DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system.

Substations transform voltage from high to low, or vice-versa, or perform any of several other
important functions. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating
plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in several steps.

A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current
while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic
and commercial distribution.

Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in specialpurpose buildings. High-rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations
are usually found in urban areas to reduce the noise from the transformers, for reasons of
appearance, or to protect stwitchgear from extreme climate or pollution conditions.

Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded to protect people from
high voltages that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause
a ground potential rise. Currents flowing in the Earth's surface during a fault can cause metal
objects to have a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch
potential presents a hazard of electrocution.

TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS

Transmission substation: A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines.

The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the
substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault
clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two
transmission voltages, voltage control devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAr
compensator and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between
two adjacent power systems.
Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be
little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a
large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large
amount of protection and control equipment (voltage and current transformers, relays and
SCADA systems).

Distribution substation: A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system
to the distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers
to the high-voltage main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power, so the
distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution. The input for a
distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub transmission lines. Input
voltage may be, for example, 66 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number
of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically medium voltage, between 11 and 33 kV depending
on the size of the area served and the practices of the local utility.
The feeders will then run overhead, along streets (or under streets, in a city) and eventually
power the distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.

Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in either the
transmission or distribution systems. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt
any short or overload currents that may occur on the network. Distribution substations may also
be the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (several km/miles),
voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.
Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large cities, with
high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION
1. According to service requirement
a) Transformer sub-station: Those sub-station which change the voltage level of electrical supply
is called Transformer sub-station. b) Switching sub-station: This sub-station simply perform the
switching operation of power line. c) Power factor correction S/S: This sub-station which
improves the p.f. of the system are called p.f. correction s/s. these are generally located at
receiving end s/s. d) Frequency changer S/S: Those sub-stations, which change the supply
frequency, are known as frequency changer s/s. Such s/s may be required for industrial
utilization e) Converting sub-station: That sub-station which change A.C power into D.C. power
are called converting s/s ignition is used to convert AC to dc power for traction, electroplating,
electrical welding etc. f) Industrial sub-station: Those sub-stations, which supply power to
individual industrial concerns, are known as industrial sub-station.

2. According to constructional features

a) Outdoor Sub-Station: For voltage beyond 66KV, equipment is invariably installed outdoor. It
is because for such Voltage the clearances between conductor and the space required for
switches, C.B. and other equipment becomes so great that it is not economical to install the
equipment indoor.
b) Indoor Sub-station: For voltage up to 11KV, the equipment of the s/s is installed indoor
because of economic consideration. However, when the atmosphere is contaminated with
impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for voltage up to 66KV
c) Underground sub-station: In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and
building is limited and the cost of the land is high. Under such situations, the substation is
created underground. The design of underground s/s requires more careful consideration.

The size of the s/s should be as small as possible.

There should be reasonable access for both equipment & personal.
There should be provision for emergency lighting and protection against fire.
There should be good ventilation

3. According to nature of duties

a) Step-up or Primary Substations- Where from power is transmitted to various load centers in
the system network and are generally associated with generating stations.
b) Step-up and Step-down or Secondary Substations- may be located at generating points where
from power is fed directly to the loads and balance power generated is transmitted to the network
for transmission to other load centers.
c) Step-down or Distribution Substations- receives power from secondary substations at extra
high voltage (above 66 kV) and step down its voltage for secondary distribution.
4. According to operating voltage
a) High Voltage Substations (HV Substations) - involving voltages between 11 kV and 66 kV.
b) Extra high voltage substations (EHV Substations) - involving voltages between 132 kV and
400 kV and
c) Ultra high voltage substations (UHV Substations) - operating on voltage above 400 kV

MAIN EQUIPMENTS USED IN A DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

A distribution substation is an assembly of various electrical equipments connected to step down
electric power at higher voltages i.e. 66kV/33kV to 11kV and to clear faults in the system. The
various electrical equipments used in the distribution substation are as follows:1. Power Transformers
2. Instrument Transformers i.e. CT, PT and CVT
3. Bus Bars
4. Isolators
5. Relays
6. Circuit Breakers
7. Lightening Arrestors
8. Battery chargers
9. Capacitor banks
10. Earthing equipments
11. Control and relay (C & R) panels
12. PLCs or RTU (remote terminal units)
13. Multi function Meters

POWER TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic
field through the secondary winding. It is the costliest equipment in a substation and important
from the view of station layout.
One of the governing factors affecting the layout of a substation is that weather the transformer is
a 3 phase transformer or a bank of 3 single phase transformers. The space requirement with bank
of 3 single phase transformers is much more than a single 3 phase transformer. In case ofa 3,
single phase units it is normal to provide one spare single phase transformer to be used in case of
a fault or if one of the single phase transformer is under maintenance. On account of large
dimensions it is very difficult to accommodate two transformers in adjacent bays. In order to
reduce the risk of spread of fire, large transformers are provided with stone pebble filled soaking
pits and oil collecting pits.
With transformers, however, the high cost of repair or replacement, and the possibility of a
violent failure or fire involving adjacent equipment, may make limiting the damage a major
objective. The protection aspects of relays should be considered carefully when protecting
transformers. Faults internal to the transformer quite often involve a few turns. While the
currents in the shorted turns are large in magnitude, the changes of the currents at the terminals
of the transformer are low compared to the rating of the transformer.

Figure: Power transformer

6

Instrument Transformer:
They are devices used to transform voltage and current in the primary system to values suitable
for measuring instruments, meters, protective relays etc.
They are basically the current transformers and voltage transformers.
a) Current transformers: It may be of bushing or wound type. The bushing types are normally
accommodated within the transformer bushing and the wound types are separately mounted.
When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current
transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit,
which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. The CT is
typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary.
b) Voltage transformers: It may be either capacitive type or electromagnetic type. The
electromagnetic type VTs are more expensive than capacitive type and are used where higher
accuracy is required. Capacitive type is usually preferred at high voltages due to lower cost and
secondly because it serves the purpose of coupling capacitor for the power line carrier
equipment. Voltage transformers are usually connected on the feeder side of the circuit breaker.
However they are also connected on the bus bar side for synchronization. They step down extra
high voltage signals and provide a low voltage signal, for measurement or to operate a protective
relay.
c) Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVTs): In combination with wave traps are used for filtering
high frequency communication signals from power frequency. This forms a carrier
communication network throughout the transmission network.

TAP CHANGER
A device used to increase or decrease a transformer's voltage to alter the level of current it can
draw (tap) from the circuit supplying electricity. Changing the tap of a transformer or regulator
serves the same function in an electrical circuit as turning the tap handle of a water faucet serves
to adjust water flow.

BUS-BARS
In electrical power distribution, a bus bar is a thick strip of copper or aluminum that conducts
electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. Bus
bars are used to carry very large currents, or to distribute current to multiple devices within
switchgear or equipment. Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes
allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross sectional area ratio.
The size of the bus bar is important in determining the maximum amount of current that can be
safely carried.
Bus bar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may completely surround it.
Bus bars are protected from accidental contact either by a metal enclosure or by elevation out of

normal reach. Bus bars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or
clamp connections.
Various Bus bar Schemes

Single Bus
Single Bus with Bus Section
Main & Transfer Bus.
Double Bus.
Main 1, Main 2 & Transfer Bus

CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault
condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a
fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either
manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying
sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

The type of the Circuit Breaker is usually identified according to the medium of arc extinction.
The classification of the Circuit Breakers based on the medium of arc extinction is as follows:

Air break Circuit Breaker. (Miniature Circuit Breaker).

Oil Circuit Breaker (tank type of bulk oil)
Minimum oil Circuit Breaker.
Air blast Circuit Breaker.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker.
Sulphur hexafluoride Circuit Breaker. (Single pressure or Double Pressure).

ISOLATOR
In electrical systems, an isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit is
completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source of driving power
removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical

substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and
transmission lines, for maintenance.
An isolator can open or close the circuit when either a negligible current has to be broken or
made or when no significant voltage change across the terminals of each pole of isolator occurs.
It can carry current under normal conditions and can carry short circuit current for a specified
time. They can transfer load from one bus to another and also isolate equipments for
maintenance. Isolators guarantee safety for the people working on the high voltage network,
providing visible and reliable air gap isolation of line sections and equipment. They are basically
motorized i.e. motor does the closing and opening of the isolator.
Isolators are distinguished as off load and on load isolator

EARTHING
The function of an earthing system is to provide an earthing system connection to which
transformer neutrals or earthing impedances may be connected in order to pass the maximum
fault current. The earthing system also ensures that no thermal or mechanical damage occurs on
the equipment within the substation, thereby resulting in safety to operation and maintenance
personnel. The earthing system also guarantees equipotential bonding such that there are no
dangerous potential gradients developed in the substation. In designing the substation, three
voltages have to be considered.

10

1. Touch Voltage: This is the difference in potential between the surface potential and the
potential at an earthed equipment whilst a man is standing and touching the earthed structure.
2. Step Voltage: This is the potential difference developed when a man bridges a distance of 1m
with his feet while not touching any other earthed equipment.
3. Mesh Voltage: This is the maximum touch voltage that is developed in the mesh of the
earthing grid.

FIGURE: EARTHING SYSTEM

RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils

11

are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Types of relays:

Electromagnetic attraction relay

Electromagnetic induction relay
Thermal relay
Buchholz relay
Numerical relay
Over current relay

Control and relay panel

Control and relay panel of a grid substation has all controls, indications, meters and protective
relays mounted on the front. These panels are free-standing, floor mounting type suitable
chambers for indoor installation. Panels are rigid structural frames enclosed completely with
smooth finished rolled sheet steel. In every grid of BYPL the instruments operate at 220V DC
supply. The standard voltages of a grid are 220V DC and 48V DC. Thus, to supply 220V DC
separate battery charger rooms are set up in the grid. DC is supplied to avoid the failure of
instruments in the absence of AC supply. Thus for continuous operation of the grid DC is
supplied to all instruments in a C & R panel.

FIGURE: CONTROL AND RELAY PANEL

12

Multifunction meters
The MFM is an IED that can calculate values once the inputs from the secondary of the CTs and
PTs have been given. Each MFM is dedicated to a particular panel, be it, outgoing or incoming.
The MFM calculates and displays values on a hand held programming and display unit. These
values depend on the programmed primary value corresponding to the CT and PT ratio,
pertaining to that feeder.
There is a communication port available for each MFM. The communication ports of five MFMs
are looped. It is extended to the front face of an SLI card through a cable. A maximum of 32
MFMS can be connected to one single cable.

Capacitor Banks
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain
at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate.
Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant
value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor,
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction.
In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and
leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems
for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

13

FIGURE: CAPACITOR BANKS

Battery Charger
In a protection system it is necessary that control DC voltage shall remain always constant for as
much time as possible, so that system works without interruptions. The charger is a rectifier
which produces slightly higher voltage compared to the nominal cell voltage of a battery. The
main source is derived from the normally available AC source which is rectified by the charger.
Here the battery is combination of multiple cells connected ion series to get the nominal DC
tripping/control voltage required for the operation of relays and breakers and could be from 24V
to 220 V depending on loads and capacity requirements

14

FIGURE: BATTERY CHARGER

Lightening arrestors
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications
systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of
lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When
a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the
arrester, the current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrestor is placed where wires enter a structure,
preventing damage to electronic instruments within and ensuring the safety of individuals near
them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters, also called surge protectors, are devices that are
connected between each electrical conductor in power and communications systems and the
Earth. These prevent the flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a
path over which high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their
purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck by lightning
or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands of
kilovolts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to
transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage
spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.

15

FIGURE: LIGHTNING ARRESTER

16

FIGURE: DIFFERENT TYPES OF LIGHTNING ARRESTERS USED

17

INTRODUCTION TO SCADA
The SCADA systems in use for Distribution systems like Water & Gas are existent for several
decades in USA and other developed countries; however the use of these systems for electric
distribution monitor & control is quite recent. In India also now we can see the number of
electric distribution projects some are already in the operation and other are in the
implementation phase. The SCADA technology has been matured enough now due to advances
that has taken place in semiconductor technologies & telemetric. In the document the discussion
is limited to Electric SCADA & Distribution Automation Systems. The early SCADA systems
were built on replicating the existing system remote controls, lamps, and analog indications at
the functional equivalent of pushbuttons, often placed on a mimic board for easy operator
interface. The SCADA masters simply replicated point for-point, control circuits connected to
the remote, or slave, unit. At the same time as SCADA systems were developing, a parallel
technology on remote teleprinting, or Teletype" was taking shape. The invention of the "modem"
(Modulator / Demodulator) allowed digital information to be sent over wire pairs which had been
engineered to only carry the electronic equivalent of human voice communication. The
introduction of digital electronics made it possible use of faster data streams to provide remote
indication and control of system parameters. The integration of Teletype technology and the
digital electronics gave birth to "Remote Terminal Units" (RTUs) which were built with solid
state electronics which could provide the remote indication and control of both discrete events
and analog voltage and current quantities of the electric power system. The development of
Microprocessors gave the required impetus to SCADA industry craving for increased
functionality & faster speeds. The 1970s and early 1980s saw the coming age of integrated
microprocessor-based devices which came to be known as "Intelligent Electronic Devices", or
IEDs. The IEDs are being used increasingly to convert data into engineering unit values in the
field and to participate in field-based local control algorithms. Many IEDs are being built with
programmable logic controller (PLC) capability and, communication.

Need for SCADA system:

Following are the main cause for SCADA need.

Lack of Information Availability

Poor Visibility
Long Fault Restoration Times
Inadequate Information for processing Customer requests
Need for Real Time data for Network Analysis & Reconfiguration
Need For Historical Information
Load Forecasting and capacity planning.
18

Asset tracking and management

All Report generation
Training and research.

Earlier methods used to acquire data:

PLCC Network
Wireless VHF sets
P&T.FWP telephones
Log sheets

Limitations of old method:

Outage of telephone/PLCC network

Non-clarity of speech
Human factor
No check on improper compliance of instruction
Huge time require to collect data and pass instructions
No control on operations

BENEFITS OF SCADA

Visibility for the network operation.

Real-time, accurate and consistent information of the system.
Flexibility of operational controls.
Faster fault identification, Isolation & system restoration.
Extensive reporting & statistical data archiving.
Central database and history of all system parameters.
Improve availability of system, Optimized Load Shedding.

SCADA in distribution system & utilities is used for Distribution Automation, DMS, OMS i.e.
Distribution Management System and Outage Management respectively. These have been
implemented by a lot of distribution utilities across the world to achieve better monitoring and
control and to improve power quality, reliability & customer satisfaction.

19

The goal of Advanced Distribution Automation is real-time adjustment to changing loads,

generation, and failure conditions of the distribution system, usually without operator
intervention.

Presently the distribution utilities across the world are either implementing or have implemented
distribution automation solutions for fulfilling one or more of these business objectives:

Better monitoring & control of their distribution assets

To reduce their Aggregate Technical and Commercial (AT&C) losses
As part of their Smart Grid compliance put by the regulation

SCADA systems are globally accepted as a means of real-time monitoring and control of electric
power systems, particularly for generation, transmission and distribution systems. RTUs (Remote
Terminal Units) are used to collect analog and status telemetry data from field devices, as well as
communicate control commands to the field devices. Installed at a centralized location, such as
the utility control center, are front-end data acquisition equipment, SCADA software,
operator GUI (graphical user interface), engineering applications that act on the data, historian
software, and other components.
Recent trends in SCADA include providing increased situational awareness through improved
GUIs and presentation of data and information; intelligent alarm processing; the utilization of
thin clients and web-based clients; improved integration with other engineering and business
systems; and enhanced security features.

20

SCADA Adaptation
Remote Terminal Unit
The RTU or the Remote Terminal Unit is one of the components that comprise the SCADA
system. It gathers information that is present in the field or substation and sends it to the Master
Control Center (MCC). Similarly, it executes the command that come from the MCC. So, we can
say it is a two-way communication device that keeps updating the status of the field continually
and simultaneously executing the commands from the MCC.
RTU panels are divided into three parts one is RTU panel, 2nd is MFM panel and 3 rd is
marshalling panel. Housing a stack of racks with electronic cards is called the RTU Panel.
Housing of only the MFMS or Multifunction Meters, called the MFM panel. The marshalling
panel is a junction which provides the connections of field signals to RTU .

FIGURE: RTU

The RTU panel consists of a Basic Rack & Extension Racks.

Basic Rack:
The Basic rack or the Communication Rack houses the brain of the RTU. It consists of nine
slots. Into these slots are inserted a set of Cards. The Cards are the CPUs of the RTU. They
help in coordinating the flow of data from and into the RTU.
These CPUs are basically of two types.
21

1. SLI (Serial Line Interface) Cards

2. ETH (Ethernet) Cards

FIGURE: SLI CARD

FIGURE: ETHERNET CARD

The SLI Card acts as an interface between the RTU and the IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices)
like protection relays, multifunction meters, digital RTCC and battery charger.
SLI continually reads data from the IEDs. These IEDs could either be Numerical Relays
mounted on the CR Panel or an MFM placed on the MFM panel of the RTU It is generally
placed in a slot of the Basic Rack. The SLI card has got a provision for communicating with the
IEDs. The SLI card has a serial MMI port for communicating with PC.

22

The ETH card controls the process events and communications with the Control Centers. It
continually reads the data from the Extension Racks, the SLI cards and sends it to the control
center.
SLI card also has an serial MMI port for communication with PC or Lap-Top for configuration
and diagnosis purpose.
The ETH and the SLI cards communicate with each other through a dedicated communication
channel present on the back plane of the Basic Rack.

EXTENSION RACKS:
The Extension rack is a place, where Input/output Modules are placed. The extension rack
communicates only with the ETH card of the Basic Rack.
In cases where there is more than one extension rack, each communication port of the extension
rack is looped with the one succeeding it.
The function of the Input Modules is to send the status of the equipment present in the grid
station to the MCC. Whereas the function of the output modules is to control the status of the
equipment from the MCC. Thus, we see that the flow of data, in the case of input modules, is
from RTU to MCC and from MCC to RTU in the case of Output modules.
The different I/O modules used are
DI cards

FIGURE: DI CARD
AI cards
23

FIGURE: AI CARD
DO cards

FIGURE: DO CARD
The DI cards have 16 channels, which can be used for connecting the status of field devices as an
indication to MCC. If one takes a look at the front face of the DI card, one can see 16 LEDs,
Each LED indicates ON/OFF status of the input connected to particular channel of the DI card.

The AI card on the other hand gives the analog value of the signal. It has 8 channels on which
eight signals can be configured. The input to a channel in the AI card is a 4-20ma dc current,
which is proportional to the range of the analog value.

The DO card is used to execute commands that are sent from the MCC. As soon as the DO card
gets a command from the MCC, it sends a pulse of 48v dc to the exciting terminals of the
24

contactor (CMR). As soon as the contactor gets this pulse it closes its contacts and the command
gets executed.

SCADA Applications
Following are the main application commonly used.
25

Network Connectivity Analysis (NCA)

State Estimation (SE)
Load Flow Application (LFA)
Voltage VAR control (VVC)
Load Shed Application (LSA)
Fault Management and System Restoration (FMSR)
Loss Minimization via Feeder Reconfiguration (LMFR)
Load Balancing via Feeder Reconfiguration (LBFR)
Operation Monitor (OM) Distribution Load forecasting (DLF)

Network Connectivity Analysis (NCA):

The network connectivity analysis function provides the connectivity between various network
elements. The prevailing network topology will be determined from the status of all the
switching devices such as circuit breaker, isolators etc. that affects the topology of the network
modeled. NCA runs in real time as well as in study mode. Real-time mode of operation uses data
acquired by SCADA. Study mode of operation will use either a snapshot of the real-time data or
save cases. NCA can run in real time on event-driven basis.

The network topology of the distribution system will be based on

Tele-metered switching device statuses
Manually entered switching device statuses.
Modeled element statuses from DMS applications.

The NCA will be useful in determining the network topology for the following status of the
network.
Bus connectivity (Live/ dead status)
Feeder connectivity
Network connectivity representing S/S bus as node

26

Energized /de-energized state of network equipment

Representation of Loops (Possible alternate routes)
Representation of parallels Abnormal/off-normal state of CB/Isolators
The NCA also assists the power system operator to know the operating state of the distribution
network indicating radial mode, loops and parallels in the network. Distribution networks which
are normally operated in radial mode; loops and/or parallel may be intentionally or inadvertently
formed.

State Estimation (SE)

The State Estimation (SE) is used for assessing (estimating) the distribution network state. It
shall assess loads of all network nodes, and, consequently, assessment of all other state variables
(voltage and current phasors of all buses, sections and transformers, active and reactive power
losses in all sections and transformers, etc.) in the Distribution network.

Load Flow Application (LFA)

In Power system the quantities of electrical real & reactive power and Voltages are complex
quantities and the equations linking them are non-linear. At the load centres (buses) the quantities
of power both real & reactive will be known and at the power generating points the real power
and Voltage magnitudes will be available. The Load flow analysis helps to evaluate the unknown
quantities at all the buses for a given network topology.
The Load Flow function shall provide real/active and reactive losses on:
Station power transformers, Feeders, sections, Distribution circuits including feeder regulators
and distribution transformers, as well as the total circuit loss, Phase voltage magnitudes and
angles at each node. Phase and neutral currents for each feeder, transformers, section.
Total three phases and per phase KW and KVAR losses in each feeder, section, transformer, DT
substation & for project area
Active & reactive power flows in all sections, transformers List of overloaded feeder, lines, bus
bars, transformers loads etc. including the actual current magnitudes, the overload limits and the
feeder name, substation name
List of limit violations of voltage magnitudes, overloading. Voltage drops and The LFA utilizes
information including real-time measurements, manually entered data, and estimated data

27

together with the network model supplied by the topology function, in order to determine the
best estimate of the current network state.
The Load Flow Application (LFA) determines the operating status of the distribution system
including buses and nodes. The LFA shall take the following into consideration the following
information:
Real time data
Manual entered data
Estimated data
Power source injections Loops and parallels
Unbalanced & balanced loads
Manually replaced values
Temporary jumpers/ cut/ grounds
Electrical connectivity information from the real-time distribution network model
Transformer tap settings
Generator voltages, real and reactive generations.
Capacitor/reactor bank ON/OFF status value.

The LFA function can be executed at pre-defined events that affect the distribution system. Some
of the events the dispatcher may choose for triggers shall include:
Power system Topology Change i.e. Alteration in distribution system configuration.
Transformer Tap Position Change / Capacitive/reactor MVAR Change.
Feeder Over loadings.
Sudden change in feeder load beyond a set dead band

Volt VAR control (VVC)

In electrical power system the reactive power can be generated at source generators or can be
injected at the substations through Volt-var systems. It is more appropriate to inject at substations
28

rather than producing then at generator points and transporting them over long distances. Any
power system always tries to optimize on the reactive power flow over their networks.
The coordination of voltages and reactive power flows control requires coordination of VOLT
and the VAR function. This function shall provide high-quality voltage profiles, minimal losses,
controlling reactive power flows, minimal reactive power demands from the supply network.
The following resources should be taken into account in any voltage and reactive power flow
control:
TAP Changer for voltage control
VAR control devices: switchable and fixed type capacitor banks.

Load Shed Application (LSA)

The power delivery to the consumers is also bogged down with the Demand-Supply problems,
with demand being always higher than supply. The reasons for less Supply are several including
the faults, tripping of lines. In these situations the power system operator tries to distribute
available power through Shedding of loads to consumers over small definite periods till he tides
over the situation of loss of power. The load-shed application helps to automate and optimize the
process of selecting the best combination of switches to be opened and controlling in order to
shed the desired amount of load. Given a total amount of load to be shed, the load shed
application shall recommend different possible combinations of switches to be opened, in order
to meet the requirement. The dispatcher is presented with various combinations of switching
operations, which shall result in a total amount of load shed, which closely resembles the
specified total. The dispatcher can then choose any of the recommended actions and execute
them. In case of failure of supervisory control for few breakers, the total desired load
shed/restore will not be met. Under such conditions, the application will inform the dispatcher
the balance amount of load to be shed /restore. The load-shed application runs again to complete
the desired load shed /restore process.

Fault Management & System Restoration (FMSR) Application

The availability of data related to the breakers/ switches and the level of The Fault current
flowing in the networks helps one to Manage & Restore the System in an event of fault. This
application helps to provide the assistance to the power system dispatcher for detection,
localization, isolation and restoration of distribution system after a fault in the system has
occurred with the help of operating through the supervisory control available on SCADA. The
devices which help in localization & isolation of the fault include Auto Reclosures (AR),

29

Sectionalisers, Fault Passage Indicators etc. The operation & characteristics of these devices are
separately addressed in the SCADA section.

Loss Minimization via Feeder Reconfiguration (LMFR)

The switching operation during fault and requirement to supply power through alternate feeders
in the distribution network modifies the feeder configuration topology. The information of
network topology and availability of adjacent feeder networks can be useful in right selection of
feeders with overall aim of reducing the line losses and maximum power delivery to consumers.
This function identifies the opportunities to minimize technical losses in the distribution system
by reconfiguration of feeders in the network for a given load scenario. The technical losses are
the losses created by characteristic of equipment & cable such as efficiency, impedance etc. The
function helps in calculation of the current losses based on the loading of all elements of the
network. The Telemeter values, which are not updated due to telemetry failure, can also be
considered by LMFR application based on arriving at the recommendations of LF Application.
The LMFR application can be utilized to have the various scenarios for a given planned &
unplanned outages, equipment operating limits, tags placed in the SCADA system while
recommending the switching operations.

Load Balancing via Feeder Reconfiguration (LBFR)

The discussions had on previous topic can be used for the Load Balancing via Feeder
Reconfiguration for the optimal balance of the segments of the network that are over & under
loaded. This helps in better utilization of the capacities of distribution facilities such as
transformer and feeder ratings. The Feeder Reconfiguration Function can be used also to have a
scenario on an overload condition, unequal loadings of the parallel feeders and transformers,
periodically or on demand in the network by the dispatcher. The system will help generate the
switching sequence to reconfigure the distribution network for transferring load from some
sections to other sections. The LBFR application can even consider the planned & unplanned
outages, equipment operating limits, tags placed in the SCADA system while recommending the
switching operations. The function helps in distributing the total load of the system among the
available transformers and the feeders in proportion to their operating capacities, considering the
discreteness of the loads, available switching options between the feeder and permissible
intermediate overloads during switching. The dispatcher can have the options to simulate
switching operations and visualize the effect on the distribution network by comparisons based
on line loadings, voltage profiles, load restored, system losses, number of affected customers.

30

Load Forecast (LF)

The Distribution Automation system keeps logging data periodically of the network. This
historical database and weather conditions data collected over a period can be used for prediction
and to have forecasting of the requirement of consumer loads. Generally there are two types of
forecasting that are resorted too. Short-Term Load Forecasting (STLF) will be used for
assessment of the sequence of average electrical loads in equal time intervals, from 1 to 7 days
ahead. The Long term forecasting is used for forecasting load growths over longer durations. The
fore casting techniques are based on different forecasting methods such as Autoregressive, Least
Squares Method, Time Series Method, Neural, Kalman filter and Weighted Combination.

31