Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2.
3.
Fig.
(c) No. of atoms in FCC:8 atoms are at corner and six atoms are at faces (one
on each face)
8*1/8+6*1/2=4
Close packing in
crystals:-
1.
Volu
2.
me of sphere = 4/3r3
Volume of cube =a3= (2r)3 = 8r3
Packing fraction
(c)
1.
2.
% occupied = 52.4%
2.
in face centred cubic structure (Cubic close
packing):- spheres of the face centre touching the
sphere of the corner,
Then, AC = 4r in ABC
% occupied = 74%
3.
% occupied = 68%
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
a.
b.
III.
Impurity defects :- These
defects arises when foreign atoms are present at the
lattice site in place of host atoms or in the interstitial
sites.
Doping: - The process of adding impurities to a
crystalline substance so as to change its properties is
called doping.
Electrical properties of solids
Conductors:- The solids which have conductivity
in the range of 104 to 107ohm-1m-1 are called
conductors.
2.
Insulators :- The solids which have extremely
low conductivity ranging between 10-20 to 1010
ohm-1m-1 are called insulators.
3.
Semiconductors:- The solids which have
conductivity between the conductors and insulators,
ranging from 10-6 to 104 ohm-1m-1 are called
semiconductors.
1.
1.
2.
3.
Band Theory
In case of metals (conductors), the atomic orbitals
of the metal atom are so close in energy that they
overlap to form a large no. of molecular orbitals
very close in energy. This set of molecular orbitals
is called a band. Two types of band formed then
electron can easily flow by gaining energy and
conduct electricity.
If gap between band is large electron can not jump
from valance band to conduction band, so these
behave as insulator.
If the gap is small then electron may jump and show
some conductivity and act as semiconductor.
Magnetic properties of solids: Diamagnetic Substances: - Substances which are
weakly repelled by the external magnetic field are
called diamagnetic substances.
Ex: TiO2, H2O, NaCl
Paramagnetic Substances: - Substances which
are attracted by the external magnetic field are
called paramagnetic substances.
Ex: O2, Cu2+, Fe3+
Ferromagnetic Substances: - Substances which
show permanent magnetism even in the absence of
magnetic field are called ferromagnetic substances.
Ex: Fe, Ni
4.
SOLUTION
Solution: - A solution is homogeneous mixture of
two or more chemically non-reacting substances,
whose composition can be varied within certain
limits.
Expressing concentration of solutions
1.
Percentage: mass percentage (%) of a component (W/W)
= Mass of the component in
solution*100 / Total mass of the solution
volume percentage (%) of the component (V/V)
= Volume of the component * 100 / Total
volume of the solution
Mass/Volume percentage (%) of the component
(W/V)
=Mass of the component in solution * 100 /
Total volume of the solution
2.
Strength:Strength of the solution ( gl-1 or gdm-3)
= Mass of the solute in grams / Volume of the
solution in litre
3.
4.
X1+X2 = 1
5.
Mass fraction: - Mass of the given component
per unit mass of the solution denoted by X.
XA = WA / WA+WB
XB = WB / WA+WB
WA = Mass of the solvent
WB = Mass of the solute
XA+XB = 1
Solution of solids in liquids
Solubility of a solid in a liquid :- It is defined as
the maximum amount of the solid (solute) in grams
which can dissolve in 100 grams of liquid (solvent)
to form the saturated solution at the particular
temperature.
Factors affecting the solubility of a solid in a
liquid
i.
Nature of the solute & the solvent :- Like
dissolves Like
The polar (ionic) compounds like NaCl dissolve in
polar solvent like water.
The non polar (covalent or organic) compounds
dissolve in non polar compounds like Anthracene
dissolve in Benzene.
ii.
Effect of temperature : The solubility increases with increase of temperature
when the process of dissolution is endothermic.
Solute + Solvent + Heat -> Solution
Ex:- NaNo3, KNO3, NaCl, KCl
The solubility Decreases with increase in
temperature when the process of dissolution is
exothermic.
Solute + Solvent -> Solution + Heat
Ex:- Sodium carbonate mono hydrate
(Na2CO3.H2O).
Those whose solubility does not increases or
decreases continuously
Ex:- CaCl2.6H2O -> CaCl2.4H2O -> CaCl2.2H2O
Solution of Gases in liquids
1) Solubility of a gas in a liquid :- The solubility of
a gas in a particular liquid is the volume of the gas
in CCs (centimetre cubes CM3) that can dissolve in
unit volume of the liquid to form the saturated
solution at the temperature of the experimented
under a pressure of one atmosphere.
Factors affecting the solubility of a liquid in a
gas
i)
Nature of the gas & the solvent:- Gases like
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen etc. dissolve in water
1)
2)
3)
4)
From figure,
Tf = T0f Tf
Electrochemistry
Electrolysis: It is the process of decomposition of
an electrolyte by the passage of electricity through
its aqueous solution or molten state.
Faradays first law of electrolysis: In a chemical
reaction, the amount of any substance deposited or
librated is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed through it.
WQ
W = ZQ
W=
Zit
( Q= It )
Where, Z = Electrochemical Equivalent.
Z = atomic weight/nF
(n = no. of
electron, F = 96500 )
Faradays second law of electrolysis: When the
same quantity of electricity is passed through the
different electrolytes connected in series. The
weights of the substance produced at the electrodes
are directly proportional to their equivalent weights.
Ex: AgNO2 and CuSO4 solution connected
in series,
Conductance of electrolytic solution:- Electrolytes
conducts electricity by decomposition.
Electrical resistance:- If voltage v is applied to the
ends of the conductor and currentI floe through
it, then the resistance R of the conductor is V/I
(ohm).
Secondary cell
Lead storage battery:- cell consist of lead anode
and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide acts as
lead cathode. These electrodes are arranged
alternatively separated by fibre glass sheet and
suspended in sulphuric acid (dilute) which acts as
electrolyte.
Electrode reaction occurs during discharge
battery:At Anode :- Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2eAt Cathode :- PbO2 + SO42- + 4H+ + 2e PbSO4 +2H2O
In above reactions H2SO4 is used hence density of
H2SO4 is decreases so battery will discharge.
During charging:- The electrode reaction is
reserved.
PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO42PbSO4 +2H2O PbO2 + SO42- + 4H+ + 2eNickel Cadmium Storage Cell:- It consists of
cadmium electrode (as Anode) and metal grid of
nickel (iv) oxide as cathode immersed in KOH
solution.
Reaction occurs during discharge of cell:At Anode :- Cd + 2OH Cd(OH)2 + 2eAt Cathode :- NiO2 + 2H2O +2e Ni(OH)2 + 2OHHence,
The reaction can be reversed during charging. The
potential of each Ni-Cd cell is approximately 1.4 V
Fuel cell: - It consists of porous carbon electrodes
containing suitable catalyst incorporated in them.
Concentrated KOH or NaOH solution is placed
between the electrodes to act as the electrolyte. The
hydrogen or oxygen gases are bubbled through the
porous electrode into the KOH/NaOH solution.
Reactions:-