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SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ABACA (Musa textilis Ne) PRODUCTION

IN BILIRAN ISLAND, PHILIPPINES
INTRODUCTION
Nature and Significance of the Study
Abaca fiber, also known as Manila hemp, is obtained from the leafsheaths of the giant
herb Musa textilis Ne. Being one of the strongest among natural fibers, it is stronger than the
fibers derived from hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.), twice
stronger than the fibers of sisal (Agave sisalana P.), and thrice stronger than cotton
(Gossypium spp.) fibers (Vaughan, 2011).
Traditionally, abaca fiber was used merely as a raw material for cordage and rope
(Sievert, 2009), and for the coarse and stiff clothing and footwear among Filipinos (FIDA,
undated). Recently, its industrial uses include specialty papers and composites of car parts
(Sievert, 2009). An enzyme of abaca is now being used in organic and therapeutic skin care
products, soap and beauty cream (Capuno, 2012). Abaca also provides options for
environmental nurturance; e.g. Glatfelter/Newtech Pulp Inc. of Germany requires that abaca
farms producing raw materials for coffee filters should be certified by the Rainforest Alliance
(Abello, 2013).
The abaca plant is endemic to the Philippines, where a warm and wet climate, and
volcanic soils are particularly favorable for its growth (FIDA, 2007; Lalusin, 2010). But due
to its growing number of uses and technological applications, it is already being grown in
Ecuador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Indonesia, and Malaysia (Sievert,
2009). With 85 percent share of global fiber production, the Philippines is recognized as the
abaca capital of the world (Ordoez, 2013; Halos, 2008). Philippine exports of abaca fiber
average 13,434 metric tons per annum, with Eastern Visayas, composed of Leyte, Biliran,
Samar and Pana-on islands, supplying 39 percent of total production (FIDA, 2010 as cited by
Bande, 2012).
Despite high demand, abaca production has been relatively stagnant (Tacio, 2010). This is
mostly attributed to poor quality of abaca fibers, disease infestation, logistical issues in the
supply chain, farmers non-adoption of recommended technologies, and limited value-adding
options at the farm level. These constraints could further be traced to the situation wherein
small-scale farmers neither have access to high-yielding and disease resistant varieties nor the
machinery to properly process the raw materials (Muhlbauer and Hutter, 2002).
In order to assess the constraints and develop new strategies to attain sustainable
production and supply of high quality fibers, an interdisciplinary analysis of the components
of abaca production was attempted. This analysis of the plight of abaca farmers, the primary
drivers of production, can provide insights into ways to assist them overcome their
constraints and optimize their capacity to produce high quality fibers. This research is a
contribution to the interdisciplinary endeavor.

Objectives of the Study

The study aimed to: a) elaborate the information on the socio-economic context of abaca
production; b) provide insights into the contribution to and role of abaca in the household
economy; c) elucidate on the agricultural management and maintenance of the abaca plant,
and conditions for potential expansion; and, d) determine the reasons and conditions for
abaca production in the province of Biliran. For objective d), two hypotheses were tested,
namely: (i) that size of landholdings is correlated to the yield of abaca; and, (ii) that the low
income of farmers is associated with low the yield of abaca farmers.
Time and Place of the Study
The island province of Biliran was selected as the study area. Conduct of personal
interviews with the 200 and 187 randomly selected survey respondents using Socio-economic
Information Sheet (SIS) and Field Practice Information Sheet (FPIS) were conducted from
April to June 2013, respectively. Other relevant information were asked from the
representative of Philippine Fiber Development Authority (PhilFIDA) in Biliran and
Municipal Planning Development Office (MPDO). Secondary data were collated by
reviewing journals, articles and other literatures.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
A sample size of 215 abaca farmers was deemed appropriate for the survey. Field
circumstances, however, only allowed the researcher to interview 200 respondents for the
SIS, and 187 respondents for the FPIS.
An attempt to generate a GIS map of the location of survey respondents abaca farms by
securing the maps of study villages at the MPDO in each municipality was made. However,
the abaca farmers encountered difficulty in pinpointing the location of their farm parcels on
the map; consequently, the effort failed.
Due to time constraints, only a few abaca farms of the survey respondents were visited and
observed.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Botanical Description and Distribution of Abaca plant
According to Sievert (2009), the abaca plant (Musa textilis Ne) is monocotyledonous and
belongs to the same genus (Musa) and family (Musaceae) as dessert bananas and plantains. It
differs from the two Musa plants in the sense that its green fruits are small (the longest
measure only about 8 cm.) and they are filled with smooth, black seeds. Spencer (1953)
described the plant as a tree-like herb growing out of a perennial rootstock to a height of 10 to
28 ft., depending on the variety. Around the edge of rootstock emerge numerous suckershoots which, when mature, convert the plant into rather large clumps of stems and leaves.
The single stems are cylindrical, formed by many overlapping leaf sheaths and range from 8
to 22 ft. in length, and weigh from 50 to 125 lbs., when cut and topped of its leaves. It is
mostly green in color but may be irregularly streaked with deep brown, red or purple. The
leaves are generally deep green on their upper surface and glaucous beneath. The leaf blades
are oblong and mucronate, 3 to 6 ft. in length and generally narrower than those of the
banana. The stalk bearing the flower bud grows upward through the stem in the narrow space
surrounded by the overlapping leaf bases, after the stem reached maturity. Flower spikes
differ in size with the variety, but blossoms are always borne in prominent clusters subtended
by bracts along the rachis of the spike. The fruit remains green, is oblong and trigonous,
generally 2 to 3 inches in length and about an inch in diameter. After the fruit ripens, the stem
deteriorates and dies, if it has not been cut for fiber, and its place is taken by other newer
stems.
Abaca is currently cultivated in almost all provinces in the Philippines, with the exception
of Ilocos, Cagayan, Region 3, Cavite and Batangas (Mussig, 2010). Although it is native to
the country, it has been widely introduced into the different parts of the world. Spencer
(1953) and Dempsey (1963) as mentioned by Bande (2012) documented that the US
government introduced abaca in Latin American countries (i.e., Panama, Ecuador, Costa
Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Brazil, British and French Guiana, Cuba,
Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Trinidad, Mexico, St. Vincent, Bolivia, Peru,
Nicaragua and El Salvador) in 1923. It was also introduced in India (1822), Borneo, East
Africa, West Indies and Florida but were unsuccessful or not commercially viable (Copeland,
1911 as stated by Bande, 2012). In tropical Africa, it has been grown in Cameroon,
Equatorial Guinea (Bioko), Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, but at present it seems to be grown
in Equatorial Guinea and Kenya only (Vaughan, 2011). But today, only the Philippines and
Ecuador are supplying the world market with abaca (Mussig, 2010).
Propagation, Cultivation and Cultural Management
The abaca plant grows in all types of soil but perform well in volcanic soil with welldrained clay loam type and an elevation of less than 1,000 m asl (Milan and Goltenboth,
2005; Sievert, 2009), specifically from 300 m asl to 500 m asl (Aguiba, 2005). It grows best
with an evenly distributed annual rainfall of 20003200 mm, an average temperature of 27C,
a relative humidity of about 80% (Vaughan, 2011) and soil pH of 6.0 to 7.0. (Capuno, 2012;
Sievert, 2009), containing adequate amounts of organic matter, potassium, calcium, and
magnesium (Capuno, 2012). It does not tolerate drought, waterlogging or strong winds. Both
extreme cold and extreme heat cause detriment to the plant (Vaughan, 2011).

Abaca plants can be propagated by seeds or by vegetative cloning (i.e., sucker, corm or
seed pieces, eyebud or tissue culture). Propagation by seeds were used in earlier times but are
no longer used because they do not reproduce true to type and are used only for breeding
work (Halos, 2008 as stated by Bande, 2012). Suckers and corms are the most common
planting materials. Corms are usually preferred over suckers since they are easier to handle
and transport. In the preparation of corms, care should be taken not to destroy the eyebuds.
Mature suckers are used to fill vacant spaces in established plantings. Corms and suckers can
be obtained from existing planted fields or from a specifically-designated nursery with the
plants in double rows 2 m apart, with 1 m between the paired rows and 1 m between plants
within the row. In-vitro grown plants are also used for planting, especially in disease-control
and yield improvement efforts. It can be planted irregularly among fallen trees or in partiallycleared forest, or in a more orderly plantation. Planting materials are spaced at 23 m 23
m, depending on cultivar size, resulting in a plant density of 11002500 plants/ha (Vaughan,
2011).
Since abaca plants are shade-tolerant, they can be intercropped with leguminous trees such
as ipil-ipil [Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit], falcata (Paraserianthes falcataria), anii (Erythrina fusca) and madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) and fruit trees like durian (Durio
zibethinus Murr.), langsat (Lansium domesticum) and jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus
Lam.). During establishment of the plantation, abaca can also be intercropped with other cash
crops such as coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), mungbean,
bushbean, peanut (Arachis hypogea), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), millet and sweetpotato
[Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir]. Later on, when abaca plants are already mature, pineapple
(Ananas comosus), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.)
Schott] can be planted (Sievert, 2009). Research in the Philippines has shown that cover
cropping with leguminous plants such as Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. and Desmodium
heterocarpon (L.) DC. subsp. Ovalifolium (Prain) Ohashi can increase abaca yield since these
plants are capable of nitrogen fixation (Vaughan, 2011). Milan and Goltenboth (2005) also
cited that the plant can be integrated into rainforestation farms and coconut plantations, thus
contributing additional income for farmers as well as help achieve agro-ecologically sound
production of fibers.
Compared to other major crops in the Philippines, it is also one of the few cash crops
that can grow with relatively little input, even in steep forest areas and thereby making it
often the crop of choice of households living in villages at the forest edge (Lacuna-Richman,
2002). The field should be maintained free of weeds during the first year, through shallow
cultivation and ring weeding at 23-month intervals. It has been estimated that 100 t/ha of
fresh pseudostems and leaves of abaca remove 280 kg N, 13 kg P, 430 kg K and 89 kg Ca per
ha. When the fiber is extracted in the field and all other plant parts are returned to the soil, the
nutrient loss is considerably lower and chemical fertilizers are normally not applied. Canals
can help drainage in moisture-retaining soils. Thinning of excess suckers may be performed
so as to limit the number of pseudostems maturing yearly to 8. The duration of profitable
production varies according to cultivar and growing conditions, and in properly maintained
areas production may not decline for over 20 years. In general, however, replanting is
undertaken when plants are 10-15 years old (Vaughan, 2011).

Harvesting, Extraction and Processing of Abaca fiber

One of the most important aspects to consider in processing the abaca stalk into fiber is the
right maturity of the plant. Immature stalks contain underdeveloped fiber that are weak and
ultimately produce lower yield and recovery. However, overmature abaca stalks have higher
percentage of low quality fiber which are coarse and brownish in color (Milan and
Goltenboth, 2005).
Abaca is harvested 18 to 24 months after planting or when the flagleaf starts to appear,
indicating that all leaves have reached full maturity and the stalks possess ideal properties.
Harvesting at this stage minimizes waiting time and the early removal of the stalk promotes
the growth of the follower stalk (Milan and Goltenboth, 2005; Sievert, 2009). Within 24
hours after harvest, the usable leaf sheaths of the pseudostem are peeled away one by one.
The leaf sheaths are normally grouped according to their position in the pseudostem, so as to
separate fibers of different grades. The outermost sheaths give stronger, coarser, darker fiber
(better for cordage), and the innermost sheaths give a lighter-coloured, weaker, finer fiber
(better for paper-making). In a process called tuxying, the outer layers of the leaf-sheaths
are pulled off in ribbons 58 cm wide with a knife or a sharp piece of bamboo. These ribbons
or tuxies are then stripped and cleaned of their pulp (epidermis and parenchyma) to yield
clean fibers (Vaughan, 2011).
Fiber extraction can be done using one of the three methods: hand stripping, spindle
stripping or decortication. Hand stripping is the traditional and most common method used in
the Philippines. It employs the use of a hand stripping machine which is essentially made of
several flexible branches, lashed together with twine that support a hinged knife held opposed
to a wooden base plate. The plant material (tuxy) is stripped of its usable fibers as it is pulled
between the knife and plate. On the other hand, the remaining two methods make use of
spindle and decorticating machines that are powered by engines, making them more efficient
in producing fibers but are more costly to build, operate and maintain (Sievert, 2009).
Specifically, the spindle stripping method uses an engine-driven spindle that pulls the tuxies
between the knife and the flat surface while in mechanical decortication, the entire
pseudostem is crushed and cleaned of its pulp though this yields a lower grade fiber because
both the primary and the secondary fibers of the leaf sheaths are extracted at the same time
and mixed together (Vaughan, 2011). Handstripping normally gives a fiber recovery of 1.2
1.5% of the fresh pseudostem weight, spindle stripping 1.52.5%, and machine decortication
34%. The extracted fiber is hung on poles to dry, under a roof or in the open (or
mechanically, in the case of machine decortication). After a drying period of a few hours to a
few days, the fiber is graded and put in bales of 125 kg. The standard grades in the
Philippines are divided into 2 main classes: hand-stripped and spindle-stripped. Within each
class the fiber is further graded according to strength, cleaning, colour, texture and length.
Pulping is usually accomplished through the soda, alkaline sulphite and kraft processes,
though cold soda pulping (CSP) and chemo-thermo-mechanical pulping (CMTP) also
produce paper with good strength and optical properties. Pulps suitable for the production of
rayon viscose have been prepared from abaca fiber using the kraft and alkaline sulphite
pulping processes. It is possible to biologically bleach abaca kraft pulp using the white rot
fungus called Trametes versicolor.

Economic and Ecological Importance of Abaca in Philippines

The fiber from abaca plant was once the primary source of cloth before the Europeans
arrived in the Philippines. It was first cultivated on a large scale in Sumatra, Indonesia in
1925 under the Dutch, who had observed its cultivation in the Philippines for cordage. This
was followed up by plantings in Central America established by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. With the commencement of World War II, the supply from the Philippines was
eliminated by the Japanese. When the war ended, the Philippines again became the worlds
biggest abaca supplier (Capuno, 2012).
The average annual world production of abaca fiber in 20012005 was about 99,000 tons.
Major producers were the Philippines with an average annual production of about 69,000 tons
(from an average area of about 120,000 hectares) and Ecuador with about 28,000 tons (from
about 20,000 hectares). Minor producers were Costa Rica (1100 tons from 1100 hectares),
Indonesia (600 tons from 600 hectares), Equatorial Guinea (500 tons from 1800 hectares) and
Kenya (30 tons from an unknown area). The producer price per ton of abaca fiber in 2001
2005 increased from US$ 309 to US$ 596 in the Philippines where production of fiber is
primarily done by smallholders. There are 18 companies which are licensed to export abaca
fiber (Vaughan, 2011), generating an average annual earnings of $76 million with an
estimated 1.5 million Filipinos dependent on abaca for their livelihood (Felix, 2006). Capuno
(2012) further emphasized that the abaca industry is of particular importance as it supports
the livelihood of around 140,000 abaca farm workers and strippers, as well as 78,000 small
farmers with approximately more than 430,000 dependents and 143,429 strippers. As of
2010, there were about 107,178 abaca farmers cultivating a total area of 167,145 hectares or
an average of 1.6 hectares per farmer (Fiber Industry Development Authority, 2010). The
study of Lacuna-Richman in 2002 has further showed that abaca is both an important
secondary income source of households with lowland farms, and frequently the only source
of cash income of the poorest households in the community.
In 2004, the Philippines earned $73.513 million in abaca export (Aguiba, 2005). Although
this export income is down from $78.171 million in 2003 as price dropped, volume of export
actually rose to 46,145 metric tons in 2004 (up by 4.8 percent from 44,019 metric tons in
2003), where production in 2004 was at 72,891 metric tons. Specific export products were as
follows: (1) pulp-$40.413 million (20,469 metric tons); (2) fiber- $14.147 million (19,310
metric tons); (3) cordage- $9.064 million (6,365 metric tons); (4) yarns- $196,824; (5)
fabrics-$121,041; and (6) fibercrafts- $73.513 million (46,145 metric tons). In addition, Fiber
Industry Development Authority (2010) also mentioned that for the past ten years, the
Philippines generated an average of US$82.1 million per year from the exports of abaca fiber
and manufactures, 84.4% or an average of US$69.3 million of which came from abaca
manufactures such as pulp, cordage, yarns and fabrics and fibercrafts. The rest (15.6%) was
contributed by raw fiber exports with average earnings of US$12.8 million yearly. From
among the abaca manufactures, pulp continued to lead as the growth area in export with
shipments worth an annual average of US$45.8 million or a 55.8% share to the average
income per year. Meanwhile, export earnings from fibercrafts and cordage/allied products
averaged US$10.6 million (12.9%) and US$12.3 million (15.0%) per annum, respectively;
while those from yarns and fabrics accounted for US$0.6 million (0.7%) of the yearly
average. Export markets are the UK, Japan, US, France, Singapore, and other European
countries (Aguiba, 2006). It is as well implementing a 2.12 billion pesos abaca expansion on
50,390 hectares for 2005 to 2010 as it eyes growth in abaca fibers $70 million yearly export,

especially as markets in developed countries prefer environment-friendly natural fiber over

synthetics (Aguiba, 2005).
Although the ecological importance of abaca plant was previously often underestimated,
since people tend to give more focus on its immediate economic values/returns, that
perspective is dynamically changing. Ordoez (2013) wrote that low-income farmers cut
down trees when they need money which further reduces the already very limited forest
cover, when in fact 90 percent of existing trees in these forested areas have no plants between
them. In this case, cultivation of abaca plant is an ideal solution. Since abaca needs the shade
of trees, the farmers will be motivated to prevent the trees from being cut down. Thus, two
important benefits are derived: a good income for the farmers and an important motivator for
the trees to be protected, therefore resulting in ecological balance. Moreover, it is also
commonly intercropped with other agricultural plants such as grains (upland rice and corn),
bananas , coconuts, rootcrops and vegetables as well as forest trees in land cultivation
practices of farmers, providing additional sources of income (Dargantes, 1996). Intercropping
of abaca with coconut palms and other tree species on the hillsides improve the conditions for
biodiversity, prevents erosion, as well as minimize sedimentation problems in coastal areas
which are important breeding places for sea fishes (Muhlbauer and Hutter, 2002). LacunaRichman (2002) clearly cited in a study the potential of abaca as a source of greater income
to growers while serving as a crop that may actually help in slowing down deforestation.
Unfortunately, this is given little policy attention. Moreover, she stressed out that:
As a common component in traditional agroforestry systems in central Philippines, abaca
is overlooked, a situation that may be ascribed to what Olofson (1983) describes as the
ideological emphasis on scientific experimental agroforestry systems, over seemingly nonscientific forest farming practices.
Pests and Diseases of Abaca plant
Abaca diseases have taken their toll on many abaca farms, particularly in Bicol region.
The uncontrollable devastation caused by viral diseases, bacterial, and fusarium wilt in abaca
further aggravates the farmers abaca production problems (Borines et al., 2007; Milan and
Goltenboth, 2005). Because abaca is perennial and is usually propagated vegetatively, virus
infections are a major concern. The most important viral diseases are abaca bunchy top virus
(ABTV) and abaca mosaic virus (AbaMV). Abaca bunchy top virus, a babuvirus, is the most
destructive disease of Musa textilis. It is transmitted by the banana aphid (Pentalonia
nigronervosa). The virus can spread over long distances, as the wind can widely disperse
winged forms of the aphid, and the virus is persistently retained by the aphid for 512 days.
Infected plants develop chlorotic yellowish-white streaks and transparent veins, resulting to
stunted growth and development of a bunchy rosette growth form in the crown of the plant.
Eventually, the leaf blades dry up and turn brown. Recommended control is through a holistic
approach of spraying to control the aphid vector, followed by removal of infected plants and
herbicide treatment of the stumps to prevent sucker growth. Tissue culture of virus-free
planting materials is important for replanting affected areas.
In addition to the bunchy top virus, the abaca industry was also fighting the abaca mosaic
and bract mosaic viruses in 2005 (Sievert, 2009). The abaca mosaic virus, a potyvirus, is a
strain of sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV). It is transmitted by various aphid species such as
Aphis gossypii, Aphis glycines and Rhopalosiphum maidis, but this transmission is nonpersistent (the virus lasts in the insect for less than four hours). The onset of abaca mosaic is

characterized by mottling of the leaves, consisting of dark to pale green or yellowish streaks,
which extend from the midribs to the margins. Mottling also occurs on other parts of the plant
where affected plants do not grow to full size. Alternate hosts of the disease include
sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.), maize (Zea mays L.), Canna indica L. and Maranta
arundinacea L. Control measures include herbicide treatment, removal of infected plants and
breeding for resistance. Aside from the viral diseases, most important fungal disease of abaca
is Fusarium wilt or Panama disease, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense, which is
also a major disease of the edible banana. It starts with rotting at the base of the pseudostem,
with the rot moving upward until it reaches the leaf blades; plants become yellowish and
eventually wilt. Cross sections of infected pseudostems and corms show black-purple
vascular bundles. The first noticeable symptoms of the disease are the inward curling of the
leaf blades at or near the tip of the lower leaves and the slow growth of the plants. The
disease is spread primarily through planting material and tools and remains in the soil of
infected fields. Hence the main control measures are use of clean planting material, removal
and burning of infected plants, and quarantine of infected fields. Some cultivars demonstrate
tolerance of the disease. Furthermore, other minor fungal diseases are dry sheath rot caused
by Marasmius spp. and a stem rot caused by Deightoniella torulosa. The corm weevil
(Cosmopolites sordidus) is also a major insect pest. It damages the plant by boring tunnels
into the corm at the plant base. It can be controlled with insecticide treatment of planting
material and the plant base, but as this is costly and environmentally hazardous, cultural
control methods are preferred. These include the use of clean planting material, as the main
spread of the weevil is through infested planting material (Vaughan, 2011; Milan and
Goltenboth, 2005). Abaca slug caterpillars of the moth (Thosea sinensis) can as well attack
and consume parts of the leaves, and nematodes can infest the plants roots (Sievert, 2009).
Abaca Production Areas in the Philippines
Abaca is grown in most parts of the country, but the major producing provinces are
Catanduanes, Leyte, Southern Leyte, Davao Oriental, Northern Samar, Sorsogon, Sulu,
Davao del Sur, and Surigao del Sur (Felix, 2006). The biggest abaca plantations in Mindanao
are found in Caraga region (Molbog-Mendoza, 2005) while fibers from Leyte and Southern
Leyte are recognized as having the best quality (Vaughan, 2011).
Abaca productivity varied considerably among abaca-producing regions. From 2001
through 2010, production of abaca fiber averaged 65,701 metric tons per year and had been
decreasing at a minimal rate of 0.8% per annum caused by the devastating typhoons in 2006
coupled with abaca viral diseases that continued to affect the plantations as well as the
dampened foreign demand brought about by the global economic recession beginning in the
latter part of 2008 (considered as the most severe downturn since the Great Depression in the
1930s). Production reached its peak in 2008 at 77,387 metric tons as outputs of all producing
regions (Bicol, Davao Region and Caraga), substantially increased during the period;
primarily, the effect of the incremental production from the abaca plantations established in
2005 and 2006 under FIDAs program Goal I Development of New Agri-Business Lands
and the continued strong demand and attractive prices offered for the fiber by local traders,
processors/manufacturers and exporters. The abaca industry, however, suffered a setback in
2009 when fiber yield slumped to its lowest level of 54,584 metric tons due to the weakened
market demand and falling prices as a consequence of the worldwide financial crisis (Fiber
Industry Development Authority, 2010). On the average, abaca yield in the Bicol Region was
0.45 metric tons per hectare, which was approximately 46% lower than the yield level in
Eastern Visayas. Abaca yield in the Bicol region exhibited a highly fluctuating trend. The

highest yield level was recorded in 1994 (0.54 m ton per hectare) due to favorable weather
condition. On the other hand, Southern Tagalog, which is one of the regions with low abaca
productivity in the country, posted the highest growth rate in abaca yield at 28.6% per year
during the period 1991-97, followed by Northern Mindanao at 26.3% per year. Other regions
which showed an improvement in abaca productivity were Central Mindanao (6.1% per
year), CARAGA (3.8% per year), and Western Mindanao (0.6% per year). In contrast, abaca
productivity in Central Visayas, which was already very low in 1991 (0.20 metric tons per
hectare) further decreased to 0.11 metric tons per hectare in 1997 (Aragon, 2000). LeyteSamar region is the Philippines biggest abaca producing region with an output of 26,322
metric tons as of 2004 or 36 percent of the countrys 72,900 metric tons production yield.
While Bicol has the biggest abaca area, it is only second biggest producing province with a
21,949 metric tons output in 2004 as Bicol farmers cannot use tall varieties because it is a
typhoon belt. The small varieties give a yield of only 400 to 450 metric tons per hectare
(Aguiba, 2005). However, recently, Capuno (2012) reported that abaca is grown in 48
provinces with Catanduanes as the countrys top abaca producer. Its estimated fiber
production from January to May 2011 was 14,140 metric tons. Data from Fiber Industry
Development Authority (FIDA) showed that it remained as the biggest producer last year
supplying the demand in the market with its production of 18,971 metric tons, representing
33.2 percent of the total national output while Leyte ranked second (Table 1). Eastern
Visayas remained as the top abaca-producing region, contributing an average of 23,564
metric tons or 35.9% to the annual average production. Bicol followed with an annual
average of 19,670 metric tons or 29.9% share while Davao Region, which supplied 13.4% or
8,783 metric tons, ranked third during the ten-year period under review. Starting 2009, Bicol
emerged as the biggest producer of abaca, outranking Eastern Visayas which abaca areas
were badly affected by viral diseases such as bunchy top, mosaic and bract mosaic.
Aguiba (2005) pointed out that in order to maintain the dominance of Philippines in the
global abaca market, the government has been targeting to raise abaca yield through
development of varieties that are disease-resistant since low average yield of only 600 kilos
per hectare is far below the potential abaca yield of five metric tons per hectare. In 2004,
abaca expansion reached to 8,251 hectares, bringing total abaca area in the Philippines to
127,258 hectares from 121,399 hectares in 2003. There are a total of 77,526 abaca farmers in
the country and a total 105 active cooperatives. Furthermore, expansion locations cover 41
provinces. In Region 3 and 4, initially identified locations are Aurora, 150 hectares; Oriental
Mindoro, 159 hectares; and Palawan, 311 hectares. In Regions 5 to 6, expansion will be in
Albay, 352 hectares; Camarines Sur, 146 hectares; Camarines Norte, 10 hectares;
Catanduanes, 361 hectares; and Sorsogon, 107 hectares. In Regions 6 to 8, expansions are in
Aklan, Capiz, and Iloilo, 115 hectares each; Negros Oriental, 358 hectares; Cebu, 200
hectares; Leyte, 291 hectares; and Northern Samar, 1,525 hectares; Western Samar, 358
hectares; Eastern Samar, 100 hectares; and Biliran, 450 hectares. Identified areas in Region 9
and 10 are Isabela City in Basilan, 50 hectares; Zamboanga City, 100 hectares; Zamboanga
del Sur, 200 hectares; Zamboanga del Norte, 300 hectares; Zamboanga Sibugay, 200
hectares; Bukidnon, 119 hectares; Camiguin, 50 hectares; Lanao del Norte, 200 hectares;
Misamis Occidental, 100 hectares; and Misamis Oriental, 100 hectares. For Regions 11 and
12, the areas are Davao del Sur, 169 hectares; Davao City, 50 hectares; Compostela Valley,
195 hectares; Davao Oriental, 260 hectares; South Cotabato, 195 hectares; Sarangani, 130
hectares; and North Cotabato, 26 hectares. In Region 13, expansion areas are Agusan del
Norte, 906 hectares; Agusan del Sur, 200 hectares; Surigao del Sur, 100 hectares; and
Surigao del Norte, 50 hectares. Finally, in Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao, the

10

areas are Lanao del Sur, 100 hectares; Maguindanao, 50 hectares; Basilan, 200 hectares;
Sulu, 120 hectares; and Tawi Tawi, 73 hectares.
Table 1. Top ten producers with the corresponding output and share to total production in
2010
Province
Catanduanes
Leyte
Northern Samar
Davao Oriental
Surigao del Sur
Davao del Sur
Sulu
Bukidnon
Lanao del Sur
Southern Leyte

Volume (metric tons)

18, 971
7, 089
3, 959
3, 300
3, 105
2, 994
2, 364
1, 993
1, 665
1, 647

Percent share
33.2
12.4
6.9
5.8
5.4
5.2
4.1
3.5
2.9
2.9

Source: Fiber Industry Development Authority, 2010

Marketing and Trading of Abaca Fiber in the Philippines

In the early days, abaca fibers were sorted, graded and marketed by each individual
trading house. The quality of fibers produced from one abaca plant alone depended upon
many factors (e.g. age of the plant, position of the leaf sheaths, method of stripping, and the
degree of cleaning). Abaca importers would need to familiarize themselves with each of their
suppliers grading systems to be able to meet their customers specific requirements. To
satisfy the international market for this important export, the Philippine government
established the Fiber Inspection Service in 1915. Today, standardization and inspection
responsibility lies in the hands of the Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA). In 2001,
the Official Standards for commercial abaca fiber designated nine grades each for fibers
stripped by hand and by spindle machine, simplifying the earlier Standard grades that
numbered as many as thirty. A hank of fibers is graded based on tensile strength, type of
cleaning or method used to extract the fiber from the sheath, fiber color, fiber texture and
fiber length (Sievert, 2009).
The abaca industry is made up of six major groups of industry players cited as follows:
farmers, strippers, classifiers, traders, fiber exporters and processors/manufacturers. As of
2010, there were about 107,178 abaca farmers cultivating a total area of 167,145 hectares or
an average of 1.6 hectares per farmer (FIDA, undated). The economic returns of abaca
cultivation and production to the farmer would depend on several factors such as the buying
price of abaca grades, area of farms devoted to production, proximity of farm to the market,
costs of production materials and equipment, labor for maintenance and stripping, and taxes
(Sievert,2009). The second abaca players are the strippers who are tasked to extract the
fibers, either by hand or mechanical means. Included in the stripping work are harvesting of
stalks, tuxying and drying of fibers. The strippers are paid on a pre-determined system
wherein they receive 50, 60 or 70 per cent of the harvest depending on the prevailing practice
agreed upon. The third players are the classifiers who sort and grade the fibers based on the
standards set by the government. Hand or spindle stripped abaca fibers are graded as follows:
(1) Excellent grades (S2/S-S2 Streaky; S3/S-S3 Streaky Three); (2) Good grades (I/S-I

11

Current; G/S-G Soft Seconds; H/S-H Soft Brown); (3) Fair grades (JK/S-JK
Seconds; M1/S-M1 Medium Brown); (4) Residual grades (Y/S-Y Damaged; and
OT/S-OT Strings/Tow) (Sievert, 2009). The fourth players are the traders. Trading is done
at different levels depending on the location of the farmers and where the accumulation of
fiber is done. Hence, there are traders in the barangay, town, province, city and region. In
each level, the pricing system includes mark-up attributable to the service provided by the
trader. They are classified depending on the volume of fibers traded. A Class A trader sells
more than 75,000 kilos of fiber per year; Class B trader more than 50,000 kilos per year;
Class C trader more than 25,000 kilos per year and Class D trader 25,000 kilos and
below. As of 2010, there are 438 licensed abaca traders and 16 licensed abaca traderexporters. The fifth key abaca players are the fiber exporters (also known as grading and
baling establishments/GBEs). They operate in major abaca regions and usually maintain
liaison offices in Metro Manila. It is in this sector where abaca fibers, whether for local or
foreign consumption, are graded and baled, using high density presses, into 125 kg. of 100
cm. x 55 cm. x 60 cm. bundles per specific fiber grade. There are 13 licensed grading-baling
establishments operating in the country. Finally, the sixth key abaca players are the
processors/manufacturers which include pulp millers, cordage manufacturers, fibercrafts
manufacturers, and other processors such as manufacturers of machine-woven carpet,
dartboard pads as well as the makers of furniture who are now using abaca fiber and bacbac
(FIDA, undated).
Problems and Prospects of Philippine Abaca Industry
Capuno (2012) presented data from the National Statistical Coordination Board that shows
that abaca export has declined at the rate of 2.8 per year primarily due to its declining average
yield. In addition, the annual growth of abaca fiber production (0.37 percent) could not keep
up with the annual growth of domestic abaca fiber consumption (1.32 percent) which is
largely accounted for by processing sectors, particularly the following: (1) pulp; (2) cordage,
yarns, and twines; and (3) fiber crafts and fabric manufacturers. Apparently, the core
problem of the industry can be attributed by low abaca productivity. A study funded by
PCARRD cautioned that gross demand-supply mismatch can have a serious implication on
the countrys export if not promptly augmented, especially in the light of the growing abaca
industry in competing countries. In recent years, the Philippines' position as the top producer
of abaca is being threatened by the increasing share of Ecuador in the world market. Abaca
farmers in Ecuador are mechanizing and producing consistent quality fibers (Aragon, 2000).
Raola (2004) enumerated three major aspects of the industry - production, processing
and the marketing and utilization of abaca where five major factors affect field level
production of abaca. These include the area devoted to abaca production, use of different
abaca varieties for commercial production, capital and farm investment, technology, and
cultural management and dissemination of location-specific technologies. On the other hand,
the quality and yield of abaca are affected by methods of harvesting and fiber extraction.
Market conditions at the farmers' and local manufacturers' levels and the domestic and world
markets have also significant effects on the level of productivity of abaca farming. The
identified problems/gaps in each sector of the abaca industry are enumerated in a report of
Fiber Industry Development Authority (FIDA). Based on the report, the farm sector is
experiencing problems on low farm productivity, presence of viral diseases (mosaic, bunchy
top, bract mosaic), insufficient postharvest facilities like dryers, stripping machines and
stripping sheds, insufficient disease-free planting materials, stringent requirement of
financing windows, production of low quality fiber, and limitation of land ownership

12

imposed by Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) also limits expansion of areas
by big land owners. The processing sector is facing problems on insufficient supply of the
required grades and lack of initiative in promoting contract growing. Whereas, the marketing
sector is dealing with constraints on several tiers of marketing channels, lack of collective
marketing system by farmers, lack of funds for the promotion of products especially in the
international market, and difficulty of transporting fibers resulting to high transport cost.
The overall assessment of the industry shows that despite the external threats and internal
difficulties, there are very good prospects for the abaca industry Raola (2004). Fiber
Industry Development Authority (FIDA, undated) stated that with the present trade regime
moving towards an open market and veering away from protectionism, the Philippine abaca
industry will continue to meet and overcome new challenges like the current worldwide
financial crisis and will compete internationally and maintain the countrys strong foothold in
the global market for abaca. The rising demand for abaca fiber can be attributed to the
following factors: 1.) GATT ratification; 2) new market opened for tea bags and meat casing
in India, China and Eastern Europe; 3) increased demand by US and Russia for abaca-based
fiber paper and wrapper for cigarette; 4) increased demand for abaca fabric because of its
growing popularity; 5) increased demand for special paper for stencil paper, currency paper,
filters, high-tech capacitor papers, and other non-woven and disposable products; 6) highly
preferred for cordage material over synthetic materials which are not environment friendly; 7)
as replacement for asbestos which is carcinogenic and banned in other countries; 8)
comparative advantage of Philippine abaca over that of Ecuador; and 9) source of high-grade
handmade paper and as art medium (PCARRD-DOST, 2003).
In order to deal with the problem and materialize the prospects, FIDA has been
continuously undertaking measures towards increased production of quality abaca fiber.
These measures include an expansion program aimed at establishing new agribusiness lands
and generating employment which as of 2010 had established a total of 48,931 hectares of
new abaca plantations, bringing the overall acreage to 167,144,9 hectares. Other undertakings
are abaca rehabilitation and disease eradication that respectively involve the rehabilitation of
diseased and typhoon-damaged abaca plantations aimed at increasing abaca farm productivity
and curtailment of the three viral diseases (abaca mosaic, bract mosaic and bunchy top),
affecting the abaca plantations in Bicol and Eastern Visayas. Abaca planting materials
production is also being implemented to support the requirements of farmers for the
expansion and rehabilitation of plantations. This is carried out through tissue culture and
distribution of high-yielding, disease-free abaca cultivars at the FIDA laboratories in
Sorsogon City, Virac, Catanduanes as well as in Leyte and Davao City. Seedbanks in
Camarines Sur and Sorsogon are also being developed while research and development
(R&D) on crop protection, production, improvement and fiber processing is functionally in
place. Mechanization of abaca fiber extraction has also been developed (Calleja, 2012).

13

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Characteristics of the Study Area

Biliran province lies between 11 28 00 North and 124 28 00 East, and has a total
land area of 55,542 hectares, of which 26,942 hectares are classified as forestlands. It is
composed of Biliran Island, Maripipi Island, and the Higatangan and Dalutan islets. It
became a full-fledged province in May 11, 1992. Administratively, it has eight municipalities
and 132 barangays (Figure 1). Based on the 2007 census, the province had a total of 32,148
households for a household population of 149,733 consisting of 76,898 males and 72,835
females. Population density came to only 270 persons per sq.km.
The predominant economic activities in Biliran are agriculture and fishery, which
contribute 35.6 percent to the total income of the province. Most of the people are engaged in
agriculture-related livelihood and trading, and agriculture-based small and medium
enterprises (SMEs). The major products out of the 29,240 hectares of agricultural lands
include rice (Oryza sativa L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), corn (Zea mays L.), cassava
(Manihot esculenta C.), banana (Musa x paradisiaca L.), sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.)
Poir], fruits, and vegetables. Forest products like lumber, charcoal, firewood, abaca (M.
textilis), nito (Lygodium circinnatum), and rattan (Calamus sp.) are abundant and used as raw
materials for handicrafts, and for cottage or small-scale industries (Biliran Provincial MDG
Team, 2010).
Table 2. Profile of the municipalities of Biliran province
Municipality

Almeria
Biliran
Cabucgayan
Caibiran
Culaba
Kawayan
Maripipi
Naval
Provincial total

Land Area
(sq.km.)

65.49
86.29
49.38
94.58
76.19
44.70
31.71
107.08
555.42

2007 Population
Density
Number (person/km)
220.18
14, 420
173.22
14, 947
380.70
18, 799
217.97
20, 616
143.88
10, 962
426.24
19, 053
219.05
6, 946
413.60
44, 288
270.12
150, 031

Source: Fiber Industry Development Authority, 2010

Number of Barangays
Urban
1
2
3
3
3
2
2
3
19

Rural
12
9
10
14
14
18
13
23
113

Total
13
11
13
17
17
20
15
26
132

14

Figure 1. Map of Biliran Province showing the eight municipalities and barangay boundaries
Selection of Study Sites
Due to the prevalence of abaca diseases in Leyte, and the proximity of the province of Biliran
to the National Abaca Research Center (NARC) of the Visayas State University (VSU), the
study team decided to conduct the study in Biliran. During preliminary visits, the abaca
producing barangays of the province were identified, and initial inspections of proposed sites
were conducted. The in-situ assessment of some abaca farms took into consideration the
presence of mature abaca plants; the planting density and planting distance; the existing
cropping systems particularly combinations like coconut-abaca, tree crops-abaca and abaca
monoculture; the terrain, slope, altitude, and physical characteristics of the soil; and, humidity
and temperature. Based on the field observations, the municipalities of Almeria, Naval,
Caibiran, and Cabucgayan were selected for the study (Figure 2).

15

A list of abaca farmers containing their place of residence, farm location, date of
plantation establishment, and area planted was obtained from FIDA Biliran Provincial Office.
Random sampling of abaca farmers listed in the four municipalities resulted in the selection
of survey respondents in the villages of Villa Consuelo, Naval; Capiahan, Naval;
Haguikhikan, Naval; Caucab, Almeria; Cabibihan, Caibiran; and, Caanibongan, Cabucgayan
(Figure 3).
To complement the data obtained from the FIDA Biliran Provincial Office, the following
maps were obtained from the following sources:
1. soil classification map of Biliran province from NARC of VSU;
2. maps of the selected study villages from the Municipal Planning and Development Offices
(MPDO) of the study municipalities.
3. various thematic maps of the study sites from existing ArcView files archived at the VSU
GIS Laboratory.

Figure 2. Map of Biliran province showing the target municipalities

16

Figure 3. Map of Biliran province showing the sample abaca producing barangays

Selection of Survey Respondents

A total of 549 farmers were reflected in the list of abaca famers in four municipalities. To
determine the number of survey respondents from each level, the formula used by Dargantes
(1996) was applied, to wit:
n = Nzs/Nd + zs
where: n = number of respondents to be included in the survey
N = total number of abaca farmers in each municipality, or province (Table 1)
z = coefficient at 95% level of reliability (= 1.96; constant value)
s = sample variance of the normal variable calculated using the aggregate size (in ha)
of farm parcels per abaca farmer based on the list provided by FIDA
d = error level expressed in units of the normal variable (= 0.25 ha)

17

Based on this procedure, a sample size of 215 abaca farmers was deemed appropriate for
the survey. Random selection of respondents per municipality was done by using the formula
in Microsoft Excel, to wit:
= RAND ()*(b-1) + 1
where: b = number of abaca farmers to be interviewed.
Field circumstances, however, only allowed the researcher to interview only 200
respondents for the SIS, and 187 respondents for the FPIS.
Table 3. Determining the number of survey respondents from each study municipality and for
the whole province
Name of
Municipality

s2

Almeria
Caibiran
Naval
Cabucgayan

0.89 133 24
1.32 18 11
3.08 357 27
0.49 41 17

96
17
178
36

Total 5.78 549 28

215

Minimum
Optimum
Number of
Number of
Number of
Respondents
Respondents Respondents Targeted for
Interview

Actual
Number of
Respondents
(SIS)

Actual
Number of
Respondents
(FPIS)

36
17
145
17

36
17
130
17

36
16
118
17

215

200

187

Data Collection Protocol

Development of Survey Instrument
Two survey instruments were formulated: the Socio-economic Information Sheet (SIS)
after Dargantes (1996); and the Field Practices Information Sheet (FPIS) after Dargantes et al
(1984). The SIS was formulated in English and pilot tested in Barangay Catmon, Silago,
Southern Leyte. It collected data on:
1.) demographic characteristics of the respondents and their households;
2.) income profile of the respondents and their households;
3.) indices of living of the respondents households; and,
4.) characteristics of the respondents farm parcels.
The FPIS, on the other hand, was formulated in Cebuano, and obtained the following
information:
1.) accessibility of farm parcels from town and market centers;
2.) selection and treatment of planting materials;
3.) land preparation methodologies;
4.) planting practices, labor costs and availability;
5.) fertilizer application practices and soil fertility management;
6.) pest control and crop protection practices;
7.) weed control practices and costs;
8.) harvest, postharvest and processing activities including systems of payment, hiring of
workers and trading; and,
9.) cropping systems.

18

Conducting the Survey Interviews

At the outset, officials of pertinent local government units of Biliran province, a
representative of the FIDA provincial office, and chairpersons of the villages covered by the
study were visited and informed of the concept of the study, objectives of the study, and data
collection procedures. Thereafter, the 215 identified survey respondents were visited. For
various reasons, only 200 respondents were interviewed using the SIS. For the FPIS, 187
abaca farmers participated in the second interview sessions.
The interviews were carried out at the homes, in the rice fields or in the coconut farms of
the respondents (Plate 2). Each respondent was informed about the process of his/her being
selected as survey respondent, the concept and objectives of the study, and the data collection
process. The confidentiality of information obtained from respondents was emphasized.
Data Processing and Analysis
The data acquired through the survey instruments were encoded using Microsoft Excel
2010. Descriptive statistics were generated using both Microsoft Excel 2010 and SPSS
version 17.0. Tests of relationship were run using SPSS version 17.0.

19

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

RESULTS
Socio-economic Context of Abaca Production
The Abaca Farmers and their Households
Majority of the abaca farmers were males (95%), married (86.50%)), and Roman
Catholics (79%). On the average, they were 53 years old, and had attended five years of
formal schooling (Table 4). The five percent of the respondents who were women engaged in
abaca farming including the harvesting, stripping, and drying of fiberswhich are mainly
seen as the domain of menin order to support their children.
Table 4. Percentage distribution of abaca farmers based on personal and household
characteristics
Characteristics
Gender
Civil status
Religious affiliation
Type of household

Class Interval
Male
Married
Roman Catholic
Nuclear

% (n=200)
95.00
86.50
79.00
76.50

Abaca farming households were mostly nuclear families having five children with an
average age of 23 years, and had finished seven years of formal education (Table 5). Usually,
the father and mother had been involved in farming activities for seven years; with only a few
young adults actively taking part in abaca farming, purportedly due to the tedious and
arduous nature of harvesting and stripping.
Table 5. Selected personal and household characteristics of the abaca farmers
Variable
Age (in years)
Educational attainment (in years of formal schooling)
Number of children
Average age of children (in years)
Average educational attainment of the children
Number of household members
Number of household member involved in farming
Number of years engaged in abaca farming

Mean
52.64
4.80
4.99
23.12
7.29
5.01
1.75
7.30

S.D.
13.85
2.90
2.71
12.92
3.29
2.18
0.89
4.19

Indices of Living
Almost all abaca farmers (81%) owned their houses (Table 6), which were usually built on
land with usufruct arrangements with the owners. Security of tenure to homelots was,
reportedly, problematic as some farmers got evicted by a certain political candidate who lost
during the recent elections.

20

Table 6. Ownership of the house and of the homelot

Variable
Ownership of house
Ownership of lot

Tenure status
Fully-owned
Owned
Usufruct

% (n=200)
81.00
41.00
53.00

Many houses of abaca farmers (81%) had galvanized iron sheets for roof, a material that
proved to be more typhoon-resistant than roofs made from the leaves of nipa (Nypa
fruticans), coconut (C. nucifera), cogon [Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.], or anahaw
(Livistona rotundifolia Mart.). A little less than half of the houses (44%) had floors of
concrete, while 21 percent had dirt floors. Almost two-fifths (38%) had walls of concrete, and
another 32 percent had wooden walls. Most households (94%) had sanitary toilets. The few
households who did not have toilets were usually located in the outskirts of the study villages
(Table 7).
Table 7. Materials used for the floor, roof and walls of, and presence of sanitary toilet in the
houses of the respondents
Variable
Class interval
% (n=200)
Construction materials of the floor
Concrete
43.50
Dirt/Soil
21.00
Wood
9.00
Construction materials of the roof
Galvanized iron
81.00
Combination of galvanized iron sheets/ 15.00
nipa shingles/anahaw leaves
Construction materials of the walls
Concrete
37.50
Wood
31.50
Bamboo
10.00
Combination of concrete/wood
11.50
Combination of wood/bamboo
10.50
Presence of Sanitary Toilet
93.00

Landholdings
Abaca farmers cultivated an average of two farm parcels with an average aggregate size of
1.84 hectares (Table 8). In Biliran, tenants (83 households) cultivated an average area of 1.12
hectares. This form of tenurial arrangement, usually reached through verbal agreement,
involved sharing arrangements like giving 80 percent of the net cash income to the farmer
and 20 percent going to the landowner, or remitting at least PhP1,000 to the landowner.
An average area of 1.93 hectares cleared through slash-and-burn were awarded to 76
households under stewardship arrangement of the CommunityBased Forest Management
(CBFM) program of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).Other
timberlands with average farm size of 2.09 hectares, were cleared and claimed by 17 farmers,
and planted with abaca, banana, fruit trees, vegetables, and rootcrops. Farm parcels where
ownership was bestowed through inheritance, through the Integrated Social Forestry Project
(ISFP), or through purchase had an average area of 1.29 hectares.

21

Table 8. Characteristics of the farms of the respondents

Variable
Number of parcels
Aggregate size (ha.) of parcels
Size (ha.) of parcels by tenure status

Size (ha.) of parcel by dominant crop

Fiber yield of abaca (kg.)

Class interval

Owned
Tenanted
Stewardship (CBFM)
Claimed
Coconut
Abaca
Banana
Wetland Rice
Fruit trees
Cassava
Yautia
Trees
Taro
Assorted Rootcrops

n
200

Mean
1.81

S.D
0.82

200
59
83
76
17

1.84
1.29
1.12
1.93
2.09

1.62
1.38
0.86
1.70
1.52

197
184
111
73
38
19
22
24
16
19
160

1.86
0.76
0.52
0.77
0.53
0.23
0.32
0.68
0.39
0.33
133.32

1.97
0.73
0.55
0.85
0.56
0.22
0.22
0.91
0.33
0.24
257.13

Aside from abaca, the other dominant crops included coconut (1.86 ha), rice (0.77 ha),
banana (0.52 ha), various tree species (0.68 ha) like Gmelina arborea Roxb., Acacia
mangium, Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, Swietenia macrophylla King, and with fruit
trees (0.53 ha) such as jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), mango (Mangifera indica
L.), rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.), pomelo [Citrus
maxima (Burm.) Merr.], marang (Artocarpus odoratissima Blanco), mangosteen (Garcinia
mangostana L.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), and orange (Citrus sp.). Rootcrops, such as
cassava (M. esculenta), sweetpotato (I. batatas), taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott], and
yautia [Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott] were usually planted in vacant spaces.
In terms of yield, an abaca farmer could merely produce an average of 133 kilograms per
0.8 hectareway below the reported yield of 600 to 1200 kg. of dry fiber per hectare
(Goltenboth and Muhlbauer, 2010); and (Armecin et al., 2011), or the national average of 850
kg. per hectare (Lalusin, 2010).
Accessibility of the Farm Site
On average, the abaca farms were about ten kilometers from the town center, and almost
thirteen kilometers from the market center (Table 9). From the town center, the farms could
be reached via eight kilometers of concrete and two kilometers of dirt roads. Going to the
market centers involved travelling through two kilometers of dirt roads, and eleven
kilometers of concrete roads.

22

Table 9. Accessibility of abaca farms to town and market centers (average length in km.)
Type of road
Concrete road
Dirt road
Total distance

Descriptive
statistics
Mean
S.D
Mean
S.D
Mean
S.D

Town center

Market center

8.47
3.44
1.90
1.58
10.39
4.26

10.66
4.27
1.92
1.57
12.60
4.89

Contribution Role of Abaca in the Household Economy

The annual per capita poverty threshold in 2009 was placed at PhP16,841 for the
Philippines, and PhP15,022 for the province of Biliran (Table 10). The total annual per capita
income among survey respondents (PhP7,642) was way below both at the national and
provincial per capita poverty and food threshold levels of 2009.
Table 10. Poverty and food threshold levels as of 2009
Poverty Indicator
Philippines
Annual per capita poverty threshold (as of
16,841
2009)
Annual per capita food thresholds (as of 2009)
11,686
Total annual per capita income of abaca farmers
(as of 2011)

Eastern Visayas
15,910

Biliran
15,022

11,126

10,474
7,642

Source: National Statistical Coordination Board

In terms of crop production, 162 abaca farming households earned an average of PhP3,437
per year from abaca, which could be harvested once to twice a year (Table 11). This amount,
however, constituted only about nine percent of the total income compared to the contribution
from coconut, wetland rice, ginger, and flower and vegetable which could account for 69
percent of the total income (Figure 4). This situation could be attributed to the sharing of
income based on land tenure, typhoon occurrence, and disease infestation. The common
sharing scheme (locally known as agsa, tresyo, or tresya) favors abaca strippers who get
two-thirds of total income; leaving only one-third to the abaca farmers many of whom lacked
technical know-how to strip abaca, and thus were forced to hire others to perform this
activity. Some 22 households did not earn any income from abaca due to typhoons, and
sixteen farmers already neglected cultural management of crop due to infection by the abaca
bunchy top virus that resulted to decrease in fiber yield.

23

Crop production

1%

Animal production

35%
69%

Abaca production
39%
Off-farm occupation
9%

23%
Remittance
Gathering of forest
products

Figure 4. Percent contribution of various sources of income to the total annual income of an
abaca cultivator
Other major sources of income included coconuts (157 households) which provided an
average annual income of PhP14,321 based on a quarterly production of copra; wetland rice
(46 households) with an average income of PhP25,218 based on a twice to thrice a year
harvest (although 27 households used their harvest solely for household consumption); sale of
flowers (anthurium) and vegetables (14 households) with an average income of PhP6,710 per
annum; banana production (22 households) with a yearly income of PhP2,200. Aside from
crop production, animal raising by 22 households provided an income of PhP12,470 in a
year. Hog raising (14 households) provided an average yearly income of PhP7,159.
Table 11. Sources of income and annual income of abaca farmers
Source of income
Crop production

Abaca production
Percentage of income from abaca to
total annual income
Animal production
Gathering of forest products
Off-farm occupation

Sub-category
Coconut

n
157

Mean
14, 321.00

S. D
21,529.19

Wetland Rice
Banana
Flowers/Vegetables
Sub-total
Abaca

46
22
14
198
162

25,218.91
2, 206.82
6, 710.71
18, 746.97
3, 437.24
9.00

30,121.16
5, 169.77
7, 739.31
25, 555.44
5, 183.98
8.00

Pig
Sub-total
Fuelwood
Subtotal
Wages
Non-wages
Sub-total

14
22
5
5
83
25
101

7, 159.50
12, 470.59
512.00
512.00
13, 273.61
45, 208.00
21, 272.48

3, 822.53
16, 209.68
303.84
303.84
46, 669.38
77, 051.01
58, 778.56

24

Remittances

Abroad
Local
Sub-total

Total annual income

14
45
57
200

84, 286.00
9, 022.22
27, 824.56
38, 211.00

83, 822.55
12, 302.05
53, 014.78
66, 894.56

Aside from agriculture and forestry, 83 households earned additional income as hired farm
laborers or as skilled or semi-skilled workers in non-farm jobs. Also contributing to the
income of abaca farmers were the remittances of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who
sent an average of PhP84,286 per year to 14 households; and in-country relatives who sent an
average of PhP9,022 per year to 45 households. The income of abaca farmers, being way
below the annual poverty and food thresholds, confirmed the observations of Corpin and
Plastidio (2009) that upland farmers are generally less educated, least paid, least healthy, and
most neglected in agricultural development.
Agricultural Management of Abaca
Selection and Treatment of Planting Materials
Most respondents were able to give the names of the abaca varieties they were cultivating
(Table 12). These included Balunan (identified by 28% of the respondents); Inosa (21%);
Ormocanon (20%); and, Libutanay (11%). Thirty seven percent, however, simply categorized
abaca into Ihayop (to refer to a cultivated abaca plant) or Ihalas (to represent wild abaca).
They, nonetheless, revealed that fibers from wild abaca were of poor quality, while those
from cultivated plants had higher economic value.
For planting materials, 71 percent of the respondents used suckers, while 16 percent used
corms or seedpieces. Use of suckers for planting, despite their bulkiness to transport, was
based on their higher survival rate, faster growth, and shorter maturity period. Besides, abaca
farmers also had an opportunity to assess the quality of the mother plant. Most of these
planting materials were acquired from other farmers (67%), from their own farm (22%), or
from members of their immediate family (6%). Other famers received planting materials
from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local government units (LGUs).
Table 12. Choice of variety and selection of planting materials for abaca among survey
respondents
Variable
Name of variety

Type of Planting material

Source of planting material

Response Category
Ormocanon
Inosa
Balunan
Libutanay/Niluy-a
Unnamed (green and red leafsheaths)
Sucker
Corm/Seedpiece
Co-farmer
Own
Family/Kin

% (n=187)
20.32
20.95
28.04
10.70
36.90
71.15
15.89
66.82
21.93
6.42

25

Selection of cultivars was based on fiber color and tensile strength (83% of the
respondents) and height and size of the pseudostems (47%) based on the belief that taller and
larger stems, and wider leafsheaths could produce more fibers, and manual stripping would
be easier and more efficient (Table 13).Twenty-five percent of the respondents chose
varieties that produced several suckers which provided them with cost-free materials for
transplanting. Only 10 percent of the respondents selected varieties based on fiber yield, and
only two percent considered resistance to pests and diseases as basis for selection.
Table 13. Bases for the selection of varieties, for the selection and treatment of planting
materials prior to field planting
Variable
Bases for varietal selection

Bases for selection of suckers

Maximum number of suckers
allowed to grow per hill

Response Category
Fiber quality
Fiber yield
Capacity to produce suckers
Length and diameter of pseudostems
Healthy suckers
Suckers that have emerged above ground
3-4 suckers
5-6 suckers
Not specified

% (n=187)
82.90
9.60
24.60
46.50
50.80
41.18
39.57
41.18
18.18

Chemical treatment of planting materials was not practiced by the respondents because
they did not know about such practice, were financially constrained, feared being poisoned,
or had no access to these chemicals.
In the selection of suckers, 51 percent of the respondents based their decision on apparent
health and on the physical appearance of the mother plant. Suckers with large pseudostems,
numerous roots, and newly developed leaf shoots were usually considered healthy. Forty-one
percent of the respondents selected ungki or suckers that have already emerged above
groundbased on the belief that these were of the right age for transplanting. Respondents
reportedly only allowed three to four (40%) or five to six (41%) suckers to grow in each hill.
Others did not specify the number of suckers per hill (18%). This practice meant that they
thinned each hill regularly to leave the desired number of suckers to mature and be harvested
each year.
On the average, farmers planted 261 suckers or corms in farms with an average size of
0.52 hectare (Table 14). Following the recommended planting density of 1,100 to 2,500 hills
per hectare (Sievert, 2009), the average planting density of 500 hills per hectare could be
considered as too low. While majority of the respondents planted the crop on their own, 26
percent of them hired laborers, who were found to be easy to hire locally (Table 15).
Table 14. Respondents use of planting materials
Variable
Number of planting materials
Area planted (in ha.)

n
185
187

Mean
261.00
0.52

S.D
328.95
0.48

26

Table 15. Sources of labor and reported ease of hiring farmers

Variable
Sources of labor

Availability of farm workers for hire

Response Category
Own
Hired farm workers
Other household members
Not easy, not difficult
Easy
Very easy

% (n=187)
86.63
25.67
2.14
4.28
16.04
5.35

Land Preparation
Preparing the land for the planting of abaca involved either underbrushing or slash-andburn (a practice that is prohibited in areas classified as timberlands). Although less efficient
in terms of energy and time, underbrushing, practiced by 96 percent of the respondents,
targets only unwanted vegetation, leaving tall trees to provide shade to the abaca plants.
The top criterion in determining site suitability for abaca cultivation was type of soil (70%
of the respondents) [Table 16]. Farmers observed that darker soils were more fertile and of
better quality. Other criteria were the type of terrain (22.99%), and the presence of rocks and
boulders (6.42%). These preferences could mean that soils of forest farm parcels contained
less clay and more sand, with total carbon indicating a slower rate of biomass decomposition
at higher altitudes (Asio, 1996; Dargantes, 1996). Availability was another determinant of
farm site selection (15% of respondents) considering that abaca farmers cultivated small farm
parcels, or had no landholdings at all.
Eleven percent of the respondents considered the amount of shade in the area or the
presence of canopy cover and exposure to solar radiation, as decision factors in site selection.
Research results, however, showed varying effects of shade. For instance; Copeland (1911)
reported that growth rate and dry weight of abaca grown under shade were lower than planted
without shade; Batugal et. al (1977) documented improved growth and yield of abaca (var.
Tinawagang Puti) planted under 33 percent and 66 percent of partial shading than in open
space); and Bande et al. (2013) showed that abaca planted under 50 percent shade had
significantly higher fiber yield due to longer, bigger and heavier pseudostems compared to
those planted under other light treatments.
Table 16. Bases for the selection of farm site for abaca cultivation and production
Variable
Availability of site
Type of soil
Type of terrain
Presence of boulders/rocks
Amount of shade
No basis at all

% (n=187)
14.97
60.96
22.99
6.42
10.70
8.56

27

Field Planting
Forty-three percent of the respondents did not have specific month for planting. Others,
however, chose to plant during December (13%) and January (10%) which coincided with the
months of low rainfall intensity (Table 17). For more than five percent of the respondents, it
was necessary to plant abaca during the month of April where rainfall is minimal at 99 mm.
Table 17. Month of planting and amount of monthly rainfall
Month

% (n=187)

January
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December

9.63
5.88
8.56
6.42
4.81
4.81
6.42
0.53
4.81
12.83

Amount of Rainfall
(mm)
180
99
279
236
591
53
443
284
124
132

More than one-fourth of the respondents (26%) planted the suckers and corms with a
distance of 3m x 3mthe recommended planting distance for larger cultivars (FIDA, 1984)
while 12 percent of them planted the planting materials with a distance of 2m x 2mthe
standard planting distance for smaller cultivars (Table 18). The other abaca farmers planted
the suckers and corms without following a pattern (17%), or with planting distances of 2m x
3m (13%), and 1.5m x 1.5m (13%).
For 25 percent of the respondents, planting was done during the new moon or full moon.
Another belief that determined the location of the crop was that steep slopes and rolling
terrain were suitable for abaca cultivation (Table 18).
Table 18. Planting distance and practice of belief systems
Variable
Planting distance

Practice of belief systems

Response Category
3m x 3m
2m x 3m
2m x 2m
1.5m x 1.5m
1m x 1m
No pattern
Planting during new moon or full moon and in
steep slopes
Not practiced

% (n=187)
25.67
12.83
11.76
12.83
10.70
16.58
24.60
75.40

28

Fertilizer Application
Only five percent of the respondents applied either PHILPHOS 16-20-0 or ATLAS 14-1414 fertilizers 30 days to 6 months after planting. The average rate of application came to 23
kilos of fertilizer to an area of 0.36 hectare (Table 19). Abaca cultivators reasoned out that
fertilizer application was not necessary because the soil was still fertile and the crops were
healthy. Nonetheless, the respondents practiced mulching using plant trimmings placed
around the plants during underbrushing or manual weeding. The tuxied leafsheaths, locally
termed as umbak/bacbac were allowed to decompose, and helped provide essential
nutrients for plant development (Bande et al., 2012).
Table 19. Practice of fertilizer application
Variable
Quantity applied (in kilo)
Area of application (in ha.)

n
9
9

Mean
23.33
0.36

S.D
10.00
0.13

Pest Control and Crop Protection

No respondent applied pesticides on their abaca due to financial difficulties, lack of
knowledge about the practice, difficulty in accessing pesticides, and non-occurrence of pests.
Although more than half of the respondents (55%) reported cases of the abaca bunchy top
disease in their farms, they were still able to harvest albeit with decreasing yield (Table 20).
Reportedly, the infection started in early 2006. When the infection impacted on their
livelihood, ten farmers decided to abandon the crop; and seven farmers completely eliminated
the abaca plants and replaced them with rootcrops. To contain and control the disease, a
group of farmers rogued and burned the infected plants; others cut the infected plants,
chopped them into small portions, and piled the chopped materials in a place outside the
plantation. As early as 1984, FIDA (1984) already advised farmers that infected plants should
be chopped, rouged, and burned completely but many farmers lacked information regarding
the proper method of disease control. Some 25 percent of the respondents practiced smudging
using the adipose tissues of pigs and water buffaloes to drive away pests and vectors of viral
diseases.
Table 20. Respondents' practice of belief systems and prevalence of disease
Variable
Occurrence of disease

Practice of smudging

Response Category
Heavily devastated
With disease
None

% (n=187)
9.09
55.08
35.83
24.60

Weed Control and Management

None of the 187 respondents applied herbicides due to lack of knowledge regarding such
practice, lack of access to herbicides, and lack of funds to purchase herbicides. All
respondents opted to practice underbrushing as primary means of weed control. More than
half of the respondents (69%) undertook underbrushing thrice in a year, 16 percent
underbrushed their abaca farms twice a year, and another 17 percent did underbrushing four

29

times or more a year (Table 21). An average of 16 days were needed to underbrush a farm of
0.62 hectare. Thirty-one percent of the respondents found it easy to locally hire laborers
(Table 22).
Respondents found it impractical to hire farm laborers for manual weeding. With the
assistance of household members, they manually weeded their farms thrice a year spending
16 days to clear an average area of 0.71 hectare. Majority of the respondents did follow the
recommended shallow cultivation and ring weeding at 2-3 month intervals during the first
year of cultivation period (Sievert, 2009).
Table 21. Respondents' method of weed control and management
Variable
Frequency of underbrushing

Availability of farm workers for hire

Frequency of weeding

Response Categories
Once
2x a year
3x a year
4x a year or more
Easy
Very easy
Not practiced
2x a year
3x a year
4x a year
more than 5x a year

% (n=187)
0.53
16.04
68.45
16.58
31.02
7.49
90.91
1.07
3.74
2.67
1.60

Table 22. Days and area cleared using respondents method of weed control and management
Variable
Frequency of underbrushing
Frequency of weeding

Response Category
Number of days spent
Area cleared (in hectare)
Number of days spent
Area cleared (in hectare)

n
187
187
17
17

Mean
16.26
0.62
16.00
0.71

S.D
17.49
0.54
14.59
0.57

Harvest and Post-Harvest Processing

With respect to the indicators for harvesting, 67 percent of the respondents looked out for
the emergence of blossoms, 51 percent waited for the formation of the leaf inflorescence, and
35 percent for fruit development (Table 23). The first two maturity indicators produced high
quality fibers with high recovery rate (Milan and Goltenboth, 2005); (Goltenboth and
Muhlbauer, 2010).
Harvesting began with the tumbling of the harvestable pseudostems using a sharp bolo
or machete, and then topping the leaves (98%). Two percent topped the leaves before
tumbling the mature stalks. When the stalks have been cut, the pseudostems were gathered
and the leafsheaths tuxied using a tuxying knife. The tuxies were classified according to the
position in the pseudostems and then manually stripped in the hagotan. Since an ordinary
abaca farmer could not afford the cost of a stripping machine, 42 percent hired abaca
strippers to do the harvesting and stripping. Most of the abaca strippers in Biliran preferred to
use a stripping knife with 18 serrations even if it produced coarser fiber bundles with lower

30

quality. Reportedly, hand-stripping using a 24-serration knife was more laborious. In one
village, the farmers even converted the 24-serration knives distributed by the FIDA into
knives with 18 serrations.
Table 23. Respondents' indices of plant maturity, harvest, post-harvest and drying activities
Variable
Indices of maturity

Topping
Abaca stripper
Storing of fiber after drying
Place of storage
Material/s used in drying
Type of trader

Response Categories
Flowering stage
Fruiting stage
Few leaves forming inflorescence
After
Abaca farmer
Hired abaca stripper
Practiced
Not practiced
At home
In a hut
Bamboo
Synthetic rope
Town trader
Village trader

% (n=187)
67.86
35.29
50.80
97.86
50.36
42.25
55.14
44.86
37.97
13.37
83.96
11.76
85.03
18.72

After stripping, the fibers were then sun-dried or air-dried during the night or rainy days to
prevent discolouration and degradation. Solar-drying was preferred over air-drying because
prolonged drying could result in low fiber quality, especially fiber bundles containing a
certain amount of impurities (Goltenboth and Muhlbauer, 2010). Majority of the respondents
(84%) hanged the fibers on bamboo poles for drying. Other respondents utilized tree poles
(5%), woody vines or sturdy creepers (4%), or synthetic rope (12%). Fifty-five percent of the
abaca farmers stored the fibers after drying, while those in immediate need of cash
immediately sold the fibers after drying (45%). Another common practice (38%) was to store
the dried fibers at home due to some cases of petty theft, while 14 percent and 3 percent
stored the fibers at the farmstead or at the copra dryer, respectively. More than 85 percent of
the respondents sold their products to the town traders, with only 19% percent directly selling
their fibers to the village traders.
Average Cash-Outlay of Field Practices in the Cultivation and Production of Abaca
Twenty-seven percent of the respondents spent an average of PhP662 to cover the
expenses in the acquisition of planting materials, while 5 percent spent an average of PhP700
to procure synthetic fertilizers (Table 24). Aside from planting materials and fertilizers, hiring
of laborers during planting costed PhP152 per laborer (18% of the respondents). Hiring of
laborers to perform underbrushing required an average of PhP2,975. For cultivators who lack
skills in extracting the fibers, hiring abaca strippers cost an average of PhP150 per stripper.

31

Table 24. Average cash-outlay in the cultivation and production of abaca

Variable
Procurement of planting materials
Hiring of laborers during planting
Procurement of Synthetic Fertilizer
Hiring of laborers during underbrushing
Hiring of abaca strippers during harvest and postharvest

n
51
33
9
187
16

Mean
662.03
151.52
700.00
2,975.00
150.00

S.D
1,426.21
8.70
300.00
2,007.09
0

Intercropping Systems
Most of the agricultural lands in the study sites were under coconut-based farming (Table
25). The integration of abaca into the coconut plantations came as a way of coping with the
long waiting period before harvesting coconut, as a response to fluctuations in the demand for
copra, and the introduction of the principles of multi-cropping system. In coconut plantations,
24 percent of the respondents used abaca as intercrop because this meant less production
input with high economic value for the abaca fiber. The coconut-abaca intercropping system
was then further diversified with food-based crops (rootcrops, ginger, fruits, and vegetables),
ornamental crops (anthurium), and even forest-based products (trees). A common crop mixed
into the coconut-abaca based farming was banana (11%).
Table 25. Sequence of intercropping systems under coconut-based farming into which abaca
was integrated
Preceding cropping
system
Coconut monocrop

Coconut - abaca
Coconut - rootcrops

Succeeding cropping system

% (n=187)

Abaca cultivation
Banana - rootcrops cultivation
Banana cultivation
Abaca/banana - vegetables cultivation
Tree crops abaca/banana cultivation
Abaca/banana - rootcrops cultivation

23.53
17.11
10.70
4.81
6.42
2.67

Reasons and Conditions for Abaca Production

Hypothesis (i): The size of landholdings is correlated with the yield of abaca.
Fiber yield was positively and significantly correlated to the land area planted to abaca,
and to the income from abaca production, and, to a lesser extent, to the educational
attainment of the farmer. Land area devoted to abaca cultivation was positively and
significantly correlated to income from abaca, and to a lesser extent to the number of years in
abaca farming. Age was negatively correlated to educational attainment (Table 26). In other
words, larger farms tended to yield more, which led to more income. To a lesser extent, older
farmers, despite lower education, were cultivating larger farms, and managed to produce
more fibers.

32

Table 26. Correlation analysis (Pearson correlation) between socio-economic factors and
abaca farming variables
Variable
Land area of abaca
Income from abaca
Years in abaca farming
Educational attainment

Age of farmer

Land area of abaca

0.06
**-0.22

**0.64
**0.20
0.06

Fiber yield
**0.62
**0.79
0.06
*0.18

*Significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed)

** Significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)

Hypothesis (ii): Low income of farmers is associated with low the yield of abaca farmers.
Income from crop production, off-farm occupation, and remittances were positively and
significantly correlated to the total annual income, but not to total abaca production (Table
27). In the scheme of things, abaca production contributed, to a lesser extent, to total
agricultural production, which as a whole somehow contributed to the households total
annual income. Apparently, income derived from abaca was so low that it did not have a
direct impact on income.
Table 27. Correlation analysis (Pearson correlation) between sources of income and total
annual income
Variable

Total Crop Production

Total Off-farm Occupation
Total Remittance
Total Annual Income

Total
Remittance

**0.76

Total
Off-farm
Occupation

0.23
**0.91

Total Crop Total Abaca

Production Production

**0.45
**0.35
**0.62

**0.31
0.07
0.19
0.12

** Significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)

DISCUSSION
The poor cultural management skills of abaca farmers in Biliran Province were
implications to their lack of technical background in the proper management of the crop. For
instance, majority of the respondents did not follow the recommended shallow cultivation
and ring weeding at 2-3 month intervals during the first year of cultivation period (Sievert,
2009), and used fertilizers rarely. The respondents lack of technical expertise in the proper
disposal of abaca plants infected with abaca bunchy top virus and the proper method of
disease control, and their lack of vigilance made the disease to spread in other unaffected
farming areas. Field observations of several abaca farms revealed inefficient methods of
weed control and management as indicated by the abundant growth of weeds, which
increased the competition for soil nutrients among plants. Further, the respondents had
various indicators of mature and harvestable abaca plants, putting at risk the quality of
produced fibers since immature and overmature pseudostems contain underdeveloped fibers
that are weak and higher percentage of coarse and brownish fibers (Goltenboth and
Muhlbauer, 2010), respectively. These observations confirmed the study results of

33

Catanduanes State Colleges Abaca Research and Development Program (2014), in which
most of the farmers did not practice proper cultural management in cultivating abaca, and
should be taught better methods of agricultural production through adult education and
agricultural extension programs (Quintana, 1952).
The abaca farmers of Biliran province were mostly members of the aging populations,
which could have implications on the attainment of a sustainable abaca production. Majority
of the respondents were 53 years old males, married, Roman Catholics, and had attended five
years of formal schooling with five children in each household. Lacuna-Richman (2002)
found out that abaca farmers of Leyte were 43 years of age, and had finished six years of
formal schooling having five children per household with two children per family who
worked as labor and contributed to the family income.
The finding of the study revealed that incomes of abaca farmers, most of which are
tenants, were being way below the annual poverty and food thresholds. Lacuna-Richman
(2002) revealed that abaca was both an important secondary income source of households
with lowland farms, and frequently the only source of cash income of the poorest households
in the community, with a mean annual income of PhP 23,357a figure much lower than the
national average of 83,161 PhP (NSO 1996), and placed the majority of households in the
three lowest income groups in the Philippines. Generally, upland farmers are the less
educated, the least paid, the least healthy, and the most neglected in agricultural development
(Corpin and Plastidio, 2009). The farmers had small incomes due to insufficient land being
cultivated, inadequate tools and equipment, limited number of work animals and other
livestock, and unimproved methods of growing crops (Quintana, 1952). Oxfam (2014) stated
that small-scale farmers, tenants, and farm workers and their families who are dependent on
coconut production were the second poorest sector in the Philippines who relied on
production of copra (a coconut by-product used as raw material for a variety of products) and
tuba (a native wine from coconut and merely earned an average of one dollar a day
throughout the year). Dargantes et al. (1984) also found out that hillside and highland corn
farmers were poor, share-tenants who only earned about PhP470 for every dependent each
year on corn farms of less than a hectare located on sloping and steep terrain with barely
fertile soils, and lacked access to support services.
The lack of security on land tenure, and the inefficiency in the enforcement of policies and
programs by government units enhanced farmers vulnerability to forced evictions (since
many farmers are still tenants). For instance, although the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP) was initiated in 1987, and had distributed more than 5.82 million hectares
to some 3 million agrarian reform beneficiaries on 2002, the program has yet to be completed
and is currently burdened with major issues from opposition by landlords and lack of
support from legislators to wide gaps in fund resources (Guardian, 2013). JICA (2012)
presented three measures critical to resolve land-related issues, namely: (1) whether
Comprehensive Agriculture Reform Program Extension with Forms (CARPER) ends in 2014
as presently scheduled, or is extended in some fashion, a clear and transparent decision is
essential, and budgetary allocations need to be fully consistent with that decision; (2) the
legacy of land reform-related debt needs resolution once and for all; (3) there is an urgent
need to accelerate the land titling process and eliminate many of the regulatory restrictions
that affect the farmers ability to rent or lease land, use it as collateral, how it may be treated
in inheritance, etc. Further, the local institutions are often beset by elite control and by weak
capabilities that even when representatives of marginalised groups sit on local governance
bodies, their voices rarely have clout. Influential participation is even more challenging at the

34

national level and beyond, where poor rural people suffer the combined effects of their
marginalisation and of neglect of agriculture (Prato and Longo, 2012).
The low incomes of farmers from abaca production somehow contributed to their poor
quality living conditions. Quintana (1952) concluded that inefficiencies resulting from
continued use of antiquated farming practices resulted in low economic returns from abaca
cultivation, which in turn, contributed to the low living standard of the surveyed localities.
Although many houses of abaca farmers had galvanized iron sheets for roof, a material that
proved to be more typhoon-resistant than roofs made from the leaves of nipa (Nypa
fruticans), coconut (C. nucifera L.), cogon [Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.], or anahaw
(Livistona rotundifolia Mart.), observations made during the interview sessions suggested
that they did not have adequate home facilities and conveniences (Quintana, 1952).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion
The economic desire of abaca farmers to produce not only food but also non-food products
could be discerned in the coconut-abaca based farming system prevalent in the province.
Despite economic difficulties, farmers strived to invest in the education of their children so
that the latter could find employment alternatives. The departure of the younger generation
from abaca farming could eventually have implications on the sustainability of fiber
production. Apparently, the younger generation might continue to cultivate abaca if the
income they could derive from the crop could significantly contribute to their income stream.
Another area of concern is the tenure to the farm parcels and the homelots. The lack of
tenurial security could displace tenant-farmers when conflicts of interests arise between them
and the landowners. Moreover, the size of the land devoted to abaca production seemed to be
getting smaller and more fragmented. Further fragmentation of abaca farms could mean
lower fiber yields and therefore, lower incomes.
Many of the respondents lacked information about many things related to abaca
production. This situation placed abaca farmers at a disadvantage even in the selection of a
particular variety or combinations of varieties suitable for cultivation in their respective
farms. Abaca cultivators not only were unable to afford the cost of a stripping machine, but
also did not have the know-how to do stripping themselves. When the abaca bunchy top
disease led to decreased fiber production and resulted to economic losses, farmers lack of
knowledge and information regarding the proper methods of disease control and disposal of
infected plants allowed the disease to spread to unaffected areas. The current situation of
disease infestation would present an imminent danger to abaca populations in the entire
province of Biliran.
On a more positive note, the lack of information contributed to the non-application of
chemicals to planting materials, of herbicides and pesticides, and of chemical fertilizers could
make the crop feasible for organic production of fiber, whose demand in the world market is
increasing.
The consideration given to soil fertility and quality together with the practice of planting
abaca on areas with steep slopes and rolling terrains contributed to the current location of

35

plantations. Maintaining the fertility of soils that had been subjected to intensive cultivation
remained a challenge to abaca farmers who had no funds to purchase chemical fertilizers, and
who merely relied on the practice of mulching using plant trimmings and discarded tuxied
leafsheaths.
Harvesting and drying practices of abaca were still mainly traditional with stripping still
manually done and drying of fibers made by utilizing whatever materials were available in
the field, and not by a facility that could help meet quality standards. The lack of proper
storage also lowered the quality of fibers. The alteration of the 24-teeth stripping knives
distributed by the Philippine Fiber Industry Development Authority (PhilFIDA) by the abaca
farmers and strippers, would indicate the lack of field consultations, and of communication
between program planners and implementers, and abaca farmers and strippers. With only one
field person assigned for the whole province, the FIDA Provincial Office could hardly cope
with the need to conduct regular monitoring and provide technical assistance to the farmers.
If the countys dominance in the world market were to be maintained and strengthened,
involvement of the LGUs should be made more significant.
Recommendations
The survey only covered a limited number of respondents from the four municipalities of
the province. Similar studies should be conducted to include respondents from other
municipalities. In-depth field observations of the abaca farms should be undertaken in order
to record additional information based on actual observations that interview sessions could
not capture, and to validate the information given by the respondents during the interviews.
The infestation of abaca bunchy top disease in Biliran has started to spread, and has
negatively affected the livelihood of abaca farmers. To curtail the spread of infection,
information should be disseminated thru trainings and seminars, which could serve as venues
for sharing and transferring technical know-how in the control of the disease, for raising
farmers awareness to the disease, and for increasing their level of vigilance. Infected abaca
farms should be subjected to eradication and disinfection. Distribution of disease-free
plantlets should be done and regular visits and close monitoring of the conditions of abaca
farms could definitely help cultivators recover from the income losses and regain their
interest in abaca cultivation.
Formation of cooperatives would be valuable in helping abaca farmers improve their
income from abaca. Cooperatives could strengthen the bargaining power of cultivators to
demand higher for prices for their fibers. Assistance from the government, non-government
organizations (NGOs), and the public sector could easily be facilitated with the existence of
cooperatives.
The lack of proper processing facilities resulted in abaca fibers that did not conform to
standard quality requirements. Proper harvest, post-harvest, and drying facilities could
produce high quality fibers. However, the adoption of technology by abaca cultivators should
be analyzed in order to determine their openness and responsiveness to innovations.
The long-term success of the initiative to incorporate such crops as vegetables, corn,
rootcrops, rattan, and abaca into the reforestation programs of the DENR under the CBFM, in
partnership with Peoples Organizations (e.g. Caucab Upland Farmers Association) remains
to be seen. Oftentimes, the cultivation of agricultural crops in forest lands using

36

underbrushing or slash-and-burn farming system would rarely revert these farms back into
forests. Decision-makers should contend with this possibility, and make sure that
intercropping, whether for subsistence, for economic development, or for both, fall within the
framework of CBFM initiative; otherwise, farmers would continue to deforest in order to
support their families.
Addressing the issues of attaining sustainable abaca fiber production and strengthening of
Philippine abaca industry would require decompartmentalization of the approaches in coming
up with solutions to the aforementioned problems. Technical experts, decision-makers, and
other stakeholders should recognize the interrelationship of the components, and re-evaluate
existing programs or formulate new strategies grounded on a review of the goals and policies
of the various government agencies, and active involvement and commitment of all
stakeholders.

37

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