Mach II CDS Version

1.08

C O R P O R AT E C O M M U N I C AT I O N S

MACH II Digital Engineer - User Guide

Relief Device Calculation Software

Two-Phase Version

2000, 2001, 2003 Digital Solutions Technology, Inc

3605 Alden Street
Indian Trail, NC 28079
Phone 704-893-0294 Fax 704-882-5729 http://www.digitalsolutions.org/

Disclaimer
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES. TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW,
DIGITAL SOLUTIONS, INC. AND ITS SUPPLIERS PROVIDE TO YOU THE COMPONENTS AS IS AND
WITHOUT ANY SUPPORT SERVICES; AND DIGITAL SOLUTIONS, INC. AND ITS SUPPLIERS HEREBY
DISCLAIM WITH RESPECT TO THE COMPONENTS ALL WARRANTIES AND CONDITIONS, WHETHER
EXPRESS, IMPLIED OR STATUTORY, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, ANY (IF ANY) WARRANTIES
OR CONDITIONS OF OR RELATED TO: TITLE, NON-INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS
FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, LACK OF VIRUSES, ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF
RESPONSES, RESULTS, LACK OF NEGLIGENCE OR LACK OF WORKMANLIKE EFFORT, QUIET
ENJOYMENT, QUIET POSSESSION, AND CORRESPONDENCE TO DESCRIPTION. THE ENTIRE RISK
ARISING OUT OF USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE COMPONENTS AND ANY SUPPORT SERVICES
REMAINS WITH YOU.
EXCLUSION OF INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL AND CERTAIN OTHER DAMAGES. TO THE MAXIMUM
EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT SHALL DIGITAL SOLUTIONS, INC. OR ITS
SUPPLIERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, DAMAGES FOR: LOSS OF PROFITS, LOSS OF
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LIMITATION OF LIABILITY AND REMEDIES. NOTWITHSTANDING ANY DAMAGES THAT YOU MIGHT
INCUR FOR ANY REASON WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, ALL DAMAGES
REFERENCED ABOVE AND ALL DIRECT OR GENERAL DAMAGES), THE ENTIRE LIABILITY OF DIGITAL
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EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW, EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE

This document is intended for use by customers of Digital

Solutions, Inc. It was developed and published by:
Digital Solutions
Department of Information Management
Enterprise Processes & Data Architecture
3605 Alden Street, Indian Trail, NC 28212
Telephone: 704-893-0294 Fax 704-882-5729
http://www.digitalsolutions.org

Entire contents 2000-2003 by Digital Solutions Corporation. All rights

reserved.
This document contains information that is proprietary to Digital Solutions
Corporation. The content of this document is privileged, confidential and
exempt from disclosure under applicable laws. No part of this document may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopied, recorded, or otherwise,
without prior written consent from Digital Solutions Corporation.
Printed in the United States of America.

If you have any comments or questions about technical aspects of this

document, including formulae and calculations, please contact:
Edward Kitchen - President & Chief Engineer
EKitchen@digitalsolutions.org
If you have any comments or questions about database integration or
infrastructure options, please contact:
Thomas E. Coughlan - CTIO
Tcoughlan@digitalsolutions.org

Revision History
Version
Date
Number
1.03
8/12/01
1.04

10/22/01

1.05
1.06
1.07

11/01/01
12/05/01
4/28/02

1.08

7/15/03

Description or Purpose of Change

Owner(s)

Release 1.03 Documentation.

T. Coughlan, E. Kitchen

Release 1.04 Documentation.

Added 2-Phase documentation developed by E. Kitchen.
Enhanced layout to make it more readable.
Updated graphic images, added tool bar f functionality.
Added text for Search Engine. Changed "Demo" to "Reader"
Added section on HEM and OMEGA. Replaced *.bmp images
with *.GIF images to minimize file size, changed to 11 point Arial
font.
Replaced formulae. Updated GUI screen shots. Changed
address and copyright year. Formatted formulas and variables
into tables for clarity.

E. Kitchen, T. Coughlan
T. Coughlan
T. Coughlan/ E. Kitchen
T. Coughlan/E. Kitchen
T. Coughlan/E.Kitchen

Copyright Notice
Copyright 1991 - 2003 Digital Solutions, Inc. All rights reserved.
This documentation and the software described herein are copyrighted, with all rights reserved. Under
copyright laws, this documentation and software may not be copied in whole or in part without the written
consent of Digital Solutions, Inc., Inc. except in the normal use of the software or to make a backup copy
as specified in the license agreement.

Trademarks:
Mach II CDS is a trademark of Digital Solutions, Inc.
Mach II Digital Engineer is a trademark of Digital Solutions, Inc.
Mach II CDS-Reader is a trademark of Digital Solutions, Inc.
All trademarks and registered trademarks are acknowledged throughout this document.

WHO WE ARE.......................................................................................................................................................................2
ABOUT THE SOFTWARE...................................................................................................................................................2
PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT (PSM)....................................................................................................................2
RELIEF VALVES...................................................................................................................................................................3
PROGRAM INSTRUCTIONS..............................................................................................................................................4
MACH II CDS........................................................................................................................................................................5
Supporting Documents...................................................................................................................................................5
IDENTIFICATION SECTION.............................................................................................................................................6
TWO-PHASE SECTION.....................................................................................................................................................10
Performing a Two-Phase Flow Test.................................................................................................................................10
Summary of Two-Phase Test Calculations Performed:...........................................................................................11
Variables used in the Two-Phase Test:.....................................................................................................................12
Completing System Data Requirements..........................................................................................................................13
Operating Data..................................................................................................................................................................14
Basic Data...........................................................................................................................................................................15
Two-Phase Homogenous Equilibrium Model (HEM)...............................................................................................15
Performing a HEM Two-Phase Flow Calculation for the Nozzle...........................................................................16
Equation 1 (At relieving pressure P2):.......................................................................................................................16
Equation 2 (At estimated choke pressure):...............................................................................................................16
Coupling Equation (for Gmax):...................................................................................................................................17
Omega Method..............................................................................................................................................................18
At relieving pressure P2:..............................................................................................................................................18
At set/choke pressure P1.............................................................................................................................................18
Coupling Equation.........................................................................................................................................................20
Actual Required Orifice Size.......................................................................................................................................22
Piping & Pressure Drop....................................................................................................................................................23
Inlet and Outlet Piping..................................................................................................................................................23
Omega Method Piping..................................................................................................................................................25
Performing an Omega Method Calculation for Piping.............................................................................................26
Variables used in the Omega Piping:.........................................................................................................................27
Back-Pressure Effects based on the Omega Method.............................................................................................28
Sonic Flow......................................................................................................................................................................28
Sub-sonic Flow..............................................................................................................................................................29
HEM Method Piping......................................................................................................................................................30
Simple Three-point Specific Volume..........................................................................................................................31
Complex Three-point Viscosity Correlation..............................................................................................................31
Complex Three-point Viscosity Correlation..............................................................................................................32
Complex Three-point Specific Volume Model with Mass Fraction Correlation...................................................33
Liquid Density Correlation............................................................................................................................................34
Specific Volume Correlation........................................................................................................................................35
SPECIFICATION AND MAINTENANCE........................................................................................................................36
REPORT GENERATOR (PRODUCTION)......................................................................................................................37

TOOLS..................................................................................................................................................................................39
Nozzle Results...............................................................................................................................................................40
Integration Calculation Results...................................................................................................................................42
Linear Regression Calculation Analysis....................................................................................................................43
Regression Options:.............................................................................................................................................44
Regression Modeling Options:............................................................................................................................44
Linear Regression Quick Tutorial....................................................................................................................44
Linear Regression Quick Tutorial....................................................................................................................45
Polynomial Regression Quick Tutorial............................................................................................................45
Exponential Regression Quick Tutorial..........................................................................................................46

ii

M A C H

I I

C D S

U S E R

G U I D E

Chapter

Introduction
Who We Are

elcome to Digital Solutions Technology, Inc. and its subsidiary Safety Relief
Device Documentation Services. We can be found at www.digitalsolutions.org.
We ask that you visit us often to take advantage of the many services and
valuable links offered from our web site as well as staying abreast of new products and
updates.
The Reader version of our program, Mach II CDS-Reader, will give potential users an
opportunity to explore its powerful calculation engine and give a feel for its capabilities
and use prior to purchasing a full site license. The Reader is absolutely free and gives
everyone the ability to read, view, and print .cds files created using the Mach II-CDS
application program.

About the Software

This software has been designed based on the requirements as set forth in OSHA 29
CFR 1910.119a, which can be accessed from the companys web site under "Relief
Design Information -> Industry Standards" link www.digitalsolutions.org. It simply states that
relief system design and design-based calculations must be compiled and maintained for
all processes involving highly hazardous chemicals.
A list of those highly hazardous chemicals can also be accessed from within the OSHA
link: http://www.osha-slc.gov/OshStd_toc/OSHA_Std_toc_1910_SUBPART_H.html
However, some companies have mandated in their own standards that all processes will
adhere to this regulation by a self appointed deadline. In their minds, they can realize
the prognosis and don't want to wait until OSHA applies this law across the board. If a
vessel has a rupture or explosion it doesn't matter what fluid is inside the vessel, its
impact will still cause damage to equipment, piping and possibly to personnel.

Process Safety Management (PSM)

The buzzword in the business is Process Safety Management and the acronym is PSM.
You can read about the scope of PSM from the linked page within OSHA. In general, it
is concerned with effective management of every aspect of the process from personnel,
equipment, piping, drawings, procedures, technology, and all associated issues that can
affect the safety and integrity of the process. These regulations are a legal requirement
that is mandated by the government to protect the safety of personnel in the work place

Relief Valves
The safety relief device, which includes relief valves, rupture discs, and conservation
vents, are the last line of defense in protecting the process equipment, piping, and
personnel from possible explosions within the plant site.
Pressure relief valves are designed to provide protection from over-pressure in steam,
gas, air and liquid lines. Relief valves and back pressure regulators are the same device,
only differing in application. The pressure relief valve "lets off steam" when safe
pressures are exceeded, then closes again when pressure drops to a preset level. A
back pressure regulator maintains upstream pressure at the desired setting by opening
to allow excess upstream pressure to flow downstream.
A pressure relief valve is a self-operating valve that is installed in a process system to
protect against over pressurization of the system. Relief valves are designed to
continuously regulate fluid flow, and to keep pressure from exceeding a preset value.
There are a wide variety of valve designs, but most resemble diaphragm valves, globe
valves, or swing check valves. With many of these designs, a helical or hydraulic
pressure spring is used to maintain constant force acting on the backside of the valve
disk or diaphragm, causing the valve to be normally closed. When the force exerted by
the process stream (i.e. fluid pressure) on the valve disk is greater than the constant
force exerted by the spring, the valve opens allowing process fluid to exit the valve until
the fluid pressure falls below the preset value. These valves can be preset to a specific
relief pressure or they may be adjustable.
The flow transfer and control category covers a wide spectrum of products designed to
facilitate, control, maintain, meter, or read the flow of material through hoses, pipes or
tubing. The material in question can be liquid, gaseous, or semi-solid (colloids and
slurries). The following families fall within this category: valves, valve actuators and
positioners, dispensing valves, pumps, flow sensing, level sensing, density and specific
gravity sensing, viscosity sensing, and miscellaneous related products.
Valves are apparatus designed to maintain, restrict, or meter the flow of materials
through pipes, hoses, tubing or entire systems. They generally function by allowing flow
while in their open position, and restricting flow when closed. The valve family is broken
down into product areas based on the mechanism that is used to restrict flow. The
following are the main valve product area: ball valves, butterfly valves, check valves,
diaphragm valves, gate or knife valves, globe valves, needle valves, pinch valves (for
both industrial and medical applications), plug valves, control valves (1/4 turn - isolation
and multi-turn, throttling), pressure relief valves, and AC and DC solenoid valves.
Murphy's law dictates that if such an event can happen, it eventually will happen with
time being the only criterion. This observation also dictates that these facilities must
perform Process Hazard Analysis/Reviews (Hazops) to identify potential hazards within
each process and to document a course of action to protect against the potential of a
catastrophic failure. The relief devices serve as a final course of action against a
catastrophic event.

Program Instructions
Mach II CDS-Reader is a crippled version in that it only reads files with a *.cds extension
created by the full application program. The Mach II program will handle liquid, gas, vapor,
steam and two-phase release scenarios.
The Mach II Digital Engineer program will calculate the required capacity of each scenario
not already input by the user, and will then calculate the required and standard orifice size
and standard relief capacity. The program will then select the worst-case scenario, largest
required orifice, as the basis for the design of the relief system to include the associated
piping. The program also has a built-in piping program where the user can choose the
number and type of fitting for both inlet and outlet piping. Mach II CDS then calculates the
piping resistance and pressure drop for this piping arrangement. Mach II CDS is intuitive to
use and the results are produced instantaneously by just clicking on the Production tab after
all input data has been entered
The results are given in summary and detail formats. This will enable a user to go directly to
the end of the document to examine the bottom-line results in a summary table.

MACH II CDS
Supporting Documents
The Two-Phase User Guide is preceded by the following documentation:

The Single-Phase User Guide is available separately for users interested in the
single-phase process.

Installation and Common Features User Guide which outlines the features in
Mach II CDS common to the single and Two-Phase components.

Calculation and Formulae Guide provides engineers with technical formulas,

references and mathematical routines that guide the Mach II calculation process.

In addition to the above guides, the Infrastructure Documentation and Technical

Installation Guides are available to systems and technical personnel planning for or
installing the Mach II CDS system.
Where applicable, references are made to these supporting documents at critical junctions
from this manual.

Identification Section
In this section, the user enters identification data about:

The company performing calculations

Client
Calculating Engineer
Documentation Checker
Worksheet Information - including phase type(s)

See Figure 4.0 below, for the Identification section.

Figure 4.0 General Input - Identification Section

The Identification Section contains two important components. The first is the selection
dropdown menu (figure 4.1). Users can toggle between five different selections. The first
four are almost identical - dealing with individual or company-specific addresses such as
Client, Calculating Engineer, etc. :

Figure 4.1 Identification Section Dropdown

An example of the Client sub-screen is shown on the following page:

Figure 4.11 General Input - Identification Section (Client)

The fifth option - Worksheet - is of special importance because it defines the scope of the
project and allows the engineer to describe the project, its scope and equipment numbers
being evaluated. Figure 4.2 illustrates the Worksheet screen.

Figure 4.2 Worksheet

It is important to note here that fields with a colored background are required fields. That is,
they must be filled out or specified in order to ensure that the crucial data is captured for the
proper operation of MACH-II and the correct display of reports.

Figure 4.3 Phase Type Selection Box

The second important selection component on Identification Section is the Phase Type
selection box (Figure 4.3). This section enables the user to specify whether this particular
calculation is for Single Phase, Two-Phase or Both. If the user selects Single-Phase Design,
the Two-Phase Design tab in the main menu will be disabled. Conversely, if the Two-Phase
Design option is picked, then the Single-Phase Design will be disabled. Selecting the third
option will allow both single and Two-Phase functionality to be enabled in the program.
NOTE!

If the *.CDS file you have created in the Single-Phase portion of the program did not check on the TwoPhase option, you will not be able to run the Two-Phase program. Instead the user needs to retrieve the
original file and modify it to enable Two-Phase calculations to be performed.

Single-Phase Section
It is recommended that the user be thoroughly familiar with the Single-Phase User Guide as
the single-phase process forms the basis for performing two-phase calculations. The SinglePhase section shares many identical screens, menus and options. Please refer to the
document to understand basic single-phase calculations and screen functions.

Two-Phase Section
Performing a Two-Phase Flow Test

Click on the Two-Phase flow tab then the Test sub-tab. Here you can now test your relief
scenario for the likelihood of two-phase flow. The two-phase test can be performed with
only a few variables, the vapor and liquid densities, surface tension, the heat input
possibly from fire and required relief capacity. The correlating factor (Co), 1.0
conservative, or 1.2 most likely, or 1.5 unlikely but possible, is used as a parameter for
creating the best curve fit based on experimental data.

Figure 5.1 Two Phase Section

After the basic variables have been input, the user simply clicks on the
button.
The Mach II Digital Engineer will then perform a series of calculations and determine if
the variables fall within the acceptable parameters for Two-Phase calculations. In this
example, the test has validated the input variables:

10

Summary of Two-Phase Test Calculations Performed:

1. The two-phase flow test calculates the superficial gas velocity in the vessel (Vs),
the transitional velocity (Ut), and bubble rise velocity (Uc).
2. The transitional velocity is that velocity which moves the fluid from the Bubbly
regime to the Churn turbulent regime.
3. Using the superficial gas velocity and the bubble rise velocity the dimensionless
superficial gas velocity (Y), is calculated and compared with the dimensionless
superficial gas velocity (Yr), at which two-phase flow is expected to commence.
4. If the actual dimensionless gas velocity (Y), is greater than the expected twophase dimensionless gas velocity (Yr), then two-phase flow is predicted.
5. If two-phase flow is predicted then the HEM model and or the Omega Method can
be employed to determine the maximum gas flux (Gmax) during venting and the
required orifice size.
6. If the actual dimensionless gas superficial velocity is > 20 then two-phase venting
is also assumed due to a transition to droplet-dispersed flow, which has a
homogenous nature.

11

Variables used in the Two-Phase Test:

Variable
Description
W
Flow rate (lb/hr)
a
Vapor volume fraction at relieving conditions
Density of liquid at set
liqs
Density of gas at set
gas

g
u
Co
Ax
Vs
Ut
Creg

Uc
Y

Yr
Yr

Surface tension at set in dyne/cm

gravitational constant = 32.174 ft/sec2
viscosity of fluid (cp)
correlating factor
cross sectional area of vessel
superficial velocity = W/(Ax * vapor)
transitional velocity = 0.3[ *g((lig - g)/liq)]0.25
If superficial velocity > transition then flow regime is
churn turbulent.
Creg = 1.53
else assume bubbly.
Creg =1.18
If viscosity u > 100 then assume bubbly regime.
Creg = 1.18
Bubble rise velocity = Creg * Ut / 0.3
actual vapor-liquid disengagement = Vs / Uc
For Churn turbulent flow = 2a/( 1 Co*a)
For Bubbly flow = [a/( 1 Co*) ] [(1-)2/(1-3) ]

NOTE!

If Y > Yr then two-phase flow is predicted.

12

Completing System Data Requirements

Note:
These are
default values
provided with
program.

When designing a relief device to protect the process equipment within a system you must first
find the weak link in the chain of process equipment and piping between two block valves. The
relief valve is then designed to open at a set pressure based on the equipment or piping with the
lowest MAWP (Maximum Allowable Working Pressure) or Design Pressure.
Pressure vessels are designed to handle pressures above the atmospheric pressure and must
be ASME code stamped with its MAWP and its design temperature at that pressure. The relief
valve may serve to protect several pressure vessels and piping but will be set to open based on
the vessel or piping with the lowest MAWP or design pressure. An example of such a stamp
from a pressure vessel at the Lawrence Liverpool National Laboratory is shown below:

OSHA requires facilities to use good engineering practices for design and installation of
pressure relief devices. Mach II CDS uses the ASME code as good engineering practices as
well as API 520 and 521 Recommended Practices and DIERS methodology for two-phase
design.
Additional system data includes the Atmospheric Pressure and any minimum/maximum
Superimposed Backpressure. Also included in the system data is the Temperature
Compensation Multiplier used for determining the cold differential test pressure for a relief valve.

13

Operating Data

Note:
These are
default values
provided with
program.

The Operating Pressure is the pressure at the top of the vessel at which it normally operates.
The Operating Pressure must be lower than the MAWP, design pressure, or the set pressure of
any pressure-relieving device.
Operating Temperature is the temperature that will be maintained in the metal of the part of the
vessel being considered for the specified operation of the vessel.
The operating data is used to look at the margin between operating conditions and relieving
conditions. When sizing for rupture disc it is important to know the Manufacturer's
recommended operating margin for the rupture disc selected. If you are operating too close to
the bust pressure, the disc can burst prematurely. The above screen shot illustrates the
Operating Data section.

14

Basic Data

Two-Phase Homogenous Equilibrium Model (HEM)

If two-phase flow is predicted then the user can select the Homogenous Equilibrium Model
(HEM), to calculate the maximum flux rate (Gmax) during venting and the required orifice
size. The HEM model is the most conservative model for sizing of the required orifice. It
assumes the vapor fraction stays constant throughout the relief process from vessel to
relief nozzle. The HEM inputs are entered at the Basic Data sub-tab in the Two-Phase
section as shown below:
The HEM two-phase flow model must first find the equilibrium physical property
coefficients by using the specific volume of the liquid and vapor and the mass fraction at
two different pressures. The relieving pressure and the estimated choke pressure are
used as the two pressure points. The choke pressure can be estimated at 0.8P - .3x.

15

Performing a HEM Two-Phase Flow Calculation for the Nozzle

The calculation of the maximum mass flux (Gmax) is based on first finding the physical
property coefficients using physical property data at two different pressures and a set of
equations that must be satisfied for a linear and exponential regression.
With two-point interpolation, the constants a, b, c, d, e and n are fixed for the physical
properties, x, vg, vf values at two different specified pressures where:
x = mass fraction vapor,
vg = specific volume of gas,
vf = specific volume of liquid.
The program calculates the mass fraction of vapor at the estimated choke - X1, and the
reliving conditions - X, to determine the constants a, and b by solving two equations with
two unknowns.
Equation 1 (At relieving pressure P2):
Variable
Description
X
(Vo - VL2 )/ Vgl2
Where:
Vo
V/M, the total volume of the vessel / total mass =
specific volume of vessel.
VL2
Specific volume of the liquid at relieving.
Change in specific volume between the liquid and vapor
Vgl2
at relieving conditions.
Equation 2 (At estimated choke pressure):
Variable
Description
X1
X(Hv2 + HL 1-2) / Hv1
Where:
Heat of vaporization at relieving.
Hv2
Heat of liquid change from choke to relieving.
HL 1-2
Heat of vaporization at set pressure.
Hv1
Also using the specific volume of the vapor and the liquid at the estimated choke and
relieving conditions the constants c, n, d, and e can be found by a similar method of
solving two equations with two unknowns as shown below:
x = a + bP
0<=x=<1
1/vg = cP^1/n
1/vf = d + eP

16

Once the coefficients are found then the fluid flux (Gmax) is calculated from the relieving
pressure to the back-pressure and the maximum flux is determined. This Max flux
(Gmax) sets the basis for the design of the relief device orifice size.
The program gives the Maximum flux rate Gmax, and also gives the mass fraction of
vapor (Xt) at Gmax and the pressure at Gmax.
A fire case coupling equation is then used to determine the Area (A) required based on
Gmax.
Coupling Equation (for Gmax):
Variable
A
W
Qf
L
Xm

Description
(W/ Gmax) / [ (1- Xm)/(Xt Xm)]
Qf /L
Heat input due to fire.
Heat of vaporization at relieving.
The value Xm is the flowing mass fraction of vapor at
relieving conditions leaving the vessel

am * ga _____________________
[ am * gas + ( 1 am)*liq]
Where am is equal to , the vapor volume fraction in
the vessel at relieving conditions. However, if the
superficial velocity (Vs), is greater than the transition
velocity (Ut), then the flow regime is predicted as
churn-turbulent: am = 2*/(1 + Co)

Where am is equal to , the vapor volume fraction in the vessel at relieving conditions.
However, if the superficial velocity (Vs), is greater than the transition velocity (Ut), then
the flow regime is predicted as churn-turbulent: am = 2*/(1 + Co)

17

Omega Method
The Omega method is an algebraic approximation of the rigorous HEM integration
model and is usually less conservative. The omega method starts by first calculating an
Omega, which defines the degree of flash of a fluid.
Note: Flashing flow means that the liquid is "flashing" to vapor as it flows down the pipe. Like water boiling in a
pot. But in this case water or some fluid flows down the pipe and as the pressure decreases the liquid is
released to vapor

Omega
Omega > 1
Omega = 1
0 < Omega < 1
Omega = 0

Degree of Flash of a Fluid

Flashing flow.
Gas/Vapor flow.
Non-flashing flow.
Liquid flow.

Omega is calculated by determining the rate of change of specific volume with pressure
change:

= (Vmix 1) / (P 1)
The program uses the mass fraction of vapor and the density of the fluid at the estimated
choke and relieving conditions to calculate the change in specific volume and hence the
Omega.
At relieving pressure P2:
Variable
Description
X
(Vo - VL2 )/ Vgl2
Where:
Vo
V/M, the total volume of the vessel / total mass =
specific volume of vessel.
VL2
Specific volume of the liquid at relieving.
Change in specific volume between the liquid and vapor
Vgl2
at relieving conditions.
At set/choke pressure P1
Variable
Description
X1
X(Hv2 + HL 1-2) / Hv1
Where:
Heat of vaporization at relieving.
Hv2
Heat of liquid change from choke to relieving.
HL 1-2
Heat of vaporization at set pressure.
Hv1

18

[(X1/v1) + ((1 - X1) /L1)) / [(X/v2) + ((1

Omega () =

))] 1
[P2 / P1] 1
Derived from J. C. Leung (9) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

If the fluid is made up of only one component then the Omega can be calculated directly
as:

+ 0.185 ( 1- ) CpL* L2 * P2 * T2 *

Omega ()=
) - 1 /L2))]

Hv22
Derived from J. C. Leung (29b) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

After Omega () is determined then the program will calculate the Beta based on the
Omega as:
Beta = 0.6055 + 0.1356 * LN(()) 0.0131(LN(())2)
Beta is also defined as the critical pressure ratio Pc/Pb =

Derived from J. C. Leung (14) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

Once Omega and Beta have been calculated then the Maximum flux (Gmax) can be
determined:

If

Omega() > or = 4.0

Gmax = Beta [ P2 / [(X/v2) + ((1 - X) /L2))]]

(*0.00058742)

Derived from J. C. Leung (10) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

Else:

If 0 < Omega() < 4

Gmax = 0.66 [ P2 / [(X/v2) + ((1 - X) /L2))]]

*0.00058742)

0.39

Note: Derived from J. C. Leung (15b) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

19

The mass fraction of vapor at Gmax can also be computed for the nozzle using the flow
model coupling equation:
Coupling Equation
Variable
B
jg
Ax
Vs
Ut

Description
(1 Xm)g2 * jg* Ax = two-phase vapor generation rate.
3600* Uc * Yr Two-phase superficial velocity = Uc f()

Cross-sectional area of vessel.

Superficial gas velocity =

W/(Ax * gas)

Transitional Velocity = 0.3[ g((liqsg)/liq)]

0.25

Creg
Uc
Y
Yr

If viscosity u < 100 then churn turbulent = 1.18 else bubbly = 1.53
Bubble rise velocity = Creg * Ut / 0.3
Actual vapor-liquid disengagement dimensionless velocity = Vs/Uc
For Churn turbulent flow = 2/( 1 Co)

Yr

For Bubbly flow = [/( 1 Co) ] [(1-)2/(1-3) ]

The coupling equation is used to determine the required capacity (W) by iterating Xe to find a
Gmax that satisfies the LHS = RHS of the coupling equation. The coupling equation
connects the liquid and vapor take-off in the vessel to the flow rate in the nozzle using the
expression:

Ax = XeGmaxAv
Ax = (1-Xe)GmaxAv

Variable
Description
Where:
Are the liquid and gas superficial velocities at the top of
jf, jg
the vessel.
Are the gas and liquid phase densities.
f, g
Ax,Av
Are the vessels and vent cross-sectional areas.
Maximum mass flux going out of the vessel into the vent.
Gmax

20

Xe

Vapor mass fraction or quality entering the vent.

Av/Ax, vent to vessel cross-section ratio.

Solving for Jf jf = ajg :

a = (1 Xe)/RXe
R = f/g = Vg/Vf

Following the general form of the drift flux relation:

jg = Ucf(am) +

Coam jf
(1 - Coam)

Substituting:
jg = Ucf(am) + 1- Coam ____
(1 - Coam(1 +a))

Re-arrangement of vessel to vent coupling equation yields:

XeVgGCdCoa

Uc

Variable
Where:

= (1- )n/(1 - m)
C
C
Cd

Description
Churn-turbulent flow
Bubbly flow, n=2, m=3.
Bubbly Flow.
Churn turbulent.
Discharge coefficient.

Convergence criteria:

21

Iterate Xe, such that LHS = RHS

RHS = Coa)
LHS = XeVgGCd

Uoo

Once Xe is determined by convergence this Xe is used as the Xm (model X) for setting up

the HEM model as discussed in the Performing a HEM Two-Phase Calculation for the
Nozzle section above. The sole purpose of the coupling equation is to determine the
mass fraction of vapor that will satisfy the flow regime model selected, bubbly, churnturbulent, or other. The HEM calculations or Omega calculations then proceed as
discussed previously above.
Actual Required Orifice Size
The required Area calculated for both the HEM model and the Omega method is based
on perfect discharge from an orifice. The actual required area must be calculated based
on using the user specified orifice coefficients. The program uses these coefficients to
determine the actual required orifice size. See Figure XX HEM Model - Other Inputs
above.

22

Piping & Pressure Drop

Inlet and Outlet Piping

F I G U R E

X X

P I P I N G

A N D

P R E S S U R E

D R O P

( I N L E T / O U T L E T )

The Mach II Digital Engineer uses the same piping format as the single-phase piping
data with additional inputs for laminar flow resistance and for gate and ball valves. You
can change the piping data at your leisure and view the report using the pull-up screen.
The pull-up screen output can be viewed by first clicking on the
button at the bottom right part of the of the screen and then sliding open another
window to view your results as if you were lifting open a double-hung window as
shown below. You can therefore design your piping using the input data screen while at
the same time viewing your pressure drop results in the output screen.
23

Click and hold

down your
mouse on this
line and lift up to
view the report
below.

F I G U R E

X X

D R A G

B A R

T O

V I E W

R E P O R T

B E L O W

The piping program will automatically choose the next larger standard orifice size and
will re-calculate the standard capacity based on the standard orifice size. It is the
standard capacity, which is used in the pressure drop calculations.
The Omega method piping output gives a snapshot of the specific volume of the liquid,
vapor, and mixture over the pressure range from relieving to 50% of back-pressure. The
mass fraction of vapor (x), Omega, Beta and Gmax are calculated using the same
procedure as outlined in the Omega Method Section stated above and below.

24

Omega Method Piping

F I G U R E

X X

P I P I N G

A N D

P R E S S U R E

D R O P

( O M E G A )

To analyze the inlet and outlet piping pressure drop the program utilizes both the Omega
method and the rigorous HEM numerical integration for each the inlet, outlet, and total
piping. When using the Omega method only, the user need only input the relieving
pressure, liquid and vapor viscosity and either the sonic Gc/Gco or sub-sonic pressure
ratio to estimate the effects of the piping resistance on the relief capacity.

25

Performing an Omega Method Calculation for Piping

Omega () =

[(X1/v1) + ((1 - X1) /L1)) / [(X/v2) + ((1 -

))] 1
[P2 / P1] 1
Derived from J. C. Leung (9) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

Beta = 0.6055 + 0.1356 * LN(()) 0.0131(LN(())2)

Beta is also defined as the critical pressure ratio Pc/Pb =

Derived from
Derived from J. C. Leung (14) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

26

Gmax = Beta [ P2 / [(X/v2) + ((1 - X) /L2))]]

(*0.00058742)

Derived from J. C. Leung (10) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

Choked flow inlet pipe = Prel( 0.55 + 0.217Ln( - 0.046(LnLn

Derived from J. C. Leung (16) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

Choked flow outlet pipe = 0.00058742 * Gpipe (mixPout)1/2

Derived from J. C. Leung (43) AICHE Journal October 1986 Volume 32, No. 10

Variables used in the Omega Piping:

Gpipe = W/Ax
Where:
W = standard relief capacity (lb/hr)
Ax = cross area outlet pipe (in2)
Reynold Number = 4.961 d Gpipe/ mix
Where:
d = outlet pipe i.d. (in)
mix = viscosity (cp)
Friction factor (f) =*[ 0.6 log[(6.9/Re)3 + [ 0.0005/3.75*(D)]3.33]]-2
Pressure drop (P) = 0.0000002799 V*W2*K/d4
Where:
d

mix
x =
Re
V
W
K
f
L
D
Prel
Pout

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Crane 3-14

Diameter of outlet pipe (inches)

Viscosity mixture (cp) = 1/(x/+ (1-x)/)
Mass fraction vapor for inlet .97Prel and for outlet = Pout
Reynolds number
Specific volume of fluid (ft3/lb)
Rate of flow (lb/hr)
Resistance coefficient (4fL/D)
Friction factor
Equivalent length (ft)
Pipe I.D. (ft) = d/12
Relieving pressure P2
Outlet pressure

27

Once you are satisfied with the piping design simply click on the Calculate design button
to generate a two-phase design based on the HEM model or the Omega method. If you
choose both HEM and Omega the program will automatically show both results and will
choose the most conservative as the basis for the design as shown below

Back-Pressure Effects based on the Omega Method

Finally, once calculations are complete you may check your design for the effects of
back-pressure.
Sonic Flow
If the flow is sonic the program will calculate the dimensionless parameter N, the total
piping resistance. You must then use a normalized chart to determine the value of
Gc/Gco, which represent a nozzle to pipe flow ratio. The user must input this value of
Gc/Gco and the program will calculate the reduced capacity due to the piping
resistance.

28

Wreduced = (Gc/Gco) W std :

Where:
W std = standard nozzle flow rate.
Sub-sonic Flow
If the flow is sub-sonic the program will calculate the dimensionless parameter, Gnor.,
Gpipe/(P/vmix)1/2 based on the outlet pressure or back-pressure.
Mach II will then set the value of P1/Po = 1. Po = P1 as an approximation. The
pressure in the inlet pipe equals to pressure in the vessel. You are also able to change
this ratio in the Omega piping input.
The program then will set P1/Po =

1, and will calculate and define 2 = Patm /Po

The program will then use these values of

subsonic case by using the expression.

1, and 2 to calculate the value of N for the

N = [2898000*Pout (1/vmix)G2pipe] *
[ (1- 2) / (1- Ln[ 2[(1-1 + 1[(1- 2 +
Ln[ 2[(1- + 1[(1- + 1/2
Derived from
Derived from J. C. Leung (42) Chemical Engineering Progress December 1996

Once N is calculated it can conveniently be used in the equation similar to the sonic
case again:
N = 4fL/D: L = N*D/4f: D = i.d./12

i.d. = outlet pipe i.d. (inches)

Length = N* i.d./48f
The ratio of Nact/Nmax can also be used to calculate the reduced capacity by taking
Wact and dividing by the square-root of the ratio of Nact/Nmax.
Nact./Nmax. = ( G*max./G*act.)^2 = (Wact../Wreduced)^2
W reduced = W act /(Nmax/Nact)^0.5

29

HEM Method Piping

We have added a rigorous method of analyzing the discharge piping using the homogenous
equilibrium model similar to what we have used for the nozzle. It is superior to the Omega
Piping method discussed above because it is a more rigorous method based on numerical
integration. The user can select either or both methods for his piping analysis. However the
HEM piping requires additional data. We have re-arranged the HEM model used for the
nozzle to account for elevation and viscosity effects on over-all discharge capacity.
The HEM piping model is a separate program than the HEM nozzle. It uses its own set of
physical properties to fit the specific volume and viscosity data to a mathematical correlation.
However, for the inlet piping the HEM model uses the same 2-point specific volume
correlation and physical property constants as the nozzle. This is because the inlet piping
conditions will be similar to the nozzle conditions and it makes sense to use the same data
and correlations. But for the discharge piping there is typically a wider range of pressure
variation between the nozzle and the discharge piping. Because of this difference, it is better
to select a new set of specific volume and viscosity data that better reflects the discharge
piping pressure range. We then have a better correlation to use in the HEM piping model.
The HEM piping model is only as good as the physical property correlations it is based on.
For this reason we use a 3-point correlation for both the specific volume and the viscosity.

Physical Property Data

DIERS Data Set
Data State
Pressure, psia
Vapor specific volume
Liquid specific volume
Liquid viscosity(uf), cp
Vapor viscosity(ug), cp
Vapor specific volume
Calculated
liquid enthalpy, hf
vapor enthalpy, hg

72.5

67.25

32

0.001
6.0024
0.017507003
5,000.0
0.013
0.023491896
275.2
1180.9

0.006714914
6.544502618
0.017461149
5,000.0
0.0130
0.061289669
270
1179.9

0.0556911
12.9376
0.017039
5,000.0
0.0130
0.736599255
222.7
1165.4

Mach II uses the initial mass fraction at relieving conditions and the enthalpy changes
between pressure states to determine the mass fraction at the other two downstream
pressure states. The user may also enter the mass fraction for each state directly instead of
Mach II using enthalpy data to calculate the mass fractions at those states. Once these mass
fractions are determined the Mach II can then determine the mixture specific volumes at each
state and can then fit these points to a specific volume model based on pressure. The same
procedure is used for calculating the liquid viscosity at each pressure state.
Mach II uses two 3-point specific volume correlations. One is a simpler 3-point correlation
that is used for turbulent flow and does not require a correlation for determining the mass
fraction of vapor. See the graph below:

30

Simple Three-point Specific Volume

Solve using vapor Model C

X1 = vB/vA
X2 = vC/vA

v/vA -1 = a[PA / P)B - 1]

Solve for a & B using three data points

2.608970761

Y1 = PA/PB

1.078066914

31.35546239

Y2 = PA/PC

2.265625

B = 1.3483814

a = 15.083362

LHS

15.083362

RHS

15.08336166
3.39756E-07

Target is zero.

The second 3-point correlation is more complex because it requires the vapor mass fraction
correlation required for the laminar flow model. The laminar flow model takes into account
the liquid viscosity resistance effects on discharge capacity.
Complex Three-point Viscosity Correlation
(Exponential required for the Laminar Flow Model)
Solve using vapor Model C
(above)

X1 = vB/vA
X2 = vC/vA

/A -1 = e[(PA / P)e1 1]
2.608970761

Solve for a & B using three data points

Y1 = PA/PB

1.078066914

31.35546239
Y2 = PA/PC
2.265625
Solve for eo and e1 using iteration and taking two points and solving for e1. Then use
substitution to find eo.
e1

LHS
RHS
Target is zero.

4.8567276
0
0
0

31

eo =

Complex Three-point Viscosity Correlation

(Polynomial - required for the Laminar Flow Model)
g, Average
f = ho + h1P +
h2P2

0.01300

5000

= ho + h1(72.5) + h2(72.5)^2

5000

= ho + h1(67.25) + h2(67.25)^2

5000

= ho + h1(32) + h2(32)^2

cp

ho = 1000
2000 =1000
10000 = 1000

Average gas viscosity

- h1(72.5) - h2(72.5)^2
- h1(72.5) - h2(72.5)^2 + h1(67.25) + h2(67.25^2
- h1(72.5) - h2(72.5)^2 + h1(32) + h2(32)^2

Solve two equations with two unknowns:

2000 -1000) =
(10,000 1000)=
Pressure

5000

0.00

-5.25

-733.6875

5000

0.00

-40.50

-4232.25

5000

0.00

dP

72.500

0.00

67.250
32.000

0.000

h1=

0.000

h0=

5000.000

h1(-72.5 + 32) + h2(-72.5^2 + 32^2)

viscosity

dP

h2 =

h1(-72.5 + 67.25) + h2(-72.5^2 + 67.25^2)

Repeat Model using new viscosity based on polynomial>

32

f = ho + h1P + h2P2

Complex Three-point Specific Volume Model with Mass Fraction Correlation

Again we use the same three data points as before, and use the same
solution method used for the polynomial viscosity correlation.

x = a o + a 1 P + a2 P 2
0.001 = ao + a1(65) + a2(65)^2

ao = 0 - a1(65) -a2(65)^2

0.00671 = ao + a1(48) + a2(48)^2

0.02129 =0 - a1(65) -a2(65)^2

+ a1(48) + a2(48)^2

0.05569 = ao + a1(32) + a2(32)^2

0.04610 =0 - a1(65) -a2(65)^2

+ a1(32) + a2(32)^2

Solve two equations with two unknowns:

This method is valid for all 2nd degree polynomials and we will want to pull out this tool for the user.
0.00571 a1(-65 +48) + a2(-65^2 +48^2)
0.05469 a1(-65 + 32) + a2(-65^2 + 32^2)
Pressure
Mass
fraction:

dP2

dP
0.00

67.250

-5.25

-733.6875

0.006714914

0.01

32.000

-40.50

-4232.25

0.0556911

0.05

a1= -0.002
a0= 0.116

33

0.001

72.500

a2 = 0.000
Constants

mass fraction

0.00

Liquid Density Correlation

1/vf = co + c1P + c2P2

Again we use the same three data points as before.

57.12 = co + c1(65) + c2(65)^2

co = 57.3625 - c1(65) -c2(65)^2

57.27000 = co + c1(48) + c2(48)^2

57.97101 = 57.3625 - c1(65) -c2(65)^2

+ c1(48) + c2(48)^2

58.68889 = co + c1(32) + c2(32)^2

58.68889 = 57.3625 - c1(65) -c2(65)^2

+ c1(32) + c2(32)^2

Solve two equations with two unknowns.

Again we use the same sub-routine to solve this polynomials
0.15000 c1(-65 +48) + c2(-65^2 +48^2)
1.56889 c1(-65 + 32) + c2(-65^2 + 32^2)

Pressur
e

dP

dP2

liquid density

d(1/vf)

Density

72.500

0.00

57.12

0.00

liquid

67.250

-5.25

-733.6875

57.27000014

0.15

32.000

-40.50

-4232.25

58.68889019

1.57

Density
constants c2 =

0.000

c1=

-0.069

c0=

60.598

1/vf = co + c1P + c2P2

34

Specific Volume Correlation

Using the same sub-routine we used

for Viscosity Model C to solve for the
specific volume

/A -1 = e[(PA / P)e1 - 1]
vg/vgA - 1 = bo[(Pa/P)b1 - 1]

Solve for b & b using the above three data points

Let

X1 = B/A

1.090314311

Y1 = PA/PB

X2 =C/A

2.155404505

Y2 = PA/PC

Solve for b0 and b1 using iteration and taking two points and solving for
b1. Then substitution to find b0
b1

0.4228974

LHS

2.796137256

RHS

2.796137346

target is zero

B0

-9.04088E-08

f = fA[b[(PA / P) - 1]+ 1]
b1

35

2.796137256

Specification and Maintenance

The specification and Maintenance tab allows the user to specify the extent of the output
reporting capability. The user can select or de-select information for:

Relief Valves

Rupture Disc

Rupture Disc Holder

Selecting the checkboxes will determine the amount of information that will be displayed in
the Report Generator. See next section below:

36

Report Generator (Production)

With a single click on the Report Generator subtab, the calculations are completed and
the documentation is generated automatically as shown below.

F I G U R E

X X

R E P O R T

G E N E R ATO R

The documentation is customized based on user selection of scenarios and piping

configurations. The production gives all the system, operating, piping, and physical
property data input by the user as well as the detailed calculation results for each
scenario, orifice, and inlet/outlet piping and pressure drop calculation. The end of the
report gives a summary of all calculation in an easy to read summary table.

37

The documentation is displayed in a preview mode, which allows the user to view the
completed documentation prior to printing it out.
Users are provided with a document navigation bar on the top:

38

Tools
The Mach II Digital Engineer provides a wide variety of powerful and useful tools to
visually capture the results of calculations. Clicking on the TOOLS dropdown from the
menu bar provides the following options:

39

Nozzle Results
Using the Nozzle Results tool, the user can view a wide range of graphical
representations as a result of integration calculations. Clicking on the View Series
dropdown at the bottom of the tool will allow for the selection of a different view. The
graphic below shows the Mass Fraction of Vapor x .

The graphic below illustrates the Specific Volume of Liquid - using the same data set.

40

41

Integration Calculation Results

The Integration Calculation Results tool shows the results of all the iterations for the
inlet, outlet and the totals. This tool also incorporates the Nozzle program described in
the previous section.

42

Linear Regression Calculation Analysis

The Mach II regression analysis is used to regress physical property data using two or
three data points as described above in the HEM piping analysis and shown below. The
user can select either a polynomial, linear, or exponential curve fit for his mass fraction,
viscosity, or specific volume data.

43

Regression Options:

Imports the data variables

from the main Mach II
Digital Engineer CDS
program into the
Regression utility tool.

Recalculates and plots the

regression if any variables
are changed by the user
(refresh).

Specifies the number of iterations

or steps in the data regression.
The higher the number, the
smoother the curve fitting.

Mass Fraction
Specific Volume of Liquid
Viscosity of Liquid

The user can select what data to

regress based on his selected curve fit.

Regression Modeling Options:

Linear Regression: Is a technique in which a straight
line is fitted to a set of data points to measure the effect
of a single independent variable. The slope of the line is
the measured impact of that variable.(2pt curve fit)
Polynomial Regression: If you do not require a
global parametric fit and want to maximize the
flexibility of the fit, piecewise polynomials might
provide the best approach. (3 pt. curve fit)

Exponential Regression: Exponential regression is

often used when the rate of change of a quantity is
proportional to the initial amount of the quantity.

44

Linear Regression Quick Tutorial

The linear regression is the simplest curve fit. It uses two points and fits these points to
a simple form:
x = a + bP
0<=x=<1
1/vf = d + eP
Liner regression is used for fitting the mass fraction and liquid specific volume data when
only two points are being correlated.
Polynomial Regression Quick Tutorial
The polynomial curve fit is used for mass fraction, specific volume of liquid and for the
liquid viscosity when using three(3) data points instead of two(2), as in the linear fit
above.
Polynomial models are illustrated by:

Where:

n + 1 is the order of the polynomial, n is the degree of the polynomial, and

. The order gives the number of coefficients to be fit, and the degree gives the highest
power of the predictor variable.
Polynomials are described in terms of their degree. For example, a third-degree (cubic)
polynomial is given by:

Polynomials are often used when a simple empirical model is required. The model can
be used for interpolation or extrapolation, or it can be used to characterize data using a
global fit. For example, the temperature-to-voltage conversion for a Type J thermocouple
in the 0o to 760o temperature range is described by a seventh-degree polynomial.
The main advantages of polynomial fits include reasonable flexibility for data that is not
too complicated, and they are linear, which means the fitting process is simple. The main
disadvantage is that high-degree fits can become unstable. Additionally, polynomials of

45

any degree can provide a good fit within the data range, but can diverge wildly outside
that range.
Note that when you fit with high-degree polynomials, the fitting procedure uses the
predictor values as the basis for a matrix with very large values, which can result in
scaling problems. This method of regression provides a graph similar to what is shown
below:

Exponential Regression Quick Tutorial

The following provides a one-term and a two-term exponential model.

Exponentials are often used when the rate of change of a quantity is proportional to the
initial amount of the quantity. If the coefficient associated with e is negative, y represents
exponential decay. If the coefficient is positive, y represents exponential growth.
The exponential curve fit is used for both the specific volume of the vapor and for the
liquid viscosity correlation. The exponential curve fit is based either two (2) or three (3)
data points as selected by the user.

46