Global Journal of

Guidance & Counselling

Vol 02 (2012) 21-26

The Relation between Relational/ Overt Aggression and Prosocial

behavior with Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary
School
Mozhgan Arefi *, Department of Education & psychology, Khorasgan Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Esfahan, p.o.Box: 81595-158, Iran
Suggested Citation:
Arefi, M. (2012). The Relation between Relational/Overt Aggression and Prosocial behavior with
Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary School, Global Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2, 21-26.
Received date, 10 June 2012; revised date 17 Agust 2012; accepted date 3 October 2012
Selection and peer review under responsibility of Prof. Dr. Kobus Maree.
2012 Academic World Education & Research Center. All rights reserved.
Abstract
This study was designed to examine the relationship between relational/overt aggression, prosocial behavior
with Machiavellianism and empathy. Students from fourth to sixth grade classrooms (280) were selected
randomly from four primary schools in Shiraz and completed the peer nomination scale, index of empathy and
Kidde Mach scale. The results of the correlation approach suggested that both relational and overt aggression
were associated with overall Machiavellianism and its subscales. The result of regression approach, suggested
that empathy was a powerful variable for prediction of childs social situation between their peers. Further
research is needed to explain components of social competence.
Keywords: relatinal aggression, overt aggression, prosocial behevior, machiavellianism, empathy

* ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE: Mozhgan Arefi, Department of Education & psychology, Khorasgan Branch, Islamic Azad

University, Esfahan, p.o.Box: 81595-158, Iran

E-mail address: marefi@khisf.ac.ir / Tel.: +989131943422

Arefi, M. (2012). The Relation between Relationa/ Overt Aggression and Prosocial behavior with
Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary School, Global Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2, 21-26.

1. Introduction
Our beliefs about others are of foundational importance in social interactions. We quickly form
impressions and make judgments or attributions concerning the people we need, and this process can
guide our behavior toward them. In wider levels, people vary not only in their attitudes toward
different groups, but also in their beliefs about human nature in general. Some may view people in
general as untrustworthy and manipulable in interpersonal situations, whereas others may have a high
degree of faith in human nature, seeing people as fundamentally kind and to be treated with honesty
and respect (Christie & Geis, 1970).
Since 1970s, research into Machiavellianism has largely focused on determining whether and
how childrens Machiavellianism is related to their social functioning. For example, in Giess (1970)
experiment, high Mach were more successful than low Mach at winning games that involved
bargaining and formation of alliances. Sutton and Keogh (2000) found that 9-to 12- year-old children
who identified themselves as bullies had significantly higher Kidde-Mach scores than control children.
Consistent with this finding, children with high Mach scores were generally less sympathetic to victims
of bullying relative to those with lower Mach scores. Similar finding emerged in a sample of 8-to 12year-old Greek children (Andreou, 2004).
Given these findings, it comes as no surprise that high Mach are less likely to help another
individual when it is no benefit to themselves (Wolfson, 1981) and having a higher Mach score indicate
Machiavellian tendencies, but does not necessarily mean that the individual is a high Mach. For
instance, Drake (1995) suggested there is high ach who also scores highly on the guilt. It may be that
such Mach who experience anxiety and the socialized effects of guilt and shame have empathy
experience. What this means is that Machiavellianism style is related to empathic degree. The few
studies that have investigated prosocial and Anti-social behavior have focused largely on empathy. For
example Sutton, Smith and Swettenham (1999) found that bullies are cold, manipulative experts in
social contexts. Then, they suggested that the problem of their behavior can be related to emotions
such as Empathy.
Empathy is usually seen as multidimensional, involving cognitive and emotional abilities. Cold, or
cognitive empathy refers to the ability to understand the need state of another. Cognitive empathy is
one way of discerning the need state of another where we may obtain the knowledge we seek, but
there is no guarantee that we will behave altruistically (Krebs & Russell, 1981). The experience of the
warmer features of empathy, namely, emotional rezoning, makes as more likely to help when
anothers need is obvious or when asked (Barnett & Thompson, 1985).
Affective coolness is the form of an absence of the emotionally based, empathic concern
dimension of empathy. Barnett and Thompson (1985) suggested that Mach may have a heightened
awareness of the feelings of others, yet be insensitive to the feelings of others. It is as if a Mach knows
the words but not the music of emotion. To be motivated to help another, suggested one needs to be
affectively, empathically personal distress. So hot empathy seems to block exploitation and promote
helping.
Altruistic action may be promoted by the feeling of kinship that may arise in some observers from
the sharing of affective states, via the vicarious arousal of ones own bodily and emotional states as a
result of observing a persons situation. Such emotional reasoning may give highly exact information
about anothers state; which theoretically may be used for manipulation (McIlwain, 2003).
Though, it has been found that those who manipulate, or who do not help another, tend not to
have this aspect of empathy (McIlwain, 2003). The first aim of this study was to determine the
relations between empathy and Machiavellian beliefs for specific behaviors (relational/overt
aggression, prosocial behavior). Investigation of the role of empathy and Machiavellian beliefs for
specific behaviors was another aim of this study.
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Arefi, M. (2012). The Relation between Relationa/ Overt Aggression and Prosocial behavior with
Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary School, Global Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2, 21-26.

2. Method
The study took place in eight classes from four primary schools in predominantly middle-class
areas of Shiraz-Iran. The participants consisted of 280 children (141 girls, 139 boys) ranging in age
from 9 to 12 years (mean=10.4, SD =0.9).
The Bryant (1982) paper-and-pencil index of empathy in children and adolescents was used to
assess hot empathy. The Empathy Index is a 22-itemed instrument. This scale requires respondents to
indicate agreement or disagreement with each of 22 statements, for example, "It makes me sad to see
a boy/girl who cannot find anyone to play with. The validity of the instrument was satisfactory. The
reliability was found to be satisfactory too (test re test= 0.90).
To estimate the positive-negative social function, peer nomination scale Crick and Grotpeter
(1995) was administered. The paper nomination scale consists of three subscales, relational aggression
(5 items), overt aggression (5 items) and prosocial behavior (4 items). During the administration of the
peer nomination instrument, subjects were provided with a class roster and were asked to nominate
up to 3 classmates who best fit the behavioral descriptions provided for each of the items on the
measure. The number of nomination children received from peers for each of the items on these
subscales was then standardized with each classroom. The standardized scores for the items of a
subscale were summed to yield a total subscale score. Internal consistency was found to be
satisfactory (cronbach alpha for relational aggression was 0.89, for overt aggression was 0.95 and for
prosocial behavior was 0.830). The validity of the instrument was found satisfactory too.
The 20-item "Kidde Mach" scale (Christie & Geis, 1970) was used to assess children's attitudes
towards human nature and trust in interpersonal relationships. Agreement with the statements was
indicated on the following scale according to the method of Christie & Geis (1970): agree very much
(5), agree little (4), disagree a little (2), and disagree very much (1). Non Machiavellian items (2, 4, 6, 9,
10, 11, 14, 16, 17 and 19) were reverse scored for consistency with the Machiavellianism construct, so
that high scores on these items indicated disagreement and therefore Machiavellianism. The possible
range of scores was 20-100. Internal consistency was found to be satisfactory (cronbach alpha=0.86).
3. Results
Table 1 exhibit the correlations between Machiavellianism, Empathy and childrens social functions
(relational/overt aggression, prosocial behavior).
Table1. correlations between peer nomination, scores on empathy and kiddie mach scales
1
2
3
Relational
1
aggression
Overt aggression
.480**
1
Prosocial
-.263**
-.294**
1
behaviour
Empathy
-.370**
-.429**
.387**
Overall Mach
.290**
.225**
-.290**
Dishonesty
.162*
-.017
-.140
Manipulation
.465**
.254**
-.212**
untrust
.121
-.001
-.083
Lack of faith
.222**
.191**
-.048
Note. Significance: ** p<.01, two-tailed

1
-.235**
-.014
-.267**
-.012
.222**

1
.485**
.679**
.202**
.337**

1
.162*
-.251**
-.364**

1
-.254**
.162*

1
.070

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Arefi, M. (2012). The Relation between Relationa/ Overt Aggression and Prosocial behavior with
Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary School, Global Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2, 21-26.

The result of the table showed that the higher the strength of overall Machiavellianism, the
higher score in aggression, and the lowest score in the empathy and prosocial behavior. Among the
components of Machiavellianism, manipulation positively correlated with aggression (both relational
and overt aggression), and negatively with prosocial behavior and empathy. The lack of faith positively
correlated with aggression (relational and overt aggression), and negatively with empathy. Finally the
dishonesty positively correlated with relational aggression.
Higher scores on overall Machiavellianism were associated with lower scores on empathy and
prosocial behavior and higher score on aggression
In order to investigate the role of empathy and Machiavellian beliefs for prediction of childrens social
behaviors, three analysis of regression with enter method were applied to determine the role of these
variables as predictors for childrens social behaviors (see Table 2, 3 & 4).
Table2. Multiple regressions for predicting of relational aggression
variables
Empathy
Mach

R
square

df

Beta

Sig.

.163

185

-.288
.223

.000
.002

Table3. Multiple regressions for predicting of prosocial behaviour

variables
Empathy
Mach

R
square

df

Beta

Sig.

.192

185

.338
-.210

.000
.002

Table4. Multiple regressions for predicting of overt aggression

variables
Empathy
Mach

R
square

df

Beta

Sig.

.207

184

-.406
.131

.000
.056

The results of tables 2 and 3 showed that both Machiavellianism and empathy could predict
significantly relational aggression and prosocial behavior. The result of table 4 revealed that empathy
was the only predictor of overt aggression.
In order to determine the relative contribution of each of empathy and Machiavellian beliefs to the
childrens social behaviours, three multiple regression by stepwise method were performed. The
results indicated that empathy was the best predictor for relational aggression (Beta= -.288, p<.000)
prosocial behavior (Beta= .338, p<.000) and overt aggression (Beta= -.437, p<.000).

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Arefi, M. (2012). The Relation between Relationa/ Overt Aggression and Prosocial behavior with
Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary School, Global Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2, 21-26.

4. Discussion
Correlations between scores on the peer nomination and Empathy scale and Kidde Mach, revealed
some relations. As expected, children who displayed insensitive to the feeling of others and
heightened in Machiavellian belief reported being especially aggressive (relational and overt
aggression) in their interactions with others and reverse, the children who displayed sensitive to the
feeling of others and low in Machiavellian belief, tended to be rated by their peers as helpful and
prosocial behavior. This finding is consisted with study of Slauter, Dennis and Pritchard (2002) that
found Machiavellianism to be significantly related to prosocial and aggressive behaviors. This finding
also confirmed with Strayer (2004) that revealed empathy was negatively associated with aggression
and anger, and positively associated with prosocial behavior.
The present investigation explored the role of empathic disposition and Machiavellianism in the
childs prosocial and aggression behaviour (overt and relational). Empathic disposition was found to
have a significantly positive role in predict of helping behaviour (prosocial behaviour) and negative
role in predict of relational and overt aggression. These findings suggest that empathy is an important
motive for helping and the other hand the lack of it, tend to insensitivity to the feeling of others and
then, low-empathy disposition can be tended to act aggressively. Altruistic action may promoted by
the feeling of kinship that may arise in some observers from the sharing of affective states, via the
vicarious arousal of ones own bodily and emotional states as a result of observing a persons
situation. Such emotional reasoning, may give highly exact information about another state,
empirically. So childs violent and aggressive behaviors can be changed by promoting hot empathy.
Teaching empathy by peers, teachers and parents suggest as a good intervention for anti-social
programs.
The implications of the finding of the present study are undoubtedly limited by the exclusive use of
self-report indicates. Nonetheless, the results do indicate that a consideration of both a childs
empathic disposition and Machiavellian beliefs may be necessary for understanding particular
interpersonal behaviours especially bully and aggression. Furthermore, the present findings suggest
that the sharing of anothers effects may be the critical component of empathy (hot empathy) and a
factor that serves to motive helping behaviour truly performed for the sake of another.
Hot Empathy as Emotions can be viewed as a core feature of normative an individual development
of relationships and quality of socio-emotional functioning. Consequently, Investigate the role of
empathy as a mediator of the relationship between Machiavellianism and social/anti-social behaviour
is suggested for future studies.
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Arefi, M. (2012). The Relation between Relationa/ Overt Aggression and Prosocial behavior with
Machiavellianism and Empathy in Iranian Primary School, Global Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2, 21-26.

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