b ca use of the many factors involved. Cinematographers natmally differ in til ir interpretation of what c nstitutes a night effect. The overall effect
mu t be one f darkne . Pr e ing laboratori differ in
their negative pref rences, although mo t pref r ufhcient
d n it on til riginal negativ ince it is alway p ible
to "print do\ n" for a darker eH t, but impo ibl to oborigitain a ridl, fujj-bodied print fr m a tllin, had owl
ne must
nal negative (if black hadow are d ired, the
print at cent r cal or hi~her).
Choice of filter and degree of undere p ure" ill
var accordin~ t k condition , color and contra tof subject and backgr und , tile sb'ength, quality and dir ction of
sunlig ht, an d Ih particula r eff ct desired. V ry generally
peaking, tile mo t c nvincin:> day-far-night shots, in either
olor or black & white, are made in trono sunl ight, wlder
blue skies and with low-angle back-ero lighting.
Direct ba klighting rc ult in a "rim-light" effect
which, altllou h pI a ing in a I n hot, lacks th n essary
three-dimensional, half-illuminated facial effec required
in medium and cl
hots. Fr nt lighting will flatten and
destro all had w. ide and fron t-cross lighting i permi ible but n t a effective a back-cro s illumination.
ince produ tion doe not alway permit h ting w hen
conditions ar exactly right, and ince da y-for- night shots
mu t sometim b made all day I ng, often th choice of
un angle mu t be compromi cd. Under these onditions,
avoid front lighting a much a possible and tay witil any
un angle that r ult in partial illuntination, pr fe rab ly
with hadow toward the camera.
kies give th mo t troubl , ince they \ ill invariably
r ad too hi~h and are difficult t balance a ain t foregr und action. raduated neutral den it filt r , which
c ver the k ar a onl , and Pola creens, wh.ich will
dark ntlle kywi ththe unatc rtainangles,areb thusehll for either col r or black & white films beca u e they do
518
not affect color valu and can be used in combination with

other effect filters.
eutral-density filters will tone down a "hot" ky,
even if it is bald white. A partial or graduated neutral-density filter covering only the sky will therefore be very useful for bringing the ky into exposme balance with the foreground. Care must be taken, however, tllat action doe not
cross the demarcation line between til hitel' material and
the d ar glass area. Pola Screens are most useful when tile
sun i directly overh ad at righ t angl s to the camera.
A Pola Screen should not be employed if tile camera
mu t b panned through a wide arc, since the polarization
will vary and the ky tone will chang in density a the
camera revolves. Typical underexposure is l Y! to 2Y! top ,
rarely more. Brilliant wilight will require greater underexpo ure, gray day Ie s. The underexposure can be
handled in several way . One is by ignoring the filter exposur increase required, if it is dose to the amount of underexpo ure desired. For instance, the filter being employed may require two tops increa e in exposure for a
normal ffect. The increa e is ignored and the diaphragm
set for the exposure witllou t tile filter, tllUS delivering the
necessaq underexposme for the night effect. Or, a neutral
density of the desired strength is employed and its exposure increase ignored.
Proceed as follow : insert tI1e effect filter, or combination of hlters for the desired effect, and aUow for tIleir exposure increase as in normal filming. Add tile desired neutral (a .30 for one stop,.50 for a stop and one-half or a .60
for two tops). Ignoring tile neutral filter's exposure increa wil l automatically underexpo e tile negative by the
n ce sary amount. Thi is a quick and effective method in
fast pr duction shooting where night effects are sudde.nly
required and little or no time is availabl for computations.
. .. If. the sk~ is not sufficiently blue to filter properly, and
if It IS ImpossIble to use a graduated neutral-density filter,
try to avoid the sky a much as possible by shooting against
buildings or foliage, or choose a high angle a nd shoo t
downward .
.
Th . contrast between the players and the background
IS ery Important ince a definite separation is desirable.
Dark dotl1ing, for instance, will merge witll a dark background and the player will be lost. It is better to leave a dark
?ackgr?und an~ players in lighter, although not necessarily whit , clotl1ing than to have a light background and
519
player in dark clothi ng. The latter comb ination w ill result
in a sill, uctte, rath r tha n a nigh t effect. This i the rea on
tha t back-cr slighting i preferable, so that the backgrOlmd i not illuminated and the players have a defi.l~t
separation thr ugh edge Lighting, which aI 0 m1parts shimmering hi hli ht .
Black & White Film
ing filter can be used to fil ter out theexces ultraviolet. Flesh
tones in closeu ps can be adjus ted by L1 ing gold reflectors
0
or 3200 K fill Lights to light actors face . Car must be taken
that ~he a~tors ~e not over-lit or that ueh light appear as
ambIent Ligh t With the SLm acting a a moon light key.
Negative Color Film

. A cin~atographer hooting da -for-night with negative color fJim should check with th proc ing laboratory
before the production begin . Laboratorie have a far
greater range of color correction available than the cinematographer has at his ill po al durin the ori inaJ photograph . They may add or ubtract any col r, or combination
of colors, provided the original n gati e h
ufficient e _
po ure. Once the 85 filter i remo ed, h we er, it i often
impo ible to restore normal color balance to the film .
If the 85 filter i remo ed, it hould be replaced with
an ultra iolet filter, which will prevent er po ure of the
blue sensitive layer and keep the n gativ within printing
range. Warmer effects may be obtain d b ub tituting a
Light yellow filter for the 85. A Pola Scr n may al 0 be used
to dark~ a bl~e s~y ~nd provide the required undere posure (by IgJlormg Its filter factor). It will have no effect on a
b~ld ky, but it will act as a neutral-den ity filter and proVide the needed undere po ure. Rememb r U,at approximately ~-stop exposure is gained b r movin<> the 85 filter. TI,is mu t be included in expo UTe calculations.
Infrared Cinematography
Reversal Color Film

T pical blu night effect can be ob~ed with re~er
sal color film balanced for exposure WIth tungsten Light
bremo ing th Wratten 85 filter and Lmder exposing H~
stops. Lf the blui h effect is too great, an ultraviolet-absorb-
.
B~cau~e cinematography by infra r d ligh t has had lim Ited plctonal use, this wi ll be a brief review. For more infor ma ti on, refer to Kod ak p u blication n umber N-17
"Kodak Jnfra red Films" and M-28 "Applied Infrared Photography." Infrared for p hotographic pu rpose is defined
a U,at part of the spectrwn, approximately 700 to 900 nanom ter ,which is beyond the visible red, but not as far as
would be sensed by h uman a heat.
All infrared films are sen iove to heat and hould be
~ept refrigerated before exposUT and during any holdin<>
time befor.e processing. While no longer Ii ted as a reguJ~
cata logue Item, Eastman Kodak still manufactures a B & W
521
infrared sensitive film, Kodak High-Speed Infrared Film

2481, and a modified color sensi tive film, Kodak
Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236. Both of these film are on
E tar base. Before deciding to use either film in a producti n the manufacturer houJd be contacted regarding its
a aiJability, minimum order quantities and delay in deliv-
t ting prior to production i daylight EI 100 with a Wratten

12 filter.
Ultraviolet Photography
ery.
Black & White Films

For pictorial purposes, the greatest use of infrared seniti e film for motion-picture photography has been for
"da -for-rught" effects. Foliag and grass reflect infrared
and record as white on B & W film. Painted materials which
vi ually match in color but do not have a high infrared reflectance will appear dark. Skies are rendered almost black,
douds and snow are white, shadows are dark, but often
show considerable detail. Faces require special makeup and
clothing can only be judged by testing.
A uggested El for testing prior to production i daylight EJ 50, tungsten EJ 125 with a Wratten 25, 29, 70, or 89
filter, or daylight EJ 25, tungsten El 64 with 87 or 88A (visually opaque) fil ter. Infrared light comes to a focus farther
from the lens than does visual light. An average correction
for 010 t lenses is 0.25 % of the focal length of the lens
.0125mm (.005 inches) for a SOmm lens.
Color
o human can see infrared; color film can only record
and interpret it. Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236 was
originally devised for camouflage detection. Its three image layer are sensitized to green, red, and in.fTared instead
of blue, green and red . Later applications were found in
medicine, ecology, plant pathology, hydrology, geology
and archeology. Its only pictorial use has been to pr duce
w ird color effects.
In u e, all blue light is filtered out with a Wratten 12
filter; vi ible green record a blue, visible red as green, and
infrared as red . The blue, being filtered out, is black on the
reversal color film. Because visible yellow light is used as
well as infrared, focus is normal, and the use of a light meter
i normal for this part of the pectrum. What happens to
the infrared reflected light i not measurable by conventional methods, so testing is advisable. A suggested EJ for
.
There are two ~ tinctl different techn.iqu for tak109 photographs u 109 ultraviolet radiation, and ince
the. are often confused with each other, both will be decnb d.
In the fir t techniqu , called reflected-ultra iol e t

p!10tograJ:'h~, the photograph i made by invisibl ultrav.lOl. t radIatIOn r f1ected from an object. This method is
I m~l a r t~ conventi onal ph tography in which you photograph lig ht refle~ted from the subject. To take p ictures
by reflected ulh'avlolet, 010 t conventiona l fi lm ca n be
u ed, but the camera I n mu t be covered with a filter
ucl~ as the Wratten 1 A, that transmit the invi ible ul~
~avlo l et and ~o""s no vi ibl light to readl the film. Thi
I tru uln:avlOlet pl~ot~gr~p.h ; it is used principall to
how details otilerwl e 111 1 Ible in scientific and technical photograp~y. ~eflect d-ultraviolet photograph ha
almo t n appbcabon for motion picture purpo ; if ou
~ave qu~ tio~ ~bout. reflected ultraviolet photograph
informatIOn IS gIVen 10 the b ok "Ultraviolet and Flu _
r cence Photography," a aiJable from Ea tman Kodak
Co.
TI~e second technique i known a fluorescence, or
black~lI~ht, phot~gr~phy. In motion-picture ph tographX' It IS U ed prU1C1pally for it visual effects. Certain
O?J ct , "".hen subjected to in vi ible ultraviolet light, will
glv off VI Ible radiation ca lled fluorescence, wh ich can
be photograp J~ ed with conven tio na l film . Some obj cts
flu o~ ce particularly we ll a~ld are described a bing
flu? , cent: They call be btall1ed in variou form uch
a 10k, pa.l11.ts, crayons, paper, clOtll, and some ro k .
Some p!a bc Items, bright-c lor d artides of clothing, and
co.metic are also typical obj cts that may f1ucre ceoFor
object that don't fluor ce, f1uore cent paints (oil or
wa.t r base), chalks or cra on can be added. Th
material ar sold by art uppl tores, craft shop, d partment tores, and. hardware tores. Many of the it m
can al 0 be obtamed from Wildfire, Inc., 10 53 Venice
523
Blvd ., Lo Ang Ie , Califo rnia, 90034, which man ufacture th m sp cially for the motion-p ictme industry.
Fl uor cell e may range from violet to red, depending on the material and the film used. In addition to the
f1uore cence, the obj ct reflects ultraviolet light, which is
tronger ph tographically. Mo t film has considerable
ensitivity to ultraViolet, which would overexpose and
wa h ut th image from the weaker visible fluorescence .
Ther for, to photograph onJ the fluorescence, you must
use a filt rver the camera lens ( Udl as the Wratten 2B,
2E or 3, or qui alent) to absorb the ultra iolet.
The wavelength of ultraviolet light range from
aboutlO to -l00 nanometer. Of the generall useful range
of ultraviolet radiation, the most common is the longwavelength 320 to -lOOnm range. Less common is the hort
to medilml-\ a clength range of 200 to 320nm.ln fluore cence photo raphy you can use long-, mediwll-, or hortwave radiation to e cite the vi ible fluore cence depending on th mat rial. me materials will fluoresce in one
type of ultraviol t radiation and not in another.
C rtain pr caution are nece ary when ou use ultra i let radiation . Warning: You must use a omce of
hort- or medium-wave ultra iolet with caution becau e
its ra cau
w,bunl and severe, painful injmies to eyes
not prot cted b ultraviolet-absorbing goggles. Read the
manufactur r' in tructions before using 1.11 traviole t
lamps.
Eye p rot ction i generaJly not necessa ry when yo u
use long-wav ul traviolet beca use this radiation i considered harml . However, it's best not to look directl y
at the radiati n urc for any length of time, because the
fl uid in yom y s will fluoresce and cause some d iscomfort. Wea ring gla eyegla ses will minimize the discomfo rt fro m long-wave so urces.
Th r ar many sourc s of ultraviol t radiati on, but
not all of th n~ ar uitable for flu orescence ph otography.
The be t ultra"'iolet ources for the fluorescence technique
are merclu'y-vapor lam ps or ultraviolet fluorescent tube.
If an obje t f1uo re ces u nder a continuo us ultrav iolet
ource, ou ca n see the fl uorescence w hile you 're photographing it.
Since th brightness of the fl uorescence i rela ti vely
low, the ultraviolet ource must be positioned a close a
practica l to th ubject. The objective is to produce the
maximum fluorescence w hile prov id ing even ill umination over the area to be photographed .
Fluorescent tubes designed especia lly to emit longwave ultraviolet are often called black-light tubes because
they look black or dark blue befor they're lighted. The
glass of the tubes contains filter material whidl is opaque
to most visible light but freely transmit long wavelength
ultra iolet. These tubes, identifi d by the letter BLB, are
sold by electrical supply store, hardware store and department stores. They are a ailable in lengths up to 4 feet
and can be used in tandard fluorescent fixtures to illuminate large areas. Aluminum-foil reflectors are available
to reflect and control the light.
Mercmy-vapor lamps are particular! uitable for
illuminating small areas with high ultraviolet brightnes .
When these lamps are designed for ultraviolet work they
usually indude pecial filter which tran mit ultraviolet
and absorb most of the i ible light. Mercury va por ultraviolet lamps are available in two typ ,long-wave and
hort-wave. Some lamp include both wavelengths in the
same wlit so that they can be u ed either eparatelyor
together. If you use a light ource that does not have a
built-in ultra iolet filter, you must put such a filter over
the light ource. TIle filter for the radiation omce is called
the exci ter fi Iter.
You can use a Kodak Wratten Ulh'aviolet Filter, o.
18A, or Corning Glass 0.5840 (Filter No. CS7-60) or o.
9863 (Fil ter No. CS7-54) for this purpo e. The Kodak Filter, No. 18A, is available in 2-and 3-inch glas squares
h'om photo dealers. The deal r may have to order th e fil ter fo r you. The Corning Glas is availabl in larger sizes
from Corning Glass Works, Optica l Photo Products Departm ent, Corning, New York 14830. The fi lter yo u use
must be lmge enough to compl etely cover the front of the
la mp . The scene is photographed on a dark se t with only
the ulh'aviolet sow-ce illuminating the subj ct. In order for
the film to record only the flu orescen ce, use a Kod ak
Wra tten gela tin filter, No. 2A or 2B, or a n equi valent filter, over the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet. Wh en
used fo r this pw-pose, the fi lters are ca lled barrier fil ters.
Since the fluoresce nce image is vi ible no focusing corrections are necessary. Focus the camera the ame as for a
conven tional subject.
525
Determining Exposure
lany expo ure meter are not sensitive enough to
det :~"line e posure for the f1uore cence. n extremely
nsl~ve exp? ure meter h~uld indicate prop rep ure
of bJects whICh f1uoresc bnghtl under inten e ultravior 2B fillet if ou make the meter r ading WiUl a 0.2
ter ver the meter cell. If ur e po ure meter i n t nitive enough to resp nd to the relative brightn of f1uorc ~nc, the mo t practical method of determining po.ur 1- to makeexp sur t t u -ing iliesame typeoffilm,
fdter , and etup you plan to u e for yo ur flu re cence
phot graph.
Films
While either black & white or color camera film can
be u ed for fluoresc nc photography, co lor fi lm produce t~le Illost dramatic r ult . The da ylight balanced
films W ill accen~uate t~e red and yellows whi l Ule tungten-balanced film wIll accentuate the blue. Since fluore c nce produces a relatively low light level for phot g_
raphy, a high-speed film u h a
gfaXT320, Ea tman
E R 500T (5296), Ea tman H Day (5297), Fujic I r F 250
D ( 560) or Fujicolor F 00 ( 570) i recommended.
Special Considerations
ome len
and filt r will al 0 fluor ce under ultraviol t radiation. Hold th lens or filter close to th ultraviolet lamp to look for flu r ence. Ruor en of the
len or filt r will cause a 0" n ra l veilino- or f g in our
pictur . Tn evere ca , the f g comple~ly ob cure ilie
ima e.If a len or filter f1uore ce , you can still u it for
f1uOl'e cence photograph if you put the recomm nded
ulh'a violet-absorbing filter over the camera len or the
fi lt r th at flu ore ces. lt also h Ip to position th ultravioI t lamp or u e a matte box to prevent the ultrav io let radiati n from triking the len or filter.
526
Shooting 16mm Color Negative

for Blowup to 35mm
b Irwin W. Young
Chairman of the Board, Du Art Film Laboratori
Inc.
ote: Shootillg 16111111 for blowup to 35111111 requires preparatioll alld plmmillg. 01llwrn , Iel/ses alld magazines should be
thoroughly checked alld tested. Wizell shootillg 16111111Jar blowup
to 35111111, preparntioll is IlIore critical than if hootillg J 611I111 for
J 6111111 prints.
TIle difference in picture quality betw n 35mm films
hotin 16mm negati ve and those shot in35mm negative is
due primarily to differenc in graininess. The 16mm frame,
blown up to 35mm, i enlarged approximately 3 to 4 times
it original size, greaUy .xaggerating grain size. To maintain the finest grain tructure in 16mm color negative,
proper exposure and normal processing is mandatory to
in ure maximum latitude and detail with mininlUm grain
in ilie shadow area of th blowup. When in doub t, if light
i available, it is advisable to lean to overexposure. [n fact,
contrary to what occur in black & white nega tive, where
density is created b a buildup of grain, color n gati e has
I grain in areas of higher density. An overexp sed color
n gative of up to one top would tend to produce a blowup
wiili the least amount of grain.
Fla hing and toning hould be a oided. These procedures increase grain, especially in the areas of no expo ure.
An underexposed negative hows more grain than a properlye posed negative. TI"lis grain is most apparent in weak
hadow areas. Force proe ing increases grainin
to ilie
ext nt of Ule forcing. 16mm color negative has con iderable
latitude and it is recomm nded that scenes that ar underexpo ed up to one stop b processed normally. Thi underexposure has a lesser feet on the grain size in the negative ilian force proces ing. There are a number f psychological factors which affect the viewer's awaren of grain.
When ilie picture is not sharp, the eye, struggling to focus
the mage, tends to focus n ilie grain, making it much more
apparent.
Definition is also a function of contrast. Low-eontra t
harp and, ilierefore, appear more
pictures tend to be I
grainy. High contrast limits the detail in ilie highlights and
hadow . If po sible, it is advisable to ha e a black refer-
527
enceand a white reference in ascen .These reference points

can be quite mall. The eye, looking at a picture, seardle
for these reference pints and, if there are none, tends t
focus on the grain.
Special effects which require the blowup negative t
be mor than one generation away from the 16mm original should be avoided . The build-up in grain and loss in
pictme qunli ty due to thi additional generation is generally lUlde irab le.
Composing 16mm for blowup to

35mm
The a pect ratio f a picture frame is the relationship
between it width and height. TIl ratio of the standard
16mm and 35mm frame is 1.33:1. Reducing the height of
the pictur while maintaining the width wi ll iJ1CreaSe it
aspect ratio. This is d ne in 3511ll1l projection by using a
mask to I' p equally the top and bottom of the p icture
frame. 35mm prints arc projected at a 1.85:1 a pect ratio in
the United tate and at 1.66:1 in Europe. On TV, the picture is vie I ed at a 1.33:1 aspect ratio.
Th.i diagram sh ws the area fa 16mm camera ram
that the vi wer will v ntually ee w hen cr ened at an
aspect rati of 1.33,1.66, and 1.85.
.w .
[~J1
, , >,>
133:1
1.66:1
1.65:1
When shooting a 16mm fi lm f I' 35mm blowup, th

amera per on should compose th subject bing photographed fo r wide-so'een projection.
A properly comp ed 16mm negative can be b lown
up to the tandard 35mm aperture ize (style A, PH22195199_ A I). This negative produces a 35mm print in a
1.33:1 asp ct ratio. TIli print can b used for TV and pr jected theatrically in the United Stat s and Europe with the
appropria te mask. 111 aspect ratio of the pr jection mask
and the I'ami ng position of the 35mm projector determine
what part of the fram wiJJ be screen d .The standard Academy lead I' is llsed b th projection ist to center the picture
528
in the aperture of the projector. li equal cropping of the top

and the bottom of th picture elimina tes important picture
information, ertical scanning can be used in making the
35mm blowup n gative. Scanning enables 0 1.1 to dlOse the
part f the pictur 0 1.1 want projected wide screen. Here
you have the dloice of losing pictme information only at
th top or bottom or in a varied combination of the two.
Blow up negatives that are scanned for a 1.85:1 or 1.66:1
aspect ratio req uire a ram line which fixes the de ired
aspect ratio. This frame line guides the pr j ctionist in framing the picture pI' perl . Print from these nega ti ve c mpared to a standard print look a follows:
-II-. .-
--~.. .. \.
),
133:1
1.66 :1
165:1
35mm print made from a 1.85:1 or a 1.66:1 negati e

carmot be used for tele\ ision unless the image is enlarged
in the t lecine dlain \ hen transferring to videotape before
broadcast. Cropping would ha e to be don on th I ft and
right side of the pi w'e to adlieve a 1.33:1 a pect ratio. More
cropping on the 1 ft and ri gh t side is required on a 1.85:1
aspect ratio prin t. Prints from a scalUled 1.66:1 negative aJ'e
acceptable in thea trical screening for both domestic aJld
foreign 1.1 e. Prin ts from a scanned 1.85:1 bl wup negative
when ' cr ened foreign at 1.66:1 aspect ratio show a black
bord r at the top and bottom f the projected image.
We recommend that aU anning i done a t a 1.66:1
aspect ratio and that the blowup negati ve be made with a
frame lin producing 35mm prints in which the picture
information is fraJn d in a 1.66:1 aspect ratio. Since ther is
not m udl d iHerenc in pi ctLU' size between a 1.66:1 and
1.85:1 a pect ratio, this type of blowup nega tive enable yo u
to ma k satisfact r prints for both dome tic and foreign
relea e.
Super 16mm
The Superl6mm format wa designed to provide the
!!Teate t possible p icture area on a 16mm original for enD
. 1
largement onto 35mm for wide screen th atnca
presentations. It achieves a wide-screen format on ingle-perforated
529
16mm ca m ra film by extendi.ng the pi.cture area of the

LUlperforat dar -a of the camera original. The Super 16mm
apertur produc an original image with an aspect ratio
of 1.66:1. Th blowup from this image can be cropped
slightl in pI' j tion to ield the 1.85:1 aspect ratio. The
increa in the u ful picture area of a Super 16mm fram
results in a ub tantial increase in the image quality obtainable in a 35mm wide-screen blOWUp,
To ptimize imaae qualit when shooting Super
16mm c lor ne ative for blm up to 35=, follow the same
recommended p ';Ire practic a ,...,hen hooting regular 16mm c I I' n gab\'e for blowup to 35mm.
uper 16mm i a complete y tern requiring appropriately modified laboratory, editing and screening facilities
a well a a modifi d camera. Principal camera modifications are: enlar tin th aperture,remarkin the viewfinder
and ~e-eenterin th len mowlts. It may be necessary to
modJfy th pI' ur plate and other parts of the film transp rt mcchani m in b th the camera and magazine to prevent crat hin in th e tended area of the frame. Lense
hould b arefuU ho n to b ure that they provide a
wide enough co erage to accommodate the wider frame.
an ~ ide-an Ie 16mm len e cau e vignetting in the
Super 16mm frame. Cameras are available which have been
pecificall d signed for adaptability to Super 16= and
omec nventi nal16mm cameras can also be modified for
Super 16mm.
uper 16mm camera and maaazines should be thor?u~hl test d bcf re u e in production. Editing and proJection equipment mu t b modified to di play the entire
Super 16mm frame. uper 16mm film sent to the laboratory should be . Iearly identified so it can be handled proper! . Wh n a pi ture hot in Super 16mm has a televi i n
or 16mm I' I a c, the uper 16mm image must be converted
to an ~magc with a 1.3 :1 aspect ratio by sacrificing part of
Ule Width f Ule frame. Thi is achieved by re-centering Ule
frame via an optica l printer 0 that an equal amo unt i
cropped on ea h id of Ule frame.
Composing Super 16mm for blowup

to35mm
Thi diagram how Ule area of a Super 16mm camera fram Ulat the i weI' will eventually see when screened
at an apt rati f 1.33:1,1.66:1,1. 5:1.
1 .33:1
1.66:1
1.85:1
The aspect ratio f th pictur frame of a uper 16mm

negative i 1.66:1.
When hooting uper 1 mOl f I' blowup to 35mm, the
cameraperson should comp
th cene f 1" ide-screen
projection. A properl comp duper 16mm negative
hould produce a 35= negative havin an a pect ratio of
1.66:] . Projecting a print made from U"lis native at 1. 5:1
will crop equally the top and bott m f the picture frame.
If important image infomlati n i lim inated, ertical scanning can be used in making the 35mm negative. Blm up
negativ that are scanned for a 1. 5:1 a pect ratio require
a frame line whidl fixes the d ired a pect ratio. Vertical
scanning in Super ]6mm hould be avoided because foreign prints are screClled at a 1.66:1 a peet ratio.
This aspect ratio enables you to how aU the information recorded 0.11 the Super 16mm n gative. Televi ion and
standard 16mm prints how the picture information in a
1.33:1 aspect ratio. The Super 16mm image, in order to be
converted to this aspect ratio, mu t acrifice part of the
width of the frame.
Titles
To be sure U1at your titl ar ' uitable for different
aspect ratio requiremCllts, compo Ul titles so U1ey will
not be cut off horizontall y when proj cted at a 1. 5:101' be
cut off vertically when viewed at 1.33:1 f I' television. If an
action backgrOLmd is used for main and end ti tles, th action scene should be blown up to a 35mm ma t I' posi tive.
The tiUes with dear letter on paque black backgroLU1d
should be shot in 35mm hi-con . U ing the rna tel' po itive
and the 35= hi-con tiUes a dupe negative of Ule main and
nd titles is manufactured . Where title do not ha e action
backgrow1ds, it is often advisable to ph tograph the title
scene completely in 35mm to maintain maximum quality.
Splicing for a blowup requires extra care.
w ith the 16nun immersion wet ga te tJ, at wi ll be used to

make the blowup. if jumps occu r in tJlis print at the splice,
recheck all adjustments in your splicer and re-test.
Zero-Cut Editing
SCRAPE PICfURE ONLY BLACK LEADER.
NEVER SCRAPE EMULSIO
FROM
For a blowup. the 16mm originaJ can be spliced in the

~tandard 16~m A & Bformat. Besides normal care in splic-
mg for cleanhness and assurance that the splice will hold,

the conformer must be sure when making a 16mm splice
fo~ blowup that th~ cemented overlap of the splice maintams the proper pIlch (xl between the perforation of the
splice which is the first frame of picture negative and the
perforation of the first frame of black leader.
.
If this pitch or distance between these two perforations
IS no! the same stand~rd as the pitch between any two perforations where a sphce does not occur, there will be a vertical j~p in the picture at the screen change. The reason
for this IS that the registration pins on all 16nun full-immersion optica l wet gates are either one or two perforations
~way :rom the frame being exposed. Thus, the fra me beUlg pnntc? is ~n a position estab lished by a perforation on
the Opposite Side o f the splice.
If the s plice is off-pitch, as described above, the first
frame o~ .the first .t wo frames after the splice are improp~rly positIoned , WIth the adjustment conting on the followIng frClme when the pin is registered after the sp lice. This
problem w ill not show up when yo u make a 16mm contact print from youI' A & B origina l becCluse, on the 16111.m
continuo us printer, the sprocket teeth register the film and
the r~\~ .stock.at th~ area o f ex posure. To help minimi ze the
possibi li ty ofJlImpmg spli ces, physicalJy dleck YOll r splicer
befo re you conform the negative. Be sure that the distance
between the pin that positions the black leader and the pin
that posi tions the negative is correct.
Splice some negative outtakes in A & B roll form and
from this negative make a test print using theoptica1 printer
532
To completely avoid the possibility of jumping splices,

the negative can becutintoA & B zero-cutformat. The zerocut method; with a minimum of four frames for an overlap. will eliminate the splice-jump problem, but 16mm contact prints made from zero-cut negatives wiJJ have a oneframe dissolve at the scene changes. Quite often this dissolve is noticeable when viewing the print.
Since Super 16nun contact prints with sound cannot
be made directly from a Super 16mm negative, there is no
purpose in cutting your Super 16mm original negative in
the conventional A & B roll format. To avoid the possibility of jumping splices it is advisable to cut the Super 16mm
negative in A & B zero-cut format.
Laboratory Procedures
The work print and the 16mm A & B original should
be delivered to the laboratory in rolls up to 800 feet in
length. The workprint rolls should represent the 35mm reeIlength format, where up to 2000 feet of 35mm goes on each
reel. This conforms to standard theater projection practice.
The laboratory prepares a contact 16mm a nswer print,
which is screened by the filmmaker and the timer for corrections. NOTE: Super 16mm con tact prin ts w ith sound
cannot be made from a Super 160101 nega ti ve.
Using the corrected color timing and, if required , the
filmmakers' scalming data, the 16rnm o r Super 16mm cut
negative is optically enlarged to a 35mm master positive
from wltich a dupe negative is made. Before the blowup,
an additional printing operation is necess(lry, to create a
clea r picture frame in the 35mm negative. This is done so
that the prints mad e from the negative have a black frame
line to help the projectionis t center the picture on the screen.
If the blowup negative has been scanned, the frame line size
is determined by the picture aspect ratio used in scanning.
If it has not been scanned, the fiJmmaker can decide upon
the frame size. The processed negative is then syndlrortized
with the 35mm sound track for the manufacture of 35mm
release prints.
533
Stereoscopic Motion Picture

Technology
by
hei topher Jame Condon, 3-D Consultant

President, tereoV i ion lnt rnational, Inc.
orth Hollywood, California
Tl1rce-dimel -ional ( tereoscopi ) films, when e pert!

photo raphed and projected, can result in motion pictures
\ ith amazing r Wldne and depth. Recent" tate-of-theart"e amples hownatth m parkshavepr
nthatth
films can be the mo t reali tic visua l m diWll - ometim
even e ceed ing th ca pabilities of our two-ey dO perception. Thi e citing effect can now be achieved in local cinis better lLl1der t d b producer and
ema if the proc
exhibitor. First the must be willing to put f rth cooperative effort, integrit , reasonable r ources and plarming.
TI,e ba ic technolog f filming and projecting stereocopica lly has been w idely known for many yea rs, and has
been gr atly simpl ified during the pClSt two decCides.TIl re
are two main y tems for 3-D cin matogrClphy. The lig htweight, mobUe sillglc-cnll/crn (dual image) ystem is uitabl
for theCitrical featltre films. TI,e heavi r, more complexdllnlcnll/em method i more u ful for ICirge-screen theme park
or enue films. The variou three-dimensional camera y terns currentl CI ailable ar :
1.) HI ES-LAB offer CI very s phisticat d dual ca mera rig f r rental. This system reqlur S tl,at on of tl,e camera be pointed d wnward toward a horizontal beam plitter. Thi camera must be operated in re er e. The oth r
camera points forward. Thi rig accepts mo t interlocked
35mm, 5mm (five and eight-perf), and video camera, and
allow the \-vide t-angle len
of an 3-D
tern. State-oftl,e-art nvergence and 3-D videotap options are available.
The Di ney 65mm dual ca mera 3-D ystem is inli lar, a is
the hug MAX 15-perf3-D ystem.
2.)SfERE P CE2000. dllal65mmcamera y tern.
tern featur
OS as
U a ertical beam plitter. Thi
well a tudio eU-blimped versions and ha interchangable I
of 50mm, 70mm, 5mm, lOOmm, and 150mm
focallengtlls. Pr jection i by interlock d 70mm projector.
3.) TERE V1SION hCls a Illunber of 3-D camera systems. tereoV i i n Wide creen is a distortionJess high
definiti n single trip 35mm 3-D sy tern. B far the world's
534
most widely used, it is a true dual optical channel, patented

camera lens, not a relay y tern. It stacks both the left and
rioht
images preci Iy onto each frame. Can b blown up
0
to 70mm. Focal I ngths a re 15mrn extreme wide angle,
20mrn, 24mm, 32mm, 50mm, 62mm, and 90mm. The symmetrical image spacing of .374" allows easy optical effects
printing. Availabl in B CR style camera n:OWlts such a
hard fron t Arrifl x 35, BL4, Ultra-Cam, Mitchell B CR,
MovieCam and thers. Special models are also avaUable for
Panafle , Arriflex IJC, PL and BL. t reoVisi n also ha a
35mrn Academ (1.33:1) format 3-D y tern compatible
with video format. StereoVi ion 70 hoots two ide-by- ide
image onto each standard 65mm frame, and i fully con:patible wi th Ru sia's St r o-~ ino. No beam pUtter I
needed, increa ing depth-of-field harpne s. II of th
above y terns require only one pr jector using a patented
pedal di tortionless polarized dual optical channel le~.
Al available i a St reoVision dual camera 35mm ng
and a ingle-camera Stere Vision Tenperf 65. The latt r i
a 10-p rf above/b low single 65mm 3-D camera syst I~ ,
suppli d with 55mm, 80mm, and 135 1~ 3-D lenses. Th iS
camera hoots two 5-perf 70mm stereo Image, above/below renderino th same ize imag a heavier more comple~ dual70~ rigs. It us a specia ll 0-perf 70 projector
and a 10KW enon lamp. tereoVi ion also supplies a larg
variety of 3-D pr jection optics for 35mm and 70nwl projection, which it rents directly to theaters.
4.) DlMENSlON 3 was design d by stereographer Dan
Symmes. It has a focal length of 35mm and has .in1ilar cha:acteri tics to StereoVision Wide Screen 35. Tlu ystem I
in the prototype tage and i a aila?le in B CR r;.'0Wlt.
Other m Wlts are a ailable on peoal order. (.374
mmetrical image pacing.)
5.) MARKS DEPIX i a 35mm single-eamera system
(two tacked image ). Foca l leng th are 18mm, 32~ m,
50mm, and 85mm. It u e a unique method of eparatLl1g
the imag by polarization. This r ults in a two-stop 10
of light, however. (Spacing is.3 7'.)
6.) ARRIVlSIO i a 35mm rela 3-D y tern that converts to ariou focal lengths. It is attached to the camera
base by means of a pecial upport bracket.and uses rem vable optical components and ca ms t obtaLl11 mOl, 32mm,
50mm, and 85mm focal lengths. Arrivision is designed to
be used wi th pecially modified Arrillex cameras only.
(Two tacked images, .366" pacing.)
535
r
7.) OPTlMAX III attaches to the 35mm camera with a
support bracket. It has relay focal lengths of 16mm, 2-lmm,
35mm, 5Omm, and 85mm. (T \vo stacked images, .38T spacing.)
8.) IWERKS 3-D is an 8-perf 70mm system using the
DUAL camera beam sp litter method for photography. Facal leng ths are 50mI11, 6OmlTI, 80mm, 10001111, and '150mm.
Iwerks offers 870 3~D projectors tha t are s ta te-o f-the-art, 30
frames pe r second.
9.) [MAX 3-D is a very large format (IS-perf 70) huge
dual-ean)cra rig. A range of focal lengths is available. The
IMAX company has also developed a dome 3-D process,
which uses liquid crystal \'iewing glasses. Interlocked dual
Imax projectors are currently used for extremely large 3-D
screen images. A single projector, dual-image projector has
been developed.
10.) STEREO-KIN070 isa syste m tl,at was d eveloped
by N. I. K. F. I. in Moscow. It is a s ingle-camera, side-byside image system with a wide range of foeaJ lengths. The
cameras range from small "handheld" to studio selfblimped. Special70mm lOKW projectors are used, compatible with Stereo-Kino projection optics, designed for minimum distortion. (26..4mm spacing.)
II.) STEREOSCOPE is a single-strip 35mm 3-D system
designed by stereographer John Rupkalvis. It is intended
pri..In<l rily forspeci<l l-effec ts photography, using longer that
normal focal lengths. (,374" symmetrical spacing.)
A number of special optical effects companies also

ha\'e built dual-<:amera 3-D rigs. These are intended mainly
for 3-D matte photography, miniatures and motion-eontrol
work.
All of the above systems (excep t for lMAX Dome 3D) are intended for use w ith the current "state-of-the-art"
polarized p rojection method , requ iring a s il ver screen and
ncutral polari zing glasses. Nea rl y a ll o f the major theme
parks and o ther spec ia l venues usc this method. Approximately 2,(XX) theatrical venues in the USA and Canada also
have silver screens, waiting for a new wave of better 3-D
movies. Further information is available from the individual companies.
Very special photographic technique is essential for
effective 3-D cinematography. Some 3-D consulta nts may
prefer computers, formulas and con vergence tab les. Books
such as Li pton's "Founda tions of the Stereoscopic C inema"
536
can be of help. However, for truly effective results, without costly 3-D erTors, produce:~ are advised to en~ge only
an experienced 3-D consultant m the pre-pr<x:tucbon stage,
as well as during the shoot and postproclucbon.
Optical "Flat" Projection

Sing le-strip 35ml11 3-D films ca n easil y be conve~ ted
for s tan d ar d fl at project io n by maki ng a n op tI ca l
internegative for non-3-0 prin!s. For c?nve rting .35mm
wide screen, the usual method IS to optically repnnt one
of the two stereo images anamorphically, as was done with
the Techniscope process, or crop sLightly for 1.85 or 1.66 flat
format. For single-camera 70 side-by-side, simply con~ert
one side to 70mm blow up o r 35mm 1.85 to 1.66 reduction.
For dual-ea mera systems, no change in the print is necess<lry. Either left- o r ri ght-eye reels can be show n ind ependentl y as " flat" films.
3-D Projection
Precise theatrical projection is a very important factor
in the success of a 3-D film. Proper installation and alignment of the special 3-D projection optics requires expertise.
Pre-screening of the 3-D print is absolutcly ~ecessary. L~
properl y aligned 3-D ima ges can cause aud Ience eye d iScomfo rt. Imbal anced or u nd erpowered illumination ca n
ruin the dimensional effects and can spoi l the enjoy ment
of even the best 3-D photography.
The StereoKino Group of Moscow has achieved great
success in single-camera 70mm stereo-cinema~phyand
70mm sterro-cinema projection and has established 60 special 3-D theaters in the former USSR Stereo--Kino was recently awarded, for the first time in this field, ~ T~icaJ
Achievement Awa rd by the Academy of Mohon Picture
Arts and Sciences. At least two Am erican co-productions
are plalUled.
The future s uccess of theatrical stereoscopic motion
pictures depends upon a high degree of professional excellence. It will also require intcmational standards and c0operation between innovative writers, art directors, creative
directors, proven stereographers, trained 3-D camera personnel, dedicated distributors, the finest exhibition engineers, and skilled projectionists.
537
3-D Cinematography
by DanielL. Symmes
Spatial Technologie Incorporated
3-D films create an illusion - a synthesis of how humans see. Sa ically, all true 3-D (with the exception of hoI~graph. ) takes two (or mor ) images of a gl en scene. The
\: Iewpo~ts (lenses) are gen rall
parated horizontally
(mt raxlal) by around 2.5 inches, relating to the distance
between our eyes (interocular). The two images ar then
selecti ely viewed: the left ~age is seen only by the left eye
and th nght by only the nght eye. The visual selection is
generally accomplished with polarizing projection filters
and appropriate polarizing viewing glasses. The two images are. ~en by the brain.a a representation of the depth
~f the o ngmal scen e. If the cr en image were life-size, the
film would be viewed as a stag play and simula ted 3-D
would be no problem; it would also n ot h ave the dramatic
impact of dose-ups, moving viewpoints, and intercutting
cene~ photographed by len es of different focal lengths.
. Smce the creen image is larger than life-size and is
Vlewed by per:s~ns at various distances and angles r lative
to ~e screen, ~t ~s neces ary to control the synthesis of the
3-D lJ11age. This IS accomplished by adjustments of convergence, interaxial distance, focal length, and camera distance
from the subject. Proper adjustments present an image that
a viewer's brain accepts as "real" or produces a dramatic
effect intended by the filmmaker.
While the basic principl~ of3-D may be easy to grasp,
the actual techni.ques of 3-D anematography are quite complex. Mathematical manipulation provides perhaps 75% of
the needed information; the balance comes from experience, ~e t , and instinct. Obviously, this process requires
expenenced sLl pervi ion. This, and the fact that 3-D is a
specia l effect, illustra te the need for a 3-D consultan t.
It i the consultant's job to know from experience wha t
doe and does not work. Ey fatigue is the most common
problem associated with 3-D, and while it can be cau ed
by poor'proje~tion tecJULiques, it is generally initiated in
production. It IS not the consultant' job to tell the director
of photography how to do his job or to tell the director how
to shoot hi film. As with special-effects systems, there are
rule and techniques that can help a production avoid
538
,..
costly and damaging problems. The consultant will help tlle

director and cameraman adueve on the screen what they
ha e in their mind .
Preparing to shoot in 3-D should be approadled as
thoroughly as conventional film.ing; leflSes mu t be dlecked
for resolution, distortion and T-stop accurac I. An defici nc in these area hould not be accepted ju t becalISe
you are working \ ith pccialized equipment. There are no
e cuses for poor optical performance. in addition, ou
hould test exposure and color balance betw en the two
images; focus and convergence Limits and accuracy; and for
odd optical phenomena. The e areas relate pecifically to
3-D optical systems and apply to single- and double-camera 3-D. Optical pI' bl m can include flare, gho t images
and other visible distortion that would also be unacceptable in normal (2-D) phot graphy. lf you intend t u e polarizing fiLters on the filming syste m for reflection on h'ol,
ky effects, a nd so on, it would be wise to test for exposure
imbalance behveen the two images and oth I' a nomalies.
Systems using mirrors, and ven prisms, som tim yield
odd re ults due to polarization ( ee "Filters" ction).
llle primary concern in 3-D filming is preventing e etrain in audience memb rs. lllis invol es far more than
III rely looking at reference charts or making an "informed"
gu . The real qu tions come down to where to con erge,
how close the subject rna come to the cam ra, and how
far back the background can be. As a very general rule it is
b t to con erge on or near the main ubject.
Unfortlmately, orne cenes shot th.i way will cause
eye train. The only effecti e method of de termining convergence is with a combination of rna tllema tica I and periential skills. Strict mathematics fall hort becau e numbers
need to be interpreted. However, a 3-D conslLltant without
sound mathematics is only g uessing. This asp t cannot be
ov remphasized and i the s hortcoming of many CUlTent
3-D p rod uctions.
Many films made s ince the late 1970s, iJlcJuding the
m t r cent, sh wexc ive parallax (too much "depth ").
Without glasses, imag are double to an extrem . With
gla e, many spectators feel the exces ive depth in the way
their eyes have to exerci e. This is often d cribed as eyetrain.
Yet,ifonewatch 3-D films of the 1950 (Hol/seof WI1X,
HOI/do, Phl1ntolll Ofthe RI/e Morgl/e, Miss Sl1die Tholllp50II, etc.)
without glasses, tllere i an impre ion of bing able to see
539
the image with a minimum of "doubling".ln other words,

the picture looks fairly dear. With 3-D glas , the depth
effects are extr mel sati fying.Ob iously, parallax mllst be
controlled forc nfortable viewing by the entire audience, not
just a few with uper eye muscles.
Th perception of 3-D is an individual and therefore
subjecti ve experience; no two people ee 3-D q uj te the same
way. What may be great to one viewer may eem poor to
another. Director and producers mu t be made aware of
this so they ma avoid making deci ions based on potentially bia ed perc ptions.
A final factor that is often overlooked i the proper
projection of both dailies and release prints. The cameraman h Lud be aware of projection problems that may reflect on his work. lmprop r projection can re ult in expensive, needles reshootin . Working with 3-D projection
equipment supplier and a COnslUtant, ou should have the
picture brightn
up a high as po ible. Balance the illumination of the two image. Make sur both images are the
exact ame size aJld focus. Make sur the proper metallic
screen (high ga in or silver) i installed and that it is clean.
See that the 3-D pr jection optics and projector are align d
properl 0 the two image register properly on the screen.
Lastl , be sure to use good-quality 3-D glasses.
With proper handling and expert consultati n, 3-D can
be an entertaining e perience.
These de ices were regarded as curiosities by the erious motion-picture makers, who created their
"photoplays" as silent drama, telling their storie punctuated with title cards when needed. The silent films were
customarily projected in tile theater to the accompaniment
of pianos or theater organs. It was not until the fanlous
collaborative exper iments between the Bell Telephon
Laboratories and the then-fledgling Warner Brothers Pictures tilat tile sound motion picture became a erious challenge in the theatrical market. The Warner Broth rs threw
down the gauntlet on August 6, 1926. However, the date
that is considered to be the formal introduction of sOlmd
to thea trical feature films i October 26, 1927, w hen the
Warners laLUlched The Jazz Singer.
During the early days, two sound recording and reproducing system were u ed ide by side: the disc recorder, which wa a synduonous version of the phonograph recorder, and the film recorder. lnitiall the disc
record gave better sound quality and was in commercial
use in th aters all over the world until the early 1930s. By
that time, the sowld-on-film systems had improved sufficiently to displace the disc as a theater reproducing system.
Being able to cut the soundtrack in the same way as the
picture wa a major editorial advantage and film recording quickly became the preferred medium. However, sine
it was impossible to hear a film recording immediately after itwas made, th disc recorder survived for thi purpos
until tlle inh'oduction of magnetic recording in the early
19505.
Synchronizing Methods for

Picture and Sound Systems
Synchronous Motors and Selsyns
by]olm Mosely, CAS
Early Systems
far back a 1 97, Edi on had the idea of combining
ound and picture. He accomplished ynduonization b
mechan.icaJ mean , making the first u e of a "Double Sy tem," i. . a system in whidl picture and sound track are
recorded eparately. Many demon tra tions were giv n
prior to World War 1. Eug ne Laust introduced the first
"Single System" during the ame time period wi th pictLLfe
and soundtrack r corded on the same film.
540
In both case , the above ystems were dri en by synchronou motor. These normally took the form of a 220volt 3-ph ase AC motors designed to run at 50 or 60 Hz,
depending upon the geographic area of the world wher
they were intended to operate. (60Hz for North America
and part of As.ia and 50Hz for the re t of the world .) The
tator windings of these motors produce a rotating magnetic field in the armature area of each motor. The speed
of rotation is the same for all motors and tile armatures are
shaped so tilat each and every armatlLfe turn in unison
witil the rotating magnetic fi ld. Th.is makes all motors turn
in synchronism. After these motors come up to speed, they
function as though they were mechanical Iy interconnected.
541
,r
The selsyn elec trical interlock system adds re fin e ment.
Ln contras t to the synchrono us motor, if one armature is

held statio nary, all armatures that are connected on the
sa me ci rcuit or "bus" will remain stationary and the electrica l fie ld s of a ll a rma tures w ill rota te in unison. This is
achieved by giving the armatures windings and poles similar to the s tator windings. Six w ires a re brought out and aU
arma tures a re connected in parallel, making them operate
as though they were mechanically interconnected. An ad-
ditional synchronolls motor is mechanically linked to a

selsyn I110LUlted 0 11 the sa me bed. lll..is combination is called
a "dis tributor. " In opera tion, a ll of the fields are e lectrically
excited. after w hidl the armature of the distrib uto r motor
is made to rotate. Thus, a ll of the selsyn motors are e lectricall y inte rlocked from a s tanding s tart mark, the n come up
to speed toge ther and drive together under the rotational
pmver of the distributor n1oto r. In addition to be ing used
as a ca mera and recorder d ri ve during photogra p hy, the
se lsy n system has bee n used for practically all sco rin g, rerecording, ADR, Foley and d ouble syste m projection. Since
the rotation of a se lsyn syste m is strictly a direct fW1cti on
of the drive motor, it w ill be appreciated tha t these system s
ca n be made to operate over a w ide speed range and bidirectionally_ Virtua lly a ll dubbing (re-recording) syste ms
have taken adva ntage of this p henomenon .
A third multi-duty motor system was used for a time
in v.lhich the motors con tained multiple w indings, enabling
them to be used as sy nchronous, selsyn and OC systems.
When opera ted as a synchrono us motor, the a rmatures are
connec ted 50 as to form fixed pol es which rotate in the
magneti c field of the stato r in a ma nner simila r to the arma ture of a synd1fonous motor. When operated as a selsy n inte rlock motor, the a rm fl ture w indings a re connected
so CIS to conform to the selsyn sys tem. When powered by
DC, these mo tors operate as a compOLmd DC motor and
as a 3-ph ase 220-vo lt AC gene rator. By interconnecting
these motors app ropri a tel y, a se lsyn drive system results.
In practice, \"'hen operCl ting from OC, the speed o f the dri ve
motor is established by a rheos ta t in the supply lines. The
correct speed is verified by a visual tachomete r, usua lly a
reed me te r. Due to the bu lk, weight and power requirement
o f a ll these systems, they have been largely replaced in the
field, s lowly over the last 20 years, by c rysta l m otors in
ca meras a nd by stepping motors a nd servo systems in
postprod uction eq uipme nt.
542
Regardless of which system is used , the s tart of each

take is marked by a dapper board or slate. The sla te has the
picture information w ritten on it, usually in chalk. The top
contains a hinged p iece of wood. The dapper operator
waits for camera and sound recorder to be running at fu ll
speed, the n announces the take followed by the word
" Mark." At that point, the upper section is brought swiftly
down so that it makes a loud crack. TI1e editor looks for the
frame w here the slate closes and places a china marker cross
on it. The sprock.eted magne tic film, which is a direct transfer of the 14" tape, is placed in a sound reader. TI1e editor
lis tens for the announceme nt to make certain th a t it is the
correct take and U1en finds U1e start of the so und where Ule
top hits Ule board. Th is point is a lso marked w ith a chin a
marker an d the two films run together with sound and
picture sy nchronized.
Early Sync-Pulse Systems

The advan tages of '14" tape as a recordin g medium for
motion pic tures and telev ision were recognized as early as
1948, bot h b y Colone l Ri chard Range r a nd Sherman
Fa irchild. In both the Ranger and Fairchild syste ms, a synchronizing pulse is taken from the came ra's synchrono us
motor power source and recorder on the tape as an index
of camera frame speed versus SOWld timing.
The synchronizing recording of the Ranger system is
in the cen ter of the studio track and is recorded with a special magnetic head oriented approximately 90 d egrees with
respect to the audio recording. This orien tation prod uces
a synchronizing signal tha t is self-canceling, or in push-pul l
w ith respect to the aud io s igna l, and therefore d oes not
cause any in terference. On playback, the synchroniz ing
signal is amplified to con trol the frequency of an oscilla tor.
When no signal is present, the oscill a tor is locked to the line
freq uency, w hich is a lso used as a reference. Any variation
in frequency from the refe rence is used to correct the speed,
thereby main taining proper synchronization.
The Fairchild "Pic-Sync" system uses a 14 Khz ca rrier
s ignal tha t is mixed togethe r w ith the audio s ignal. In reproduction the two signals are separated, with the audio
goin g through a low-pass filter. The carrier signa l goe.:;
thro ugh a high-pass filter and is demodulated to obta in the
sync s ignal. TIlis s ignal is amplified and fed to a small synchronous motor coupled to the reproducing tapedrive cap-
543
tan and either adds or subb'act power to the power driving the tape to maintain synchr nism. A starting .d evice
u ing pecial beep tones, pac done econd apart, IS used
to tart the tape in ync with the picture.
The Sw' compan Perfectone introduced a system
in 1959 whereby a ynchronizing ignal wa recorded in
pu h-pull on the edge of the tape, allowing room for a 200
mil sound track down the midcll of the tape that i compi tely isolat d from the sync ignal. The playback device
i the sam a th Ranger syst m.
It was particularly co mmon for manufact urers of
documentary cameras to include a pulsing device driven
by the camera. An interconn cting cable feeds the sound
recorder with a SO or 60 Hz pu l e, whidl would be reproduced b the Ranger system. Th re were a number of other
de ices on the market for a time which were proprietary
to individual manufacturers, but their use wa relatively
in ignificant.
Current Synchronization Systems

and Time Code
Virtually all motion-pictLU'e OLmd camera toda y are
driven by crys tal motors that maintain precise peed accuracy. Field ound recorders rely on SO or 60 Hz ynchronizing tracks or MPTE/EBU time code. Time code displays digits denoting hours, minutes, second and frames.
There are additional digits available by selection (known
a "User Bit ") that can be allocated for special purposes
although they bear no direct relationship to a particular
frame. For e ample, producti n date, number, etc. can be
entered as user bits. Time code can be selected to rWl at 24,
25 and 30 fram and there i a pecial frame rate of 29.97
(ca lled the "dr p frame") for u with NTSC color television systems.
Lightweight battery-op rated syndu'onous tape recorders manufacture by two Sw iss companie , Nagra and
Stel1avox, are in general us throughout the motion picture
indu try worldwide. With the growing use of video system for editin and for electronic cinematography, the
MPTE/ EBU time codes are gaining popularity. The great
advantage of time code is that ver frame of picture and
track is indi iduall marked, thereby simplifying ynchronization. Some m tion-picture cameras record time code
on one edge of the film continuou Iy, wherea all profes-
544
sional video recorders contain a dedicated time code track.

A compromise y tem is also in use, wher by an intelligent
slate i used. The tak information is written on th late
conventionally, but running time code i displayed in the
middle of the slate. The ame time code will be feeding the
sOWld recorder. By phy ical examination of the picture and
by u ing an electronic reader on the track, the required
fram can be easily id ntified. Tim code i usually placed
in th center of the 1,4" tape between two audio track. The
time-code track is sca nned by a tim -code reade r which
display the time and frame information. It is not possibl
to u m no tape recorders with timec de, since time code
interfere with the audio signal. However, there is a compromi arrangement that is economically advantageou ,
which will be discu ed in a later paragraph.
Digital Audio Tape (OAT) Recorder

It must be apprecia ted that analog tape recorders ha c
evolved and improved over the last fifty years. By contra t
digital r corders, which represent a revolution in teclu101ogy owi ng their gen i to binary computers which r late
all signals to zeroes and ones, burst upon the market during the last decade. They are theoretica lly perfect for recording oLmd. Unfortunately, practice ha not followed th ory,
and although they all have many de irabJe feature , they
do not necessarily Lmd a good as their analog counterparts. However, during the last two years, great improvements ha e been made in how some of these sy tem actuall ound. A direct comparison to live ound, called an
"A/B" test, is very re aling. Some of the best sowlding
digital recorder happen to be tile DAT ystems. DAT recorders were originally designed for th consumer market
and were tried out in Japan. From a technical standpoint,
they can best be de crib d as a tiny video-type r corder
using rotating heads. They quickly d emons trated their abiJitytomaketwod1armel tereorecording havingext:r m Iy
high quality, in fact even better than compact discs. Furthermore, the inherent de ign of the drive m chartism guarantees ab olutely con tant peed, without any variati n or
"wow and flutter," two variables that have plagued analog rec rding since their inception. Thi aspect of the D T
record r makes it particularly suitable for ynchronoLlS recording. Like the crystal-eontrolled camera motor, it can be
relied upon totally to mai.ntain constant p ed and does not
545
need any add itional external reference, as do other systems

outlined i.n prev i u paragraphs.
A number of professionals obtained machine from
Japan and were greatly impressed by their initial performance and obviou potential. Their wide dynamic range
(exceedi ng 90 dB) and virtually flat frequency re ponse
acro the full audio pectrum, with very low distortion,
mad th m id al candidates to replace con entional twotrack analo r order with and without synchronization
s terns.
an additional ad\ antage, these machin no
lono- r need n i reduction equipment, which adds ignificantl t the c t, \i eight and alignment comple ity of
analog quipm nt. two-hour OAT cassette fits into th
palm of th hand and weighs onl two ounces, includinoits box. Conversely, two hours of professional analog tape
\ ei hs m eight p und and i now tec!micaJ1 inferior.
Th r are all' ady machines on the market from a ariety of manufacture that are cia ified in the professional
categ ry, i. . tl1 contain balanced inputs and outputs, a
well a digital interface connections that conform to the
ES/EB tandard. They have already filled a mall place
in the field, di placing their bulkier analog machines for
recordin dialo u and effects for film and televi ion and
even mu ic. Ollfing the cllfrency of this edition of the
man ual, it i highl probable that OAT recorders will becom tl1e recording device of choice for both film and televi ion ound.
o t of th e profe sional machines do not con tain
playback head , which in digital parlance are called "read
after write" I' c nfidence" heads, so it i impo ib le to
monit r th ignal coming off the tape while recording.
Althou h there i a cl10 Iof th ught that would regard th.i
hortcoming a cau e to dismiss the product, it must be
pointed out that tl1i digital format has proved itself already
to be extremely reliab le. One must recall that in the old days
before tape, the ame ituation existed for fifty yea rs and
very good re ord ing were made.
Thi group f prof ional OATs has cons iderable econ mic adva ntag over the existing conventional analog
record I' bya lmo t a fact I' of five. lllerefor , if individual are worried about the lack of a confidence head (read
after w rite or imultaneous playback), tlley can alway
employ a
ond machine. The AES/EBU Standards permit interlockin machine and a number of feature f r
loggin and identification. lllese are not available on ana-
log machines, but are standard fare with professiona l

OATs. Their small size also nabl them t be used as selfcontained individual record rs in place of radio microphone ystems tllat cau e 0 much b' uble to the production recordist.
There are a number of ec nd-g n ration profe - ional
battery-powered maclune w hich cam onto the market
during 1992 that do contain c nfidence h ad that also contain an additional SMPTE/ BU tim -code track. The e
machine will be in the same pric rang a the current fullfeature analog machine and ma b regarded a direct
replacements, assunUng that th ir und quality is satisfact ry. ~ ~an not b~ taken for granted. The ad antage of
recording time code 1 that the undtrack will be continuusl a sociated witll its corr ponding frame of picture
and rna ~ edited at random,' ithout I' rting t the current practlce of synchr nizing each track with its picture
from a tart mark. A electr nic editing become more
popular with film, this additional feature ma become indi pensable.
Synchronizing
with Non-Time Code DATs
From the pre ious secti n, it will bcapparent that even
the implest OAT recorder can b relied upon to run at
constant speed without an add itionaI ynchronizing device
I' pecial track. Th refore, a tandard clapp r can be u ed
for syncl1fonization. All OAT machin have an additional
advantage in that they con tain two high-qual ity audio
tracks that are actually technically uperior to the best current analog recorders. This feature wi ll allevia te the u e of
a second machine w hen it is required to record effects or a
econd dialogue track concurr ntl y.
All film manufacturers have ag reed to mark thei r
negative films with a machine-r adable bar code. During
th~ currency of tlUs edition, the u e of intelligent reader
Wi ll undoub tedly grow and it may be d irable to use time
code for the soundtrack. Should th r cordist require time
code, there are tlle following thr epa ibiJitie:
1. Use a machine that contain th additional track.
2. Record time code on o n of the audio tracks.
(Crosstalk between tracks exceed 80 dB and therefore will
not cause a problem to the audio.)
547
Make an interface box that will place tim code on

ne track for a few seconds while imultaneou ly driving
a time-code slate 0 tha t the same number are recorded on
the film a the tape for po t- ynchronization. Incidentally,
if this option is chosen, it \ ould be sensible to place a voice
that one has both human and
late on the other track
machine-readable data at the same point on the track. This
box hould be placed at the input of the DAT recorder. The
m device can be u d on an analog recorder, too.
Sound-Recording Hints
Before embarking upon any recording, it i mandatory
to check out thoroughly all of the equipment that will be
used. People often have difficulties in th~ field wl~d1 co~d
have b n avoided if every piece of eqwpment, mclud mg
th cable, had been completely d1ecked before leaving for
work. If one is LUKertain about the use or performance of
the equipment, ask for a technician to be availab le to explain everything and to v rify that all of the individ ual
c mp nent are operating c rrectly.
It i important to under tand the problem that are
commonplace in recorded ound and to under tand how
to avoid them. Recorded sOlmd in the motion picture/ teleision context inevitabl is quite different to natural sound,
ince constraints are placed upon the recording proc
by
the functioning of the overall equipment and the environment. Th principle c nsideration in recording ound for
motion pictures is that th dialogue shall be dear and clean,
i.. free from defects and intelligible at all time . For example, a quiet whisper that i clearly audible in a field in
the c untr i not likely to be heard above the ound of
cnmchi ng popcorn or a theater' air-conditioning y tern.
It i therefore nece sary to bring up the lowest ounds so
that they are easily UJlder tandabl . Conversely, very 1 0 ~ld
unds wi ll overload the rec rding system and ca use dIStortion, whidl is lmplea ant t hea r and may damage the
quipment. If the m vie patrons cannot under tand the
olUld, they wiU not enjoy the picture. Although the dubbing or rerecording proc
will rectify many defects, the
end product, like a good meal, can only be a good a the
ba ic ingredients. Ther f re, it i well worthwhile to take
a I t of trouble to obtain good original sound.
The wut of reference for sound i the decibel or "dB"
and i a logarithmic relationship between two oltages or
548
power. [n simple term, a dlange of 6 dB w ill double or

ha lve the ound level for practical purpo e . The thre hold
of hearing is given a 20 dB, while the threshold of pain is
!ti ven as 120 dB. Therefore, it can be said tha t the d namic
range of hearing for a normal human being i around 100
dB. The frequenc range of normal human hearing is from
20 Hertz (Hz) to 20 kilohertz (kHz). This represent approximatel 10 acta v ml icall . Speech is general! in the
rang f 200 Hz-3 kHz. It i common for people to 'perience a 10 in their ability to hear high frequenci a the
get old r.
One of the most irritating und often heard i excesi
ibilance, that is, the exagg rated sound of the I tter
"5." It occurs in nature, and ome people are more prone
to have sibilant peedl than others. A good test of actor and
equipment is to get the actor to say "Sister Susie gathers sea
shell by the sea shor ." If yo u can record tha t ntence
clearly and without ibilance, you do not have a problem.
Microphone selection, placement and movement usually
olve the problem.
Th I tter "P" can al 0 pre ent problem , which are
manife ted by a popping ound. Here again, the problem
i. usua lly resolved b microphone placement and mo ement. Some microphone are particularly sen itive to this
ph nomenon, since the "P" wld often is accompanied by
a teep wavefront which di torts the sensitive e1em nt inide the microphone. To circum ent this problem, me
microphones are supplied with "Pop Shields." If ou ha e
one, use it.
Di torted or LUUlatural sound is usually but n t alway
cau d by defective equipment. Li ten to the natural und
bef re assuming that your equipment is defective. If everything ap pears to be in order and the distortion per ists,
check your batteries. Low battery voltage will cau the
qu ipm nt to malfunction. Therefore, it is important to
make certain that YOLU' batteries ar e fres h and pI' ducing
th ir fu ll output at all time .
Before starting to work, make certain that the r corded
und quality is sati factor . The best judge of thi aU-importantcharacteristic i the human ear. If sometlling d n't
ound right, the chance are that ome piece of equipment
i not functioning correctly. ormally, one will work backward from the tape output toward the microphone( ).
Li t n carefully to what ou are recording near the ound
ource, then listen through our headphone .If the ound
549
r
i not the ame at this juncture, d lange the microphone. If
th trouble per its, dlange the microphone power upply,
preamplifier, mixer and headphones in that rder. Obviously, the oWld mu t be dean before i t ente the recorder.
If there is a crackling ound, hake the cable to disco\ er if
they are ca u -ing problems. Inspect the connector to make
certain that the ar clean and dr . TIle pins should be shiny
and certainly not eli colored or 0 idized. If a cabl appears
to be stiff or brittle, it may well have poor insulation and is
lik Iy to add noise to the signa l, 0 dlange it. Ln tly, set a
c mfortab.le Li t ning level on yo ur headphones. The level
hould be high enough so that yo u hea r the softest OWlds
learly, but not 0 loud that the la ude t sound ar LU1Comforta ble. Once thi level ha been fOLmd , do not dlange it,
a thi become the reference by which you will be making ubjective judgments all the time. Allm ourself suIfici nt time to e 'periment befor the shoot comm nces, so
that ou are entir I comfortable with our equipment oprationaJJ . During the shoot, ou hould concentra te on
th oWld ubj ctively and not have to worr abou t techn.icali ties.
All equipm ent must be fully tested a nd properly
aligned before ommencing operations. Depending upon
the type of eq uipmen t dlosen, it may be necessary to perform periodi alignmentproced LU' s in the field. Should this
b the ca e, mak certai n that th required test quipment
and/or persorm I are availabl . On the whol , the newer
digital equipm nt requires Ie maintenance in the field.
Remember tha t if a bad recording is turned back to Ule studio, Ule front office, producer, or director will blame the
wld person, not the equipment. if you ha e any reservations, take par equipm nt \ ith you, a w II a plenty
of tape and extra batteries of a ll izes.
Microphone Placement
For U1C be t sound pickup d w'in g dialogue recording,
the microphon hould be abou t ne or two feet in front of
and abo e the a tor. TI1i distanc will vary according to
the camera angl . The tighter the hot, the doser the mierophone should b . Hm ever, e en for a distant hot, do not
g too far back. Rough! peakin~ the eficienc of pickup
of most microphones deere
with the square of the distance. A little practice \ ill soon teadl you the be t position
to place the micr phone. In general terms, on i best off
to use a conden er microphon wi th a cardioid (heart-
shaped) pattern pickup. [t is also advi able to use a f am

windscreen over it to en ure that movement of the boom
or fishpole does not pick up wind noise. It is preferable to
use a hock mount between the microphon and the boom
so a to isolate mechanical sound when the boom i
moved.
When operating outside, it may well be necessary to
add a windscreen and ock. The e components should be
in the kit. When working in noisy environments, it will be
neces ary to use hype r-cardioid or even shotgun microphone . Remember, Ul tighter the pattern of pickup, the
m ore precise the boom person has to be before the subject
sound "off mic."" ff mic" is a term that is used when a
sound i no longer natural. It is ea il r cognized and can
usually be corrected by a minor movement of the microphone towards the sound source. The boom person should
wear headphones connected to the microphone so that any
problem will be apparent immecliatel .
Th actual angle of pickup will vary with different
n1icrophones. As a tarting point, place the sensitiv face
at45 d grees in front of and above the actor. If there is sibilance or the actor start to overload the ystem by shouting (i..e., the sound becomes brittle or distorted), roll the
sensitive face away from the actor, tha t the voice l1its the
sensitive face at90 degrees on its cro s-axis, keeping Ule face
at 45 degrees. If the overload persists and the SOLmd i normal but loud to Ule ear, the overload may be removed by
inserting an attenuator or "pad" betw en the capsule and
its pre-amplifier. (nUs accessory will reduce the input oltage to the microphone' pre-amplifier. Some sensiti e capule have the ability to put out very high levels when
pIa d close to the ound source. Certain microphone c ntain built-in attenuator Ulat are op rated by a switch on
the n1icrophone.) Do not u e a larger pad than is nece sa ry
to cl ear lip your overload problem, since any additi nal
gain or level that is needed to restore the ound to the required listening paint w ill add IUs or noise to the sy tem.
Again, the olution and correct mov ment will be learn d
by trial and error. Do notdlange microphone types within
a cen ,or the sound quality will chang and the resulting
recording may be unacceptable. If there is a rumbling
sound, use the low-frequency roll-off or high-pass filter that
is availab le on most prafes ional microphones and n1ixers.
Do not point the n1.icr phone towards Ul floor, lest you
r
pick up additional noise and excessive low frequenc ies.
This ound i known as "bo miness." It is preferab le to
record flat, i.e. without quaLzation, since alteratio~1 of th
ound pectrum, if nece sary,. i better done durmg th
p tproducti n mi ing oper~tlO~. H~w~~er, hould ~ou
find it ncar t u equalization, hmltmg or comp1e:>ion, do n t chang it within a scene. Remember o~ce ~gam
thatifth S lmdi n tclearinyourheadphones,ltwilln t
be cI ar lat r. Time pent learning h.o.w to g.et a good
pickup, particularl under adve.rse conditions, will prod.uce
dividend durin p tprodllctlOn and to your reputati~)O.
Wh n ne i rec rding more than one act~r peaking
in th ame quen e, it ma be necessary to find a. compromise p ition f r t!"'e mic~ophone in ~rder to ~vOld one
actor ounding ff-nuc. It \ 111 be apprecJated qwckl that
the kill of th boom or fishpole operator can make r break
a recording. nd r certain cir~umstan~es the actor may
move into a part f the t that I acou bcall bad. Tell the
direct r ab ut it b fore you hoot and get a bad tra~. Th
director ma d ide to allow ou to correct the defiaen~y
orre h t th ound later in a dialogue replacement facility. Rememb r that poor ound quality often r uJts from
the microphon being too far a,:""ay Ii.om the peake~, badly
an I d or being in a bad acollsticenvlronment. AVOId plac.
ing it dir ctl vcr r behind the head ?f the actor.
In t ri r h oting, on i more likely to have plOblem of picking up extraneou sounds from car, plane,
people and the I 01 nts. Under the e cirCll~1 tance , try a
more tightl patt rned microphone, or dIfferent angle.
belm or to the ide of the amera field of view. Do not fOIget that the pref rable microphone po ition i . slig.htly
above and in front of the speaker. Body and radIO mICrophones a r ft n used in out ide and wide angle shots. It
i h lpful in avoiding the ound of clothes rus~mg, to put
a 100 knot in the microphone cable about an mch below
it h ad and t place it lmder a collar or ~n the fron~ o.f a
bra . lway try to avoid the chest cavi ty Sll1ce this will mevitably ound b my. Avoid u~ing more than ?n. mlCrophon in the sa m pickup area 111 order to aVOid .1l1~erfer
ence betwe n th 01, whid1 results in a strange sWlslung or
"pha ing" ound that CaJU10t be remove? I~ter. When, ~nd
not until, the oW1d i dean and as ara bcally or ublectivel requir d in the mixer's headphone , turn to the record r.
Use of Tape Recorders

Analog recorders arc fitt d with mechanical VU or
peak meters, whereas OATs usually u e electr nic peak
reading fluore cent bar meter . The ba ic difference between the VU and peak meter i that the VU meter read
the average level in a given tim p riod, wh r as the peak
reading meter register th high t part of the ignal at all
time. Discussion of the variou m ri fall out ide this
manual.ln general terms one hould expect a VU meter to
read rather slowly. The Ie el h uld b adjusted on dialogue so as to peak at around -1 and not above 0 VU,
wherea a peak meter, which will r p nd rapid! ,sh uld
ne er peak abo e zero. hen u ing a OAT recorder, examine it carefully to find out if th sampling frequency i
witchable. Always choose the high t sampling frequenc
available, at least 48 kHz, making certain that an record
pre-emphasis circuitry is witched off.
Before tarting to record und, r c rd a tone on the
tape. Most mixers contain an oscillator for thi purpose, a
do most professional recorder . eu tomarily, -6 dB i used
with VU meters and - dB on peak analog r corders. For
OAT , -18 dB is the customary setting I vel for reference
and aim to peak at -2. ever hit zero. In all cases, one is
desirous of finding a reference lev I that will result employ
the full dynamic range of the recorder without overloading its electronics or the tape. Wher as 010 t analog recording y tems tend to go into overload rather g ntly, digital
mad1ines reach their maximllm p rmi ible I vel and then
break up completely. Therefor, it i v ry important to experiment with your recorder until you are fully familiar
with its limitations and then work witllin them to obtain
the best possible, cleaJ1, intell igib le und recordi.ng. Adjust the input level so that yOll[ average r cording is reaonably h igh on the scale, maki ng certain that the peaks
never q ui te hi t the overl oad poin t. nce again, tria l and
error is the best teacher. B ware of ov rloadin g either the
el ctronics or tlle tape. This is the mo t frequent cause of
bad recordings made in the fi ld. Exp rience alon will give
you the righ t point between a noi y r c rding that is rec rded at too Iowa level and adi torted recording tha t is
recorded at too high a level. Under exb 01 circwn tances,
tlle dynamic range of the incoming ignals may b too great
to control manually. Should thi be the case, it may be necsary to employ a limiter, whid1 det rmin th maximwn
level that may be passed tl1rough the sy tem, or a compr _
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sor, which raises the low-level signal ,and lower th 11.i,ghlev I ignal, It is vital to make certam that thes d VICes
d not give an unnatural und, and they sh?uld be regard d, like the equalizer, as tools of last resort m the field.
void making large and rapid changes of level , a . the~
will ound unnatural and be difficult to rectify In
po tproduction.
..
ake certain that all tap are properl ide~tifjed and
that th are packed with log heets that contam full details of the recording. It is pr ferable to leave anal g recording on the takeup reel, or "tails ou.t,". for two reasons. The
fi tit make certain that the tape 15 tIghtly w~und, 0 that
it doe not become phy icaUy deformed during torage.
Under extreme conditions, the ba of the tape ca~ become
o deformed that it will not lie on the reproducmg head
prop rly.Should tl1.is ccur, th sound will v~ry in I .v:J a.nd
quality and may be unu abl . The second IS to mJ11Jm1~ e
"print-through," a phenomenon to wl1.ich analog tap~ 1S
pron . Thi means tl,at sound recorded, usually at a high
lev I, is heard one and ev n two turns of the ~a'p befo~e
and after the actual ound in the form of repetitio.ns. This
effect i a function of the tape formulation a.nd, v~nes ~om
type to type. Print-through tend.s to b~ dimini h d m a
tightly wound tape. You wiJl qwckJy discove~ that most
machines do not rewind tape at a peed to be high er:ough
to be sati factory for torage. B leaving the tape tails out
tl1.i problem is eliminated.
. .
Conversely, gi en the nature of the DAT y tem, It 15
advisable to rewind DAT fully . In both cases, mspect the
ta
to make certain that the wind is even 0 that ~e ta~e
d Pe not become phy icall ill torted. Place DAT In their
safe, non-recordable mode by liding the safety tab towards
th cen ter of the cassette.
..
Finally, remember ti,at when all of your eq~ lp~ent IS
fw,ctioning correctly, your, .ars should be ti,e fma l Judge
of the quality and acceptability of your work.
Filming Television Screens

by 8m H gan
Sprockct Digital
When filminu televisi n reens or computer di pIa
th rc are two principle obstad to ad1.ieving consi tent and
dear imag on the filmed r ult. These h 0 pr blem are
th difference in frame rat behveen the television image
and ti,e film camera and the incorrect color temperatur of
the t levision display. The ~ Howing explanation and description of tandard ~ r t I vision sets and computer di _
play i meant to provide an und r tandll'g and method01 gy to allow the filming of these displays with the hight quality possible.
Frame Rates
orth America and many other coun tI'ies of ti,e world
u e a tclevision deli cr ystem that has 30 telcvi ion
framc ' per second, each compri ed of 525 Line. Motion
pictur film for ti,eab'ical or t levision display i usuall
photographed at 24 frame p r econd.
ll1.is difference in frame rates i tl,e predominant difficulty in photographing t Ie ision ts as part of a en .
The artifact that i most vi ible i the appearal1Ce of h rizontal bars on the photograph d TV inlage. ll1is is caused
b d uble expo ure of me parts of the tele\Cisi n reen .
To understand what cau e thi double e po ure and th
horizontal bars it i necc sar to unde tand several tiler
facts about the television ignal.
With 30 frame televi ion there are 525 line canned
each 30th of a second . But to avoid flicker in the di play C1
method is u ed that is somew hat analogous to thc two
blad d hutter in the fUm projector. TI1.is 30ti, of a ec nd
t levision frame is furth r divided into two televisi n field .
Each of ti,cse television field la ts for a 60ti1 of a condo
TI,e di pia ed television imag i "refreshed" or scanned
n w at 60 times per second and the re ult is no flick r.ll1i
i accompli hed by tarting the aru1.i.ng beam (a ingle
point f Light or energy) in th upper left comer of ti,e televi ion reen and rno ing it I ft to right a ingle Line at a
timc. When this beam f Light reaches the right side of the
r en, it jump back to the left ide of the creen during a
555
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peri d when it has been "blanked" or turned off. This i
ca lled the hori z ntal bla nking period. This occu r every
televisi n lin or 525 times per televi ion frame.
11, order to provide the refresh rate of 60 times per econd, thi b am kip every other line of the 525 lines that
compri a televi ion frame of a 30th of a second. In other
word , the aru1ing beam ans Line 1, skips over the poition that would be occupied b Line 2 and scans Line 3. This
continues to th bottom of the TV image lmtil aU of the oddnumbered TV lin ha\'e been anned.
t thi pint a 60th of a second ha pa sed. The scanning b am i now at the lower right comer of the screen.
Th beam i "blanked" and i moved to the upper left corner again - read t tart scaru1ing again. This time period
of th b am moving from the lower right comer to the
upper left comer is called the vertical blanking period or
vertical interval. This happens 60 times per second - tW'ice
per t levi i n frame. Thi canning beam now tarts its
anning proc
over one Line at a time, but during thi
60th of a cond the beam i positioned to can lines 2, 4, et
cet ra - all th v n-numbered Lines are now scanned.
w let l look at how th film camera views thi telei ion image. Th camera that is cho en for this e ample
has a 180-degr e hutter. If we run this camera at 30 fram
per se ond with a hutter opening of 180 degree, the camera is e po ing the film every 60th of a second. From the
televi ion anning explanation above it can be obser ed
that th film cam ra i "blind" to one of the tele ision field
and i only ph t graphing half of the 525 lines that occur
ina tel vi i nfram . There ultingTVscreen imageonth
film wi ll b g d (wi th no" hutter bar ") because the film
camera and th t levi ion scanning are occurring at the
am fram rate. When the film camera and the television
system ar op rating at different frame rates the result i
doubl expo ur to portions of the television creen imag .
Best r su it are obtain d when the shutter opening
coincid with the begim1ing of the scaru1ing of one of th
two tel isi n fie ld. In other wo rds, the shutter is open for
onl one complete television field - not part of one field
and part of th n t fi ld. In order for this preci e phasing
(h utter p n v . clo ed) to occm, external specializ d
equipm nt i used in conjunction with the film camera and
the vid 0 eq uipment.
Ther ar four combinations of film rates and tele [ion rate that are p ible. These are outlined below:
1. 30 Frame Video and 30 Frame Film: This combination features standard NISC 30 frame video (US Standard)
and the film camera also operating at 30 frames. This approach is appropriate if the film is going to be used for a
30 frame per second telecine transfer, but if used for 24
frame projection there will be a 20% "overcrank," and if
there is sound the pitch will be altered. Any US television
monitor can be used. Shutter phasing and synchronization
are required and the camera shutter angle is optimum at
180 degrees.
2. 25 Frame Video and 25 Frame Film: This requires
the video signal to be the European PAL-625 Line system
and also the VIR and monitor to be capable of operation
on this standard. If the film shot is projected at 24 frames
there is only a 4% "overcrank," and the sound pitch change
is usually considered undetectable except to musicians.
Shutter phasing and synchronization are required and 180
degrees is the preferred shutter angle. This is the system
that is chosen for most TV monitor filming in Europe and
much of the rest of the world that operates on 50 Hertz
power.
3. 30 Frame Video and 24 Frame Film: This features
standard 30 frame NTSC video and a camera specially designed to have a fixed 144 degree shutter or a camera whose
shutter can be precisely set to 144 degrees. This specific
shutter angle allows the film camera to only photograph
one set of scan Lines per film frame but is extremely difficult to adjust. Anything mechanical that causes the camera to vary in speed or cause drag on the shutter will result in inconsistent results. Also camera paru1ing and zooming will cause portions of the TV image to be double-exposed or not exposed ataI!, resulting in small black or white
bars to be present in the TV image. Again, shutter phasing
and synchronization are required and a very precise 144
degree shutter angle must be maintained .
4.24 Frame Video and 24 Fram Film: This video! film
combination requires a specialized video format, but the
film camera is run at a standard speed and the resulting film
is standard in all ways. The choice of shutter angle hould
be 180 degrees and there i a one-to-one relationship between TV frames and the preferred fi1J1, rate of 24 frames.
Shutter phasing to the TV ignal should be used. Mo t TV
sets and monitors can be adjusted to operate at this 24 frame
rate, but caution should be used with an unknown model.
Live video cameras and computer have been modified to
r
run at thi 24 frames, offering a wide choice of source material.
24 Frame video was first used for feature production
ill about 1960. Since that time steady progress has been
made in sophistication and d10ice of the tools for this oneto-one relationship with 24 frame film. Because 24 frame
video is a modification of tandard NTSC television equipment, the TV image has the same scanning frequencies as
~251ine televi ion. This results in the 24 frame image havmg a total of 655 television scan lines per 24th of a second.
Thu , the preci vertical scan rate or frame rate of the televi ion signal i actually 24.01 frames per second.
The synchroniza tion between the film camera and the
video sy tern can be achie ed in two ways. 'This is the shutter pha ing that wa referred to above. The first method is
to obtain a hutter ignal from the film camera and have
the video sy tem follow the film camera. 'This allows the
film camera to operate on its internal crystal and to "pull
down" the ideo ystem to exactly 24 frames. With this
method no connection is made to the sound recorder. The
disadvantage of this method is that the video source is limited to ideoca tte playback. In recent years this method
i~ almo t never used. One major drawback is that only one
film camera can be rolling simultaneously.
The second mode of operation is the preferred metl10d
and offer the greate t flexibility of operation. In this mode
the film camera is driven by a signal from video/ film camera synchr n.i.zation equipment. A signal is still received
back from the film camera, used to phase the camera shutter opening to the TV signal scanning. A major advantage
of thi meth d i that any number of film cameras can be
?pera.tin.g in ync and the choice of 24 frame signal sources
IS lUll mu ted. A the film and television equipment are operating at a slightly higher frequency (24.01 frames per second), a 60.02 hertz frequency should be sent to the sOlUld
recorder to keep th ound in sync on long takes. Without
this signal the oW1d will fail belund tl1e picture about one
frame every 45 econds.
Both the abov modes of operation can accommodate
proces or r ar creen projection with the appropriate connections.
No attempt will be made here to describe the equipment available to synchronize the film and video equipment. 11li equipment is constantly changing and is avail-
558
able from many camera manufacturers and specialists in

the field of video playback for film shooting.
Color Temperature
Color temperature of the filmed television image is the
other most important aspect that needs to be understood
and corrected for.
The correctly adjusted professional broadcast monitor
will be adjusted to a color temperature of 6500 degrees
Kelvin. But the normal range of TV sets and monitors can
vary widely in their color temperature. To be used successfully, these TV screens must be set up for the correct color
temperature of 6500 degrees. Test equipment is available
to facilitate this adjustment. If filming is done with this
adjusted monitor with a tungsten-balanced film designed
for 3200 degrees Kelvin, the resulting TV screen image will
appear to be very blue or high in color temperature. Monitors not adjusted to the correct color temperature will result in very unpredictable results.
There are five ways to compensate for this color temperature difference.
The first method is to readjust the TV screen to a lower
color temperature - as dose to 3200 degrees as possible.
Most TV monitors are limited in adjustment range. This
method is usually unsuccessful and today is almost never
attempted.
The second method makes use of the fact that this
higher color temperature of the television image is near the
color temperature that is expected when shooting with
daylight-balanced color negative that is now widely available. With this method the television image is left unaltered
and the director of photography lights the rest of the scene
with daylight-balanced lighting. The television image and
the scene now match closely ill color temperature and allow the use of daylight balanced film.
The third method is very similar to the second, but
after lighting with daylight-balanced lighting the cinematographer uses a tungsten-balanced negative with a
Wratten #85 filter on the camera. 111is method is sometimes
used on commercials, but suffers from the loss of exposure
caused by the filter.
The fourtl1 method also uses tungsten-balanced film
and lighting, but a change in the color temperature of fue
TV screen is made by placing Wratten #85 filter material
559
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on the TV picture tube. This is usually unsatisfactory bec.ause of loss .of TV brightness and the visibility of reflections on the filter material.
The fifth method is the preferred choice. It involves
prec0r.npensating. the color temperahLre of the playback
matenal. WIth this procedure the color TV screen is adjuste? to the preferred color temperahLre of 6500 degrees
KelvUl. If there IS more than one TV screen in the scene, they
are all carefully adjusted to this same color temperahLre.
The next step is the preparation of the video playback materiaL Precompensation of the color temperahLre of the
p layback material is accomplished by using a viewing filter that has been arrived at empirically with much trial and
error. This viewing filter raises the apparent color temperahLre of the color monitor, which causes the telecine colorist or video camera operator to add a specificate amOlU1t
of "color compensation " to the video that will be displayed
on the TV screen.
When this coJor-compensated video is seen on a prop~rly adjusted 65~?-degree TV screen it w ill appear very
reddish-orange. I But to the hUlgsten-balanced negative
the pichLre will be the correct color.
When the TV screen is to appear as a black & white
set, another problem OCClLrS. A black & white screen will
appear to be of even higher color temperature - from 9000
to 11,000 degrees. There is no practical method to compensate for this very high color temperahLre. The most common method and the preferred solution is to place a color
screen in what would appear to be a black & w hite cabi~~t. TI:e p layback material is made to appear black & white
I~ It ongmates as a color image and then color compensation IS added to the black & white image. This color-compensated footage will now appear to the color negative as
a perfect black & white image.
General Notes
Playback material can come from any source. The best
quality is generally obtained from film original that is transferred specifically for the scene invalved and is color-compensated for video p layback. Live camera original footage
at 30 fps can be standards-converted and color-compensa t~d WIth equal success. A jerky motion artifact will be
noticed on 24 frame film material that was transferred to
30 frame video and then was standards-converted back to
560
24 frame video for video playback. This is an undesirable

source of material.
Always test n ew or unfamiliar equipment. This includes new or untested TV screens and computers. This is
a rapidly changing area and success is guaranteed only
with the proper choice of equipment and with companies
familiar with the latest advances.
Television Film Cinematography

by Edward P. Ancona, Jr.
Since the publication of the aTticle on this topic in previous editions of the American Cinematographer Manual,
there have been sigrLificant advances in receiver quality and
in the sophistication of the telecine equipment whid1transfers the film image to television. However, it is important
to remember that the typical home viewer is seeing and
hearing films less than the optimum conditions under
whid1 the creative production team saw them.
Production staffs see their films in professional motion-picture review rooms and the resulting television
transfers on professional monitors with carefully adj usted,
stable color and brightness settings. Most home viewers,
however, watch the show on receivers which may be only
casually adjusted and in a room with the lights on. Such
viewing conditions act primarily to limit the picture contrast r ange which can be effecti vely reproduced in the
home. Therefore, the director and cinema tographer sh ould
be aware that the available range of photographic effects
is limited, and film ph otography for television must be
adapted to exploit those styles and tecluuques wluch are
mos t effective for the home viewer.
This is not meant to imply that the television system
is incapable of high-quality transnUssion and reproduction.
With a high-quality telecine ti"ansfer, good signal reception,
and optimmn receiver adjustment and viewing conditions,
the reproduced image can be a close duplicate of the film
in ILLrninance range and color. Indeed the sophisticated
conti'ast and color controls on the modern telecine can often acl1ieve color and density "tirning" changes in dimensions lmavailable in the film laboratory. It is not LUlCOllliTIOn
561
r
on major television film productions for the director and
cinematographer to attend the telecine transfer operation
to guide the video operator, similar to the color timing
operation in the film laboratory.
effect of a night scene without the necessity of printing

down.
Contrast
In previous years when black & white films were the

dominant medium for television, it was standard practice
to make "television gamma" relea e prints which were
developed to a lower contrast than for normal theatrical
release. Although these prints, on direct projection, looked
somewhat flat with transparent shadow elements, their
television reproduction appeared more like that of the theatrical prints in a theater. The reduced density range of the
television gamma prints enabled th telecine to "see" into
the shadows more easily, thus red ucing the requirement for
lower lighting ratios on the stage. Until recently, color prints
could not be processed for a lower gamma without seriously upsetting their color tracking, and the only way to
reduce the density range of the print wa to reduce the luminance range of the original scene by lower lighting ratios and careful control of set and wardrobe reflectances.
Modem telecines are equipped to reproduce negative
films by inversion of polarity and a change of reproduction
contrast. The negative film is obviou ly of considerably
lower contrast than a color print and the resulting reproduction therefore is much more open, with shadow detail
well reproduced, and often with brilliant color quality.
The term "film look" really refers to the appearance
of a print as seen in direct projection. There is much to be
said for the subjective appearance of this image with its
smoothly graduated highlight and shadow contrast. It is
not intended to be an accurate duplicate of the original
subject contrast and color values, but in the hands of a skillful cinematographer it is an extremely effective storytelling
vehicle. As stated in the opening paragraphs, the aim of
telecine operation is to produce a television image which
is a close d uplicate of the film print as seen in direct projection. The appearance of negative or interpositive films
on a telecine, while seductively appealing with their open
lowlights and high color saturation, can be distinctly different from the "print look." It is possible to modify the
telecine characteristic so that negative transfers will come
close to duplicating the look of a print, and it is emphasized
that the cinematographer should be aware of these differences and see samples of negative transfers if his or her
picture is to involve that process.
Telecine reproduction of a film will often result in a

television image wherein contrast appears higher than in
the image een in direct projection. This is due partly to
inherent limi tations of the electronic devices which convert
the projected image to a television signal, partly to the optics of the telecine y tem and partly to the subjective effect of the maller, brighter television image. The chief effect of this increase in contrast is a loss of shadow detail.
Darker areas in the picture may appear plugged up, subtleties of mood lighting are lost, and tory points or critical
facial detail in dark cenes may be obscured. Again it is
important to note that not all of the loss is in the telecine
reproduction of the film - only a small proportion ofhome
receivers will b car fully adjusted and viewed in a darkened room to accuratel di play the full range of the transmitted signal.
This increase in contrast requires that the cinematographer use more fill light than would be used for theatrical presentation only, and particularly that the approach to
the more extreme moods or effects be limited. The use of
underexpo ure, forced processing flashing and low filllight level to pr duce a realistic or "available light" look
may be quite effective ill direct theatrical projection but
plugged up and ineffective in the typical home viewing
situation. This i not meant to imply tllat television photography should b "flat." A wide range of moods and effects
can be uccessfully reproduced on the typical home receiver, but the dark r elements or areas of the scenes must
be more ful ly lit and expo ed if they are to be displayed
effectively.
I-Iigher lighting ratio can be emp loyed for effect, and
night scene ar best approached by adjustment of tlle lighting ratio rather than by shoo ting "day-for-night" or
lmderlighting cenes and printing down. The ideal night
effect photogra phy for telev ision would result in prints
which have the ame density range as fully lit scenes. The
use of little or no fill light on the key position, sketchy background illumination, lighted windows, etc., all create the
562
Special Print Films for Television
563
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There is now available a color positive film which has
been manufactured to a lower contrast and which does not
require special proce sing for "television gamma." The
lower maximum densities of this film benefit telecine reproduction of the image as compared to the reproduction
from normal projection contrast print film. The contrast is
not so different, however, that it cannot be satisfactorily
analyzed for color "timing" in the film laboratory. Care
must be taken during review-room laboratory timing of
these low-contra t prints not to "print down" in an effort
to achieve the had ow densities of normal-eontrast print
stock. When correctly timed for optimum telecine reproduction, the low-contrast stock on direct projection will
have rather transparent shadow regions and will not have
the olid blacks of the normal-contrast print stock. The
telecine reproduction, however, will restore the shadows
to their correct appearance but with considerably improved
shadow detail over that obtainable from the normal-eontrast stock.
Automatic Telecine Operation

The telecine operation at major broadcaster's installations or in mo t video po tproduction houses serving the
broadcast and cable television industries is characterized
by an effort to reproduce the film as faithfully as possible
within tlle phy ica! Limitations of the telecine device. Despite the misgivings of some cinematographers, the video
operator does not make arbitrary changes in the character
of the image; witll a well-photographed and timed print,
tile operator will make an essentially "hands-off" transfer.
However, some broadcasters may, for reasons of crew and
time economy, resort to an automatic telecine operation
wherein the brightest element of every scene is automatically set to 100% Ivideo level, and the darkest to 0%. This
unquestionably can distort the continuity of the original
print timing.
Altllough it is dismaying to have to prescribe for such
a situation, if the cinema tographer knows that a film is
Likely to have its major release to such syndication, he or
she can incorporate a "reference whi te" and "reference
black" in every scene, which will force the automatic
telecine into a preferred state of adjustment. A reference
white would be a near-white object in wardrobe or tile stage
illuminated by tile key light. Almost any scene will have
564
sh adowed or unilluminated black areas and these will become the reference black for the scene. Witll such white and
black objects in the scene, the automatic video telecine will
arrive at an adjustment which will place face tones and
other luminance values correctly.
Perhaps the concerns of this s ction are less pertinent
now, since, practically without exception, all major television productions will be transferred on high-quality
telecines with skillful operators, and most syndicated material will be similarly transferred and delivered on videotape.
Television Film Apertures

In almost any receiver, the accumulated effects of mask
shape and off-eenter scanning or excessive height or width
of scanning would result in tile display of excessive picture
information that was transmitted. While this area loss is
different in each receiver, the average 10 , or to put it another way, the area displayed by th average receiver, has
been noted with the establishment by SMPTE of a "safe
action area" and a "safe title area" ( ee "Cinematographic
Systems"). Masks of the shape and relative size of these
SMPTE-recommended safe areas should be used in the
camera viewfinder as a guide to tile composition and framing of scenes being filmed for television.
Since these areas represent only selected average conditions, it must be noted that some receivers will display
everything to one edge or anotller of the transmitted area.
Therefore, foreign objects s uch as microphones, stage lights
or camera sunshades, or negative defects such as scratches
or fog should not appear inside tlle transmitted area, and
release prints should be free of physical defects such as
scratches, wet gate printer marks or soundtrack applicator
splashes in this area.
Daily prints of shows whidl are being shot for television and which are being reviewed by the cinematographer
or others specifically for action framing may be inspected
with a projector aperture of tile dimensions of the safe action area. (This would apply also to rev iew of theatrical
wide-frame features being scanned for television, when tile
review is for evaluation of the editorial and positioning
aspects of the scanning.) Ordinarily, however, television
daily prints should be reviewed with a projector aperture
of the dimensions of the transmitted area, since the film
565
camera action framing is usually carefully monitored during shooting with the camera viewfinder safe action area
mask. The production sWf should also be aware of p0ssible negative defects or extraneous objects outside the safe
action area but still within the transmitted area. New titles
photographed for television should lie preferably within
the safe action area, although this should be most applicable
to commercia l copy w here fu ll visibility on all receivers is
desired. On theatricaJ features released to telev ision, title
copy within the safe action area would ordinarily be acceptable.
There is an artistic compromise to be fared in the reproduction ofCinemaScope or other wide-frame images on
standard television. The choice is between "scanning" the
wide-frame image to produce a standard 3 x 4 aspect ratio
image or using the "Ietterbox" format whe re the widefra me linage is show n in its correct aspect ratio in the center of the receiver, but with wide black areas above and
below the frame. While the letterbox format does reproduce
the original framing and composition, it is far from the
grandiose large-screen presentation which is part of the
original conception; therefore, the tradition has been to
"scan" the wide-frame images for television presentation.
For the mo t part, this is done skillfully, with care taken for
good framing of the recomposed images, and also with
ca reful regard fo r the ed itorial considera ti ons introduced
with the need occasionally to cut or pan from one side of
the wide frame to the other.
Shooting Videotape
for Transfer to Film
by Gavin Sc hutz, image Tra nsform, Inc.
The process of transferring videotape to film involves
a number of complex steps, not the least of which is the
method of converting 3O-frame video into a signal that
can be recorded into 24-frame film. Some of the fields of
the video signal must be discarded. Digital signal processing techniques are employed to treat the video signals to
ma ke tl1em look be tter on film .
566
The cinematographer will need to know several

things about the nature of video signals an~ how ~ey
correspond with film attributes. The followmg section
will deal with some of these parameters, and also address
how the finished videotape wiU look when it is transferred to film. The general rule for shooting videotape that
w ill be transferred to film is no d iffe rent fro m general
p rac tice: make the video as good as poss ible. Th is w ill
involve giving attention to some factors that are not normally a problem when shooting film. These are all covered below.
The most common question that is asked about tape
to film is "How much resolution is lost in the process"?
This is a difficult question to answer because it depends
upon what you call resolution, and what your frame of
reference is. In contrast to fi lm origination, in video there
a re two types of resolution, sta ti c an d dy na mic.
Resolution
Static Resolution is the amount of detail present in a
scene that contains no motion. In the television world, the
static resolution is measured in terms of bandwidth of the
video signal, or the amount of TV lines that are used to
build U,e signal. For example, NTSC is a 525-line 4.5 MHz
sys tem, w h ile PAL is a 625-line 5.5 MH z Signa l. This
mea ns tha t PA L has more s tatic reso lution than NTSC.
Film resolution is measured in line pairs per mm, and
is an attempt to quantify the maximum number of black
to white transitions in a millimeter of film frame. This
paramete,r contains many variables, su'!' .as the optical
transfer function of the film and other dlfficult-to-quantify assumptions about the film. Fortunately, the line pairs
per millimeter can be converted into megahertz of bandwid th to allow for comparisons to video. For example, it
is general ly recognized tlla t th e equi va lent "band w idth"
of 35mm mo tion-picture film is in the gene raJ area of
35MHz. This is about six times the resolution of most
broadcast video systems.
This means that a camera original negative captures
about six times the detail of a professional video camera.
Figures 1 and 2 show the differences in resolution between film and video. Figure 3 is a comparison between
the formats.
567
r
r olution the video systems. i why moving image appear
smother in video rather than the t pped film images. (Fig.
Video Resolution
I
I
tatic
Units
I
Dynamic
MHz
Line
Field Rate
Frame Rate
Hz
P lS.5 1Hz
TSC30 frS
PAl2S FPS
3)
Video Film Resolulion
Film
alue
~.S
Static
3SMHz
ideo
T C 4.S Mfu
PAlS.S MHz
Figure 1
Dynamic 24 Fr
Film Resolution
I
talie
Figure 3.
Line pairs
permm
I
namic
Frame Rate
boul3S MHz
UFP
Figure 2
In th ~ag Tra.n form Sy tern, there is no significant

10 of tattc re lutton. This means that all static detail
present in th ori inal video ma ter i transferred to the
film . The u . of pat nt d ~ideband digital decoding and
~ompol~ent .' gnal pI' es mg ensure that all detail present
111 th . v~d. I pr
rv d in the Transform process. However, It I IInp rtc nt to realize that the end result will not
have the ame tatic.re olLlti~n as original film, simply because the amowlt of mf rmabon recorded on the videotape
is les than would hav been recorded on the 35mm film.
F?rtun~tely, th r ar am thing that can be done to the
Video Ignal that will help its appearance when taken to
film. These a rc addre ed below.
Dynami r olution i defined as the amount of temporal in.formati ~ contained in a cene having movement.
DynamIC r olution d pend upon the update rate of the
LInage .. B th film a~~ video images are sampled in time,
and tlu lead to a firute los of dynamic re olution (compared t r al life) in bOtil ca . Dynamic resolution is dlr~ctly prop rtional to th frame sample rate. In the case of
film, th. ample rate is 24 frame per second. In NTSC, it i
30 and 111 P L, 25 frame per econd. Film has dynamic
568
Interlace Artifacts
This difference in d namic re olution is compounded by the interlace structur of the ideo ignal.
The frame rate of 24 for film ver u the 30 frame update
rate of TSC is bad enough, however in mo t ca e pichues originating on video are updated at the field rate.
Thi results in having effectively 60 pictures per second
(at half the static resolution) instead of the normal 30. The
challenge here is to take the 60 picture per econd and
reduce them to 24 piCh.rres per second without rendering
the motion artifacts unacceptable.
The information contained in a video frame is made
up of two discrete interlac d field. Care mu t be taken
to preserve the integrity of each of th e fields, as they are
both used to produce the final film frame. By a process
known as adaptive interpolation, video fields are averaged with other fields from other frames to produce the
new frame. This averaging proces i po sible (and necessary) because of the fact that there are more video
frames than there are required to be film frames. In the
Transform process some of the fields are discal'ded, and
the interpolation process is us d to m oth the motion
around the discarded fields. Obviously, the more information there is to work with, the better the dynamic resolution (smoother motion) . Because of this, care must be
taken not to pan the camera exce sively fast, because this
will result in a different pich.rre for every field. When this
frame is transferred to film, there will be two images on
the film frame. Clearer, sharper images will be obtained
569
from slower pan rates. This applies to both vertical an d

horizontal pans.
Digital Effects
Advanced .digital effects generators and paint sysm u~ tend to operate on the video signal
as if It were ~ot an mterlaced system. These devices produc.e a new .lm~ge every field instead of every frame.
~e resulting m much smoother motion of video tape,
this method can result in a film image that is fragmented
and sometim blurred.
Because of the throwaway field sequence (see Fig. S),
an apparentl mooth video effect generated in field
mode rendering can appear disjointed and unnatural
when transferred to film. The amount of degradation
depend upon the type of video effect. Very slow horizontal or vertical movement is usually acceptable. As the
rate of mo ement i increased, the artifacts become more
objectionable.
The b t way to avoid these temporal related artifacts
is to refrain .from using the more ambitious digital effects
that:u-e avail.able. Any effect that is characterized by rapid
vertical, honzontal or temporal motion will cause these
discontinuities. They will be very noticeable in the film
and should b avoided, if at all possible. Some of the more
recent digital effects devices offer two modes of rendering ffi?tion - f~e ld and frame mode. When generating
matenal that Will be transferred to film, use the frame
rendering mode.
!'J0te that vertically crawling title sequences (such as
credits) represent about the absolute worst case, and illustra te all of the prob!ems noted above. When editing in
the credIts, fade them m and out rather than having them
crawl vertically.
te~s. currently
Graphics Rendering
Graphic and CGr (Computer Generated Images) effects hould be r ndered in frame mode (Le. make sure
that both field of a video frame are the same) rather than
field mode beau e this allows better interpolation.
In the case of CGr where the effects are rendered a
~eld at .a time, there is a way to ensure against any mebo.n arbfact:>. Becau e these images are usually rendered
a field at a time and are recorded by videotape machines
570
in animation m ode, it is sometime po ible to artificially

"build in" a 3:2 sequence. In thi m thod an image that
has been rendered by computer is recorded for three
fields of video. The next image rendered is then recorded
for two video fields. the resulting animated image is the
functional equivalent of a 24 frame film tran fer, and (as
discussed below) can be taken to film without motion
artifacts of any kind.
Because the rendering of complicated graphics ( uch
a animated sequences) or integrating video with sequence that contain original film material is a complex
process, it often pays to consult with the facility that will
be doing the tape-to-film tran fer before integrating or
generating the CGr sequence . In some cases, techniques
can be employed on some of the lat t graphics platforms
( uch as the Quantel Harry) that will produce a "perfect"
film transfer (i.e. a perfect correlation between the video
and film images).
The use of variable- peed video or time-compre ed
video material should be avoided a it introduces easily
noticed motion discontinuiti in video which are made
worse in the tape-to-film proce
Film to Tape to Film

Another aspect that needs to b con idered is the
problem associated with editing material that originated
on film with material that ha be n originated on videotape (Le. film to tape to film) . In many cases material that
has been shot on videotape will b int rcut
It can be seen that an extra field i in erted into the
video to make up for the diH renee in frame rates between
24-frame film and 3D-frame vid o. I.n figure 4 this is the
fie ld labeled "3".
The tape-to-film system mu t detect which field was
inserted in the telecine proces and use it as the throwaway field . If this is succe sful, the re ulting film transfer will be perfect - th ere i no way to teU the difference
between it and origina l film . In most cases, the equence
is repetitive and will not change for the duration of the
transfer. Moreover, there are only two ways the sequence
can be mapped out 2/3/2/3. or 3/2/3/2. This is iLlustrated in figureS. The problem ari e when material from
different sources is edited together on videotape. It is tl1en
po ible that, once the pieces are a embled together, the
field sequence is disrupted, giving a quence such as 3/
571
Frame Rate Conversio n

- - - - - -- 24 Frames per Second - - -- - -Film Frame}
Film Frame 2
3
Field}
Field 2
Video Frame 2
Video Frame I
Video Frame 3
30 Frames per Second - - - - - - Film 10 Tape Field Sequence

Figure 4
Frame Rate Conversion

30 Frames per Second
Video Frame 1
Fie:d 1
I Fie~d 2 I
Video Frame
2 I
3
Field}
Video Frame 3
5
Fie:d
Field}
IFie~d 21
Field 3 is dropped
Film Frame}
---I
Tape 10 Film Field equence

Figure 5.
2/2/3,2/3/3/2, etc. The result is that a disrupted Frame

3 s guence w ill produce very noticeable discontil1luties
in all scenes that contain any motion because the wrong
field will be discarded duri11g the tape-to-film transf r.
Unfortunately, there is no way of mowing that the se9uence has been disturbed until the video is actually bemg tran ferred, simply becau e it is not possible to predict wh re the videotape ed its will occur and what the
equence is at that point. Other examples of thi occur
\ hen foreground / background matting is done and one
of the elements is out of equence with the other.
572
Video Signal Processing

Scene-to-scene color correction, dynarrtic enhancement, smear correction and phase correction are some
methods used in the tape-to-film process to overcome
llmitations of the video environment. These techniques
are employed to help make the videotape look as much
like film as possible. For example, the gamma and clipping levels are changed to emulate the transfer function
of film . Where possible, the use of electronic processing
to the transfer process should be kept to a minim urn. This
will help avoid an overprocessed look in the product.
Always bear in mi11d that a motion-picture screen is
much larger than a television monitor and care must be
taken in the video production to allow for the best possible end result. Small defects in the video can be quite
objectionable when projected on a large screen.
Lighting and Cameras
Film Frame 2
- - - - - - - 24 Frames per Second
In order to produce the best possible transfer, it is

desirable that the tape-to-film house used for the transfer i able to dynamically determine the sequence and
adapt the throwaway field sequence accordi11gly. This is
done at Image Transform by computer-controlled ignal
processing. It is offered as part of the scene-ta-scene color
correction proces .
In most cases, it is sufficient to shoot using e tablished practices for video production. It is valid to ay that
the quality of a film print will be i11directly proportional
to the quality of the video source material. When shooting the video, use the full dynarrtic range available and
avoid crushi11g the blacks or cljpping white area of the
scene. Ensure that the camera clip levels for each color are
set the same.
Scene-to-scene color correction is usually performed
as part of the tape-to-film process to ensure that the resulting film is colorime tri cally correct. This includes
scene-to-scene manipulation of RGB gain, gamma and
pede tal, as well as hue and saturation control. In the
process of transformi11g tape-to-film, color matrixing and
transfer characteristics of the video are chang d to help
make video look more Hke film.
In order to achieve best results, the video should be
shot with adequate and even lighting, using the best avail-
573
able cameras. The choice of camera will depend upon the

na ture of the subject material. The choice of CCO or conventional (tube-based) video cameras will depend on the
available light as well as the amount of control that the
director of photography has over the scene. Inadequately
lit scenes may suffer from decreased resolution and excessive noise. In general, CCO cameras are better suited
to low light levels. Proper care should be directed to minimize noise and other artifacts introduced as a result of
using the cameras outside of their normal range. The
video medium does not have the same dynamic range as
film.
Recent developments in the field of CCO technology
have made these cameras very popular. They do not suffer from regish-ation, overload, lag or comet-tailing like
their tube counterparts. In the case of tube cameras, make
sure the registration is set correctly as this is one of the
few problems that cannot be corrected during the transform-to-film process.
Most modern video cameras come with a knob called
"enhancement:[ "aperture" or "coring." These adjustments are to increase the apparent resolution of the picture, and make the images sharper. They also make them
noisier, and when overused, they will put a dark black
edge around subjects in the pictures. These artifacts will
look very w1natural when transferred to film. When adjusting these controls, make sure that they are not subject
to overuse. Most good video cameras will require a minimum amount of this type of correction. In-camera enhancement and coring should be kept to a minimum. A
good guide when setting up camera enhancement is focusing to an optical multiburst chart, and setting the enhancement to provide a flat frequency response at 400 TV
lines on the waveform monitor. Avoid using an image in
the viewfinder or monitor to set enhancement levels because overcompensation can occur as a result of poor
monitor resolution.
Videotape Formats
There are many different video formats available for
recording video. These include the W' consumer and 4"
industrial formats, up to the I" composite and 0-1 component professional formats. The former (V2," 4") are generally not suitable for transfer to film because they lack
the necessa ry bandwidth and do not have the required
574
signal-to-noise ratios needed for a good transfer to film.

Some industrial films, however, are shot on W' videotape
and transferred successfully to 16mm film for in-house
distribution. The results can be acceptable when projected
on small screens. Materials supplied on one of these formats usually need some form of noise reduction and enhancement prior to being transferred.
Scene-to-scene color correction requires I" C format,
0-1,0-2 or 0-3 videotape. Material supplied on other
formats will need to be dubbed to one of these formats if
scene-to-scene color correction is required. The use of
high-energy, low-noise, low-dropout professional grade
videotape is recommended, and the number of generations should be kept to a minimum.
There is no doubt that the best available formats for
tape-to-film transfers are I" C forma t, or one of the digital formats that have been shot with studio-quality cameras. If 35mm theatrical release is desired, the use of one
of these formats is mandatory.
The use of component systems, such as the Sony
Betacam SP and the Panasonic M II format, as well as
other systems where the video signal is recorded as a series of luminance and chrominance (i .e. not composite
video), can be successful to full 1" production. When considering the use of industrial and consumer formats, consult with the transfer facility prior to beginning production.
Images produced by the Betacam SP system often
approach that of I" quality without some of the I" limitations (such as cost and ease of use in the field). Higher
chrominance resolution and the lack of cross-color effects
are big advantages. These advantages, however are only
maintained if the signals stay in component form all the
way through origination, postproduction and editing.
They are lost if the signal is encoded at any stage.
One method of producing extremely good pictures
is to shoot video using a component system, then master
to the digital 0-1 tape format. Great success has been
achieved by shooting using a Betacam SP camera/recorder, then editing component using SP playback machines and the 0-1 as a master record machine. There are
several postproduction facilities that specialize in component editing systems. Make sure that the signal is always
kept component - never encoded to NTSC. Many docu-
575
men taries and full-length feature presen ta ti ons have been

sho t in this way.
The use of downstream noise reduction during editing should be avoided as this is an integral part of the
film transform process. Doubling up on noise reduction
will produce images that appear blurred and unnatural,
as well as decreasing the available resolution and leaving objectionable artifacts.
AU of the active picture area is presen,ed in the tapeto-film transfer process. There is a slight loss of picture
area in the printing process; however, the negative will
contain all the information originaUy in the video picture.
References
Books and Pam phJets
Abbott, L.B., ASC: "Special Effects with Wire, Tape and
Rubber Bands," ASC Press, 1984.
ACVL Handbook, Association of Cinema and Video Laboratories.
ANSI Standards, American
aliona! Standards Institute.
Cox, Arthur, "Optics...The Technique of Definition," Focal

Press, London, 1961.
Dllnn, Linwood C., ASC, and TUTner, George E., "ASC
Treas ury of Visua l Effects," ASC Press,1983.
Eas tman Kodak Publication B-3: Filters.
Eastm an Kodak Pub lica ti on H-23: The Book of Fi lm Ca re.
Eastman Kodak Pu blication: Ultrav iolet an d Fl uo rescence
Pho tography.
Eastman Kodak Publication N-17: infrared Films.
Evarts, R.M, WT. Hanson)r.,and W.L. Brewer, "Principles
of Color Photography," John Wiley & Sons Inc., ew
York,1953.
Fielding, Raymond,"The Technique ofSpecial Effects Cinematography," Focal Press, London, 1972.
Happe, Bernard, "Your Film and the Lab," Focal Press,
London, 1974.
Harrison, H.K., "The Mystery of Fil ters-II," Harrison &
Harrison, 1981.
Hy pia, )orma, " Th e Co mplete Tiffen Filte r Man ual,"
Am Photo, New York.
Ki ngslake, Rudolf, "Lenses in Photography," Gard en Ci ty
Books, 1951.
Kisner, W.l. (editor), "Control Techniques in Film Processing," SMPTE, New York, 1960.
Mees, C.E.K., "lne Theory of the Photographic Process,"
Macmillan, New York, 19-12, 1945, 195-1,1966,1977.
Mertens, Lawrence, " In Water Photography: Theory and
Practice," Wiley lnterscience, John Wiley & Sons, ew
York,1970.
576
Ryan, R.T., "A History of Motion Picture Color Technology," Focal Pre , London, 1977.
Ryan, R.T.(Editor), "Principles of Color Sensitometry,"
SMPTE, ew York, 1974.
Ryan, R.T., "Underwa ter Photographic Applications lntroducti n," SMPTE Journal, December 1973, Volume 2, umber 12.
Spotti wood, Ra mond, "Theory of Stereoscopic Transmision," C Pre ,1953.
Thomas Jr., Woodlief, "SPSE Handbook of Photographic
ience and Engineering," John Wiley & Sons, ew
York,1973.
Tiffen anufacturing Corporation Publication T179: Tiffen
Photar Filter Glass.
Wil on, nton, "Cinema Workshop," ASC Pre ,19 3,
1991.
Journals
American Cinematographer, ASC Holding Corp.
BKSTS Journal, "Image Technology," British Kinematograph, Solmd and Television Society.
SMPTE Journal, Society Of Motion Picture and Televi ion
Engineers.
Index
A
Aerial cinematography 489
Aerial image cinematography 481
Aerial mounls 255
Anamorphic
lenses 13
Aperture 261
Aperture, Academy 13
Aperture, fuIJ 13
Auticcinematography ~
equipment and filming
technique 50S
film 509
preparation of equipment 505
storage 510
ASA: Exposure Indexes 120
Aspect Ratios 15
1.85 Aspect Ratio 15
235 Aspect Ratio 1
Super 35 Formals 20
B
B.lckground plates 394
Bamdoors 390
Batteries and cables 261
Black & white film 120
Bla k & whi te negative and
reversal films 283
Blowup: 16mm to 35mm 527
composing 16mm for blowup
t035mm 528
composing Super 16mm for
blowup to 35mm 530
laboratory procedures 533
Super 16mm 529
titles 531
zero-cut edjting 533
Bl ue screen process
black & white self-matting
process 445
blue floor shooting 436
blue screen materials 437
electronk and iligital
compositing 444
front projection blue 456
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for
compositing 441
Ijght level for the Stewart Tma tte 437
lighting a front-illuminated
backing 438
lighting 10 elimina te
had w 439
lighting to hold Shadow 438
lighting to match background 439
other lighting considerations 440
reverse blue screen 453
reverse front projection 457
screen types and lighting -l34
transm ' i n blue screen 453
using the UltiMatte Video
Previewer 440
c
Camera a i tant 269
Camera body 260
Camera labilizing y tems 253
inema Product teadicam
(Universal Model HI) 253
Panavi ion Panaglide 254
Camera upporls 2-16
dollies 250
Camera supports
cranes 246
amera ,16mm 86
Aaton XTRpiu 86
Arrifle 16BL 95
Arriflex 165/ B; l65 / B-GS;
16M/B 97
Arritlex 165R-2
ArriO x 165R-3 93
Arritlex Super 16 91
Bell & Howell 16mm Filmo
70 101
Bolex 16mm (All Models) 99
Cinema Products CP-16 & CP16A 102
Cinema Products CP-16R & CP16R/A 104
Cinema Products G MO
16mm 105
Ecla ir ACL 160101 107
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm 108
Eclair PR 16mm 109
Minicam 16mm (GSAP) 102
Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS
& HSC
1ll
Mitchell 16mm Reflex, SSR-16

Singl Sy tem, DSR-16 113
Panavision Panaflex 16mm
Camera System 114
Cameras,35mm 45
r
Aaton 35-11 4
Aaton 35mm I-Iandholdable 45
Arriflex 35-2
57
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed
MOS 52
Arriflex 35-3C 56
Arriflex 35BL-4s 5*
ArrifJe 535 47
Arriflex 535B 50
Cinema Products FX35 59
Cinema Products R35
Lightweight tudio
Camera 61
Eclair
-316/ 35mm
Feathercam C - 62
IMAGE 300 35mm 63
Mitchell 35mm tandard &
High peed Cameras 67
Mitchell
CR, B C, B CR
(35mm 64
35mm 66
Moviecam Super 35mm 69
Panafle_ Pana tar Highpeed 75
Panavision Gn Golden
Panafle 74
Panavisi n Panafle -X 75
35mm 70
35mm 76
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4B/ 4C 79
Photo-Sonies 35mm-4ER 79
Ultracam 35mm 80
Cameras,65mm 31
Arriflex 765 31
Cinema Product CP-65 33
Fries Model 6565mm /
perf 34
Mitd'ell 65mm Refl x T DDAO 36
Mitchell FC, BF (65mm) 64
MSM Model 8 7065mm /
perf 37
Panavisi n 65nlln A
(Auxiliary amera) P
(Speed C 39
Panavi ion Panaflex ystem-65
Hand-holdabl 43
Panavi ion ystem-65
65mm 39
Cameras, VistaVi i n 1
M M Model 123-mm/ perf
VistaVi ion
1
'e.
580
Wilcam W-ll VistaVision

Sound Speed 85
Wileam W-7 VistaVision High
Speed 82
Wileam W-9 VistaVision
Lightweight 83
Catadioptric or Reflective
S stems 152
Chapman-Electra I Stage
Crane 250
Chapman- ike/ Electra Il Stage
Crane
250
Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly 250

Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile
Crane 249
Chapman-Titan Il Mobile
Crane 248
Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane 249
CID Lamps 350
Cinema Products Steadicam
(Universal odellD) 253
Cinematographic Systems 1
16mm S stems 9
35mm Systems 3
special purpose systems 10
Cinematography, pecial
techniques
aerial 487
arctic 504
blOWUp: 16mm to 35mm 527
infrared 521
day-for-night 518
stereoscopic technology 534
television film 561
3-D cinematography 538
tropical 511
ultraviolet photography 523
underwater 495
Color difference traveling matte
system 431
Color film 119
Color Rendering Index 320
Color reversal films 282
Color temperature 316
Commercial/Industrial light
sou rce 354
AC arc lamp flicker problem 376
AC disd'arge lighting 355
domestic incandescent
lighting 354
existing fluorescent lighting on
location 355
filter selection 365
Common topline 22
Composite photography 'lIS, 430, 445

color difference traveling matte
system 431
!!lectronic scanned film for
composites 451
filmstock 446
front projection blue 456
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for
compositing 441
rear-screen projection 415
reverse blu!! screen 453
transrni ion blue screen 453
Ultin1atte "screen correction" -l5O
video and electronic scanning-l5O
Computl!r graphics 467
2-D and 3-D images -l69
basic tools and terms 467
digital frame stores 469
graphics tablet 469
image processing 474
mod!!ling 469
paintbox systems 469
recording 473
rendering 471
scanning 472
Continental carn!!ra a!!rial mount
255
Correlated color temperature 318

Cranes 246
Chapman-Electra I Stage
cran!! 250
Chapman- ike/Electra IT Stage
cran!! 250
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobil!!
crane 249
Chapman-Titan II Mobile
crane 248
Chapman-Z!!us Stage
cran!! 249
Louma Crane by Samcine 246
MC 88 Crane 247
!!ttrnan Cam-Remote by
Matth!!ws 247
Th!! Crane by Matthews 246
Crystal-Controlled Cordles
Camera Drive System 242
tin,e code 243
CSllamps 348
o
Daily pr!!paration for shooting 266
Day-for-ni ht cinematography 51
black & white film 520
negative color film 521
reversal col r film 520
DC Carbon Arc Sources 340
c lor temperature 340
operating characteristics 340
filters 340
DCI- DC metal halide arc
discharge lamps 347
Dedolight 383
Depth of field 161
Depth of field for dose-up
photography 167
Depth of focus 162
Di ffusers 392
Digital Audio Tape (OAT)
recorder 545
Digital effects cinematography 460
Digital frame tores 469
Diopter lenses 166
Dollies 250
Chapman-Sidewinder
dolly 250
Elemack Cricket dolly 251
Fisher Crab dolly 251
FGV Panther 252
Dynalens 173
E
EBU (Europea n Broadcasting
Union) 243
Edge numbers 121
Electr nic intermediate
ystem 462
Elemack Cricket d lIy 251
Em ulsion testing 294
ca libration 294
Enclosed AC arcs 341
Exposure 270
Exposure meters 233
Cinemeter n 238
incident light m ters 233
Minolla Luminance 239
reflected light meters 236
pectra Cinespot 10 spot
meter 240
peelra ProfessionallY 240
E posur meters
t ting 238
Expo~ ure
reportin g
28 1
Extension of prime lens 166

Ex treme dose-up 165
depth of field for dose-up
photography 167
~ formulas 168
feY Panther 252

Film 119
ASA: ('xposure inde:>..es
J20
black &. white 120

color 119
color l'K'gilli\'l' 119, 120
color rl"\'ers..ll rnmera
films 119
colur rc\'ers.l1 fitm
16mlll film s
123
124
65mm Films
1 2~
lOmm Films 12-\

pitch 123
Film tests 266
Fillers 263
combination fIllers 331
colwersion-type fillers 330
fill('f'S for control of natural
daylight 330
filters for incandescent
lamps 338
neutl1ll-density fillers 330
Ricker problems 6
Auorcscent ligh ting for motion
pictures 359
Forced de"elopment of color
films 283
Frcsnellcns spotlights 381
Fron t projection process 399
brigh tness nnd color mnlch-
ing 412
ha lo e (fccl
High-pressure DC short arc

xenon light soUm'S 352
High-resoluti(Hl electronic
intermediate system 462
HMl lamps J.l2
HyperfOGII distanc(> 160
121
t.'<lgc nu mbers 12 1
Fi lm hillld ling ilnd storage 125
proc(.'Sscd film storage 126
"Film lonk" 563
Film ['crfora tions 123
35mm Fi lms
G
Gel fra mes 391
Cobos 392
G raphics tablet .wJ
Grip accessories 392
GyrosphfTe aerial mount 255
409
m inimum foreground-object
d istances 41 1
457
Srotchlite screen 402
tesselating the screen 4{).l
Z-Axis displaccmmt for
cioseups -U2
re\,('rse front projection
Ill um ination data 324

Image processing 474
hn>lge Transform system 568
l nc<lnd~sce nt lig h t sources 33 1
boosted -vo ltage operati on 337
fillers for incandescent
la mps 338
incand escent lamp o pera
tion J3.I
standard incandescent 332
tungsten-halogen lamps 333
Incident light melers 233
special effects 235
specific situations 235
K
Ken\\Torthy Snorkel camera
system In
l
Laboratory 280
black & wh ite negative and
re versal films 283
color reversal film s 282
exposu re reporting 28 1
nashing 284
forced developmen t of color
fi lms 283
printer points 280
release-printing p rocedu res 282
special p rocessing 282
Lamps 262
Lens angle and field of vicw 163
Lens aperture 165
Lens extenders (multipliers) 151
Lens focus calibration 264
Lens formulas 160

d epth o f field 16 1
de pth of focus 162
hyperfocal distance 160
lens angle and field of
view 163
'ens aperture 165
lens displacement 165
Lens housing 263
l.enses 142,. 262
anamorphic lenses 142
auxiliary lenses 142
care and maintenance 143
condensation 145
diop ter lenses 166
modulaHon transfer function
(MTF) 143
normallense5 142
removing lens retainer
rings 144
scl ~ct i u n of 142
specia l purpose [enSl..'S 170
split-field diopter lenses 168
telepho to lenses 148
testing 143
zoom lenses 142, 153
Light control accessories 390
bam doors 390
dif(users 392
gel frames 391
gobos 392
grip accessories for light
control
392
reIIect"", 392
.scrim 391
Lighting
characteristics of light
sources 313
C ID lam ps 350
color balancing for photography 363
color rendering index 320
color tempera ture 316
cCllnmc rcial/ i.lldustri>l 1lig ht
sources 354
correlatccl color tem perature 318
CSlla mps 348
OC Ca rbon Arc sources 3-10
DCI - OC M etal Halide arc
discharge lamps 347
enclosed AC arcs 3-11
nuorcscent lightingformotion
pictUlt'S 359
high-press~ DC short
xenon light sources
arc
352
HMl lamps 342

illumination data 324
incandescent light sources
luminaires 380
mercury vapor and color
imprt)\'ed mercury
lamps 357
mctal halide additive
lamps 360
MlRED system 319
photographic light
s<><us
33 1
328
physical characteristks of light

sou rces 314
sodium lam ps 361
spectral energy d istribution
(SED)
324
stroboscop ic lig hting 353

Louma Crane by S., mcine 246
Luminaires 380
cyclorama lum ina ires 388
dedolight 383
fresnel lens spotlights 381
light-eontrol accessories 390
open reflecto r variable beam
spolligh ts 385
scaled-beam types (PAR
lamps) 390
soft lights 388
tungsten-halogen flood
lights 387
M
Magazine 264
Matle Box 264
MC 88 Crane 247
Meters 5l't' Exposure meters
Microphone p lacement 5SO
Miniature photography 420
model size 421
shooting speeds 422
M IRED Ssystem 3 19
Modeling 469
Mod ulation T ransfe r Function
(MTF) 143
Chart 145
Motion-control cine ma tography 424
N
alural Daylight 328
Filters for control of 3JO
'ettman Cam-Remote by
Matthews 247
o
OpticOl I printer
475
p
Paintbox systems 469
Panavision Pan.lglide 25-1
Photographic light sour'S 328
nalural daylight 328
Photographic leshng and
evaluation 288
equipml'f\t 28S
1.,bcJr<110ry/ pl"ClCeSSl printer
scale/ ('mulsion b.ltch :!91
,'isual effects: Jighltng. filters.
image modifkat
292
Pilch 123
Plate photography
b.:lckground plates 394
Prepar.l!ion of Equipmcnt 25M
aperture 261
batteries .tnd cabk~ 261
camera ilssislanl Z~
camera body 260
daily prt.'p.l~tion for
shooting 266
equipment checkout 259
film Il'Sb 266

filll~rs
263
im'entory E8
in\'Oice cm."Ck 259
lamp:. 262
lens focus ca hbralion
lens housing 263
lenses 262
m..g.1Zinc 26-1
matte box 26-1
optional item:. 26S
scratch 1 {.~1 265
26-1
spreader 259
sleild iness lest 266
tools 267
tri pod head 260
tri pod s 259
va ri" blL' shullo.'l' 262
vid eo ,1s:.i:.l : vick o ClImer,l,
monitor
;md record 26-1
\,jcwfind er 262
Loom [ells
263
zoom molor 263

Printer pomts 280
R
ReM-SCI\."'('n pro;ection
Recordmg 473
-115
Re ference black See Tclecine

operation
Reference white St'e TcJecinc
opera tion
Reflected Light Meters 236
spot meters 237
Reflectors 392
u Relatin~' humidity". Sn-Tropical
cinema tography
Release-Printing Procedul"l'S 282
Rendering -In
Resolution 567
dynamic resolution 568
Image T ransfonn system 568
.se.:
"Safe action area" 565

01<:0
Cinematographic systems
"'5.1fe title a'a~ 5t't: Cinematographic systems
Scolchlite SO'l't'n -102
Scra tch test 265
Scrim 391
Soft lights 388
Sound recording 548
microphone placement 550
use of tape recorders 553
Sound systems, synchronizing
.se.: Synchronizing methods
Sp.u:('Glm aerial mount 256
Special cinematogr.Jphic systems
videotape-to-film 566
Special processing 282
Speeia I purpose lenses 170
Continl'Otal Camera svsterns 171
D)'llalens 173
Kenworthy Sno rkel Camera
systems 172
P,mavision -ISmm 1'2.8 SlantFocus lens 17 1
Swi ng Shift lens 170
Special visual e ffects 39-1
background pla tes 394
computer g raph ics 467
d igital effects cinemntogr,l phy -I6O
electronic intermed ia te
system -162
fro nt-projection p rocess 399
miniature photography 420
motion-eontrol 0124
optical printer 475
rear-screen projection 415
troweling matte composite
photography 430
Spectra l Ene rgy Distri bu tio n

(SED) 324
Split-field djopters 168
Spot meters 237
Spreader 259
Steadiness test 266
Stereoscopic motion picture
technology 534
J.D p rojection 537
optical "flat'" projection 537
stcrroscopic/J.D camera
systems 534
Stroboscopic lighting 353
Synchronizing methods 5-W
Digital AudioTape (DAT)
recorder 54S
Synchronizing with non-time
rode DATs 547
current systems and time
rode 5-I-l
early sync-pulse systems 5-13
syndlronous motors and
selsyns 5U
T
T-Stops 270
Tape recorders 553
Telccinc SerTelevision film
cinematogra phy
and contrast 561
automatic telerine operation 5&l
Telephoto lenses 1-18
catadioptric o r reflectiw
systems 152
filters 1-19
k'fls extendecs (multipliers) 151
Telephoto lenses
techniques 149
Telev ision film cinematography 561
contrast 562
"fi lm look" 563
telev is ion film apertures 565
"television gamma" 563
The C rane by Matthews 246
3-D cinematog raphy 538
3- D motion pictu re
technology. Set: stereoscopic
motion p icture technology
35mm blowups to 70uun
prints 26
Time Code 243

current synchronizil tion
systems and time
code 54-t
Tools 267
Traveling matte composite
photography 430
Tripod head 260
Tripods 259
Tropical cinematography 511
black & white film 515
col~ film 516
maintenance of equip-ment 515
preparation and protection of
equipmcot 513
storage of photographic
materials 512
Tyler camera arial mount 256
u
Ult raviolet photogrnphy 523
detennining exposure 526
films 526
Special considerations 526
Underwater cinematography 497
v
Variable shuller 262
Video assist: video camera,
monitor
and record 264
Videotape-to-film 566
digital effects 570
film to tape to fil m 571
graphics renderi ng 570
interlace artifacts 569
lighting nnd cameras 573
resolution 567
vid eo signal processing 573
vid eotape fo rma ts 574
View finder 262
w
Wesca rn aeria l mou nt 257
Z
Zoom lenses
153, 263
cine zoom lenses on video
cameras 159
do's and don't's 156
maintenance of 159
mechanics of 154
zoom motor 263

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American Cinematographer Manual

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AMERICAN

DR. ROD RYAN

THE ASC PRESS

American Cinematographer Manual

Copyright 1993 by The ASC Press

Dr. Rod Ryan retired as Regional Engineering Director ofEastman Kodak

Special Purpose Systems

Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35

Cinema Products CP-65

Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO

Panavision Panaflex System-65

.16 mm/35 mm dailies, color or black and white

Cinema Products FX35

Cinema Products XR35

IMAGE 300 35mm

Most film/video formats including R-DAT

Duplication all formats

Mitchell S35R (Mark II)

Mitchell Standard and High Speed

Mitchell Professional HS, HSC

Moviecam Super 35mm

Mitchell16mm Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16

Panavision Platinum Panaflex

Panavision Panaflex 16mm

Panavision Gil Golden Panaflex

Panaflex Panastar High-Speed

Panavision Super R-200

Black & White

Color Reversal Film

Film Handling and Storage

Understanding an MTF Chart

Modem Telephoto Lenses

Special Purpose Lenses

Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M/B

Charts: 146, 174-199

Filters for Both Color

Special Effect Filters

Cinema Products CP-16R, CP-16R/A

Filters for Black & White

Cinema Products GSMO

Filters for Color

Eclair CM-3 (16/35mm)

Minicam 16mm (GSAP)

Travelling-Matte Composite Photography

The Future for Travelling-Matte

Digital Effects Cinematography

Camera Stabilizing Systems

Aerial Image Cinematography

PUTTING THE IMAGE ON FILM

The Cinematographer and the Laboratory

Photographic Testing and Evaluation

Characteristics of Light Sources

Photographic Light Sources

Light Source Filters

Commercial/ Industrial Light Sources

Fluorescent Lighting for Motion Pictures

Shooting 16mm Color Negative

AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem

Stereoscopic Motion Picture Technology

Synchronizing Methods for Picture

Light Control Accessories

Charts: 314-315, 319, 323, 328,339,345, 366-375

SPECIAL VISUAL EFFECTS

Shooting Background Plates