Professional Documents
Culture Documents
lack of fusion
cracks
porosity
inclusions
Service:
brittle fracture
fatigue failure
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Price,
On-time-Delivery and
Quality
Welding Defects
1. Introduction
Common weld defects include:
i. Lack of fusion (LOF)
ii. Lack of penetration (LOP) or excess penetration
iii. Porosity
iv. Inclusions
v. Cracking
vi. Undercut
vii. Lamellar tearing
Any of these defects are potentially disastrous as they can all give rise to high stress intensities
which may result in sudden unexpected failure below the design load or in the case of cyclic loading,
failure after fewer load cycles than predicted.
extends
the
full
thickness
of
the
metal.
Lack of fusion results from too little heat input and / or too rapid traverse of the welding torch (gas
or electric).Excess penetration arises from to high a heat input and / or too slow transverse of the
welding torch (gas or electric). Excess penetration - burning through - is more of a problem with thin
sheet as a higher level of skill is needed to balance heat input and torch traverse when welding thin
metal.
In TIG welding, do not use too large a root face and ensure the welding current is sufficient
for the weld pool to penetrate fully the root
In MMA welding, use the correct current level and not too large an electrode size for the root
In MIG welding, use a sufficiently high welding current level but adjust the arc voltage to
keep a short arc length
When using a joint configuration with a joint gap, make sure it is of adequate size and does
not close up during welding
Do not use too high a current level causing the weld pool to bridge the gap without fully
penetrating the root.
Acceptance standards
The limits for lack of penetration are specified in BS EN ISO 5817 for the three quality levels.
Remedial actions
If the root cannot be directly inspected, for example using a penetrant or magnetic particle inspection
technique, detection is by radiography or ultrasonic inspection. Remedial action will normally
require removal by gouging or grinding to sound metal, followed by re-welding in conformity with
the original procedure.
Relevant standards
BS EN ISO 5817:2003 Welding - fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys
(beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections.
BS EN ISO 10042:2005 Welding - Arc welded joints in aluminium and its alloys - Quality levels for
imperfections.
The effect of welding past the current return cable which is bolted to the centre of the place. The
interaction of the magnetic field surrounding the arc and that generated by the current flow in the
plate to the current return cable is sufficient to deflect the weld bead. Distortion of the arc current
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select welding parameters (high current level, short arc length, not too high a welding speed)
to promote penetration into the joint side wall without causing flooding
ensure the electrode/gun angle and manipulation technique will give adequate side wall
fusion
use weaving and dwell to improve side wall fusion providing there are no heat input
restrictions
if arc blow occurs, reposition the current return, use AC (in MMA welding) or demagnetise
the steel
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Steel
Code/Standard
BS
EN
Acceptance limit
ISO
5817:2003
Level
BS
not
permitted.
Aluminium
and
EN
B,
ISO Long
10042:2005
imperfections
Levels
C,
not
and
D.
permitted.
D.
PD5500:2006
Not permitted
Storage tanks
BS EN 14015:2004
Not permitted
Pipework
BS2633:1994
Line pipe
API 1104:2005
vessels
'l'
not
greater
than
15mm
than
25mm
not
greater
ii. Porosity - This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may arise
from damp consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the metal in the vicinity
of the weld. This can be avoided by ensuring all consumables are stored in dry conditions and work
is carefully cleaned and degreased prior to welding.
porosity
The characteristic features and principal causes of porosity
imperfections are described. Best practice guidelines are given
so welders can minimise porosity risk during fabrication.
Identification
Porosity is the presence of cavities in the weld metal caused by the freezing in of gas released from
the weld pool as it solidifies. The porosity can take several forms:
distributed
wormhole
crater pipes
Prevention
The gas source should be identified and removed as follows:
Air entrainment
- seal any air leak
- avoid weld pool turbulence
- use filler with adequate level of deoxidants
- reduce excessively high gas flow
- avoid draughts
Hydrogen
- dry the electrode and flux
- clean and degrease the workpiece surface
Surface coatings
- clean the joint edges immediately before welding
- check that the weldable primer is below the
recommended maximum thickness
Elongated
pores
or
wormholes
Wormholes
Characteristically, wormholes are elongated pores which produce
a herring bone appearance on the radiograph.
Cause
Wormholes are indicative of a large amount of gas being formed
which is then trapped in the solidifying weld metal. Excessive gas will be formed from gross surface
contamination or very thick paint or primer coatings. Entrapment is more likely in crevices such as
the gap beneath the vertical member of a horizontal-vertical, T joint which is fillet welded on both
sides.
Prevention
Eliminating the gas and cavities prevents wormholes.
Gas generation
- clean the workpiece surfaces
- remove any coatings from the joint area
- check the primer thickness is below the manufacturer's maximum
Joint geometry
- avoid a joint geometry which creates a cavity
Crater pipe
A crater pipe forms during the final solidified weld pool and is often associated with some gas
porosity.
Cause
This imperfection results from shrinkage on weld pool solidification. Consequently, conditions
which exaggerate the liquid to solid volume change will promote its formation. Switching off the
welding current will result in the rapid solidification of a large weld pool.
In TIG welding, autogenous techniques, or stopping the wire before switching off the welding
current, will cause crater formation and the pipe imperfection.
Prevention
Crater pipe imperfection can be prevented by removing the stop or by welder technique.
Removal of stop
- use run-off tag in butt joints
- grind out the stop before continuing with the next electrode or depositing the subsequent
weld run
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Gas
Cleaning
C-Mn steel
Hydrogen,
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Stainless steel
Aluminium
Hydrogen
and Hydrogen
alloys
Hydrogen, Nitrogen
Nitrogen
Welder technique
The type and configuration of the joint, welding position and access restrictions all have an influence
on the risk of slag imperfections.
Fig. The influence of welder technique on the risk of slag inclusions when welding with a
basic MMA (E7018) electrode
Rutile or acid fluxes - large amounts of titanium oxide (rutile) with some silicates. The
oxygen level of the weld pool is high enough to give flat or slightly convex weld bead. The
fluidity of the slag is determined by the calcium fluoride content. Fluoride-free coatings
designed for welding in the flat position produce smooth bead profiles and an easily removed
slag. The more fluid fluoride slag designed for positional welding is less easily removed.
Basic fluxes - the high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluospar) in the flux reduces the oxygen content of the weld pool and therefore its surface
tension. The slag is more fluid than that produced with the rutile coating. Fast freezing also
assists welding in the vertical and overhead positions but the slag coating is more difficult to
remove.
Consequently, the risk of slag inclusions is significantly greater with basic fluxes due to the inherent
convex weld bead profile and the difficulty in removing the slag from the weld toes especially in
multi-pass welds.
Welder technique
Welding technique has an important role to play in preventing slag inclusions. Electrode
manipulation should ensure adequate shape and degree of overlap of the weld beads to avoid
forming pockets which can trap the slag. Thus, the correct size of electrode for the joint preparation,
the correct angle to the workpiece for good penetration and a smooth weld bead profile are all
essential to prevent slag entrainment.
In multi-pass vertical welding, especially with basic electrodes, care must be taken to fuse out any
remaining minor slag pockets and minimise undercut. When using a weave, a slight dwell at the
extreme edges of the weave will assist sidewall fusion and produce a flatter weld bead profile.
Use welding techniques to produce smooth weld beads and adequate inter-run fusion to avoid
forming pockets to trap the slag
Use the correct current and travel speed to avoid undercutting the sidewall which will make
the slag difficult to remove
Remove slag between runs paying particular attention to removing any slag trapped in
crevices
Use grinding when welding difficult butt joints otherwise wire brushing or light chipping
may be sufficient to remove the slag.
Acceptance standards
Slag and flux inclusions are linear defects but because they do not have sharp edges compared with
cracks, they may be permitted by specific standards and codes. The limits in steel are specified in BE
EN ISO 5817: 2003 for the three quality levels. Long slag imperfections are not permitted in both
butt and fillet welds for Quality Level B (stringent) and C (moderate). For Quality Level D, butt
welds can have imperfections providing their size is less than half the nominal weld thickness. Short
v. Cracking - This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain
accompanying phase change and thermal shrinkage. In the case of welded stiff frames, a
combination of poor design and inappropriate procedure may result in high residual stresses and
cracking. Where alloy steels or steels with a carbon content greater than about 0.2% are being
welded, self cooling may be rapid enough to cause some (brittle) martensite to form. This will easily
develop cracks. To prevent these problems a process of pre-heating in stages may be needed and
after welding a slow controlled post cooling in stages will be required. This can greatly increase the
cost of welded joins, but for high strength steels, such as those used in petrochemical plant and
piping, there may well be no alternative.
Solidification Cracking :
This is also called centerline or hot cracking. They are called hot cracks because they occur
immediately after welds are completed and sometimes while the welds are being made. These
defects, which are often caused by sulphur and phosphorus, are more likely to occur in higher carbon
steels. Solidification cracks are normally distinguishable from other types of cracks by the following
features:
they occur only in the weld metal - although the parent metal is almost always the source of
the low melting point contaminants associated with the cracking
they normally appear in straight lines along the centreline of the weld bead, but may
occasionally appear as transverse cracking
as the cracks are 'open' they are visible to the naked eye
Identification
Visual appearance
Solidification cracks are normally readily distinguished from other types of cracks due to the
following characteristic factors:
they normally appear as straight lines along the centreline of the weld bead, but may
occasionally appear as transverse cracking depending on the solidification structure
as the cracks are often 'open', they can be visible to the naked eye
On breaking open the weld, the crack surface in steel and nickel alloys may have a blue oxidised
appearance, showing that they were formed while the weld metal was still hot.
Causes
The overriding cause of solidification cracking is that the weld bead in the final stage of
solidification has insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses generated as the weld
pool solidifies. Factors which increase the risk include:
material properties such as a high impurity content or a relatively large amount of shrinkage
on solidification.
Joint design can have a significant influence on the level of residual stresses. Large gaps between
component parts will increase the strain on the solidifying weld metal, especially if the depth of
penetration is small. Therefore, weld beads with a small depth-to-width ratio, such as formed in
bridging a large gap with a wide, thin bead, will be more susceptible to solidification cracking,
schematic
diagram
of
centreline
crack
is
shown
below:
On breaking open the weld the crack surface may have a blue appearance, showing the cracks
formed while the metal was still hot. The cracks form at the solidification boundaries and are
characteristically inter dendritic. There may be evidence of segregation associated with the
solidification
boundary.
The main cause of solidification cracking is that the weld bead in the final stage of solidification has
insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses generated as the weld pool solidifies.
Factors which increase the risk include:
Joint design can have an influence on the level of residual stresses. Large gaps between components
will increase the strain on the solidifying weld metal, especially if the depth of penetration is small.
Hence weld beads with a small depth to width ratio, such as is formed when bridging a large wide
gap with a thin bead, will be more susceptible to solidification cracking.
In steels, cracking is associated with impurities, particularly sulphur and phosphorus and is promoted
by carbon, whereas manganese and sulphur can help to reduce the risk. To minimise the risk of
cracking, fillers with low carbon and impurity levels and a relatively high manganese content are
preferred. As a general rule, for carbon manganese steels, the total sulphur and phosphorus content
should be no greater than 0.06%. However when welding a highly restrained joint using high
strength steels, a combined level below 0.03% might be needed.
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ensure that the welding sequence will not lead to a buildup of thermally induced stresses
choose welding parameters to produce a weld bead with adequate depth to width ratio or with
sufficient throat thickness (fillet weld) to ensure the bead has sufficient resistance to
solidification stresses. Recommended minimum depth to width ratio is 0.5:1
avoid producing too large a depth to width ratio which will encourage segregation and
excessive transverse strains. As a rule, weld beads with a depth to width ratio exceeds 2:1
will be prone to solidification cracking
avoid high welding speeds (at high current levels) which increase segregation and stress
levels accross the weld bead
at the run stop, ensure adequate filling of the crater to avoid an unfavourable concave shape
Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) - also referred to as hydrogen cracking or hydrogen assisted
cracking, can occur in steels during manufacture, during fabrication or during service. When HIC
occurs as a result of welding, the cracks are in the heat affected zone (HAZ) or in the weld metal
itself.
Four requirements for HIC to occur are:
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a) Hydrogen be present, this may come from moisture in any flux or from other sources. It is
absorbed by the weld pool and diffuses int o the HAZ.
HIC in the HAZ is often at the weld toe, but can be under the weld bead or at the weld root. In fillet
welds cracks are normally parallel to the weld run but in butt welds cracks can be transverse to the
welding direction.
Hydrogen cracking may also be called cold cracking or delayed cracking. The principal
distinguishing feature of this type of crack is that it occurs in ferritic steels, most often immediately
on welding or a short time after welding.
In this issue, the characteristic features and principal causes of hydrogen cracks are described.
Identification
Visual appearance
Hydrogen cracks can be usually be distinguished due to the following characteristics:
In C-Mn steels, the crack will normally originate in the heat affected zone (HAZ), but may
extend into the weld metal ..
Cracks can also occur in the weld bead, normally transverse to the welding direction at an
angle of 45 to the weld surface. They follow a jagged path, but may be non-branching.
In low alloy steels, the cracks can be transverse to the weld, perpendicular to the weld
surface, but are non-branching, and essentially planar.
On breaking open the weld (prior to any heat treatment), the surface of the cracks will normally not
be oxidised, even if they are surface breaking, indicating they were formed when the weld was at or
near ambient temperature. A slight blue tinge may be seen from the effects of preheating or welding
heat.
Metallography
Cracks which originate in the HAZ are usually associated with the coarse grain region. The cracks
can be intergranular, transgranular or a mixture. Intergranular cracks are more likely to occur in the
harder HAZ structures formed in low alloy and high carbon steels. Transgranular cracking is more
often found in C-Mn steel structures.
In fillet welds, cracks in the HAZ are usually associated with the weld root and parallel to the weld.
In butt welds, the HAZ cracks are normally oriented parallel to the weld bead.
Causes
There are three factors which combine to cause cracking:
Cracking usually occurs at temperatures at or near normal ambient. It is caused by the diffusion of
hydrogen to the highly stressed, hardened part of the weldment.
In C-Mn steels, because there is a greater risk of forming a brittle microstructure in the HAZ, most
of the hydrogen cracks are to be found in the parent metal. With the correct choice of electrodes, the
weld metal will have a lower carbon content than the parent metal and, hence, a lower carbon
equivalent (CE). However, transverse weld metal cracks can occur, especially when welding thick
section components; the risk of cracking is increased if the weld metal carbon content exceeds that
of the parent steel.
In low alloy steels, as the weld metal structure is more susceptible than the HAZ, cracking may be
found in the weld bead.
The main factors which influence the risk of cracking are:
heat input
vi Undercutting - In this case the thickness of one (or both) of the sheets is reduced at the toe of the
weld. This is due to incorrect settings / procedure. There is already a stress concentration at the toe
of the weld and any undercut will reduce the strength of the join.
vii Lamellar tearing - This is mainly a problem with low quality steels. It occurs in plate that has a
low ductility in the through thickness direction, which is caused by non metallic inclusions, such as
suphides and oxides that have been elongated during the rolling process. These inclusions mean that
the plate can not tolerate the contraction stresses in the short transverse direction.
Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt welds, but the most vulnerable joints are 'T' and
corner
joints,
where
the
fusion
boundary
is
parallel
to
the
rolling
plane.
These problem can be overcome by using better quality steel, 'buttering' the weld area with a ductile
material and possibly by redesigning the joint.
Lamellar tearing can occur beneath the weld especially in rolled steel plate which has poor throughthickness ductility. The characteristic features, principal causes and best practice in minimising the
risk of lamellar tearing are described.
Fracture face
The surface of the fracture is fibrous and 'woody' with long parallel sections which are indicative of
low parent metal ductility in the through-thickness direction.
Metallography
As lamellar tearing is associated with a high concentration of elongated inclusions oriented parallel
to the surface of the plate, tearing will be transgranular with a stepped appearance.
Causes
It is generally recognised that there are three conditions which must be satisfied for lamellar tearing
to occur:
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3.Detection OF Defects:
Visual Inspection Prior to any welding, the materials should be visually inspected to see that they
are
clean,
aligned
correctly,
machine
settings,
filler
selection
checked,
etc.
As a first stage of inspection of all completed welds, visual inspected under good lighting should be
carried out. A magnifying glass and straight edge may be used as a part of this process.
Undercutting can be detected with the naked eye and (provided there is access to the reverse side)
excess penetration can often be visually detected.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection :Serious cases of surface cracking can be detected by the naked eye
but for most cases some type of aid is needed and the use of dye penetrant methods are quite
efficient
when
used
by
trained
Spray the surface with a liquid dye that has good penetrating properties
operator.
Any cracks will have trapped some die which will weep out and discolour the white coating
and be clearly visible
X - Ray Inspection :
Sub-surface cracks and inclusions can be detected 'X' ray examination. This is expensive, but for
safety critical joints - eg in submarines and nuclear power plants - 100% 'X' ray examination of
welded joints will normally be carried out.
Ultrasonic Inspection :
Surface and sub-surface defects can also be detected by ultrasonic inspection. This involves directing
a high frequency sound beam through the base metal and weld on a predictable path. When the beam
strikes a discontinuity some of it is reflected beck. This reflected beam is received and amplified and
processed
and
from
the
time
delay,
the
location
of
flaw
estimated.
Porosity, however, in the form of numerous gas bubbles causes a lot of low amplitude reflections
which
are
difficult
to
separate
from
the
background
noise.
can
not
therefore
be
used
with
austenitic
stainless
steels).
The process involves placing a probe on each side of the area to be inspected and passing a high
current between them. This produces a magnetic flux at right angles to the flow of the current. When
these lines of force meet a discontinuity, such as a longitudinal crack, they are diverted and leak
through the surface, creating magnetic poles or points of attraction. A magnetic powder dusted onto
the surface will cling to the leakage area more than elsewhere, indicating the location of any
discontinuities.
This process may be carried out wet or dry, the wet process is more sensitive as finer particles may
Welding Discontinuities
b)
c)
d)
a) Excessively thick root face
b) Too small a root gap
c) Misplaced welds
d) Power input too low
e) Arc (heat) input too low
e)
Fig. 2 Effect of electrode size on root fusion
a)
a) Large diameter electrode
b) Small diameter electrode
b)
Fig. a
Fig. b
Fig. c
Fig. d
DISTORTION
Welding involves highly localized heating of the metal being joined together. The temperature
distribution in the weldment is therefore nonuniform. Normally, the weld metal and the heat affected
zone (HAZ) are at temperatures substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. Upon cooling,
the weld pool solidifies and shrinks, exerting stresses on the surrounding weld metal and HAZ.
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Amount of restraint
Welding procedure
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Part fit up
Restraint can be used to minimize distortion. Components welded without any external restraint are
free to move or distort in response to stresses from welding. It is not unusual for many shops to
clamp or restrain components to be welded in some manner to prevent movement and
distortion. This restraint does result in higher residual stresses in the components.
Welding procedure impacts the amount of distortion primarily due to the amount of the heat input
produced. The welder has little control on the heat input specified in a welding procedure. This
does not prevent the welder from trying to minimize distortion. While the welder needs to provide
adequate weld metal, the welder should not needlessly increase the total weld metal volume added to
a weldment.
Parent metal properties, which have an effect on distortion, are coefficient of thermal expansion and
specific heat of the material. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the metal affects the degree of
thermal expansion and contraction and the associated stresses that result from the welding process.
This in turn determines the amount of distortion in a component.
Weld joint design will effect the amount of distortion in a weldment. Both butt and fillet joints may
experience distortion. However, distortion is easier to minimize in butt joints.
Part fit up should be consistent to fabricate foreseeable and uniform shrinkage.
be adequately and consistently tacked to minimize movement between the parts being joined by
welding.