Professional Documents
Culture Documents
0 Introduction
The use of Point Fixed glazing in a structure has shown to minimize the
visual barrier between inside and the outside by reducing the amount of structural
components, which is a huge advantage for glazing structures which cover large
public areas like atriums, exhibition areas etc. But as the building technology is
evolving, a huge number of freeform structures are emerging. When freeform glass
structure is used to cover an enormously large public area, the use point fixed
glazing system can be an ideal solution as light and transparency are quite
important factors in large public areas. The standard point fixing components are
manufactured with predetermined range of sizes to be used with conventional
buildings and cannot be applied to a freeform structure. Therefore, when the point
fixing systems are used in a freeform structure, there is a need for customization of
the system components used to fix the glass to the support structure. Producing
these customized parts using conventional manufacturing techniques like milling
or casting can be tedious and time-consuming. Hence there is a need to investigate
better and efficient manufacturing techniques when it comes to mass
customization. And as the technology of Additive Manufacturing offers us new
possibilities to manufacture on-demand products in less time, it releases the
previously imposed manufacturing constraints. This master thesis will investigate
the potential of using additive manufacturing processes to assist in efficiently
manufacturing the customized Point Fixing elements.
1.1 Background:
1.1.1 Freeform structures:
There has always been an exciting trend of transparent freeform architecture
which allows architects to make organic forms close to nature. Constant
development of software programs has made it possible to easily generate desired
freeform shapes. The 3-dimensional (3D) designing tools and numerical tools have
simplified the steps of producing such complex surfaces which involve defining
parameters, geometry algorithms and logic. But the construction of these complex
structures in reality can be challenging and can involve risk factors such as cost of
manufacturing and buildability issues. The freeform shape generated using
software programs are geometrically processed by dismantling the surface into
discrete parts and individual panels so that regular elements and standardized
building components can be used to build the structure in reality. If the surface is
not processed this way, then the construction components required to build the
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surface need to be bent or twisted to assume the intended shape which may in turn
rule out the functionality of the building envelope. Therefore, the complex
freeform design is rationalized so that the surface can be divided into a fine mesh
in such a way that standard parts can be used in the construction. After
rationalizing the complex design, a geometry is defined which is the closest
interpretation of the main design, but consists of straight segments in place of
curves. Some notable examples are mentioned as follows:
a. Zlote Tarasy Warsaw
Fig-1 Main entrance at the ground level, approaching from the station [17]
The structure is a freeform roof which encloses the central shopping area in
Warsaw, Poland. The area of the surface is 10,200m2 consisting of several spheres,
with convex and concave transitions. The form was discretized into triangular
mesh, and the mesh design was fine-tuned so that the roof appears as a uniform
mesh with constant sized members. The fine-tuning resulted in the development of
continuous triangulated grid structure of hollow rectangular steel sections which
were 200mm deep and 100mm wide. Their thickness varied from 5mm to 17.5mm
depending on the forces in the member.
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The steel members intersect at every six armed node which is star shaped.
Each arm of the node bisects the angle between the two adjucent steel members as
shown in Fig 4. Although the standardization of glass panel size, member length
and node geometry was attempted, only a small level of standardisation was
achievable and had negligible advantage in terms of cost. The node was the most
complex part of the mesh design as it had to transfer unique combination of axial
forces, shear forces and bending moments from one side of itself to the other.
in order to hold the roof at a higher level, so that once the props are removed, the
roof would assume the originally intended geometry.
b) British Museum
The Great Court at the British Museum, London is a good example of freeform
structure. The area of the roof at the Great Court is around 6000m2 with the
circular Old Reading Room in the middle of the Great Court. It has a dome shaped
geometry which is particularly optimized to fit the constraints of the existing
museum building from which it derives support. To develop the net geometry, a
special form-finding process was used by structural engineers. The maximum
possible glass panel with respect to size and weight of the steel support structures
dimension was the determining factor of the nets geometry.
The net is made of 4878 welded hollow edge section members and 1566
nodes which are all unique depending on their offset position from the Reading
Room. Also, all of the 3312 glazing units are of different sizes. The boundary of
the structure is a ring beam that rests on the existing stone wall of the surrounding
building.
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In order to connect all different members and transform forces and bending
moments, a node similar to a star shape was developed. The node was cut out of
steel plates that were up to 200mm thick and the ends of the steel members were
fabricated to fit in the recess of the nodes.
Fig 8 shows the close up view of one of the nodes which were used. Fig 11 shows
the fabrication process of a node.
High performance insulated glass panels are installed directly to the steel
members. All computer modeling data could be applied to the fabrication process
without human intervention.
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The initially intended shape of the structure according to the architectural vision
can be seen in fig-11.
The shape obtained after optimizing the design as seen in Fig-12 was transformed
into a structural grid by the use of 3D modeling software. Initially, the grids
produced were irregular. Therefore, scripted tools were used to define the
orientation of members in such a way that they would satisfy aesthetic as well as
structural elements.
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Fig-13 Interior view of auto-generated mesh(left) and result with scripted tools (right) [19]
The resulting average member length was 2.30m and the connection between the
members were defined by 6-member nodes which was star shaped. The node to
which the beam members are welded was burned out of a thick steel plate. The
thickness of the plates was adapted to different loading condition.
The structure was supported by scaffolding during erection which allowed to
adjust the position of nodes according to required tolerances.
1.2 Motivation
The use of Point Fixed Glazing system has shown to increase the transparency of
the glass structure as the glass panes are held only at a few points unlike the edge
support provided by the frames. The point fixed glazing can also cover very large
areas without the need for interference of slab edges and columns for support
which is another reason for the increase in transparency. There can be huge
advantage when such a structure is used to cover large areas like atriums,
exhibition halls, canopies etc. where light and transparency are quite important
factors. There could also be a possibility of using doubly curved panels as the
support is offered at points unlike the edge support and thus bending or twisting of
frame will not be necessary. In this case, the surface would have a much closer
resemblance to the original design. But when the Point fixed systems are used in a
free form structure, there could be a need for customization of the components
used in the system due to the complexity of the surface. The standard available
components of the point fixed systems may not be suitable to be applied to the
panels in the freeform structure. Therefore, there is a need for customization of the
point fixing systems according to the shape of the structure. And to manufacture
these customized components by traditional methods will be tedious and thus there
is a need for investigating other manufacturing methods which will be more
feasible in the case of mass customization. And as there has been tremendous
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The comparison in Fig-15 clearly shows that, in the case of injection molding, a
component that needs to be manufactured in lesser quantities will cost more than a
standard component that is used more frequently and thus can be mass produced.
This can also be true in the case of customizing Spider Brackets which are used
with the Point Fixing systems as they are manufactured by Lost-wax casting
process which involves injection molding.
This master thesis will investigate on how a change in shape of a Spider Bracket
can occur when used in a freeform structure, possible disadvantages of
traditionally manufacturing the Spider brackets, and explore the potential of AM
techniques to produce the Spider Brackets.
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There are many types of Point Fixed Glazing Systems which consist of four main
basic components as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Glazing Panels
Bolted Fixings
Glazing support attachments
Main Support structure
2.1.2 Bolts
Bolts act as connection devices which transfer the loads from the glass panel
to the glazing support structure, usually by bearing. They provide support to the
glass panes by transferring the self-weight of panes to the glazing support
structure. The basic types of bolted fixings available are listed as follows:
a) Fixed Bolts:
These types of fixings transfer both the in-plane loads and out of plane loads
directly through bolt and glass interface. These fixings rely on the inherent
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strength of the glass panes, and will not allow for rotation under out of plane
loads, which results in transfer of varying amount of moment into the glass.
The fixing can be either countersunk or straight. However, the countersunk
bolts allow the bolt head to be in the same line as that of the outer surface of
the glazing. Fig 19 shows the fixed countersunk bolt and glass connection
[5].
Fig-20 Fixed ball joint for countersunk glass holes (Faraone R92) [22]
Fig-21 Fixed ball joint for straight glass holes (Faraone R93) [22]
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The above Fig-20 and Fig-21 are the examples of the fixed bolts produced
by the Italian company named Faraone. As mentioned, the joint R92 shown
in Fig-20 is a fixed joint for countersunk glass holes, and the joint R93
shown in Fig-21 is a fixed joint for straight glass holes.
b) Articulated Bolt Fixings:
These types of bolts have a spherical bearing surface which is able to
accommodate rotation of the fixing to glazing support structures. The head
of the fixing can rotate freely on its stem. The bolt assures no bending load
is applied to the glass, unlike the fixed bolts. Due to this property, these bolts
can be used with large glass panes to be fixed with flexible support systems
like cables. Fig-22 shows the fixing of the articulated bolt to the glass [5].
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Fig-23 Articulated ball joint for countersunk glass holes (Faraone R10) [22]
Fig-24 Articulated ball joint for straight glass holes (Faraone R20) [22]
Above Fig-23 and Fig-24 are examples of the articulated bolts produced by
the Italian company named Faraone. As mentioned, the joint R10 is an
articulated joint for countersunk glassholes, and the joint R20 is an
articulated joint for straight glass holes.
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Fig-25 Edinburgh Festival Theatre faade system (left) and its element detain (right)
(Use of truss support system) [4]
Fig-26 Atria Mall Mumbai glazing system (left) and its faade detailss (right)
(Use of cable support structure) [4]
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Fig-27 Glass Faade of the history museum, Luxemburg(left) and its faade details (right) [4]
(Use of Glass fin support system)
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Fig-26 shows the spider bracket 220 manufactured by Faraone Srl. As shown in the
figure, the oversized slots are provided on the top two arms, and the horizontal
slots are provided in the bottom arms.
2.1.4.2 Design Considerations for Spider Brackets
The following factors should be considered during the design of spider
attachments:
a) Even though the glazing panels are manufactured to a high degree of
accuracy, the same cannot be done with the support structure. Therefore,
there will generally be a tolerance of 5mm for the position of the support
structure where the spider brackets are connected. Inaccuracies occurring in
the position of holes in glass, manufacturing of the brackets and the
installation position of glazing panels are adjusted by providing tolerances at
the slots of spider arms where bolts are connected. At these same points,
provision is made for thermal movements.
b) Provision is made at the slots so that the bolts can move freely relative to the
brackets so that stresses resulting from thermal expansion of panels can be
avoided.
c) The spiders must transfer the self-weight of the panels to the support
structure along with the applied loads which result during construction and
in service.
2.2 Generation of Spider Bracket design for an irregular structure:
When a point fixed glazing system is applied in an irregular structure, some
changes could occur in the size and orientation of the components used to support
the glass. This part of the study focuses on how the form of a Spider Fixing can
change when applied to an irregular structure. The base design for the spider
bracket used in this study is borrowed from the design on the spider 300K
manufactured by Faraone Srl. The 300K spider bracket is a four-arm fitting system
which is made of AISI 316 stainless steel by Lost-wax Casting method. The
bracket is fixed to the support structure using suitable fittings which allow depth
adjustment and therefore compensate any possible dimensional differences and
thus assure perfect co-planarity of different glazing panels.
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As it can be seen in Fig-30, the slots marked as P and Q have circular slots which
are slightly oversized to allow movement in two directions. The slots marked as R
and S are provided with horizontal slots so that they can support the weight of
vertical or sloping glazing, while allowing horizontal movement.
In order to generate the spider design for an irregular glass structure, the following
conditions were followed:
a) The guide for a spider glazing system supported on a steel tube structure
provided by Faraone SRL was used as a reference.
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b) A four paneled glazing structure was generated using grasshopper plugin for
Rhinoceros.
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c) A spider bracket was generated so as to hold the four glass panels in the
middle. The basic dimensions of the spider were based on the dimensions of
300K spider fixing by Faraone.
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Fig 35 Spider bracket generated in grasshopper plugin for Rhinoceros based on Faraone 300K
Fig-36 The spider bracket fixed to the steel tube by means of a steel structure (generated using
grasshopper plugin for Rhinoceros)
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The slots at the end of the spider arms are oriented in such a way that they
face the part of the glass which they have to support.
e) An algorithm is generated in such a way that when the point 1 which is the
point of meeting of all the four panels(fig) can be moved in Z-direction
while the points 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 remain in the same position. Three
different positions of point 1, and the shape of the spider bracket obtained
due to these three positions were considered for this study. The three
orientations as follows:
Orientation 1:
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Orientation 2:
Orientation 3:
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f) When all the points remain on the same plane, then the spider will assume
the standard shape which can be called as a standard orientation and is
shown in the below figure:
1
6
9
8
7
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Fig-42 Orientation 1
Fig-43 Orientation 2
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Fig-44 Orientation 3
X-dimension
(mm)
352.0
341.7
311.8
358.3
Y-dimension
(mm)
352.0
345.4
315.1
354.8
Z-dimension
(mm)
50.0
87.1
69.2
199.5
Table-1 Comparison of the different orientations of spider brackets obtained in section 2.2
In the above comparison, we can clearly see the possible differences in dimensions
among the different orientation of spider brackets resulting due to the change in the
surface geometry of glass. In the following chapter, the traditional way of
manufacturing of the above spiders will be discussed. In all the following chapters,
the terms Orientation 1, Orientation 2, Orientation 3 and Normal Orientation will
be used to refer to the above spider brackets mentioned in Table-1.
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Fig-46 Illustration of Mold pattern for the normal orientation of spider created using Autodesk
Inventor
Fig-47 Illustration of Mold pattern for Orientation 1 of the spider created using Autodesk
Inventor
Fig-48 Illustration of Mold pattern for Orientation 2 of the spider created using Autodesk
Inventor
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Fig-49 Illustration of Mold pattern for Orientation 3 of the spider created using Autodesk
Inventor
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4.
Fig-51 Illustration of the wax pattern after being coated with refractory material and sand
(rendered in Rhinoceros)
4. Once the investment hardens, the ceramic covered wax assembly is kept
upside down in an oven and the wax is allowed to melt and run out. Thus the
ceramic mold is created whose cavity is in the shape of the spider bracket
required to be manufactured.
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Fig-52 Illustration of the investment mold after the wax is melted out (rendered in Rhinoceros)
Fig-53 Illustration of Investment mold after the metal is poured and let to solidify
(Rendered in Rhinoceros)
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6. Once the metal is solidified, the ceramic mold is broken off using techniques
like mechanical chipping or vibration, high pressure water jet or sand
blasting.
Fig-54 The illustration of solidified metal after the ceramic mold is removed
(Rendered in Rhinoceros)
7. The sprue and runner system which is attached to the cast metal is sawed off
and machining may be required to eliminate any irregularities. The spider
brackets are then polished so that a shiny surface can be obtained.
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Fig-55 Illustration of final spiders which are obtained after sawing off the sprue-runner system
and polishing (rendered in Rhinoceros)
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
manipulation of the file is made so that it is of the correct size, position and
orientation for building.
Machine setup: AM machine is properly set up to the build process with
settings relating to build parameters like material constraints, energy source,
layer thickness, timings etc.
Build: This is mainly an automated process which the machine can carry on
without supervision. Superficial monitoring of the machine is needed to
ensure no errors occur.
Removal and Cleanup: The part is separated from the build platform.
Depending on the AM process used, removal of excess building part
surrounding the material or removal of support structures is required.
Post-Processing: This step involves stages of finishing the parts for
application purposes. Depending on the AM process used, this step may
involve abrasive finishing, infiltration, surface coating etc.
Application: The part is ready for use.
Polymerization
Binder Jetting
Material Extrusion
Powder bed fusion
Sheet Lamination
Direct Energy Deposition
Brief explanations about the above processes are discussed in the following
chapters.
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4.3.1 Polymerization
This method uses the selective solidification of liquid monomer resin by
Ultra-Violet (UV) radiation. This method can be classified into two subcategories.
a) Laser-Stereolithography: This method creates parts by local polymerization
of initially liquid monomers. The setup consists of a reservoir which
contains the liquid photopolymer resin and a UV laser scanner-unit which is
mounted on the top which generates the x-y contour. The setup also contains
a build platform fixed on an elevator like device which allows its movement
in the z-direction. The initial position of the build platform is at the top of
the resin reservoir from where it is lowered. The laser beam does the
contouring and solidification of each layer as well as bonding to the
preceding layer. The motion of the laser beam is controlled by the slice data.
Once a layer is solidified, the build platform is lowered by one-layer
thickness. The process may require supports, which limits the orientation of
the part in the build chamber. After the build, the part is cleaned and post
cured.
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Metals
Ceramics
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epoxy is filled which will in turn assume the required shape after hardening.
The AM pattern is then removed.
c) Indirect Manufacturing: Indirect Manufacturing is a method where AM
patterns are directly used to produce Mold patterns from which the final
parts can be cast.
Direct Tooling
Indirect Manufacturing
Direct Tooling
Direct Manufacturing
(To be edited)
4.6.4 Production of spiders by Direct Manufacturing:
As the spider fixing to be manufactured is to be made of the material
stainless steel, an appropriate AM method must be selected which will allow the
use of Stainless steel alloys as a material. The following table has been constructed
based on the data obtained from technical datasheets from certain companies that
offer additive manufacturing solutions, including the technologies they employ.
Company
Technologies used
Metal
as
material
Stratasys
FDM
No
PolyJet
3D Systems
SLS
Yes
ExOne
Binder Jetting
Yes
Arcam
Yes
SLM solutions
SLM
Yes
VoxelJet
Powder Binder
No
EOS
SLS
Yes
Organovo
Bioprinting
No
Rennishaw
SLM
Yes
Mcor
No
Sciaky
EBAM
Yes
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Table 2 Categorisation of companies using different AM technologies alng with usability of metals as a
material
The following steps will be followed to decide to decide which AM process is the
most suitable for building the spider brackets.
a) Build Volume:
In order for the part to be built in the machine, the design must fit within the build
envelope of the machine. Listed in the below tables are the metal printers offered
by the companies listed in table 2 along with their respective build volumes.
3D Systems
Metal Printers
Tech Used
ProX 100
SLS
100 X 100 X 80
ProX 200
SLS
ProX 300
SLS
ProX 400
SLS
Table 3 List of metal printers offered by 3D Systems and their respective build volume
Company: ExOne
Metal Printers
Tech Used
M-Print
Binder Jetting
M-Flex
Binder Jetting
Table 4 List of metal printers offered by ExOne and their respective build volume
Company: Arcam
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Metal Printers
Tech Used
Arcam A2X
EBM
Arcam Q10
EBM
Arcam Q20
EBM
350 X 380 /H
Table 5 List of metal printers offered by Arcam and their respective build volume
Company: EOS
Metal Printers
Tech Used
EOSINT M 280
SLS
EOSINT M 290
SLS
EOSINT M 400
SLS
Table 6 List of metal printers offered by EOS and their respective build volume
Tech Used
SLM 125HL
SLM
125 X 125 X 75
SLM 280HL
SLM
SLM 500HL
SLM
Table 7 List of metal printers offered by SLM Solutions and their respective build volume
Company: Renishaw
Metal Printers
Tech Used
AM250
SLM
Table 8 List of metal printers offered by Renishaw and their respective build volume
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For this comparison, the three orientations of the spider fitting derived from
chapter 4 are considered.
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Using grasshopper plugin for rhino, a bounding box was created around the spider
geometry so as to measure the dimensions along X, Y and Z axes. The dimensions
of the part along the primary axes for each case are listed in the following table.
Orientation
X-Dimension (mm)
Y-Dimesnion (mm)
Z-Dimension (mm)
Orientation 1
341.7
345.4
87.1
Orientation 2
311.8
315.1
69.2
Orientation 3
358.3
354.8
199.5
Table 9 Dimensions of the spider brackets generated in chapter 4 along the primary axes
Sometimes, a part can also be reoriented in order to fit in the build envelop,
although potential changes can occur to the part when built in its new orientation
[16]. The following algorithm can be followed to check if a part will fit inside the
build volume of a machine.
The Longest dimension of the machines build Volume (LM1) is compared with
the longest dimension of the part (LP1). If LM1 < LP1, then the part will not fit in
the build volume. If LM1 > LP1, then the second longest dimension of the
machines build volume (LM2) is compared with the second longest dimension of
the part (LP2). If LM2 < LP2, then the part will not fit in the build volume. If
LM2 >LP2, then the third longest dimension of the machines build volume (LM3)
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is compared with the third longest dimension of the part (LP3). If LM3 > LP3 then
the part will fit in the build volume. If not, then the part is too big to be built in the
machine.
LM1
LM1>LP1 LM2
LM2>LP2 LM3
LM3>LP3
ProX100
100
No
ProX200
140
No
ProX300
300
No
ProX400
500
Yes
500
Yes
500
Yes
M-Print
800
Yes
500
Yes
400
Yes
M-Flex
400
Yes
250
No
A2X
380
Yes
200
No
Q10
200
No
Q20
380
No
EOSINT
M280
325
No
EOSINT
M290
325
No
EOSINT
M400
400
Yes
400
Yes
400
Yes
SLM
125HL
125
No
SLM
280HL
350
Yes
280
No
SLM
500HL
500
Yes
325
No
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AM250
325
No
Table 10 Comparison of basic dimensions of Orientation 1 with the build volumes of metal printers
LM1
LM1>LP1 LM2
LM2>LP2 LM3
LM3>LP3
ProX100
100
No
ProX200
140
No
ProX300
300
No
ProX400
500
Yes
500
Yes
500
Yes
M-Print
800
Yes
500
Yes
400
Yes
M-Flex
400
Yes
250
No
A2X
380
Yes
200
No
Q10
200
No
Q20
380
Yes
350
No
EOSINT
M280
325
Yes
250
No
EOSINT
M290
325
Yes
250
No
EOSINT
M400
400
Yes
400
Yes
400
Yes
SLM
125
No
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125HL
SLM
280HL
350
Yes
280
No
SLM
500HL
500
Yes
325
Yes
AM250
325
Yes
250
No
280
Yes
Table 11 Comparison of basic dimensions of Orientation 2 with the build volumes of metal printers
LM1
LM1>LP1 LM2
LM2>LP2 LM3
LM3>LP3
ProX100
100
No
ProX200
140
No
ProX300
300
No
ProX400
500
Yes
500
Yes
500
Yes
M-Print
800
Yes
500
Yes
400
Yes
M-Flex
400
Yes
250
No
A2X
380
Yes
200
No
Q10
200
No
Q20
380
Yes
350
No
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EOSINT
M280
325
Yes
250
No
EOSINT
M290
325
Yes
250
No
EOSINT
M400
400
Yes
400
Yes
SLM
125HL
125
No
SLM
280HL
350
No
SLM
500HL
500
Yes
325
No
AM250
325
No
400
Yes
Table 12 Comparison of basic dimensions of Orientation 3 with the build volumes of metal printers
Based on the above table, the list of machines with build volumes which are able to
accommodate the part are listed below:
Machine
Technology used
Build Volume
(mm)
Buildable part
cases
ProX 400
SLS
Orientation 1
Orientation 2
Orientation 3
ExOne M-Print
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Binder Jetting
Orientation 1
Orientation 2
Orientation 3
EOSINT M400
SLS
Orientation 1
Orientation 2
Orientation 3
SLM 500HL
SLM
Orientation 2
Table 13 List of Metal printers along with the orientations which can be accomodated
As seen in the above table, the machines ProX 400, M-Print, EOSINT M400 are
able to accommodate all the 3 orientations of the spider fitting, while , SLM
500HL is able to accommodate orientation 2.
b) Material Properties:
Up to this point, appropriate AM machines which allow the manufacturing of parts
with stainless steel as a material, along with having build volumes large enough to
accommodate the different orientation cases of the spider fitting have been
determined. The manufacturing technologies employed by the machines mentioned
in table include SLS, Binder Jetting and SLM. As these methods differ from each
other in the way they bond the adjacent layers to manufacture the parts, there could
be slight changes in the mechanical properties of the part manufactured, eventhough the same material is used. In the following table, the different Stainless
steel alloys which are compatible with the machines mentioned in table are listed:
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Maraging Steel
Technology
Used
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
Elongation
SLM
1015 34
854 50
10 1
1100 100
10 4
SLS (age
hardened)
2050 100
1990 100
42
SLM
1100 50
1025 25
16 4
930 50 (xy)
645 50 (upper)(xy)
31 5 (xy)
960 50 (z)
35 5 (z)
SLS (Stress
Relieved)
1100 (xy)
29 (xy)
980 (z)
31 (z)
SLM
654 9
550 39
35 4
SLS
640 50 (xy)
530 60 (xy)
40 15 (xy)
540 55 (z)
470 90 (z)
50 20 (z)
1200 50
1025 75 (xy)
17 4 (xy)
940 75 (z)
14 4 (z)
Stainless Steel
316/Bronze
Binder Jetting
407
234
Stainless Steel
420/Bronze
Binder jetting
496
427
682
455
2.3
(annealed)
Binder Jetting
63 | P a g e
64 | P a g e