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)
(Eq.1a)
This was not a curvature singularity, but a Newtonian gravitational singularity, produced by
2 = 4G (Poissons equation for gravity), where is the gravitational potential in J kg-1
and = GM/r, where r is distance. When = , r = 0, = .
[5]
We assume that space-time is continuous and infinitely divisible, not discrete. Thus spacetime is not quantised in this universe, and, generally, it is classical rather than quantum
mechanical (e.g., there is no Casimir or vacuum energy, see Kaya & Tarman, op.cit.).
[6]
See: Milne, EA (1933), World-Structure and the Expansion of the Universe, Zeitschrift
fr Astrophysik 6:1-95, BibCode: 1933ZA......6....1M, http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgibin/nphiarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1933ZA......6....1M&letter=0&classic=YES&defaultp
rint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=1&epage=1&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.pdf..
Another feature to note of this universe is that the ratio of the pressure, p (in Pa) to the energy
density in J m-3, w = p/c2 = 0/0 = 0.
[7]
See: Charmousis, C, Introduction to Anti de Sitter Black Holes, in Papantonopoulos, E,
ed. (2011), From Gravity to Thermal Gauge Theories: The AdS/CFT Correspondence, Part I,
Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp.3-26,
http://www.physics.ntua.gr/cosmo09/Milos2009/Milos%20Talks%202009/1st%20day/Charm
ousis%20Paper.pdf, p.3; here and in Eq.1b, represents proper time (in units of imaginary
length; not to be confused with the Hubble time, = H-1); and H is the Hubble parameter.
AdS/CFT correspondence, also referred to in the literature as Maldacena duality or
gauge/gravity duality is an abbreviation of Anti-de Sitter space/Conformal Field Theories,
and refers to the fact that the conformal boundary of anti-de Sitter 3-space ( < 0) can be
treated as the space-time of a conformal field theory (quantum field theory). See: Maldacena,
J (1998), The Large N Limit of Superconformal Field Theories and Supergravity, Advances
in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics 2:231-52, http://arxiv.org/pdf/hepth/9711200v3.pdf.
[8]
Minkowski, H (1909), Raum und Zeit [Space and Time], Jahresbericht der Deutschen
Mathematiker-Vereinigung
18:75-88,
English
trans.
at:
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Space_and_Time, pp.5-9.
Strictly speaking,
expressing Minkowski space in terms of imaginary or complex dimensions gives it a metric
2
( )
)
(Eq.1b)[10]
(Eq.2)
We find that R = c/H = c = RH, the Hubble radius. Furthermore, the
Schwarzschild radius of the mass of the local universe, ML, is given by:
(Eq.3)[15]
If the above prevails, then our universe constitutes the interior of a large black
hole[16], and the distance RS = RH an event horizon, as defined by Rindler
(1956)[17]:
An event horizon, for a given fundamental observer A, is a (hyper-)
surface in space-time which divides all events into two non-empty
classes: those that have been, are, or will be observable by A, and
those that are forever outside As possible powers of observation. ... A
[14]
See n.8 above. The metric reads: ds2 = (dx2 + dy2 + dz2). The space is a Euclidean
subspace or subset of 3, as well as of 4, and is a subspace of Minkowski space, see Eq.1b.
[15]
Thus ML = c3/2G = constant, given constant values for c, G and , the last also implying
constant H (= -1). If H = 67.4 km s-1 Mpc-1 = 2.184 10-18 s-1 (see: Ade, PAR, et al [2013],
Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1303.5076v2.pdf,
p.12), then ML = 9.2428 1052 kg. If constant, M can still be a constant, provided that
0; = constant (see below) and k = 0, m -2.
[16]
This black holes metric is not the Schwarzschild metric, because that applies to the spacetime in the immediate vicinity of a non-rotating, electrically neutral black hole, rather than
inside it. See: Schwarzschild, K (1916), ber das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes
nach der Einsteinschen Theorie [On the gravitational field of a mass point according to
Einsteins theory], Sitzungberichte der Kniglich Preussischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften
7:189-96,
BibCode:
1916AbhKP1916..189S,
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nphiarticle_query?1916AbhKP1916..189S&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YE
S&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf; Eng trans by Antoci, S & Loinger, A (1999),
http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/9905030v1.pdf. The universes actual radius would be given by
Ru = ctu < RH = RS.
[17]
Rindler, W (1956), Visual horizons in world models, Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical
Society
116(6):662-7,
BibCode:
1956MNRAS.116..662R,
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1956MNRAS.116..662R, p.663.
4
(Eqs.4a-c)
At recessional velocities vr c, z vr/c. Thus, z = 0.008 implies a vr
0.008c = 2,398.339664 km s-1 and a light travel time distance of Dltt = ctltt = d
zc = 1.098 1021 km 116 million light years. This is the approximate
distance of galaxies such as the Siamese Twin Galaxies, in the Virgo Cluster
(VCC 1673 and VCC 1676), NGC 4567 and NGC 4568[24]. On the other hand,
if vr = 99.9% c, = 0.999 and z = 43.71, zc would give 43.71 c, so we must use
vr c, and derive the value of from:
[23]
See: Friedmann, A (1922), ber die Krmmung des Raumes [On the Curvature of
Space], Zeitschrift fr Physik 10(1):377-86, BibCode: 1922ZPhy...10..377F; idem (1924),
ber die Mglichkeit einer Welt mit konstanter negativer Krmmung des Raumes [On the
Possibility of a World with Constant Negative Space Curvature], Z fr Phys 21(1):326-32,
BibCode: 1924ZPhy...21..326F; Lematre, op.cit.; idem (1931), The Beginning of the World
from the Point of View of Quantum Theory, Nature 127(3210):706, 9th May 1931, DOI:
10.1038/127706b0, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v127/n3210/full/127706b0.html;
idem (1933), LUnivers en Expansion [The Expanding Universe], ASSB A 53:51,
BibCode: 1933ASSB...53...51L; Robertson, HP (1933), Relativistic Cosmology, Reviews
of Modern Physics 5(1):62-90, 1st Jan 1933, BibCode: 1933RvMP....5...62R, DOI:
10.1103/RevModPhys.5.62; Walker, AG (1933), Distance in an expanding universe,
MNRAS
94:159-67,
BibCode:
1933MNRAS..94..159W,
http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nphiarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1933MNRAS..94..159W&letter=0&classic=YES&de
faultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=159&epage=159&send=Send+PDF&filetype=.p
df.
[24]
See photograph and information at: http://www.spotastro.com/NGC_4567_Wide.html.
NGC 4567 and NGC 4568 were discovered in March 1784 by William Herschel, see:
http://cseligman.com/text/atlas/ngc45a.htm#4567. According to the SIMBAD database,
NGC 4567s vr = zc = 2,278.4 km s-1, its redshift z = 0.0076, and its maximum distance =
19.96 Mpc = 115.7868 Mly,
http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/simid?Ident=%401961459&Name=NGC++4567&submit=display+all+measurements#lab_meas.
6
)
(Eq.5)
finding that = 0.999. While z can exceed 1, cannot; indeed, as vr < c, < 1.
Thus, the Hubble radius, RH = c, is an absolute limit, which can be approached,
but never reached or crossed. As the Hubble time is ~14.51 Gy[25], RH 14.51
Gly. The current age of the universe is estimated to be 13.813 Gy (see: Ade, et
al, op.cit.). This means that no object in the universe can be older than 13.813
Gy, or more distant than 13.813 Gly. The most distant objects, on the strength
of the argument we have presented, must have recessional velocities of vr =
285,407.46 km s-1, = 0.952 and redshifts, z = 5.377. However, redshifts of z =
1100 have been measured, and z = 90,000,000 is theoretically possible[26]!
Consequently, we are left with no alternative but to accept that the Milne
picture is wrong[27], and that space is expanding, in accordance with the
(modified) FLRW metric (when k = 0, and again using imaginary length for
proper time and time):
(
)(
)
(Eq.6)
where R(tu0), the scale factor, can be set at 1 at the present epoch. The distances
measured by (x, y, z) are then comoving distances as opposed to light travel time
distances[28]. However, what matters is the rate at which space is expanding; if
[25]
( )
the 3-space volume of the Hubble sphere is expanding (i.e., if the Hubble
constant is not a genuine constant, but a parameter), then if vr = c:
( )
(Eqs.7a-d)
the only difference being that vr can exceed c, and at the Hubble distance RH
14.51 Gly (theoretical light travel time distance), z = 1.479, comoving radial
distance, DC 14.51 Gly and actual light travel time, tlt = 9.492 Gy[29]. This
local universe (Hubble volume) still has a mass given by ML = 9.2428 1052
kg, but its cosmological constant, 0, a genuine constant, given by
(Eq.8)
where = 0.686 is the current mass density parameter generated by dark
energy or the cosmological constant (see Planck satellite results in Ade, et al,
op.cit., p.12.), meaning that 68.6% of all the mass of the universe is in the form
of dark energy, and 2, the square of the Hubble time. It is this dark
energy that ensures that we can be living inside an enormous black hole, and yet
not have to worry for it is more than sufficient to overcome the gravitational
force that would otherwise eventually crush the universe back into a space-time
singularity[30]. Not only is space expanding: the expansion is accelerating.
(How fast depends on the precise nature of the dark energy and the value of
w[31].) The thesis proposed by Melia and his colleagues (opp.cit.)[32] that the
parameter [m(1 + z)3 + ] (see: Hogg, DW [2000], Distance Measures in
Cosmology, http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9905116v4.pdf, pp.1-4).
[29]
See Wright, op.cit.
[30]
In a universe where = 0, if RH < RS, > 1, k = 1, and space-time is closed/Riemannian.
It expands to a maximum extent, then shrinks to zero volume, infinite density.
[31]
If dark energy is some form of quintessence, then, in the case of phantom energy, with
w < 1, the Big Rip scenario prevails, see: Caldwell, RR, Kamionkowski, M & Weinberg,
NN (2003), Phantom Energy: Dark Energy with w < 1 Causes a Cosmic Doomsday,
Physical
Review
Letters
91:071301,
13th
August
2003,
DOI:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301, http://arxiv.org/pdf/Astro-ph/0302506.pdf; the Little Rip
does if w < 1 now but w 1 asymptotically; the Pseudo-Rip if w constant < 1; and
the Quasi-Rip if w < 1 now and w > 1 much later. See: Frampton, PH, Ludwick, KJ &
Scherrer, RJ (2011), The little rip, Physical Review D 84:063003, 6th Sept 2011, DOI:
10.1103/PhysRevD.84.063003, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1106.4996.pdf?origin=publication_detail;
idem (2012), The Pseudo-rip: Cosmological models intermediate between the cosmological
8
=
|4|.
See:
http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Continuum_hypothesis;
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Aleph-0.html; http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Aleph-1.html;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality_of_the_continuum.
9