Banach space

In mathematics, more specically in functional analy- 2 General theory

sis, a Banach space (pronounced [banax]) is a complete
normed vector space. Thus, a Banach space is a vector
2.1 Linear operators, isomorphisms
space with a metric that allows the computation of vector
length and distance between vectors and is complete in
Main article: Bounded operator
the sense that a Cauchy sequence of vectors always converges to a well dened limit that is within the space.
If X and Y are normed spaces over the same ground eld
Banach spaces are named after the Polish mathematician
K, the set of all continuous K-linear maps T : X Y is
Stefan Banach, who introduced this concept and studied
denoted by B(X, Y). In innite-dimensional spaces, not
it systematically in 19201922 along with Hans Hahn and
all linear maps are continuous. A linear mapping from a
[1]
Eduard Helly. Banach spaces originally grew out of the
normed space X to another normed space is continuous
study of function spaces by Hilbert, Frchet, and Riesz
if and only if it is bounded on the closed unit ball of X.
earlier in the century. Banach spaces play a central role in
Thus, the vector space B(X, Y) can be given the operator
functional analysis. In other areas of analysis, the spaces
norm
under study are often Banach spaces.

T = sup {T xY | x X, xX 1} .

Denition

For Y a Banach space, the space B(X, Y) is a Banach

space with respect to this norm.

A Banach space is a vector space X over the eld R of

real numbers, or over the eld C of complex numbers,
which is equipped with a norm and which is complete
with respect to that norm, that is to say, for every Cauchy
sequence {xn} in X, there exists an element x in X such
that

If X is a Banach space, the space B(X) = B(X, X) forms

a unital Banach algebra; the multiplication operation is
given by the composition of linear maps.
If X and Y are normed spaces, they are isomorphic
normed spaces if there exists a linear bijection T : X
Y such that T and its inverse T 1 are continuous. If
one of the two spaces X or Y is complete (or reexive,
separable, etc.) then so is the other space. Two normed
spaces X and Y are isometrically isomorphic if in addition, T is an isometry, i.e., ||T(x)|| = ||x|| for every x in
X. The Banach-Mazur distance d(X, Y) between two isomorphic but not isometric spaces X and Y gives a measure
of how much the two spaces X and Y dier.

lim xn = x,

or equivalently:

lim xn xX = 0.

The vector space structure allows one to relate the behavior of Cauchy sequences to that of converging series of 2.2 Basic notions
vectors. A normed space X is a Banach space if and only
if each absolutely convergent series in X converges,[2]
Every normed space X can be isometrically embedded in
a Banach space. More precisely, there is a Banach space
Y and an isometric mapping T : X Y such that T(X) is

dense in Y. If Z is another Banach space such that there

vn X < that implies
vn in converges X.
is an isometric isomorphism from X onto a dense subset
n=1
n=1
of Z, then Z is isometrically isomorphic to Y.
Completeness of a normed space is preserved if the given This Banach space Y is the completion of the normed
norm is replaced by an equivalent one.
space X. The underlying metric space for Y is the same
All norms on a nite-dimensional vector space are equiv- as the metric completion of X, with the vector space opalent. Every nite-dimensional normed space over R or erations extended from X to Y. The completion of X is
b.
C is a Banach space.[3]
often denoted by X
1

2 GENERAL THEORY

The cartesian product X Y of two normed spaces is Any Hilbert space serves as an example of a Banach
not canonically equipped with a norm. However, several space. A Hilbert space H on K = R, C is complete for
equivalent norms are commonly used,[4] such as
a norm of the form

(x, y)1 = x+y,

(x, y) = max(x, y) xH =

x, x,

and give rise to isomorphic normed spaces. In this sense, where

the product X Y (or the direct sum X Y) is complete
if and only if the two factors are complete.
If M is a closed linear subspace of a normed space X,
there is a natural norm on the quotient space X / M,

, : H H K
is the inner product, linear in its rst argument that satises the following:

x + M = inf x + m.
mM

The quotient X / M is a Banach space when X is

complete.[5] The quotient map from X onto X / M, sending x in X to its class x + M, is linear, onto and has norm
1, except when M = X, in which case the quotient is the
null space.
The closed linear subspace M of X is said to be a complemented subspace of X if M is the range of a bounded
linear projection P from X onto M. In this case, the space
X is isomorphic to the direct sum of M and Ker(P), the
kernel of the projection P.
Suppose that X and Y are Banach spaces and that T
B(X, Y). There exists a canonical factorization of T as[5]

x, y H :

y, x = x, y,

x H : x, x 0,
x, x = 0 x = 0.
For example, the space L2 is a Hilbert space.
The Hardy spaces, the Sobolev spaces are examples of
Banach spaces that are related to Lp spaces and have additional structure. They are important in dierent branches
of analysis, Harmonic analysis and Partial dierential
equations among others.

2.4 Banach algebras

1
T = T1 , T : X X/ Ker(T )
Y

A Banach algebra is a Banach space A over K = R or

C, together with a structure of algebra over K, such that
where the rst map is the quotient map, and the second
the product map (a, b) A A ab A is continuous.
map T 1 sends every class x + Ker(T) in the quotient to the
An equivalent norm on A can be found so that ||ab|| ||a||
image T(x) in Y. This is well dened because all elements
||b|| for all a, b A.
in the same class have the same image. The mapping T 1
is a linear bijection from X / Ker(T) onto the range T(X),
whose inverse need not be bounded.
2.4.1 Examples

2.3

The Banach space C(K), with the pointwise product,

is a Banach algebra.

Classical spaces

Basic examples[6] of Banach spaces include: the Lp spaces

and their special cases, the sequence spaces p that consist
of scalar sequences indexed by N; among them, the space
1 of absolutely summable sequences and the space 2 of
square summable sequences; the space c0 of sequences
tending to zero and the space of bounded sequences;
the space C(K) of continuous scalar functions on a compact Hausdor space K, equipped with the max norm,

f C(K) = max{|f (x)| : x K},

f C(K).

According to the BanachMazur theorem, every Banach

space is isometrically isomorphic to a subspace of some
C(K).[7] For every separable Banach space X, there is a
closed subspace M of 1 such that X 1 /M.[8]

The disk algebra A(D) consists of functions

holomorphic in the open unit disk D C and continuous on its closure: D. Equipped with the max norm
on D, the disk algebra A(D) is a closed subalgebra
of C(D).
The Wiener algebra A(T) is the algebra of functions on the unit circle T with absolutely convergent
Fourier series. Via the map associating a function
on T to the sequence of its Fourier coecients, this
algebra is isomorphic to the Banach algebra 1 (Z),
where the product is the convolution of sequences.
For every Banach space X, the space B(X) of
bounded linear operators on X, with the composition of maps as product, is a Banach algebra.

2.5

Dual space

A C*-algebra is a complex Banach algebra A with

an antilinear involution a a such that ||a a|| =
||a||2 . The space B(H) of bounded linear operators on a Hilbert space H is a fundamental example of C*-algebra. The GelfandNaimark theorem
states that every C*-algebra is isometrically isomorphic to a C*-subalgebra of some B(H). The space
C(K) of complex continuous functions on a compact Hausdor space K is an example of commutative C*-algebra, where the involution associates to
every function f its complex conjugate f .

2.5

3
of the hyperplane, the second convex set lies on the other
side but may touch the hyperplane.[11]
A subset S in a Banach space X is total if the linear span
of S is dense in X. The subset S is total in X if and only
if the only continuous linear functional that vanishes on
S is the 0 functional: this equivalence follows from the
HahnBanach theorem.
If X is the direct sum of two closed linear subspaces M
and N, then the dual X of X is isomorphic to the direct
sum of the duals of M and N.[12] If M is a closed linear
subspace in X, one can associate the orthogonal of M in
the dual,

Dual space

Main article: Dual space

If X is a normed space and K the underlying eld (either
the real or the complex numbers), the continuous dual
space is the space of continuous linear maps from X into
K, or continuous linear functionals. The notation for
the continuous dual is X = B(X, K) in this article.[9] Since
K is a Banach space (using the absolute value as norm),
the dual X is a Banach space, for every normed space X.
The main tool for proving the existence of continuous linear functionals is the HahnBanach theorem.
HahnBanach theorem. Let X be a vector
space over the eld K = R, C. Let further

M = {x X : x (m) = 0, m M } .
The orthogonal M is a closed linear subspace of the
dual. The dual of M is isometrically isomorphic to X
/ M . The dual of X / M is isometrically isomorphic to
M .[13]
The dual of a separable Banach space need not be separable, but:
Theorem.[14] Let X be a normed space. If X
is separable, then X is separable.
When X is separable, the above criterion for totality can
be used for proving the existence of a countable total subset in X.

Y X be a linear subspace,
p : X R be a sublinear function and

2.5.1 Weak topologies

f : Y K be a linear functional so that

Re( f (y)) p(y) for all y in Y.

The weak topology on a Banach space X is the coarsest

topology on X for which all elements x in the continuous dual space X are continuous. The norm topology is
Then, there exists a linear functional F : X
therefore ner than the weak topology. It follows from the
K so that
HahnBanach separation theorem that the weak topology is Hausdor, and that a norm-closed convex subF |Y = f, and x X, Re(F (x)) p(x).
set of a Banach space is also weakly closed.[15] A normIn particular, every continuous linear functional on a sub- continuous linear map between two Banach spaces X and
continuous from the
space of a normed space can be continuously extended Y is also weakly continuous, i.e.,
[16]
weak
topology
of
X
to
that
of
Y.
to the whole space, without increasing the norm of the
functional.[10] An important special case is the following: If X is innite-dimensional, there exist linear maps which
for every vector x in a normed space X, there exists a are not continuous. The space X of all linear maps from
continuous linear functional f on X such that
X to the underlying eld K (this space X is called the
algebraic dual space, to distinguish it from X ) also induces a topology on X which is ner than the weak topology, and much less used in functional analysis.
f (x) = xX , f X 1.
On a dual space X , there is a topology weaker than the
When x is not equal to the 0 vector, the functional f must weak topology of X , called weak* topology. It is the
have norm one, and is called a norming functional for coarsest topology on X for which all evaluation maps
x.
x X x(x), x X, are continuous. Its importance
The HahnBanach separation theorem states that two comes from the BanachAlaoglu theorem.
disjoint non-empty convex sets in a real Banach space,
BanachAlaoglu Theorem. Let X be a
one of them open, can be separated by a closed ane
hyperplane. The open convex set lies strictly on one side
normed vector space. Then the closed unit ball

2 GENERAL THEORY
B = {x X : ||x|| 1} of the dual space is
compact in the weak* topology.

More generally, by the GelfandMazur theorem, the

maximal ideals of a unital commutative Banach algebra
can be identied with its charactersnot merely as sets
The BanachAlaoglu theorem depends on Tychonos but as topological spaces: the former with the hull-kernel
theorem about innite products of compact spaces. topology and the latter with the w*-topology. In this idenWhen X is separable, the unit ball B of the dual is a tication, the maximal ideal space can be viewed as a w*compact subset of the unit ball in the dual A .
metrizable compact in the weak* topology.[17]
2.5.2

Theorem. If K is a compact Hausdor space,

then the maximal ideal space of the Banach
algebra C(K) is homeomorphic to K.[19]

Examples of dual spaces

The dual of c0 is isometrically isomorphic to 1 : for every bounded linear functional f on c0 , there is a unique Not every unital commutative Banach algebra is of the
form C(K) for some compact Hausdor space K. Howelement y = {yn} 1 such that
ever, this statement holds if one places C(K) in the
smaller category of commutative C*-algebras. Gelfands

representation
theorem for commutative C*-algebras
f (x) =
xn yn ,
x = {xn } c0 , and f (c0 ) = y
1 .
states
that
every
commutative unital C*-algebra A is isonN
metrically isomorphic to a C(K) space.[24] The Hausdor
The dual of 1 is isometrically isomorphic to . The compact space K here is again the maximal ideal space,
dual of Lp ([0, 1]) is isometrically isomorphic to Lq ([0, also called the spectrum of A in the C*-algebra context.
1]) when 1 p < and 1/p + 1/q = 1.
For every vector y in a Hilbert space H, the mapping

2.5.3 Bidual

x H fy (x) = x, y

If X is a normed space, the (continuous) dual X of the

dual X is called bidual, or second dual of X. For every
normed space X, there is a natural map,

denes a continuous linear functional fy on H. The Riesz

representation theorem states that every continuous linear {
functional on H is of the form fy for a uniquely dened
FX : X X
vector y in H. The mapping y H fy is an antilinear
FX (x)(f ) = f (x) x X, f X
isometric bijection from H onto its dual H . When the
This denes FX(x) as a continuous linear functional on X
scalars are real, this map is an isometric isomorphism.
, i.e., an element of X . The map FX : x FX(x) is
When K is a compact Hausdor topological space, the a linear map from X to X . As a consequence of the
dual M(K) of C(K) is the space of Radon measures in existence of a norming functional f for every x in X, this
the sense of Bourbaki.[18] The subset P(K) of M(K) con- map FX is isometric, thus injective.
sisting of non-negative measures of mass 1 (probability
1
measures) is a convex w*-closed subset of the unit ball For example, the dual of X = c0 is identied with , and
1

of M(K). The extreme points of P(K) are the Dirac mea- the dual of is identied with , the space of bounded
sures on K. The set of Dirac measures on K, equipped scalar sequences. Under these identications, FX is the
inclusion map from c0 to . It is indeed isometric, but
with the w*-topology, is homeomorphic to K.
not onto.
BanachStone Theorem. If K and L are compact Hausdor spaces and if C(K) and C(L) are
isometrically isomorphic, then the topological
spaces K and L are homeomorphic.[19][20]

If FX is surjective, then the normed space X is called reexive (see below). Being the dual of a normed space, the
bidual X is complete, therefore, every reexive normed
space is a Banach space.

Using the isometric embedding FX, it is customary to

consider a normed space X as a subset of its bidual. When
X is a Banach space, it is viewed as a closed linear subspace of X . If X is not reexive, the unit ball of X is a
proper subset of the unit ball of X . The Goldstine theorem states that the unit ball of a normed space is weakly*In the commutative Banach algebra C(K), the maximal dense in the unit ball of the bidual. In other words, for
every x in the bidual, there exists a net {xj} in X so that
ideals are precisely kernels of Dirac mesures on K,

The result has been extended by Amir[21] and

Cambern[22] to the case when the multiplicative
BanachMazur distance between C(K) and C(L) is < 2.
The theorem is no longer true when the distance is =
2.[23]

Ix = ker x = {f C(K) : f (x) = 0},

x K.

sup xj x , x (f ) = lim f (xj ),

j

f X .

2.7

Reexivity

The net may be replaced by a weakly*-convergent seCorollary. If a Banach space X is the interquence when the dual X is separable. On the other hand,
nal direct sum of closed subspaces M 1 , ..., Mn,
elements of the bidual of 1 that are not in 1 cannot be
then X is isomorphic to M 1 ... Mn.
weak*-limit of sequences in 1 , since 1 is weakly sequentially complete.
This is another consequence of Banachs isomorphism
theorem, applied to the continuous bijection from M 1
... Mn onto X sending (m1 , ..., mn) to the sum m1 + ...
2.6 Banachs theorems
+ mn.
Here are the main general results about Banach spaces
The Closed Graph Theorem. Let T : X
that go back to the time of Banachs book (Banach
Y be a linear mapping between Banach spaces.
(1932)) and are related to the Baire category theorem.
The graph of T is closed in X Y if and only
According to this theorem, a complete metric space (such
if T is continuous.
as a Banach space, a Frchet space or an F-space) cannot be equal to a union of countably many closed subsets
with empty interiors. Therefore, a Banach space cannot 2.7 Reexivity
be the union of countably many closed subspaces, unless
it is already equal to one of them; a Banach space with a Main article: Reexive space
countable Hamel basis is nite-dimensional.
BanachSteinhaus Theorem. Let X be a Banach space and Y be a normed vector space.
Suppose that F is a collection of continuous linear operators from X to Y. The uniform boundedness principle states that if for all x in X we
have supTF ||T(x)||Y < , then supTF ||T||Y
< .

The normed space X is called reexive when the natural

map
{
FX : X X
FX (x)(f ) = f (x) x X, f X
is surjective. Reexive normed spaces are Banach spaces.

The BanachSteinhaus theorem is not limited to Banach

Theorem. If X is a reexive Banach space,
spaces. It can be extended for example to the case where
every closed subspace of X and every quotient
X is a Frchet space, provided the conclusion is modispace of X are reexive.
ed as follows: under the same hypothesis, there exists
a neighborhood U of 0 in X such that all T in F are uni- This is a consequence of the HahnBanach theorem. Furformly bounded on U,
ther, by the open mapping theorem, if there is a bounded
linear operator from the Banach space X onto the Banach
space Y, then Y is reexive.
sup sup T (x)Y < .
T F xU
Theorem. If X is a Banach space, then X is
reexive if and only if X is reexive.
The Open Mapping Theorem. Let X and Y
be Banach spaces and T : X Y be a continuCorollary. Let X be a reexive Banach space.
ous linear operator. Then T is surjective if and
Then X is separable if and only if X is sepaonly if T is an open map.
rable.
Corollary. Every one-to-one bounded linear
operator from a Banach space onto a Banach
space is an isomorphism.

Indeed, if the dual Y of a Banach space Y is separable,

then Y is separable. If X is reexive and separable, then
the dual of X is separable, so X is separable.

The First Isomorphism Theorem for Banach spaces. Suppose that X and Y are Banach spaces and that T B(X, Y). Suppose further that the range of T is closed in Y. Then X/
Ker(T) is isomorphic to T(X).

Theorem. Suppose that X1 , ..., Xn are normed

spaces and that X = X1 ... Xn. Then X is
reexive if and only if each Xj is reexive.

Hilbert spaces are reexive. The Lp spaces are reexive when 1 < p < . More generally, uniformly conThis result is a direct consequence of the preceding Ba- vex spaces are reexive, by the MilmanPettis theorem.
nach isomorphism theorem and of the canonical factoriza- The spaces c0 , 1 , L1 ([0, 1]), C([0, 1]) are not reexive. In these examples of non-reexive spaces X, the
tion of bounded linear maps.

2 GENERAL THEORY

bidual X is much larger than X. Namely, under the

natural isometric embedding of X into X given by the
HahnBanach theorem, the quotient X / X is innitedimensional, and even nonseparable. However, Robert C.
James has constructed an example[25] of a non-reexive
space, usually called "the James space" and denoted by
J,[26] such that the quotient J / J is one-dimensional.
Furthermore, this space J is isometrically isomorphic to
its bidual.
Theorem. A Banach space X is reexive if
and only if its unit ball is compact in the weak
topology.

and weakly* convergent sequences are norm bounded, as

a consequence of the BanachSteinhaus theorem.
When the sequence {xn} in X is a weakly Cauchy sequence, the limit L above denes a bounded linear functional on the dual X , i.e., an element L of the bidual of
X, and L is the limit of {xn} in the weak*-topology of the
bidual. The Banach space X is weakly sequentially complete if every weakly Cauchy sequence is weakly convergent in X. It follows from the preceding discussion that
reexive spaces are weakly sequentially complete.
Theorem. [28] For every measure , the space
L1 () is weakly sequentially complete.

When X is reexive, it follows that all closed and bounded

convex subsets of X are weakly compact. In a Hilbert
space H, the weak compactness of the unit ball is very
often used in the following way: every bounded sequence
in H has weakly convergent subsequences.

An orthonormal sequence in a Hilbert space is a simple example of a weakly convergent sequence, with limit
equal to the 0 vector. The unit vector basis of p , 1 < p
< , or of c0 , is another example of a weakly null sequence, i.e., a sequence that converges weakly to 0. For
Weak compactness of the unit ball provides a tool every weakly null sequence in a Banach space, there exfor nding solutions in reexive spaces to certain ists a sequence of convex combinations of vectors from
[29]
optimization problems. For example, every convex con- the given sequence that is norm-converging to 0.
tinuous function on the unit ball B of a reexive space The unit vector basis of 1 is not weakly Cauchy.
attains its minimum at some point in B.
Weakly Cauchy sequences in 1 are weakly conver1
As a special case of the preceding result, when X is a gent, since L -spaces are weakly sequentially complete.
1
reexive space over R, every continuous linear functional Actually, weakly convergent sequences in are norm
[30]
1
f in X attains its maximum || f || on the unit ball of convergent. This means that satises Schurs propX. The following theorem of Robert C. James provides a erty.
converse statement.
2.8.1 Results involving the 1 basis
James Theorem. For a Banach space the following two properties are equivalent:
X is reexive.
for all f in X there exists x in X with ||x||
1, so that f (x) = || f ||.
The theorem can be extended to give a characterization
of weakly compact convex sets.

Weakly Cauchy sequences and the 1 basis are the opposite cases of the dichotomy established in the following
deep result of H. P. Rosenthal.[31]
Theorem.[32] Let {xn} be a bounded sequence
in a Banach space. Either {xn} has a weakly
Cauchy subsequence, or it admits a subsequence equivalent to the standard unit vector
basis of 1 .

On every non-reexive Banach space X, there exist continuous linear functionals that are not norm-attaining.
A complement to this result is due to Odell and Rosenthal
However, the BishopPhelps theorem[27] states that
(1975).
norm-attaining functionals are norm dense in the dual X
of X.
Theorem.[33] Let X be a separable Banach
space. The following are equivalent:

2.8

Weak convergences of sequences

A sequence {xn} in a Banach space X is weakly convergent to a vector x X if f (xn) converges to f (x) for
every continuous linear functional f in the dual X . The
sequence {xn} is a weakly Cauchy sequence if f (xn)
converges to a scalar limit L( f ), for every f in X . A
sequence { fn } in the dual X is weakly* convergent
to a functional f X if fn (x) converges to f (x) for every x in X. Weakly Cauchy sequences, weakly convergent

The space X does not contain a closed

subspace isomorphic to 1 .
Every element of the bidual X is the
weak*-limit of a sequence {xn} in X.
By the Goldstine theorem, every element of the unit ball B
of X is weak*-limit of a net in the unit ball of X. When
X does not contain 1 , every element of B is weak*-limit
of a sequence in the unit ball of X.[34]

7
When the Banach space X is separable, the unit ball of the
dual X , equipped with the weak*-topology, is a metriz

able compact space K,[17] and every element x in the x =

xn en ,
bidual X denes a bounded function on K:
n=0

x K 7 x (x ),

|x (x )| x .

This function is continuous for the compact topology of K

if and only if x is actually in X, considered as subset of
X . Assume in addition for the rest of the paragraph that
X does not contain 1 . By the preceding result of Odell
and Rosenthal, the function x is the pointwise limit on
K of a sequence {xn} X of continuous functions on K,
it is therefore a rst Baire class function on K. The unit
ball of the bidual is a pointwise compact subset of the rst
Baire class on K.[35]

i.e., x = lim Pn (x), Pn (x) :=

n

xk ek .

k=0

Banach spaces with a Schauder basis are necessarily

separable, because the countable set of nite linear combinations with rational coecients (say) is dense.
It follows from the BanachSteinhaus theorem that the
linear mappings {Pn} are uniformly bounded by some
constant C. Let {e
n} denote the coordinate functionals which assign to every x in X the coordinate xn of x in the above expansion.
They are called biorthogonal functionals. When the basis vectors have norm 1, the coordinate functionals {e
n} have norm 2C in the dual of X.

Most classical separable spaces have explicit bases. The

Haar system {hn} is a basis for Lp ([0, 1]), 1 p < .
The trigonometric system is a basis in Lp (T) when 1 < p
2.8.2 Sequences, weak and weak* compactness
< . The Schauder system is a basis in the space C([0,
1]).[39] The question of whether the disk algebra A(D)
When X is separable, the unit ball of the dual is weak*has a basis[40] remained open for more than forty years,
compact by BanachAlaoglu and metrizable for the
until Bokarev showed in 1974 that A(D) admits a basis
weak* topology,[17] hence every bounded sequence in the
constructed from the Franklin system.[41]
dual has weakly* convergent subsequences. This applies
to separable reexive spaces, but more is true in this case, Since every vector x in a Banach space X with a basis is
the limit of Pn(x), with Pn of nite rank and uniformly
as stated below.
bounded, the space X satises the bounded approximaThe weak topology of a Banach space X is metrizable
tion property. The rst example by Eno of a space
if and only if X is nite-dimensional.[36] If the dual X
failing the approximation property was at the same time
is separable, the weak topology of the unit ball of X is
the rst example of a separable Banach space without a
metrizable. This applies in particular to separable reexSchauder basis.[42]
ive Banach spaces. Although the weak topology of the
unit ball is not metrizable in general, one can character- Robert C. James characterized reexivity in Banach
spaces with a basis: the space X with a Schauder baize weak compactness using sequences.
sis is reexive if and only if the basis is both shrinking
and boundedly complete.[43] In this case, the biorthogo[37]
Eberleinmulian theorem.
A set A in a
nal functionals form a basis of the dual of X.
Banach space is relatively weakly compact if
and only if every sequence {an} in A has a
weakly convergent subsequence.

4 Tensor product

A Banach space X is reexive if and only if each bounded

sequence in X has a weakly convergent subsequence.[38] Main article: Tensor product
Let X and Y be two K-vector spaces. The tensor product
A weakly compact subset A in 1 is norm-compact. In- X Y of X and Y is a K-vector space Z with a bilinear
deed, every sequence in A has weakly convergent subse- mapping T : X Y Z which has the following universal
quences by Eberleinmulian, that are norm convergent property:
by the Schur property of 1 .

Schauder bases

If T 1 : X Y Z 1 is any bilinear mapping into

a K-vector space Z 1 , then there exists a unique
linear mapping f : Z Z 1 such that T 1 = f
T.

Main article: Schauder basis

The image under T of a couple (x, y) in X Y is denoted
A Schauder basis in a Banach space X is a sequence by x y, and called a simple tensor. Every element z in
{en}n of vectors in X with the property that for every X Y is a nite sum of such simple tensors.
vector x in X, there exist uniquely dened scalars {xn}n There are various norms that can be placed on the tensor
depending on x, such that
product of the underlying vector spaces, amongst others

5 SOME CLASSIFICATION RESULTS

one when Y is the dual of X. Precisely, for every Banach
space X, the map

b X X
b X
X
is one-to-one if and only if X has the approximation
property.[48]
b Y and X
b Y must
Grothendieck conjectured that X
be dierent whenever X and Y are innite-dimensional
Banach spaces. This was disproved by Gilles Pisier in
1983.[49] Pisier constructed an innite-dimensional Bab X and X
b X are equal.
nach space X such that X
Furthermore, just as Enos example, this space X is a
hand-made space that fails to have the approximation
the projective cross norm and injective cross norm intro- property. On the other hand, Szankowski proved that
duced by A. Grothendieck in 1955.[44]
the classical space B(2 ) does not have the approximation
In general, the tensor product of complete spaces is not property.[50]
complete again. When working with Banach spaces, it is
customary to say that the projective tensor product[45]
b Y 5 Some classication results
of two Banach spaces X and Y is the completion X
of the algebraic tensor product X Y equipped with the
projective tensor norm, and similarly for the injective
b Y . Grothendieck proved in par- 5.1 Characterizations of Hilbert space
tensor product[46] X
[47]
among Banach spaces
ticular that
b Y C(K, Y ),
C(K)
b Y L1 ([0, 1], Y ),
L ([0, 1])
1

where K is a compact Hausdor space, C(K, Y) the Banach space of continuous functions from K to Y and
L1 ([0, 1], Y) the space of Bochner-measurable and integrable functions from [0, 1] to Y, and where the isomorphisms are isometric. The two isomorphisms above
are the respective extensions of the map sending the tensor f y to the vector-valued function s K f (s)y
Y.

4.1

A necessary and sucient condition for the norm of a

Banach space X to be associated to an inner product is
the parallelogram identity:

x, y X :

(
)
x+y2 +xy2 = 2 x2 + y2 .

It follows, for example, that the Lebesgue space Lp ([0,

1]) is a Hilbert space only when p = 2. If this identity
is satised, the associated inner product is given by the
polarization identity. In the case of real scalars, this gives:

x, y =

1
4

(
)
x + y2 x y2 .

Tensor products and the approximaFor complex scalars, dening the inner product so as to
tion property

be C-linear in x, antilinear in y, the polarization identity

b X is gives:
Let X be a Banach space. The tensor product X
identied isometrically with the closure in B(X) of the set
of nite rank operators. When X has the approximation
property, this closure coincides with the space of compact x, y = 1 (x + y2 x y2 + i (x + iy2 x iy2 )) .
4
operators on X.
For every Banach space Y, there is a natural norm 1 linear To see that the parallelogram law is sucient, one observes in the real case that < x, y > is symmetric, and in
map
the complex case, that it satises the Hermitian symmetry property and < ix, y > = i < x, y >. The parallelogram
law implies that < x, y > is additive in x. It follows that it
b X Y
b X
Y
is linear over the rationals, thus linear by continuity.
obtained by extending the identity map of the algebraic Several characterizations of spaces isomorphic (rather
tensor product. Grothendieck related the approximation than isometric) to Hilbert spaces are available. The parproblem to the question of whether this map is one-to- allelogram law can be extended to more than two vectors,

9
and weakened by the introduction of a two-sided inequal- to 2, see above the results by Amir and Cambern. Ality with a constant c 1: Kwapie proved that if
though uncountable compact metric spaces can have different homeomorphy types, one has the following result
due to Milutin:[57]


2
n
n
n

2
2
xk
xk Ave
xk c2
c2
Theorem.[58] Let K be an uncountable com

k=1
k=1
k=1
pact metric space. Then C(K) is isomorphic to
C([0, 1]).
for every integer n and all families of vectors {x1 , ...,
xn} X, then the Banach space X is isomorphic to a
The situation is dierent for countably innite compact
Hilbert space.[51] Here, Ave denotes the average over
Hausdor spaces. Every countably innite compact K is
n
the 2 possible choices of signs 1. In the same artihomeomorphic to some closed interval of ordinal numcle, Kwapie proved that the validity of a Banach-valued
bers
Parsevals theorem for the Fourier transform characterizes Banach spaces isomorphic to Hilbert spaces.
Lindenstrauss and Tzafriri proved that a Banach space
in which every closed linear subspace is complemented
(that is, is the range of a bounded linear projection) is
isomorphic to a Hilbert space.[52] The proof rests upon
Dvoretzkys theorem about Euclidean sections of highdimensional centrally symmetric convex bodies. In other
words, Dvoretzkys theorem states that for every integer n, any nite-dimensional normed space, with dimension suciently large compared to n, contains subspaces
nearly isometric to the n-dimensional Euclidean space.

1, = { : 1 }
equipped with the order topology, where is a countably innite ordinal.[59] The Banach space C(K) is then
isometric to C(<1, >). When , are two countably
innite ordinals, and assuming , the spaces C(<1,
>) and C(<1, >) are isomorphic if and only if < .[60]
For example, the Banach spaces

The next result gives the solution of the so-called homo- C(1, ), C(1, ), C(1, ), C(1, ), , C(1, ),
geneous space problem. An innite-dimensional Banach
are mutually non-isomorphic.
space X is said to be homogeneous if it is isomorphic
to all its innite-dimensional closed subspaces. A Banach space isomorphic to 2 is homogeneous, and Banach
6 Examples
asked for the converse.[53]

Theorem.[54] A Banach space isomorphic to

all its innite-dimensional closed subspaces is
isomorphic to a separable Hilbert space.
An innite-dimensional Banach space is hereditarily indecomposable when no subspace of it can be isomorphic to the direct sum of two innite-dimensional Banach
spaces. The Gowers dichotomy theorem[54] asserts that
every innite-dimensional Banach space X contains, either a subspace Y with unconditional basis, or a hereditarily indecomposable subspace Z, and in particular, Z
is not isomorphic to its closed hyperplanes.[55] If X is homogeneous, it must therefore have an unconditional basis.
It follows then from the partial solution obtained by Komorowski and TomczakJaegermann, for spaces with an
unconditional basis,[56] that X is isomorphic to 2 .

5.2

Spaces of continuous functions

When two compact Hausdor spaces K 1 and K 2 are

homeomorphic, the Banach spaces C(K 1 ) and C(K 2 ) are
isometric. Conversely, when K 1 is not homeomorphic
to K 2 , the (multiplicative) BanachMazur distance between C(K 1 ) and C(K 2 ) must be greater than or equal

Main article: List of Banach spaces

A glossary of symbols:
K = R, C;
X is a compact Hausdor space;
I is a closed and bounded interval [a, b];
p, q are real numbers with 1 < p, q < so that 1/p
+ 1/q = 1.
is a -algebra of sets;
is an algebra of sets (for spaces only requiring nite additivity, such as the ba space);
is a measure with variation ||.

7 Derivatives
Several concepts of a derivative may be dened on a Banach space. See the articles on the Frchet derivative and
the Gteaux derivative for details. The Frchet derivative allows for an extension of the concept of a directional

10

10 NOTES

derivative to Banach spaces. The Gteaux derivative allows for an extension of a directional derivative to locally
convex topological vector spaces. Frchet dierentiability is a stronger condition than Gteaux dierentiability.
The quasi-derivative is another generalization of directional derivative that implies a stronger condition than
Gteaux dierentiability, but a weaker condition than
Frchet dierentiability.

Generalizations

[12] see p. 19 in Carothers (2005).

[13] Theorems 1.10.16, 1.10.17 pp.9495 in Megginson
(1998)
[14] Theorem 1.12.11, p. 112 in Megginson (1998)
[15] Theorem 2.5.16, p. 216 in Megginson (1998).
[16] see II.A.8, p. 29 in Wojtaszczyk (1991)
[17] see Theorem 2.6.23, p. 231 in Megginson (1998).
[18] see N. Bourbaki, (2004), Integration I, Springer Verlag,
ISBN 3-540-41129-1.

Several important spaces in functional analysis, for instance the space of all innitely often dierentiable func- [19] Eilenberg, Samuel (1942). Banach Space Methods
in Topology. Annals of Mathematics. 43 (3): 568.
tions R R, or the space of all distributions on R, are
doi:10.2307/1968812.
complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not
Banach spaces. In Frchet spaces one still has a com- [20] see also Banach (1932), p. 170 for metrizable K and L.
plete metric, while LF-spaces are complete uniform vec[21] See Amir, D. (1965). On isomorphisms of continuous
tor spaces arising as limits of Frchet spaces.
function spaces. Israel J. Math. 3: 205210.

See also
Space (mathematics)
Hilbert space
Lp space
Sobolev space
Hardy space
Interpolation space
Distortion problem

10

Notes

[1] Bourbaki 1987, V.86

[22] Cambern, M. (1966). A generalized Banach-Stone theorem. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 17: 396400. And Cambern, M. (1967). On isomorphisms with small bound.
Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 18: 10621066.
[23] Cohen, H. B. (1975). A bound-two isomorphism between C(X) Banach spaces. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc.
50: 215217.
[24] See for example Arveson, W. (1976). An Invitation to C*Algebra. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-90176-0.
[25] R. C. James (1951).
A non-reexive Banach
space isometric with its second conjugate space.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 37: 174177.
doi:10.1073/pnas.37.3.174.
[26] see Lindenstrauss & Tzafriri (1977), p. 25.
[27] see E. Bishop and R. Phelps, A proof that every Banach space is subreexive. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 67
(1961), 9798.

[2] see Theorem 1.3.9, p. 20 in Megginson (1998).

[28] see III.C.14, p. 140 in Wojtaszczyk (1991).
[3] see Corollary 1.4.18, p. 32 in Megginson (1998).
[29] see Corollary 2, p. 11 in Diestel (1984).
[4] see Banach (1932), p. 182.
[5] see pp. 1719 in Carothers (2005).
[6] see Banach (1932), pp. 11-12.
[7] see Banach (1932), Th. 9 p. 185.
[8] see Theorem 6.1, p. 55 in Carothers (2005)
[9] Several books about functional analysis use the notation X for the continuous dual, for example Carothers
(2005), Lindenstrauss & Tzafriri (1977), Megginson
(1998), Ryan (2002), Wojtaszczyk (1991).
[10] Theorem 1.9.6, p. 75 in Megginson (1998)
[11] see also Theorem 2.2.26, p. 179 in Megginson (1998)

[30] see p. 85 in Diestel (1984).

[31] Rosenthal, Haskell P. (1974), A characterization of Banach spaces containing 1 ", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
U.S.A. 71:24112413. Rosenthals proof is for real
scalars. The complex version of the result is due to L.
Dor, in Dor, Leonard E. (1975), On sequences spanning
a complex 1 space, Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 47:515
516.
[32] see p. 201 in Diestel (1984).
[33] Odell, Edward W.; Rosenthal, Haskell P. (1975),
A double-dual characterization of separable Banach
spaces containing 1 ", Israel J. Math., 20: 375384,
doi:10.1007/bf02760341.

11

[34] Odell and Rosenthal, Sublemma p. 378 and Remark p.

379.

[54] Gowers, W. T. (1996), A new dichotomy for Banach

spaces, Geom. Funct. Anal. 6:10831093.

[35] for more on pointwise compact subsets of the Baire

class, see Bourgain, Jean; Fremlin, D. H.; Talagrand,
Michel (1978), Pointwise Compact Sets of BaireMeasurable Functions, Am. J. Math., 100: 845886,
doi:10.2307/2373913, JSTOR 2373913.

[55] see Gowers, W. T. (1994), A solution to Banachs hyperplane problem, Bull. London Math. Soc. 26:523530.

[36] see Proposition 2.5.14, p. 215 in Megginson (1998).

[37] see for example p. 49, II.C.3 in Wojtaszczyk (1991).
[38] see Corollary 2.8.9, p. 251 in Megginson (1998).
[39] see Lindenstrauss & Tzafriri (1977) p. 3.
[40] the question appears p. 238, 3 in Banachs book, Banach
(1932).
[41] see S. V. Bokarev, Existence of a basis in the space
of functions analytic in the disc, and some properties of
Franklins system. (Russian) Mat. Sb. (N.S.) 95(137)
(1974), 318, 159.
[42] see P. Eno, A counterexample to the approximation
property in Banach spaces. Acta Math. 130, 309
317(1973).

[56] see Komorowski, Ryszard A. and TomczakJaegermann,

Nicole (1995), Banach spaces without local unconditional structure, Israel J. Math. 89:205226 and also
(1998), Erratum to: Banach spaces without local unconditional structure, Israel J. Math. 105:8592.
[57] Milyutin, Alekse A. (1966), Isomorphism of the spaces
of continuous functions over compact sets of the cardinality of the continuum. (Russian) Teor. Funkci
Funkcional. Anal. i Priloen. Vyp. 2:150156.
[58] Milutin. See also Rosenthal, Haskell P., The Banach
spaces C(K)" in Handbook of the geometry of Banach
spaces, Vol. 2, 15471602, North-Holland, Amsterdam,
2003.
[59] One can take = n , where + 1 is the Cantor
Bendixson rank of K, and n > 0 is the nite number of points in the -th derived set K () of K. See
Mazurkiewicz, Stefan; Sierpiski, Wacaw (1920), Contribution la topologie des ensembles dnombrables,
Fundamenta Mathematicae 1: 1727.

[43] see R.C. James, Bases and reexivity of Banach spaces.

Ann. of Math. (2) 52, (1950). 518527. See also
Lindenstrauss & Tzafriri (1977) p. 9.

[60] Bessaga, Czesaw; Peczyski, Aleksander (1960),

Spaces of continuous functions. IV. On isomorphical
classication of spaces of continuous functions, Studia
Math. 19:5362.

[44] see A. Grothendieck, Produits tensoriels topologiques

et espaces nuclaires. Mem. Amer. Math. Soc.
1955 (1955), no. 16, 140 pp., and A. Grothendieck,
Rsum de la thorie mtrique des produits tensoriels
topologiques. Bol. Soc. Mat. So Paulo 8 1953 179.

11 References

[45] see chap. 2, p. 15 in Ryan (2002).

[46] see chap. 3, p. 45 in Ryan (2002).
[47] see Example. 2.19, p. 29, and pp. 4950 in Ryan (2002).
[48] see Proposition 4.6, p. 74 in Ryan (2002).
[49] see Pisier, Gilles (1983), Counterexamples to a conjecture of Grothendieck, Acta Math. 151:181208.
[50] see Szankowski, Andrzej (1981), "B(H) does not have the
approximation property, Acta Math. 147: 89108. Ryan
claims that this result is due to Per Eno, p. 74 in Ryan
(2002).
[51] see Kwapie, S. (1970), A linear topological characterization of inner-product spaces, Studia Math. 38:277
278.

Banach, Stefan (1932), Thorie des oprations

linaires (PDF), Monograe Matematyczne, 1,
Warszawa: Subwencji Funduszu Kultury Narodowej, Zbl 0005.20901.
Beauzamy, Bernard (1985) [1982], Introduction to
Banach Spaces and their Geometry (Second revised
ed.), North-Holland.
Bourbaki, Nicolas (1987), Topological vector
spaces, Elements of mathematics, Berlin: SpringerVerlag, ISBN 978-3-540-13627-9.
Carothers, Neal L. (2005), A short course on Banach
space theory, London Mathematical Society Student
Texts, 64, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
pp. xii+184, ISBN 0-521-84283-2.

[52] see Lindenstrauss, J. and Tzafriri, L. (1971), On

the complemented subspaces problem, Israel J. Math.
9:263269.

Diestel, Joseph (1984), Sequences and series in Banach spaces, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 92,
New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. xii+261, ISBN 0387-90859-5.

[53] see p. 245 in Banach (1932). The homogeneity property is called proprit (15)" there. Banach writes: on
ne connat aucun exemple d'espace une innit de dimensions qui, sans tre isomorphe avec (L2 ), possde la
proprit (15)".

Dunford, Nelson; Schwartz, Jacob T. with the assistance of W. G. Bade and R. G. Bartle (1958), Linear Operators. I. General Theory, Pure and Applied
Mathematics, 7, New York: Interscience Publishers, Inc., MR 0117523

12

12

Lindenstrauss, Joram; Tzafriri, Lior (1977), Classical Banach Spaces I, Sequence Spaces, Ergebnisse
der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete, 92, Berlin:
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-08072-4.
Megginson, Robert E. (1998), An introduction to
Banach space theory, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 183, New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. xx+596,
ISBN 0-387-98431-3.
Ryan, Raymond A. (2002), Introduction to Tensor Products of Banach Spaces, Springer Monographs in Mathematics, London: Springer-Verlag,
pp. xiv+225, ISBN 1-85233-437-1.
Wojtaszczyk, Przemysaw (1991), Banach spaces
for analysts, Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics, 25, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. xiv+382, ISBN 0-521-35618-0.

12

External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Banach space,

Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 9781-55608-010-4
Weisstein, Eric W. Banach Space. MathWorld.

EXTERNAL LINKS

13

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