An Atlas of Engineering Dynamic Systems,

Models, and Transfer Functions

Dr. Bob Williams, williar4@ohio.edu
Mechanical Engineering, Ohio University

This document presents the models and/or transfer functions of some real-world control systems.
Models are the mathematical descriptions of real-world systems, simplified by various
assumptions, ignoring some nonlinear and higher effects. Models are collections of ordinary differential
equations and algebraic equations. These equations must be linearized, if necessary, to work in classical
controls.
Transfer functions are the mathematical vehicle of classical controls. Transfer functions are
defined as the Laplace transform of the output variable divided by the Laplace transform of the input
variable, with zero initial conditions. Transfer functions represent the system dynamics, as described by
the simplified model they yield the simulated system output given various inputs. Transfer functions
can be derived for the open-loop, closed-loop, and/or smaller system components. Block diagrams are
used for graphical representation, where the blocks have transfer functions representing the dynamics of
certain system components, while the arrows represent system variables.
The models and transfer functions summarized in this document only give the bottom-line
results, without derivations or much explanation. The reader is referred to the various references for
more details.

Table of Contents
1. COMMON SYSTEM VARIABLES ................................................................................................... 3
2. ZEROTH-ORDER SYSTEM EXAMPLES ....................................................................................... 4
3. FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM EXAMPLES ............................................................................................ 6
4. SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM EXAMPLES ....................................................................................... 8
5. REAL-WORLD TRANSFER FUNCTIONS ................................................................................... 11
6. ADVANCED REAL-WORLD MODELS ........................................................................................ 22

1. Common System Variables

We start with a table of like variables playing the same role in different engineering systems.

System

Rate r(t)

Quantity

r (t )dt

Effort e(t)

Impulse

translational mechanical

velocity v(t)

displacement x(t)

force f(t)

impulse

rotational mechanical

angular velocity (t)

angular displacement (t)

torque (t)

angular impulse

electrical

current i(t)

charge q(t)

voltage v(t)

flux (t)

incompressible fluid

volume flow rate q(t)

volume V(t)

pressure p(t)

none

compressible fluid

mass flow rate qm(t)

mass m(t)

pressure p(t)

none

thermal

heat flow rate q(t)

heat energy Q(t)

temperature T(t)

none

e(t )dt

2. Zeroth-Order System Examples

Name
gear ratio

Model

G(s)

IN (t )
(t ) OUT (t )
IN

OUT (t ) OUT (t ) IN (t )

OUT ( s) OUT ( s) 1

IN ( s)
IN ( s) n

rack and pinion

l (t ) r (t )

(t ) rf (t )

L( s ) V ( s )

r
( s ) ( s )

Hookes Law

f (t ) kx(t )

(t ) k R (t )

F (s)
k
X (s)

series / parallel springs

1 1
x (t ) f (t )
k1 k 2

f (t ) ( k1 k 2 ) x (t )

F ( s)
kk
1 2
X ( s) k1 k2

OUT ( s)
n
IN ( s)
F (s) 1

( s ) r

T (s)
kR
( s)
F ( s)
k1 k 2
X ( s)

viscous damping

f (t ) cv(t )

(t ) cR (t )

F (s)
c
V (s)

T (s)
cR
( s )

Newtons Second Law

Eulers Rotational Law

f (t ) ma(t )

(t ) J (t )

A( s ) 1

F ( s) m

( s ) 1

( s ) J

accelerometer, low-frequency
(Dorf & Bishop)
motor torque
back emf

( k m ) x (t ) xIN (t )

X ( s)
2

X IN ( s) k m

(t ) KT i (t )

T ( s)
KT
I (s)

vB (t ) K BM (t )

VB ( s)
KB
M (s)

Zeroth-Order System Examples (continued)

Name

capacitor (q(t) ~ charge)

resistor
inductor ((t) ~ flux)

potentiometer

tachometer

DC amplifier, zero time constant

series / parallel resistors

Model

G(s)

q(t ) Cv(t )

Q(s)
C
V (s)

V ( s) 1

Q( s) C

v(t ) Ri(t )

V (s)
R
I (s)

I (s) 1

V ( s) R

(t ) Li (t )

( s)
L
I (s)

I ( s) 1

( s) L

v1 (t ) R2 v2 (t )( R1 R2 )

V2 ( s)
R2

V1 ( s) R1 R2

v(t ) Kt (t )

V (s)
Kt
( s)

v2 (t ) K Av1 (t )

V2 ( s)
KA
V1 ( s)

v (t ) ( R1 R2 )i (t )

1
1
i (t ) v (t )
R1 R2

V ( s)
R1 R2
I ( s)

V ( s)
RR
1 2
I ( s ) R1 R2

3. First-Order System Examples

Name

Model

G(s)

cx (t ) kx(t ) f (t )

X (s)
1

F ( s ) cs k

c
k

mv(t ) cv(t ) f (t )

V (s)
1

F ( s ) ms c

m
c

cR(t ) k R (t ) (t )

( s)
1

T ( s) cR s kR

cR
kR

J (t ) cR (t ) (t )

( s )
1

T ( s) Js cR

J
cR

di (t )
Ri (t ) v(t )
dt

I (s)
1

V ( s ) Ls R

L
R

1
q(t ) v(t )
C

Q(s)
C

V ( s ) RCs 1
I ( s)
Cs

V ( s ) RCs 1

Diagram
x(t)
k

massless translational mechanical system

f(t)

x(t)
c

f(t)

springless translational mechanical system

cR
kR

inertialess rotational mechanical system

(t)

(t)

J
cR

springless rotational mechanical system

(t)

(t)

R
v(t)

+
-

i(t)

LR series electrical circuit

R

RC series electrical circuit

DC amplifier with time constant

+
v(t)
-

i(t)

Rq (t )
C

Ri (t )

1
i (t )dt v(t )
C

v2 (t ) v2 (t ) K Av1 (t )

V2 ( s)
K
A
V1 ( s) s 1

RC
RC

First-Order System Examples (continued)

Name

differentiator

integrator

capacitor

resistor

inductor

generic sensor

Model

G(s)

v(t )

dx(t )
dt

a(t )

dv(t )
dt

V (s)
s
X (s)

A( s )
s
V (s)

i (t )

dq(t )
dt

v (t )

d ( t )
dt

I ( s)
s
Q( s)

V ( s)
s
( s)

X (s) 1

V (s) s

V (s) 1

A( s ) s

x(t ) v(t )dt

v(t ) a(t )dt

q ( t ) i ( t ) dt

( t ) v ( t ) dt

i (t ) C

dv(t )
dt

1
v(t )dt
R
1
i(t ) v(t )dt
L

q(t )

v(t )

1
i(t )dt
C

dq(t )
dt
di (t )
v(t ) L
dt

v(t ) R

y SENS (t ) ySENS (t ) ky (t )

Q ( s) 1

I (s) s
I (s)
Cs
V (s)

(s) 1

V ( s) s
V (s) 1

I ( s ) Cs

Q(s) 1

V ( s ) Rs

V (s)
Rs
Q(s)

I (s)
1

V ( s ) Ls

V (s)
Ls
I (s)

H ( s)

k gain

YSENS ( s )
k

Y ( s)
s 1
time constant

4. Second-Order System Examples

Name

Diagram
x(t)
k

translational mechanical system

Model

G(s)

mx(t ) cx (t ) kx(t ) f (t )

X (s)
1
2
F ( s ) ms cs k

f(t)

dv(t )
cv(t ) k v(t )dt f (t )
dt

V ( s)
s

2
F ( s ) ms cs k

x(t)

springless translational
mechanical system

f(t)

mx(t ) cx (t ) f (t )

f(t)

mx(t ) kx(t ) f (t )

X (s)
1

F ( s ) s(ms c)

x(t)

damperless translational
mechanical system

damperless translational
mechanical system, vertical

X (s)
1

2
F ( s ) ms k

k
g

my(t ) ky(t ) f (t )

m
y(t)

Y (s)
1
2
F ( s ) ms k

f(t)
x(t)

mass-only translational
mechanical system

f(t)

mx(t ) f (t )

X (s)
1

F ( s ) ms 2

Second-Order System Examples (continued)

Name

Diagram

Model

G(s)

J(t ) cR(t ) k R (t ) (t )

( s )
1
2
T ( s) Js cR s k R

J(t ) cR(t ) (t )

( s)
1

T ( s) s( Js cR )

J(t ) k R (t ) (t )

( s)
1
2
T ( s) Js kR

J(t ) (t )

( s )
1
2
T ( s ) Js

rotational mechanical system

cR
kR

(t)

(t)

springless rotational
mechanical system

cR

(t)

(t)

damperless rotational
mechanical system

J
kR

(t)

(t)
J

inertia-only rotational
mechanical system

(t)

(t)

10

Second-Order System Examples (continued)

Name

Diagram

torqued pendulum (linearized)

Model

(t)
g

g
L

(t ) (t )

G(s)

1
(t )
mL2

(t)

( s )

( s )

1
g

mL2 s 2
L

parallel RLC circuit

+
i(t)

iR(t)

iL(t)

iC (t)

v(t)

dv(t ) v(t ) 1

v(t )dt i(t )

dt
R L

C(t )
R

series RLC circuit

v(t)

+
-

i(t)

accelerometer (Dorf & Bishop)

double differentiator
double integrator

1
1
(t ) (t ) i ( t )
R
L

di(t )
1
Ri (t ) i (t )dt v(t )
dt
C
Lq(t ) Rq (t )

1
q( t ) v ( t )
C

V (s)
RLs

2
I ( s ) CRLs Ls R
( s)
RL

2
I ( s ) CRLs Ls R
I (s)
Cs

2
V ( s ) LCs RCs 1
Q( s)
C

2
V ( s ) LCs RCs 1

mx(t ) cx (t ) kx(t ) mxIN (t )

X ( s)
s2
2
X IN ( s) s (c m) s (k m)

d 2 x (t )
dt 2
x ( t ) a ( t ) dt

A( s )
s2
X ( s)
X ( s) 1

A( s ) s 2

a (t )

11

5. Real-World Transfer Functions

suitable for ME 3012 Term Projects
Simplified DC servomotor (ignoring back emf and inductor)
The figure below shows a simple diagram for deriving the model of a DC servomotor, which is a
rotational electromechanical system. On the circuit side, v(t) is the input armature voltage, L is the
inductance constant, R is the resistance constant, and i(t) is the armature circuit current. On the
rotational mechanical side, J is the lumped rotational inertia of the motor shaft and load, cR is the
rotational viscous damping coefficient, and the output is angular displacement (t) (whose time
derivative is angular velocity (t)).

v(t)

cR
i(t)
(t)

(t)
(t)

From an earlier derivation, the RL series circuit model is:

di (t )
L
Ri (t ) v (t )
dt
where we have ignored the motor back emf voltage. Usually the time constant for the electrical system
is much smaller than the time constant for the rotational mechanical system, which means that the
electrical system current i(t) rises much faster than the mechanical displacement (t). Therefore, we can
ignore the circuit dynamics ( L 0 ), so the electrical circuit model simplifies to Ri (t ) v(t ) , which is
simply Ohms Law.
In a DC servomotor, the generated motor torque is proportional to the circuit current, a linear
proportional relationship that holds good for nearly the entire range of operation of the motor:
(t ) KT i(t )
KT is the motor torque constant, which is stamped on the motor housing, available from the motor
manufacturer, or determinable by experiment.
The rotational mechanical system dynamic model is derived from a free-body diagram of the
M J(t) :
rotating motor shaft, using Eulers rotational dynamics law
J (t ) c (t ) (t )

Substituting the electrical models into the rotational mechanical system dynamic model yields:
( s )
KT R
K
G ( s )

J (t ) cR (t ) (t ) K T i (t ) T v (t )
V ( s ) s ( Js cR )
R
This is a linear, lumped-parameter, constant-coefficient, second-order ODE. The same model written
for angular velocity (t) output is a first-order model:
( s ) KT R
K
G ( s )

J (t ) cR (t ) T v (t )
V ( s ) Js cR
R

12
DC Servomotor

v(t)

J (t ) cR(t ) (t ) KT i (t )

cR

i(t)
(t)

di (t )
Ri (t ) v (t ) vB (t ) v (t ) K B(t )
dt

(t)
(t)

G ( s )

( s )
K

V ( s ) ( Ls R )( Js cR ) K 2

G ( s )

K
( s )

V ( s ) s ( Ls R )( Js cR ) K 2

KT K B K

If we set the armature circuit time constant

L
to zero relative to the mechanical system time constant
R

J
(since the mechanical system dominates), the above transfer functions are simplified to first- and
cR
second-order, respectively (rather than the original second- and third-order systems):

G ( s )

( s )
K

V ( s ) JRs ( RcR K 2 )

G ( s )

K
( s )

V ( s ) JRs ( RcR K 2 ) s

R.L. Williams II and D.A. Lawrence, 2007, Linear State-Space Control Systems, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

13
Inverted pendulum

m2

(t)

g
L

(t ) m2 L cos (t )(t ) m2 L sin (t )(t ) 2 f (t )

( m1 m2 ) w
(t ) m2 gL sin (t ) 0
m2 L2(t ) m2 L cos (t ) w
non-linear
(t ) m2 L(t ) f (t )
( m1 m2 ) w
(t ) m2 L(t ) m2 g (t ) 0
m2 w

X
f(t)

m1

linearized
w(t)

In order to derive the overall SISO transfer function for the inverted pendulum, take the Laplace
Transform of both sides of both of the linearized ODEs above. Then use algebra to eliminate W(s)
between the two equations and arrive at G(s). This process yields the following Type 0, second-order,
unstable open-loop transfer function:

G ( s)

( s )
1

2
F ( s ) m1 Ls (m1 m2 ) g

14
2

Automobile Cruise Control

mv(t ) bv(t ) u (t )

G ( s)

V (s)
1

U ( s ) ms b

Aircraft Pitch Control2

G ( s)

( s )
1.15s 0.18
3
( s ) s 0.74 s 2 0.92 s

(t) output aircraft pitch angle

(t) input elevator control angle
G (s)

( s )
1.15s 0.18
2
( s ) s 0.74 s 0.92

(t) output aircraft pitch angular velocity

Hydraulic Actuator3

G(s)

Y ( s)
K

X ( s) s(ms B)

Ak x
kP
g
kx
x

B bK
kP
x0

A2
kP

g
P P0

g g ( x, P) flow
A piston area

Fluid Heating System3

G (s)

2
3

T (s)

H ( s)

RC
RQW 1

1
1

Cs QW
R

T(s)
C
Q
W
R
H(s)

temperature difference
thermal capacitance
constant flow rate
water specific heat
insulation thermal resistance
heating element heat flow
time constant

www.engin.umich.edu/group/ctm
Dorf and Bishop, Modern Control Systems, 11th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.

15
3

Fluid Flow Tank System

Q2 ( s)
1
GQ ( s)

Q1 ( s) s 1
GH ( s)

H ( s)
R

Q1 ( s) RCs 1

Q1
Q2
H

R
C

input flow rate

output flow rate
head
RC, time constant
orifice flow resistance
cross-sectional tank area

Robot Elbow Control3

G ( s)

( s)
2

( s) s( s 4)

(t) torque input

(t) elbow angle

(t) torque wheel input

(t) telescope angle

(t) torque input

y(t) displacement

(t) thruster input

y(t) vertical displacement

i(t) insulin input

b(t) blood-sugar level

c(t) throttle input

v(t) racecar speed

Space Telescope Pointing Control3

G(s)

( s)
1

T ( s) s( s 12)

SkyCam Control3modified

G( s)

Y (s)
1

T ( s) s(0.2s 1)

VTOL Aircraft Control3

G( s)

Y ( s)
1

T ( s) s( s 1)

Diabetes Control3

G( s)

B( s )
s2

I ( s) s( s 1)

Racecar Speed Control3

G( s)

V ( s)
100

C ( s) ( s 2)( s 5)

16
Weld Bead Depth Control3

G(s)

Y ( s)
K

I ( s) (0.01s 1)(1.5s 1)

i(t) current input

y(t) weld bead depth

(t) torque input

(t) angular velocity

f(t) fin control torque

(t) ship angle

(t) control torque

y(t) printer head displacement

Ferris Wheel Control3

G( s)

( s )
s6

( s) ( s 2)( s 4)

Ship Stabilization3

G( s)

( s )
9
2
f ( s) s 1.2s 9

Laser Printer Positioning3

G(s)

Y ( s)
4( s 50)
2
( s) s 30s 200

Vehicle Steering Control3

G(s)

Y ( s)
1
2
( s) s ( s 12)

(t) steering wheel angle

y(t) centerline displacement

G(s)

V ( s)
1

( s) s( s 12)

control velocity

v(t ) y (t ) centerline velocity

Welding Robot Control3

G ( s)

Y (s)
75( s 1)

( s ) s ( s 5)( s 20)

(t) torque input

y(t) robot displacement

G (s)

V (s)
75( s 1)

( s ) ( s 5)( s 20)

control velocity

v(t ) y (t ) robot velocity

17
3

Aircraft Roll Control

G(s)

(s)
K

2
Q ( s ) s ( s 4 s 9)

q(t) hydraulic fluid flow

(t) roll angle

G (s)

( s )
K
2
Q(s) s 4s 9

control velocity

(t ) (t ) roll velocity

Elevator Control3
G (s)

Y (s)
1

2
( s ) s ( s 3s 3)

(t) torque input

y(t) elevator displacement

G (s)

V (s)
1
2
( s ) s 3s 3

control velocity

v(t ) y (t ) elevator velocity

Robot Position Control3

G(s)

Y (s)
640, 000

2
( s) s( s 128s 6400)

(t) torque input

y(t) robot displacement

G(s)

V (s)
640, 000
2
( s) s 128s 6400

control velocity

v(t ) y (t ) robot velocity

Space Station Orientation Control3

G (s)

(s)
20 K

2
( s ) s ( s 20 s 100)

(t) torque input

(t) station angle

G (s)

( s )
20 K
2
( s ) s 20 s 100

control velocity

(t ) (t ) station velocity

Human Paper-Pilot Model3

G (s)

(s)
(2 s 1)( s 2)

E ( s ) (0.5s 1)( s 2)

E(t) angle error

(t) elevator angle

0.25 0.50 human pilot time constant

18
4

Missile Roll Control

G ( s)

l l
l
P(s)
p
( s ) s l p a s 1

(t) aileron deflection input p(t) roll rate

a

1
lp

l l p

aerodynamic time constant

steady-state gain

Robotic Swivel5
G (s)

( s )
K

V ( s ) ( s 10)( s 2 4 s 10)

v(t) input voltage

G(s)

( s )
K
2
V ( s ) ( s 4 s 10)

ignore non-dominant mode to simplify

(t) swivel velocity

Robotic Rubbertuator and Load5

G ( s)

X ( s)
10
2
P ( s ) s 10 s 29

p(t) air pressure

x(t) displacement

Antenna Azimuth Control5

G(s)

( s)
20.83

V ( s) s( s 100)( s 1.71)

v(t) input voltage

(t) azimuth angle

G( s)

( s )
20.83

V ( s) ( s 100)( s 1.71)

control velocity

(t ) (t ) azimuth velocity

Heat Transfer System6

G( s)

To ( s)
1

Ti ( s) RCs 1

ti(t) input temperature

RC

thermal time constant

scribd.com
N.S. Nise, Control Systems Engineering, 2nd edition, Cummings, 1995.
6
Golnaraghi and Kuo, Automatic Control Systems, 9th edition, Wiley, 2010
5

to(t) output temperature

19
Pneumatic System

G(s)

Po ( s)
1

Pi ( s) RCs 1

pi(t) input pressure

po(t) output pressure

RC

Hydraulic System6
Q ( s)
1
G(s) o

Qi ( s) RCs 1

qi(t) input flow rate

pneumatic time constant

qo(t) output flow rate

RC

hydraulic time constant

Temperature Control7
G (s)

T (s)
1

Q( s) s 1

q(t) input heat flow rate

T(t) output temperature

thermal time constant

Steel Rolling Thickness Control8

G (s)

Y (s) K

F (s) s

f(t) roller input force

y(t) output steel thickness

K

motor force constant

Magnetically-Levitated Ball8

7
8

G( s)

Y ( s)
0.81

V ( s) ( s 7)( s 11)( s 11)

v(t) input voltage

G( s)

Y ( s)
0.81

V ( s) ( s 7)( s 11)

ignore least dominant mode

W.J. Palm, Control Systems Engineering, Wiley, 1986.

researchcentre.apsc.ubc.ca/MECH523

y(t) ball height

20
Third-Order and Fourth-Order Systems
suitable for ME 3012 Term Projects using an internal pre-filter GPi(s)
Helicopter Pitch Control3
G (s)

(s)
25( s 0.03)

( s ) ( s 0.4)( s 2 0.36 s 0.16)

(t) torque input

(t) pitch angle

Autonomous Submersible Control5

G(s)

( s)
0.13( s 0.44)

e ( s) ( s 1.23)( s 2 0.23s 0.02)

e(t) elevator angle

(t) pitch angle

Flexible Robot Control3

G(s)

( s )
s 500

( s ) s ( s 0.03)( s 2 2.57 s 6667)

(t) torque input

(t) angle output

G(s)

( s )
s 500

( s ) ( s 0.03)( s 2 2.57 s 6667)

control velocity

(t ) robot velocity

i(t) current input

y(t) displacement

(t) torque input

f(t) force output

Hydraulic Servovalve Control3

G( s)

Y ( s)
24.5( s 2 2 s 400 2 )

I ( s) ( s 50)( s 2 1.4 s 196 2 )

Robot Force Control3

G (s)

F ( s)
K ( s 2.5)
2
( s ) ( s 2 s 2)( s 2 4 s 5)

21
Third-Order and Fourth-Order Systems
less suitable for ME 3012 Term Projects
Ball-and-Beam System1
p(t

(t)

Jb

p(t ) m g sin (t ) m p(t ) (t ) 2 0

r 2 m

2
m p (t ) J J b (t ) 2 m p(t ) p (t ) (t ) m g p(t ) cos (t ) (t )
non-linear

(t)

Jb

p(t ) m g (t )
r 2 m

m L2

4 J J b (t ) m g p(t )

0
(t )
linearized

L is the constant half-length of the beam, m and r are the mass and
radius of the ball, respectively, Jb and J are the mass moment of inertia
of the ball and beam, respectively.

In order to derive the overall SISO transfer function for the ball-and-beam system, take the
Laplace Transform of both sides of both of the linearized ODEs above. Then use algebra to eliminate
(s) between the two equations and arrive at G1(s). This process yields the following Type 0, fourthorder, unstable open-loop transfer function:
G1 ( s )

where:

J E1 2b m
r

P( s)
mg

T ( s ) J E1 J E 2 s 4 m 2 g 2

JE2

m L2

J Jb
4

This process could alternatively eliminate P(s) between the two equations and arrive at G2(s), the
following Type 0, fourth-order, unstable open-loop transfer function:
G2 ( s )

( s )
J E1s 2

T ( s ) J E1 J E 2 s 4 m 2 g 2

Missile Yaw Control3 (cannot use internal pre-filter for positive poles)
( s )
0.5( s 2 2500)
(t) torque input
(t) yaw acceleration
G (s)

( s ) ( s 3)( s 2 50 s 1000)

22

6. Advanced Real-World Models

less suitable for ME 3012 Term Projects
(use state-space controller design techniques instead of classical methods)
Three-dof translational mechanical system1
y1(t)
u1(t)

k1
m1

c1

y3(t)

y2(t)
u2(t)

k2
m2

c2

u3(t)

k3

c3

m3

k4

c4

m1
y1 (t ) (c1 c2 ) y1 (t ) (k1 k2 ) y1 (t ) c2 y 2 (t ) k2 y2 (t ) u1 (t )
m2
y2 (t ) (c2 c3 ) y 2 (t ) (k2 k3 ) y2 (t ) c2 y1 (t ) k2 y1 (t ) c3 y3 (t ) k3 y3 (t ) u2 (t )
m3
y3 (t ) (c3 c4 ) y3 (t ) (k3 k4 ) y3 (t ) c3 y 2 (t ) k3 y2 (t ) u3 (t )
Non-linear Proof-Mass Actuator System1
q(t)

( M m)q(t ) kq (t ) me((t ) cos (t ) 2 (t ) sin (t )) 0

( J me 2 )(t ) meq(t ) cos (t ) n(t )

M
n(t)

f(t)
e

(t) m

Two-dof translational mechanical system1

y1(t)
u1(t)

k1

c1

m1

y2(t)
u2(t)

k2

c2

m2

m1
y1 (t ) (c1 c2 ) y1 (t ) ( k1 k2 ) y1 (t ) c2 y 2 (t ) k2 y2 (t ) u1 (t )
m2
y2 (t ) c2 y 2 (t ) k2 y2 (t ) c2 y1 (t ) k 2 y1 (t ) u2 (t )

23
2

Automobile Suspension System

m1
x1 (t ) b1 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) k1 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) u (t )
m2
x2 (t ) b2 ( x2 (t ) w (t )) k2 ( x2 (t ) w(t )) c2 y 2 (t ) b1 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) k1 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) u (t )

Gu ( s )

X 1 ( s) X 2 ( s)
( m1 m2 ) s 2 b2 s K 2

U (s)
( m1s 2 b1s K1 )(m2 s 2 (b1 b2 ) s ( K1 K 2 )) (b1s K1 ) 2

Gw ( s )

X 1 ( s) X 2 ( s)
m1 (b2 s K 2 ) s 2

W (s)
( m1s 2 b1s K1 )( m2 s 2 (b1 b2 ) s ( K1 K 2 )) (b1s K1 ) 2

24
9

Human Skeletal Muscle Model

y (t )

k2
(k k )
kk

y (t ) 1 2 y (t ) 1 2 y (t )
b
m
mb

Fm (t ) k2

( FA (t ) Fm (t ) mg k1 L1R )
m
mb

Where:
y(t)
m
k1
k2
b
FA(t)
Fm(t)
g
L1R

absolute displacement of the muscle end

lumped muscle mass
linear spring stiffness representing the muscle fascia, parallel elastic component
linear spring stiffness representing the connecting tendons, series elastic component
viscous damping coefficient representing the muscle energy loss
muscle actuation force (the integrated effects of all contracting sarcomeres)
external load applied to the muscle
acceleration due to gravity
neutral length of the muscle (the unstretched length of spring k1).

Dr. Bobs ME 4670 / BME5670 Biomechanics NotesBook Supplement, derived by Elvedin Kljuno

25
Armature circuit / DC servomotor / gear box / robot joint 3012 Term Example

cL

v A (t)

+
v B (t)
-

i A (t)

J L (t)

cM
JM
M (t)
M (t)
M (t)

LJL (t ) ( Lc RJ )L (t ) ( Rc K T K B )L (t )
LJ L (t ) ( Lc RJ ) L (t ) ( Rc K T K B )L (t )

L (t)
L (t)
L (t)

KT
vA (t )
n
KT
vA (t )
n

c
JL
and c cM L2 are the effective polar inertia and viscous damping coefficient
2
n
n
reflected to the motor shaft.
Numerical Parameters
where J J M

Parameter
L
R
kB
JM
bM
kT
n
JL
bL

Value
0.0006
1.40
0.00867
0.00844
0.00013
4.375
200
1
0.5

Units
H

V/deg/s
lbf-in-s2
lbf-in/deg/s
lbf-in/A
unitless
lbf-in-s2
lbf-in/deg/s

Name
armature inductance
armature resistance
motor back emf constant
motor shaft polar inertia
motor shaft damping constant
torque constant
gear ratio
load shaft polar inertia
load shaft damping constant

G ( s )

L ( s)
VA ( s )

KT / n
5
2
LJs ( Lc RJ ) s ( Rc K T K B ) s 11s 1010

G ( s )

L ( s)
VA ( s )

KT / n
5

2
s ( LJs ( Lc RJ ) s ( Rc K T K B )) s ( s 11s 1010)

The models of the last two pages (DC servomotor and robot joint) cannot vibrate (since there is no
torsional spring) unless driven by a sinusoidal voltage input.