ALaboratoryCourseinPhysicsoftheHousehold 10062929

T HE
NE W Y
M ACM I LLAN C OM P AN Y
R K
OS T O N
AT LANT A
C H I CAG
S A N F R A NC I SC
M AC M I LLAN
O ON
L ND
co
B O M B AY
D ALLAS
m
' '
CALC U I TA
M E LB U R N E
T HE
M AC M I LLAN CO O F CAN AD A, LT D
.
O R ONT O
A LABO R ATORY
IN
P HY S I CS O F T HE H OU S EH O LD
TO
A CC O M PAN Y
LY N DE S P HY S I CS O F T H E H O U S EH O LD
BY
C AR LET O N
P
RO FES S O R
OF
JO H N LY N D E P H D
P H Y S I C S I N M A C D O NALD C O LLE G E
,
C ANAD A
N zin
T HE
nd:
MAC M ILLAN C O MP ANY

1922
All rig/1 t:
res erved
P R E F ACE
L aborato ry C ourse in P hysics of the H ousehold covers

the ground recommended by the C ollege E ntrance B oard I t
d iff ers from similar courses in four wa y s : rst it contains E xercises
in addi tion to the usual E xperiments ; second i t r equires the use
of the common weights and measures side by side with the metric
weights and mea sures ; third it permi ts the use of much apparatus
familiar to the student ; and four th it encourages the student
to set up a laborato ry in his own home
T he E xercises help the student to app reciate how physics is
applied i n his home and in his enviro n ment in general T he
E xercises and E xperiments together complement the classroom
work
T h e use of the common weights and measures in addition to
the met ric weights and measures is j ustied in the wri ter s Opinion
as fo llows S ince we require young students to take a laboratory
course in physics in order that they may obtain knowledge which
the y will apply in e v eryday life i t seem s wise to allow them to
obtain this knowl edge in terms of the uni ts ( foot p ound
etc ) which they mu st use when they so apply i t F urthermore
the wri ter al though a strong advocate of the metric system b e
liev es that it is pedago gica lly unso u nd to try to teach physics b y
means of the metric system excl usively I t is an attempt to teach
an unk nown subj ect by means of an u n known system of weights
and measures and i t leads to confusion and lack of power on the
part of the student L ong exp erience leads the writer to believe
that the correct method is to introduce the subj ect b y means of
the common s y stem and then to use the two systems side by side
T his is the method followed in this book
T HI S
5 6 88 2 4
P R E F AC E
VI
are three reasons wh y fam iliar app aratus ( 3 q t pail

spring balance common thermometer etc ) is used I f the studen t
uses apparatus with which he is fa miliar he nds that he can make
experiments at home and he learns that an experiment may be
made when and where i n formation is desired ; whereas if he uses
o n ly the ap paratus commonly found in a school he is l ikely to get
the imp ression that an experiment is some thing to be made only
in the school laboratory T he familiar apparatus moreo v er
allows a student to work wi th large quan tities and thereby decreases
the chances of error Also the famil iar apparatus is cheap and
easy to obtain
T he reason for enco uraging the student to set up a laboratory
at home is ob v ious I f he plans his own experiments on a gi v en
subj ect and then makes these experiments he gets a rmer grasp
of the subj ect than if he makes o n ly the experiments in school
T h e apparatus requi red for these experiments ( except for a few
in electricit y ) is sim p le and inexpensi v e and much of it is similar
to that now found in high school laboratories I t is advisable to
have one set for each two students in order that the whole class
may make the same experiment at the same time Wh ere only
one or two sets can be purchased however the class may make
the ex p eriments in rotation
F or the convenience of those ordering a pp aratus we give on
ages
I
1
i
6
a
list
of
the
a
paratus
required
wi
th
the
approx
mate
4
3
9
p
p
cost and also the names and addresses of a number of rm s from
w hich the apparatus may be purchased T he prices quoted are
those i n e ec t before the war T h e present p rices can be ob tained
by wri ting to any of the rms mentioned
C J L
T here
I n troduc t ion
th e S
to
OF
TH E
F I RST
LE VE R s
OF
THE
SE C O
E xerc ise
3
PU
LL
H OME
LAB ORAT OR Y xi
xv
C LAS S
D AND
T H IR D
C LAS S
L e v er A p p li a n c es
YS
E xerc ise
4
F OR
M E C H ANIC S
EX PERI ME T
r
L E VE R S
.
APPARAT U S
t u den t s :
P u lle y
an d
S c re w App l i a n c es
C OMM ON W E I GH T S AND M E AS URE S

ME T R I C W E I GH TS AND M EAS U RE S
E xerc is e 3 Ki t c h en M e as u ri n g App l i an c es
E xerc is e 4 W a ter S u p p l y
E xerc ise 5 W a ter S u p p l y P l u m b in g
E x er c ise 6 S e wage P l u m b in g
LAW OF AR C H I ME D E S
.
V L U M AN D N
D N
Y
S L
D N
Y
L !U
O
SIT
SI T
OF
O ID S
SIT
OF
E xerci s e
I O
I DS
Gas P l u m b i n g
BAR OME T E R AND S I PH ON

E xerc i s e 8 P l u mb i n g T rap s
B OYL E S LAW
E x ercis e 9 F ire E xt in gu is h ers
E xerc is e 1 0 V acu u m C l ea n er
.
I I
H E AT
1 2
T H E RM OME T E R S
E x erc is e
I I
N ON
E X PA
SI
33
T h ermom eters
OF
34
B RAS S
3S
vii
CONT E NT S
V111
14
E X PA
PA GE
N ON
AI R
OF
SI
R an ge
E x erc is e 1 3 H ea t in g S y st em
E x erc ise 1 4 H ot W a ter B o iler
H o w T o M E AS UR E H E AT
E x erc ise 1 5 C oo kin g U te n s ils
E xerc ise 1 6 F irel ess C oo ker
E xerc i se 1 7 T h erm o s B o t tl e
E xerc ise 1 8 V e n t il a ti o n
C OOL I N G E F F E C T OF I C E AND OF I C E WAT E R
H E AT I N G E F F E C T OF S T E AM AND OF B OI L I N G WAT E R
S P E C I F I C H E AT
LATE NT H E AT OF F US I ON OF I C E
E x erc i se 1 9 R efrigera t o rs
E xerci se 20 Art i ci al R efri gera t io n
LATE NT H EAT OF S T EAM
E x erc i se 2 1 F u el s
E xerc ise
1 2
Ki t ch e n
19
20
E L E CT
21
22
23
24
25
T H E S I MP
RICI T Y
AND
M AG N E T I S M
L C LL
E
MAG NE T S
MAG NE T I C F I E LD S
MAG N E T I C E F F E C T O F AN E LE C T R I C C URRE NT
APP L I CAT I ON S OF T H E E L E C T R OMAG NE T
E xerc i s e 2 2 B el l C ircu i t
E L E C T R I C M OT OR
E xer cis e 2 3 E l ec tri c M o t o rs
E xerc i se 24 E l e c tric H e a tin g an d C oo kin g Ap p l ian c es
E x erc is e 2 5 E l e c tri c Ligh t in g
E L E C T R OL YS I S E LE C T R OP LAT IN G AND T H E S T ORAGE C E LL
M E AS URE ME NT OF R E S I S TANC E
R E S I S TANC E M EAS URED BY V OLT ME TE RAM ME T E R M E T H OD
C E LL S C ONNE C T E D I N S E RI E S AND I N P ARALLE L
I NDU C E D CU RRE NT S
.
26
27
28
29
3o
31
CONT E NT S
EX PERI ME T
APP LI CAT I ON S OF I ND UC E D C U R R E N T s
32
E xerc ise 2 6 E l e c tri c L i gh t P l a n t
E xerc ise 2 7 T el e p h o n e E x c h a n ge
E xerc is e 2 8 W ireless S t a ti o n
H OR S E P OW E R AND E F F I C I E NCY OF AN
33
PA GE
99
99
99
C T R I C M OT OR
1 00
LI GH T
34
T H E P H OT OM E T E R
L i gh t in g
RE F LE C T I ON OF L I GH T
I ND E X OF R E F RAC T I ON OF GLAS S
F OC AL L E N GT H AND C O N JU GAT E F oc 1 OF A C O NV E R GI N G L E N S
S I! E OF R E AL I M AGE F OR ME D BY A C O NVE R GI N G L E N S
MAGN IF YI N G P OW E R OF A L E N S U S E D As A S I M P L E M I C R OS C OP E
E xerc ise 3 0 L i gh t A p p l i an c es
T H E A S T R ON OMI CAL T E L E S C OPE
R E F RAC T I ON AND D I S P E R S I ON OF L I GH T BY A P R I S M
E xerc ise
35
36
37
38
.
39
104
29
40
41
10
10
1 10
1 1 2
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 21
S OUN D
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
V L OC TY
I
S OU
OF
1 23
NUM B E R OF V I B RAT I ON S OF A
WAVE L E N GT H OF S OU ND
VI B RATI NG S T RI N GS
UN I NG
F OR K
1 25
1 27
1 29
A D V ANC E D M E C H ANIC S
T H E P ARALL E L OGRAM LAW
E F F I C I E NCY OF A MAC H I NE
ACCE LE RAT E D M OT I ON
LAW S OF T H E P E ND UL UM
.
31
33
37
3S
39
43
AP P E ND IX
T AB
OF
AP PARAT US
DE
S I T IE S
H OU S E H O
AP PARAT U S
L Y ND E
F OR
F OR
LAB ORAT OR Y C OU R S E
1N
S T UD E
NT
AT E LAB ORAT ORY
P RI V
P H YS I C S
OF
TH E
ST U D E N T S
T O T HE
M AN Y of you who take this course will wish you could make
experiments at home T o help y ou to do this we list on pages
below
the
apparatus
and
2
1
1 4 3 1 4 5 and illustrate in F igs
4
3
needed for a home laboratory With this equipment y ou can
perform i n whole or in part more than two thirds of the ex p e ri
ments outlined in this boo k and man y experiments of your own
.
FIG
App r t s
a a u
for a
st u d ent s
om
el
b o ra t o r
y in M e h
c
ni c s
apparatus needed for a home laborator y in M echanics is

illustrated in F ig 1 ( except four single pulleys ) and listed on page
T he
xi
T O T H E S T UD E NT S
O.
X 11
With this equipment you can make in whole or in p art

exp eriments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I O 1 1 Y ou will need to nd
at home some cord a piece of rock a p iece of iron ( an old atiro n
will do ) and a quart bo ttle
1 43
F IG
Add iti n al pp rat u s f

o
or a
s t u d ent s l abora t ory in H e at
T he
addi tional apparatus required for a home laboratory in

H eat is illustrated in F ig 2 and listed on page 1 4 4 ; wi th this you
can make in whole or in part experiments 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8
1 9 20
I f gas is not a v ailable y ou can use as a source of heat an
alcohol stove an oil sto v e or the kitchen range
T h e apparatus needed for a home laborator y in E lectricity and
M agnetism is illustrated in F ig 3 and listed on page 1 4 4 ; wi th thi s
you can make in whole or in part experiments 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5
26 2 7
Y ou will need also the supplies listed on page 1 4 5
T h e apparatus for a home laborator y in L ight and S ound is
illustrated in F ig 4 a n d listed on page 1 4 5 with this you can make
in whole or i n part experiments 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 o 4 1 4 5
.
T 0 T HE
x iii
ST U D E N T S
E
m
w
w
z
v
a
n.
m
5
5
0
3m
a
3
m
:
m
.
x iv
T O T HE
S T U D E NT S
With the pendul um bob l isted on page 1 4 5 and with app aratus
listed under M echanics you can make experiments 4 7 4 8 4 9 in
Advanced M echanics
Y o u will need at home a table on which to make the exp eriments
and a towel to dry the apparatus
,
FIG
App ar t u s f
a
or a
st u d ent s ho me l abo ra t ory in Li ght
an
d So u n d
Y ou will n d that the most satisfactory wa y to make yo u r own

experiments is to think them out before yo u start and to p u t them
down on paper somewhat as follows :
1
Outl ine the experi ment you i ntend to make
2
M ake a rough drawing showing how you in tend to arrange
the ap paratus
tate
the
resul
ts
you
expect
to
ob
tain
S
3
When you ha v e planned yo u r work as abo v e make the exp eri
ment and compare the resul ts you obtai n wi th those you expected
to obtain F ol low this plan wi th each experiment
Y ou will get a great deal of p leasure out of this work at home
because you will nd it very exhilarating to make experiments of
your own ; you will get a great deal of p rot also because when
.
TO T HE
S T U D E NT S
XV
you have planned and made experiments of your own on a gi v en

subj ect you will nd that you know it in a way y ou ne v er could
simply by making the experiments in school
T h e prices quoted are those in e e ct before the war
Y ou can
get the p resent prices by wri ting to one of the rms listed on
page 1 4 6 I f the cost is too great for one student a n u mber
might club together to buy the apparatus or at least p art of it
,
J
.
A LABOR ATOR Y COUR SE I N PHY SICS

OF THE HOUSEHOLD
M E C H AN I C S
E xp e rim e n t 1
To
L ev e r s
th e r s t
of
c as s
illustrate the lever law by means of a lever of the rst class
Y ard stick
S upport
On e
T wo
1h weights
.
l
.
Meter sti c k
F o u r 1 00 g weigh ts
.
lb
w eight
l
.
lever law is : A lever is balan ced wh en the total mo men t o n

one side of th e fu lcru m is equ al t o the total mo men t on the other
T he momen t of a weight is found by mul ti p lying the weight by i ts
distance from the fulcrum
B alance a yard stick as shown in F ig 5 until i t
M ethod 1
remains horizon tal N ote carefully the exact p osi tion of the ful
crum and make all measuremen ts from this p oint
M ake the four experiments ou tlined below and two or three of
your own I n each case use the le v er law to calculate the distance
you expect to nd T hen make the experi ment and no tice whether
the dis tance found by experiment agrees wi th that found by cal
culation
T he
C n v enien t wei ghts f 1b

r Sh t t
the pr per wei ght
1
1b
etc
can
b e m ad e by llin g co tt o n b ags with
san d
LABORAT ORY COUR S E
W E HT
IG
1
1
I
I
1h
lb
lb
1h
1h
DI
STAN CE
in
1 6 in
I 5 in
1
'
1 2 In
b al ances
b al an ces
b alance
1
2
3
2
lb
lb
lb
lb
Y S IC S
DI
IG T
b al an ces
PH
WE H
FR OM F ULCR U M
IN
By
STAN CE FRO M F U LCRU M

l l ti
By exp im e t
ca cu a
er
on
M ethod 2 B alance a meter stic k M ake the four experiments

ou tlined below and two or three Of your own
.
DI
ST A N C E FR OM
W E HT
CRU M
IG
F UL
1 00
1 00
1 00
1 00
1 00
g
g
g
g
g
D oes
40
cm
m
4 5 cm
2 0 cm
40 c
40
cm
b al ances
b al ances
b alan ces
3 00
g
g
g
b al ance
2 00
1 00
20 0
DI
By
ST AN C E FR O M
ca cu la
ti n
o
F U LCR U M
By exp rim nt
e
the lever law hold in each case ; that is i s the to tal moment
on one side of the fulcrum always equal to the to tal moment on
the other side when the lever balances ?
,
LABOR AT ORY COUR S E IN
E xp e rim en t 2
L ev e r s o f
th e
ec on d
P H Y S IC S
an
d thir d
la s s
illustrate the lever law by means of levers of the second

an d thi rd class
To
Y ar d stick
lb weight
S pring b alance w ith rea ding On e 2 lb w eigh t
in ounces an d grams
Meter sti ck
T w o 1 00 g weights
B loc k
On e 500 g weigh t
S uppo rt
On e
M ethod L ev er s of th e s e con d c la s s ( I ) S upport a yard

stick as S hown in F ig 6 On e end the fulcrum rests on a block ;
.
FIG
A pp rat u s u se d
a
to
ill u stra te le v ers of t h e Se co n d c l ass
the o ther end is supported by a cord attached to a spring balance

with a scale divi ded in to ounces I n all cases make the f u lcrum
the end at which the numbers on the y ard stick begin
,
P H Y S IC S
the force recorded on the balance when there are no weights

on the le v er that is the force required to support one end of the
yard stic k S ub tract this amount from all readings of the balance
M ake the three experiments given below and two of your own
I n each case use the lever law to calculate the force you ex p ect
to nd T hen nd the force by experiment
1
F ind
ST A N CE
W E HT FRO M F
CRU M
UL
IG
lb
2 lb
3 lb
8 in
1 2
in
in
ORCE
ti n By e p
STA N C E
FRO M F L
DI
By
l l
ca c u a
CRU
i ent
e rm
DI
is b al ance d b y
is b ala n ced b y
is b alance d b y
36
36
36
in
in
in
( 2 ) S upport a m eter stick as shown in the illustration F ind

the force in grams required to support one end of the meter stick
when there are no weights on i t S ub tract this amoun t fro m all
readings of the balance
M a k e the three experiments given below and two of your own
I n each case nd the force in grams rst by calculation and then
b y experimen t
.
STA N C E
W E GHT FRO M F L
CRU M
DI
2 00
2 00
50 0
g
g
g
50
cm
75
cm
40
cm
By
l l ti
ca c u a
ORCE
n By e p
x
STA N CE
FRO M F U L
CRU M
rim e t
DI
is b ala nced b y
is b al ance d b y
is balance d b y
1 00
1 00
1 00
cm
cm
cm
I f the en d f the p inter f the sprin g b l n ce is b l u n t it is ne cess ary to n d a

p i nt the en d fr m w h i h t m ke y u r re d in gs D this s f ll w s S spen d the
b l n c e w it h
t wei gh ts d n ti ce the po int ppo site the z er line M ke ll subse
q u ent re din gs f rom thi s point
1
on
a a
ou
a a
an
o
.
o
.
L ABOR AT ORY COUR S E
1N
P H Y S IC S
M ethod L ev e rs o f th e th ir d clas s ( I ) S upport a y ard stick

as shown in F ig 7 On e end the fulcrum is held down b y hand ;
the weight is attached near the other end and a spring balance
exerts a force upwards a t some point between
.
N 0T E
o f the leve r
H ol d
b ut
FIG
the f ul cr um d o wn wi t h one nge r exactl y

d o not be ar d o wn o n the b al an ce
at
t he en d
A pp r t s se d
a a u
to
ill u stra te le v ers
of
t h e t h i rd l ss
c a
F ind
the force i n ounces required to support the yard stick

when there are no weights on i t S ubtract this amoun t from
all readings of the balance M ake the two experimen ts gi v en
below and one of your own I n each case use the lever law to
calculate the force in ounces you expect to nd then nd i t by
exp eriment
.
LABORA T ORY COUR S E IN

STA N CE
W E HT FRO M F L
CR U M
P H Y S IC S
DI
IG
lb
lb
36
in
27
in
By
ca c u la
ti
ORC E
n By p
ex e
ST AN CE
FRO M F L
CRU M
rim nt
DI
is b alan ce d b y
is b alance d b y
8 in
8 in
e
r
F
i
a
e
t
stick
as
shown
in
F
ind
the
force
m
( )
g 7
in grams requi red to support the meter stick when there are no
weights on i t S ubtract this amount from each reading on the
balance M ake the two experimen ts gi v en below and one of your
own I n each case nd the force in grams rst by calculation
and then b y experiment
S upport
RCE
FO
W E HT
IG
STA N CE
FRO M
F U LCR U M
500
g
g
75
80
cm
By
cm
is b al ance d b y
is b al ance d b y
D oes
10 11
2 00
STA CE
FRO M F L
CRU
M
By exp eriment
DI
DI
50
cm
50
cm
the lever law hold in each case tha t is is the to tal momen t
upward always equal to the to tal momen t downward when the
lever is balanced ?
,
L ever Applian ce s
M easure the force arm and weight arm of at least ve of the
following lever app liances and calculate the advan tage of each :
tack lifter scissors can opener nutcracker po tato ricer knife
fork spoon broom re tongs sugar tongs
M a k e a rough s k etch of each appliance and mark on i t the force
arm weight arm ad v antage and the lever class to which it belongs
E xer c i s e 1
LABOR AT ORY COUR S E
IN
P H Y S IC S
M easure the force arm and weigh t arm of at least four of th e

following wheel and axle appliances : grate shaker wringer co ee
mill ice cream free z er bread mixer cake mixer
M ake a diagram of ea ch and mark on i t the force arm weigh t
arm and advantage
H om e E x e r c i s e
R epea t this exercise wi th a t lea st three lever app liances and
two wheel and axle appliances in your home
M ake a wri tten rep ort on this work
,
LABORAT ORY COUR S E IN

E xp erim en t 3
TO
P ull e y s
verify the law of the pulleys
single pu lleys
S uppo r t
S p r ing b al ance ( oun ces an d
grams )
.
ei h t
w g
Comm erc i a l
p u lley s
ith
o n e,
two ,
On e
lb
w eight
On e
lb w e igh t
On e 500 g w eight
T hree 1 00 g weight s
.
F our
FIG
P H Y S IC S
three
an d
fo u r
ropes s u pp ortin g the
T he
law of the pulley i s : I f
to the weight divided by the
there is
n u m ber o
no friction
the force is
ropes su pportin g the
equ al
weight
f
T h e force mentioned here is the force which would be required to
support a given weight if the pulleys were wi thou t friction and
wi thou t weight
M ethod 1
I n all cases use the law of the pulle y to calculate the
force y ou expect to nd then nd the force by experiment
I f the laboratory is equipped wi th the common commercial
.
I O
P H Y S IC S
pulleys shown in F ig 8 use these and use weights ten times greater
in each case than those mentioned below I f not use small si n gle
ulleys
and
when
there
are
two
pulleys
in
a
block
as
in
and
)
(
p
3
( 4 ) F ig 8 use two single pul
le y s one under the o ther for
each double block as shown
in F ig 9
( 1 ) Arrange a S ingle pulley
as S hown in ( I ) F ig 8 U se
a spring balance to nd the
force required to support a
weight of 1 lb
( 2 ) Arrange two pulle y s as
shown in ( 2 ) F ig 8 F i nd the
force requi red to support the
lower pulley alone ; then nd
the extra force needed to
sup po rt a weigh of 2 lb
( 3 ) Arrange three p ulleys
as shown in ( 3 ) F ig 8 F ind
the force required to su ppo rt
the lower p ulley alone ; then
nd the extra force requi red
F IG 9
F u r s m ll sin gle p lle y s
ar
to support a weight of 3 lb
ran ge d th at t h ere are fo ur strin gs s pp rtin g
rrange
four
l
eys
A
u
l
)
4
(
p
the w eight
as in F ig 9 or ( 4 ) F ig 8
F ind the force requi red to support the lower pulleys ; then nd
the extra force requi red to support a weight of 2 lb
( 5) and ( 6) M a k e two experiments of your own
.
so
fr i ction in the pulle y b e arings opposes an y movement

up or d own ; it there fo re h el ps the S pring bal ance to suppo rt the wei ght
and makes the fo r ce r e co rd ed on the b al ance a little less t han the real
fo r ce T he re al force is the ave r age Of the fo r ces recorde d when the
W eight is sl owl y r a ise d an d s lowl y l owere d
N GT E
T he

F O RM
W E HT
E x!
IG
lb
lb
lb
h-
lb
1
i
OF
R O PES
ING
P H Y S IC S
1 1
RE P O R T
F
U PP ORT
W E I GHT
By
ORCE
By exp
l ti n
calc u a
i ent
er m
M ethod 2 R epea t the experimen ts gi ven above bu t use the

following weights : ( 1 ) 50 0 g ( 2 ) 500 g ( 3 ) 600 g ( 4 ) 80 0 g
and ( 4 ) nd the force in grams required to support the
In
lower pulleys alone and deduct these amounts from the to tal
forces recorded on the sp ring balance M ake two exp eriments
of your own
.
F O RM
W EI GHT
50 0
2
3
4
R O PES
OF
RE P O R T
U PPOR T N
W E HT
IG
ORCE
By
l l ti n
ca cu a
By exp
i nt
e rm e
500 g
60 0 g
800 g
1.
3
4
D oes
the law of the pulley hold i n each case ; tha t is i s the

force in each case equal to the weight divided by the number
of ropes supporting the weight ?
,
L ABOR AT ORY COUR SE IN
1 2
P H Y S IC S
ulle y an d S crew Applian ce s

Name any pulley appliances in the school and state the advantage
of each
M easure the handle and pitch of a t least two of the fol lowing
screw appliances and calculate their advantage : meat chopper
faucet frui t press sealer clamp C onsult page 1 7 P hysics of
E xer ci s e 2
the H ou s ehold
M a k e a rough diagram of each and mark on i t the length of the

handle the pi tch and the ad v antage
,
H ome E xer c i s e
epeat this exercise with pulley and screw appliances in your

home
M a k e a written report on this work
R

E xp e rim e n t 4
To
Common
P H Y S IC S
weigh ts an d meas u re s
study some common weights and measures

Sheet
paper
Y ard sti ck
Cup pint
of
! u art gallon
B a l a n ce
P a il o f
weights
c u b ic foot volume
an
d 8 lb
T h e lin e ar s q uare an d c u b ic f oo t
M ethod 1
On a piece of paper draw a square 1 foot on each S ide
D ivi de i t into square inches to nd 1 square foo t con tains
square inches
P lace
H old the yard stick upright a t one corner of the square
your thumb 1 foo t above the square and picture to yourself th e
size of 1 cubic foot F ind by calculation
.
Cubi c
foot cont ains
L i q ui d meas ure
Wi th water nd
2
cubic in ches
the num ber of cups in 1 pint

the nu m be r o f pints in 1 q uart
the numbe r o f q uarts in 1 gallon
W
e
igh
t
3
.
E xamine
the pound balance T urn i t on i ts side to see the inside

P lace a 1 lb weight on the left hand pan and balance i t b y means
of the beam weight F ind :
.
E ach
T he
div ision on the be am s cale

r ange o f the be am s cale
OU I I CCS
C85
show that 1 cubic foot of water weighs

lb U se a cubical
ail
foot
long
foot
wide
and
foo
t
deep
con
tains
I
t
p
1
cubic
foot
therefore
if
1
cubic
foot
of
water
weighs
lb
;
,;
this pail should hold of this amoun t or 7 lb 1 2 % o z
P lace the pail on one pan and balance i t wi th weights
Add
oz to the weight pan and ll the pail wi th water
7 lb
To
bi c foo t o f w ate r weighs

ther efore I cubic foo t o f water
cu
w eighs
LAB ORAT ORY CO UR S E
E xp e rim e n t 5
To
M e tri c wei gh ts
P H Y S IC S
IN
me as ure s
study metric weights and measures
.
an
S heet
o f pape r
Mete r sti ck
L iter m easure
1 2
1 2
Gr
b al a n c e
P oun d b al ance
M ethod 1 T h e lin ear

D raw a line and mark
.
( N OT E
! u art m eas ure
am
q uare an d c u b ic d ecim e te r
o a length of 1 decimeter
s
When m ak ing measurements w i t h a meter sti c k yar d sti ck

etc pl ace the sti c k on its e dge so t hat the s cale m ay be brought as near
as possi b le to the obj ect me asu re d )
.
D ivide
the
decimeter into centimeters to nd :
I
1
D raw
d ec imeter
a square 1 decimeter on each side

centimeters to nd :
,
s qu a re d ecimete r
D ivide
sq
i t into square
cm
H old
the meter stick upright at one corner of thi s square place

your thumb 1 dm abo v e the square and picture to you rse lf the
volume of I cubi c decimeter B y calculation nd :
,
ubi c d e c i m ete r
cc
.
( 1 cubic decimeter i s also called a liter )

M easure the i nside diameter and de p th of a li ter measure and
calculate i ts volume i n c c to nd
.
( N OT E
liter
volume o f a cy lind e r
or 772 nearl y )
T he
7r
( radius)
d epth an d 7r
,
n b e tw e en v olum e an d w e igh t
E xamine the gram balance
R emo v e the pans and the beam
R eplace them place the rider at z ero and balance the pans by
means of the nu t at the right hand side of the beam
2
e latio

P lace
P H Y S IC S
a 1 0 g weight on the left pan and balance i t by means

of the ri der to determine
.
s m allest d ivision on the beam s cale

T he r ange o f the be am scale
g
g
T he
P lace
a li ter measure on the left pan and balance i t T hen add

g to the righ t p an and ll the li ter measure wi th water to
1 00 0
n d :
lite r o f wate r
c c o f wa te r
1
1
w eighs
m
n d m e tri c m e as ure s
ela
n
tw
com
n
t
i
o
s
b
e
e
n
o
a
e
3
D raw on paper a line 1 0 i nches long and mea sure i t i n cen ti
meters to nd :
.
10
inches
inch
cm
cm
U se a li ter and a quart measure to nd

1
Weigh a
qu art
liters ( approx )
.
lb weight in grams to nd :
1 lb
.
Weigh a kilogram weight in p o un ds to nd :

1
k ilogram
lb
Ki tch e n M e a surin g App lian c e s

A well equipped ki tchen wi ll ha v e appliances for measuring
volume weight o v en temperature and time
N ame the measuring appliances in your school ki tchen
U se sal t to nd :
the number of level teaspoonfuls in one level tablespoonf ul
the number of level tablespoonfuls in one level measuring cup
C onsul t page 3 0 5 P hysics of the H ou sehold
H o m e E xerci s e
R epe at this exercise wi th the measuring appliances in your
home and make a written report on your work
E xerci s e 3
LABORAT OR Y COUR S E
6
E xe rcis e 4
W ater
S u pply
I N P H Y S IC S
D escribe
how your town or ci ty is supplied with running water

D oes the water come from a distan t source at a higher le v el than
the city ; or is i t pumped i nto a reserv oir ; or is i t pumped directl y
into the city mains ? I s the water puried and if so how ?
.
N OT E
It is re comm end e d tha t t he cl ass b e t aken t o t he c ity pu m p
ing st ation the lt e r ing pl ant a n d t he r eservoi r
.
M ake a diagram of the city water supply system showing the

-
intake pipe pumping station ltering plant and one water main
C onsult page 3 0 P hysics of the H ou s ehold
H o me E xer c i s e
T ell how y our home is supplied with water
I f you ha v e a private water suppl y system make a diagram of i t
showing the path Of the water from the source to one house faucet
M a k e a wri tten report on this work
,
E xerci s e 5
W ate r S u pp l y P l u m b in g
E xamine the water pipes in the school
S tart at the point at
which the water enters the building and follow the pipes to the
water xtures
M ake a rough diagram sho wing the course of the main cold water
pipe and of a t least two branches
Wh ere coul d you S hut the wa ter o ff in case a water pipe burst ?
H ome E xerci s e
R epeat this exercise wi th the water pipes in
your own home and make a wri tten report
.
E x e r ci s e 6
l u m b in g
I n the school trace where you can the path of the waste water
from each x ture to the point at which i t leaves the buildi n g
M ake a diagram showing the main soil pipe and the branches
from at least two xtures
C onsul t page 1 1 4 P hysics of the
.
S e w age P
H ou sehold
What becomes of the sewage after i t leaves the building ?

H ome E xerci s e
R epea t this exercise in y our own hOm e and
ma k e a wri tten report

E xp e rim e n t 6
L aw
of
Archi m e de s
I N P H Y S IC S
verif y the law of Archimedes for bodies that sink in water

and for bodies that oat on water
To
F IG
10
T wel ve
A pp ra t s se d
u
q u ar t p ail
Ove r o w p ail
T h r ee q uar t p ail
S pring b al ance
to
ill u stra te t h e
law
of
Arc hirn e d -
L abor ato ry suppo rt

P ie ce o f ro c k w eighing
B loc k o f w oo d
or
lb
T he
body when plac ed in

liqu id displac ed
law of Archimedes is : A
weight equ al
t o the weight
of
liqu id loses
L AB ORAT ORY COUR S E
1N
P H Y S IC S
M ethod B odi es th at s in k in w ate r

Weigh the piece of rock ( F ig 1 0 )
T 0 nd the loss in weight
on a spring balance suspended from a stand T his is the weight
of the rock in air N ow suspend the rock in a 1 2 quart pail of
water and nd i ts weight in water T he di eren ce is the loss in
weight in water
w eight o f roc k in air
w eight o f r o c k in w ater
loss in w eight
.
nd the weight of water displaced by the rock F ill the o v er

ow pail with water until water runs ou t at the spout Weigh
the empty catch pail T hen lower the piece of roc k slowl y i nto
the o v erow pai l and catch the water which overows Weigh
the catch pail with the displaced water
T0
weight
weight
weight
w ater
t h pail
c a t ch pail empt y
w ate r d ispl ac e d
o f ca c
of
of
Y ou ha v e now found the los s in weight when the rock is weighed

i n air and then I n water also the weight of water displac ed by the
rock I s the loss i n weight equal to the weight of water displaced ?
T hat i s do you veri fy the law of Archimedes for this heavy bod y ?
R epea t the experi ment above bu t
B o d ie s th a t oat on w ate r
use a block of wood instead of the piece of rock
,
weigh t o f woo d in air

weigh t o f woo d on water
loss in weight
w ater
weight o f ca t ch pail
weight o f cat ch pail e m pt y
weight o f
sp lac ed
you notice that the block Of wood loses al l of i ts weight when

placed in water ? I s this loss in weight equal to the weight of the
liqu id it dis places that is do you verify the law of Arc hi medes for
this oating body ?
DO
L ABORAT ORY COUR S E

E xp e r im en t 7
an d d ensity
1 1
d ensit y
of a
A pp r t s se d
s b st an e
a a u
n d :
to
o u
learn how to nd the volume and density of a body
To
F IG
Vo lum e
I N P H Y S IC S
bo
dy
in t h ree
wa
ys
an d
A soli d m et al c y lind er
D ensit y b al anc e
Vernie r calipe r s
Mi c romete r calipe rs
Grad uate d cylinde r 1 00
Vessel co n t aining water

Ove r o w pail
C at ch pail
c c
.
VO L U ME
We will nd the v 0
ment ( 2 ) by n di
s : ( 1 ) by measure
when entirely
lid i n
M ethod 1
by measurement ;
T o nd th
M easure the length of the cy lin def th ree times by means of the
v ernier calipers and nd the average length
M easure the diameter of the cylinder in three places by means
of the micrometer cali p ers and nd the average diameter
.
'
20
P H Y S IC S
the l aboratory is not su pplie d with these

the measurement s w ith a m eter s ti ck
N OT E
If
lipe r s
ca
m ak e
C alculate the volume of the cylinder in c c Volume Of cylinder

2
length
71 X ( radius )
M ethod 2 T o nd the volume of a body by n ding the volume
Of liquid i t displaces
I t is evi dent that if the v olume of a solid is say 1 00 c c i t will
displace 1 00 c c of a liquid if immersed in the liquid I f i ts volume
is 1 50 c c i t will displace 1 50 c c of the liquid etc I n other words
the solid will displace i ts own volume of the liquid
F ill an overow pail wi th water and when i t has stopped dripping
immerse the cylinder i n the water C atch the water which over
ows and m easure its v olume in c c using measu ring ask or
graduated cylinder T he v olume of the liquid di splaced is equal
to the volume of the cylinder immersed
M ethod 3 T o nd the volume of a body by ndi ng its loss in
weight in water
I n your expe riment on the law of Archimedes
you learned that the loss in weight of a body when immersed in
water is equal to the weight of the water it displaces T ha t is if
a body loses 1 00 g in weight when weighed in water i t will dis
lace
1 00 g of water and since 1 g of water has a v olume of I c c
p
i t will displace 1 00 c c of water tha t is i ts v olume is 1 0 0 c c I n
o ther words the loss in weight in gra ms of a body im mers ed in water
.
'
is equ al to its volu me in c c

F ind the weight in g of
the cylinder i n air then nd i ts weight

when immersed in water T he di eren ce is i ts loss in weight in
grams and therefore i ts vol u me in c c
,
DE NSI T Y
of a substance is dened as the weight of u n it volu me

in
1 cu
Of that substance ; that is i t is the weight of 1 cu f t
etc I n all scien ti c work unless o therwise s ta ted the
1 c c
T h e den s ity
den s ity
To
is th e weight in g
density of aluminium
a s u bs tan c e
f
nd the
o
of
c c
.
th
e
f
su bs tan ce
LABORAT ORY
COUR S E IN
PH
Y S IC S
21
T he
cylinder you used above is made of aluminium and you

ha v e found i ts v olume in c c and i ts weight in air in g U se the
volume found in method 1 and the weight i n air found i n method
to
nd
the
densi
ty
of
alumi
n
um
as
follows
i
:
3
.
c c o f alumi n ium weigh

1 c c o f a lu m ini u m w eighs
the d ensit y Of alum iniu m
.
g per c c
F ORM
RE P O RT
OF
V OL U ME
1
M ethod I
L ength Of cy lin d e r in c m
D ia m eter Of c y lin d e r in c m
Volu m e o f cy l in d e r
Volum e o f w a ter displ ace d in c c
Volum e o f cy lind er
Weight o f cylin der in g in air
W eight Of c y l in der in g in wate r
L oss in weight in g
Volume in c c
average
M ethod 2
M ethod 3
cc
.
cc
.
DE
NS I T Y
Weight o f cylin d er o f aluminium in air

Volume o f c y lind e r
volume
In
cc
.
g
cc
.
g p
.
C C.
D
22
E xp erim en t 8
D en s i ty
T o n d
o f s oli d s
P H Y S IC S
the densit y of a number of solids
F IG
1 2
D ensit y
A pp r t s se d
a a u
b al ance
L arge vessel o f w ater
to
n d t h e d ensit y
P ieces
500
o ck an
o f ro ck
or 600 g
an
d of
ir n
o
i ron weighing
As was stated in E xperiment 7 , the densi ty of a substance is the
weight in grams of one cubic centimeter of the substance I n

E xperiment 7 we found tha t the volume of a solid in c c i s equal
to i ts loss in weight in g when weighed i n air and then in water
M ethod F ind the densi ty of rock and of iron as follows :
Attach a cord to the solid and weigh i t i n air on the densi ty
balance F ig 1 2 T hen immerse i t in water and nd i ts weight
in water T h e di fference is its loss in weight in g and its volume
in c c
C alculate the densit y
w ei ght in air in g
D ensit y
vo lum e I n c c
.

F O RM
OF
23
RE P O RT
R OC K
Weight in air in g
Weight in w a ter in g
Loss in w e ight in g
Vo lum e in c c
D ensit y in g p e r c c
P H Y S IC S
RON
24
E x p erim en t 9
To
D e nsity
o f li q ui d s
nd the densit y of a liquid
.
P H Y S IC S
FIG
A p p r t u s se d
a a
D ensit y
bottle
Gra m scales
H ydro m eter
to
n d the d ensit y
of
H yd r om eter
li q i d s
u
!ar
Ke r osene gasoline
v inegar o r al cohol
,
F ind the weight in g of the densi ty bottle F ig 1 3 ,

M ethod 1
when emp ty T hen nd its weight when lled with water T he
di e ren c e is the v olume of the bottle in c c because 1 g of water
has a v olume of 1 c c ( I f the v olume of the bottle is known i t is
not necessary to nd i ts weight when lled with water ) F ill the
bo ttle wi th the liquid dry the Ou tside , and nd the weight of
.
P H Y S IC S
25
bottle
liquid S ubtract from this the weight of the empt y bo ttle
to nd the weight of the liquid C alculate the densi ty of the liquid
as follows :
.
h md m g
v olum e of li q u i d in c c
w elgh t
D ensit y
0f
g per c c
M ethod 2 F ind the densi ty by means of a hydrometer as follows

F ill a c y linder F ig 1 3 wi th the liquid and place the hydrometer
in i t R ead the scale division opposi te the surface of the liquid
T his is the densi ty of the liquid in g per c c
.
F ORM
w ate r
Weight o f bottle
Weight o f e m pt y bottle
Weight o f wat er
Vol u m e o f bo t tl e
D ensit y o f liq ui d b y me ans
( S ee table o f d ensities p age
E x e r ci s e 7
OF
g
g
g
RE P O R T
Weight o f bottle
li qui d
Weight o f em pt y bottle
Weight o f li q ui d
D ensit y o f li q ui d
g per
c c
o f h yd rometer
g per c c
.
c c
.
lum b in g
T race the gas pipes from the point a t which the gas enters the
school to each gas xture
M ake a diagram showing the course of the main gas p i p e and
Of at least two branches
I s your ci ty supplied with natural gas or manufactured gas ?
I f natural gas tell where i t comes from
I f manufactured gas
tell how i t is made
H om e E x e rc is e
R epeat this exercise i n your own home and make a written
report
R ead your gas meter once each month for six months ; record
the readings and dates and compare y our readi ngs with those
made by the gas company
G as P
26
E x p er im e n t 1 0
B arom e t er
an
i p hon
P H Y S IC S
construct a barometer and to measure the pressure of the

atmosphere wi th i t T o illustrate the action of the siphon
To
baromete r tubes o f
length an d d i am eter
T w o ev apo r ating dishes
Me r c u ry
S ma ll f unn el
T wo
S iphon
di eren t
pails o f
Meter sti c k
S uppo r t
T wo
w ater
B A R OME TE R
M ethod F ill a barometer tube wi th mercu r y place the nger

o v er the open end i n v ert the tube o v er a shallow dish of mercury
and remo v e the nger under mercur y M easure in cm and also
i n inches the heigh t of the column of mercur y i n the tube above
.
tha t i n the dish

R epeat the experi men t wi th the second barometer tube
Y ou will notice that the columns Of mercu ry are practically Of
the same height although you ha v e used tubes of difi e ren t areas
of cross section F ig 1 4
( T hey would be of exactly the same
height if all the air were removed from the space above the mer
cury ) We should nd the heights to be the same if we made
experiments wi th many tubes o f di e re n t cross section T ha t is
the heigh t of the column of mercury is i ndependent of the area of
cross section of the tube T his being the case we ca n consider
the area of cross section of the tube to be anything we wi sh for
example 1 sq in or 1 sq cm
T o n d the press u re of the atmos phere in lb per s q in
Assume
that the tube has an area of cross secti on of 1 sq in M ul tiply
this by the height of the column of mercury i n inches to obtain
the number of cubic inches of mercu ry in the column M ul tiply
the resul t by 4 9 1b the weigh t of 1 cubic inch of mercury
Assume
T o n d the press u re of the atmos phere in g per s q cm
that the tube has an area of cross section of 1 sq cm M ul ti p ly
.
'
FIG
14
App arat u s u se d
to
ill u strate the
ac
ti on
of
P H Y S IC S
27
the b arom eter an d the sip h o n
28
I N P H Y S IC S
this by the height of the column of mercury i n cm and mul tiply

f
I
the resul t by
the
weight
of
c
c
mercury
O
g
.
S I P H ON
M ethod M ake a U tube by connecting two glass tubes 3 or 4

feet long by means of a rubber tube
feet long F ill this U
tube wi th wa ter place a nger over each end i nvert the tube
place the ends i n sep arate pails half full of water and remove the
n gers under wa ter
L ower one pail and no tice the direction i n which the water
I s the direction of
R aise this p ail and lower the o ther
flows
the ow re v ersed ?
.
F O RM
OF
RE P O R T
A ER A GE
V
H eight
mercury
H eight o f mercury
P ressure
o f atmosphere
P ressure o f atmosphere
E xerci s e 8
in
cm
of
in
cm
lb pe r s q
.
P l u mb in g T r ap s
in
per s q cm
.
L ocate the trap under each type of water xture in the school
Open a trap under a sink or washbowl and clean i t ou t
M ake a diagram showing the path of the water through the
trap and showing how the water seal is formed C onsul t page 7 3
.
P hysics of the H ou sehold

H om e E x e r ci s e
epeat this exercise in your own home and make a wri tten
report
R
L ABOR AT ORY COUR S E IN

E xp e r im e n t 1 1
To
il lustra te
B oy l e
B oyle
F IG
Law
29
s L aw
A pp r t s se d
a a u
P H Y S IC S
to
ill stra te
u
Bo
y le s L w
C apillary tube 1 1 0 cm long with a column o f air bet ween

1
a column o f merc u ry an d the close d en d
S uppo rt
Meter sti ck
.
B oyle
s u re ou
s L aw is : T he volu me of a gas varies in vers ely as the pres

it
T hat is if the pressure on the gas is doubled i t i s
this t u b e is n ot lle d ll it a s fo llo ws D raw a co l u m n o f m ercu ry ab ou t 50

cm l o ng int o t h e t u b e ; c l o se o e en d w ith t h e n ger a n d a ll o w a c o l um n o f air ab o u t
S ea l the l a tter en d wi th se a ling wax
20 cm l o ng to enter the o ther en d
1
If
O
3
P H Y S IC S
compressed to half i ts rst volume ; if the pressure is hal v ed the

gas expands to twice i ts rst v olume etc
M ethod Y ou ha v e on the table a tube which has a certain
amoun t Of air between a column of mercury and the closed
end
L ay the tube on the table and no tice the length of the air
column N ow stand i t upright wi th the closed end down and
notice that the air is compressed because the pressure on i t i s
increased
S tand the tube upright wi th the closed end up ;
no tice that the air exp ands because the p ressure on i t is de
creased
( 1 ) L ay the tube on the table and measure the length V1 in
cm of the air column and also the length in cm of the mercury
column
I n this posi tion the mercury is no t exerting p ressure on the
gas and the total pressure P I on the gas is 1 atmosphere I f there
i s a barometer in the laboratory measure i ts height I f not take
the heigh t of the barometer to be 7 6 cm ( 1 atmosphere ) S ince
the bore of the tube i s uniform we may use the length of the air
column as a measure of the volume of the ai r under dif ferent
ressures
p
tand
the
tube
upright
with
the
closed
end
down
and
2
S
( )
measure the length V2 of the air column T he pressure P 2 on the
air in the tube i s 7 6 cm ( 1 atmosphere )
the leng th of the mer
cury column i n cm
tand
the
tube
u
right
wi
th
the
closed
end
up
and
measure
S
)
p
(3
the length V3 of the air column T he pressure P 3 on the air in
the tube is 7 6 cm ( 1 atmosphere )
the length of the mercury
column
I f the volume of the gas varies inversely as the p ressure on i t
,
Y
:
Y
should
equal
should
equal
and
oyle
s
L
aw
then
B
(
)
T hat
PI
V2
P1
V3
is the volume of the air should be decreased i n the pro

ortio
n
the
ressure
is
i
ncreased
and
vice
versa
p
p
,

F
O RM
R ESS R E
76
cm
cm
1
3
RE P O R T
OF
V LU
P H Y S IC S
ME
P2
VI
P1
V2
P3
VI
PI
V3
you verify B oyle s L aw that is when the pressure on th e

gas is increased in ( 2 ) is the v olume decreased i n proporti on ; and
when the pressure on the gas is decreased i n ( 3 ) i s the volume
increased in proportion ?
Do
E xercise 9
E xamine
F ire E x tingui s her
the interior of one of the re extinguishers i n the
s c hoo L
C lose i t take i t out of doors turn i t upside down and discharge

i t at a small bonre if con v enient
C harge the extinguisher according to the directions on the case
then discharge i t again to make sure that you have done the work
roperly
p
C harge i t again and hang i t where i t will be convenient for
immedia te use
M ake a diagram showing the interior of the extinguisher
C onsul t page 7 0 P hysics of the H ou sehold
H o me E xer c i s e
R ep eat this exercise with the re extinguisher in your home
and make a written report
-
E x e r c i s e 10
V a cuum C l e an e r
there is a v acuum cleaner in the school exami ne i t to l earn :
how a partial vacuum is produced ;
the path along which the air travels ;
how the air is freed from dirt
.
If
1
2
3
I N P H Y S IC S
M ake a rough diagram showing the path of the air through the
cleaner
H om e E xerci s e
epea t this exercise wi th the vacuum cleaner in your own home

and make a wri tten rep ort
R
IN
P H Y S IC S
33
H E AT
E xp erim e n t 1 2
T h e rm om e te r s
nd the xed points of a

centigrade thermometer
To
F ahrenhei t
thermometer and of a
FIG
T wo
t yp es o f
pp
r t s u se d
a a u
G lass f ull o f snow or ice an d

F ahrenheit the rm ometer
Centigrad e thermometer
,
to
n d t h e xe d
w ater
ints
of
th
mom
er
B oiler
T ripo d
B urner
e ters
T he x ed poin ts of a thermometer are the temperatu re of meltin g

ice or sn ow and the temperatu re of the s team formed by water boilin g
un
der a pressu re of on e atm osphere

M ethod T 0 nd the temperature
.
of mel ting ice or snow F ill

a glass wi th snow or ice and add a li ttle water P lace the ther
.
34
P H Y S IC S
m om e ters
in this and note the lowest temperature recorded on

each I f the thermometers do not record 0 on the centigrade
and 3 2 on the F ahrenhei t i t is the thermometers which are in
error and no t the ice R ecord the error of eac h
T 0 nd the temperature of the steam formed by water boiling
under a pressure of one atmosphere P our water in to the boiler
on the right F ig 1 6 to a depth of 2 or 3 inches P ass the top of
the thermometer through one hole of a two holed stopper until
the 1 00 C or 2 1 2 F line i s j ust exposed but wi th the bulb above
the water i n the boiler P lace a bent tube i n the other hole to
divert the steam and insert the stopper i n the opening of the
boiler I f you use a boiler similar to that on the left F ig 1 6 pass
the thermometer through a one hole stopper and allow the steam
to escape from the outlet beneath B oil the water and allow the
steam to pass for one or two minutes R ead the temperature
and if the barometer stands at 7 6 cm ( 1 atmosphere exactly )
note the error of the thermometer
R e p eat wi th the other thermometer
F O RM
OF
CE T
N IG
T emperature
o f melting
E rror o f thermometer
T e mper atu r e o f s te am
E rror o f the rmometer
E xer c i s e 1 1
RAD E
ice
C
C
T h e rmom e te r s
E xa m ine
the wall thermometer in the school and observe how

high and how low it rea ds
M ake a diagram of the scale
E xamine the oven thermometer on the school range
M ake a diagram rep resenting i ts working p arts
H om e E xer cis e
R epea t these exercises wi th the thermometers in your home and
make a written report
.

E xp eriment 1 3
To
E x p an s ion
coeicien
nd the
I N P H Y S IC S
o f b r as s
35
of li near expansion of brass
S te a m
F IG
si o n o f b rass
i agram o f t h e app ara t u s u se d
to m
e asure the line ar coe fcient of
ex p an
E xpans ion
B oiler
pparatus
B urner
T hermo m eter
r
t
e
ex
an
o
n
e
n
i
s
h
e
t
s
i
i
t
n
h
u
l
of
p
p
g
r
e
r
r
r
a
t
We
will
determi
ne
the
ex
ansion
e
d
e
ee
h
a
n
e
n
t
e
e
u
c
i
m
p
g
g
p
p
in cm of a tube of brass 1 cm long for a change i n tem p erature
of 1 C
M ethod M easure in cm the len gth of the pointer C D F ig 1 7
from the end D to the middle of the arm AB M easure the arm
AB by means of the micrometer calipers ( or meter stick if the
calipers are no t a v ai lable ) D ivide the length of the pointer
C D by the length of the arm AB to determine how many times a
mo v ement of B is magnied by D
C lamp or secure the brass tube a t the point P near one end
and place the poi nter in posi tion near the other end F ind the
length i n cm of the tube between P and B P lace the thermometer
in the tube a t end P and record the temperature of the tube
Whe n every thing is ready read carefully and record the posi tion
of the end D of the pointer on the scale T hen place the burner
u nder the boiler and allow the steam to pass freely for one or two
minutes R ead carefully and record the new p osi tion of the
pointer D and the tem p erature of the steam C alculate the
coei cien t of exp ansion of brass that is the expansion in cm of a
tube 1 cm long for a change in temperature of 1 C
T he
cien
coc
lin ear ex pa n sion

.
'
E x am ple
CD
is
cm
b r ass tube is 90 cm long from P to

long an d the arm AB is 1 5 cm long
.
po inter
en d o f the
T he
T he
6
3
1 N P H Y S IC S
po inter moves 2 cm when the temperature changes from

Wh at is the coei cien t o f expansion o f t he brass ?
1 5 ti m es
P ointe r m agn ies 2 2 5
1 5
2
1 5
1 3 3 cm
Actual expansion
A bar 90 cm long warme d 80 C exp an d s 1 3 3 cm
.
20
b ar 1
cm long
.
Coeicien t
w arme d
o f exp ans ion
C expands M
D i e re n ce
Coei cien t
9 0 X 80
i
90 X 80
F ORM
L ength o f pointer
Length o f arm
M agni cation o f po inter
P ointer re ad ing beginning
P ointer readi ng en d
OF
0000 1 8
RE P O R T
cm L eng t h o f brass tube

cm T e m pe ra t ure at beginning
T em perat ure at en d
cm
D i eren ce
cm
cm
o f expan s ion o f brass
to
1 00
L ABORAT ORY COUR S E IN

E xp e rim e n t 1 4
of
air
nd the volume coe f cient of expansion of air
To
FIG
E x p an s i on
P H Y S IC S
App r t u s u se d
a a
F l as k
to m
e s u re t h e
a
abo ut 1 0 0 0 c c
R ubber st opp e r w ith one hole
T ub e an d c lip
Measu r ing cy lind er 1 00 0 c c
P ail 3
.
co e i c ien
of
o um
qt
o f a ir
1 2 - qt
B urner
Ice
S tan d
e exp a nsi n
P ail ,
T he
volume coe f cien t of expansion of any gas is the expansion

per degree change i n temperature of uni t volume measured a t
0 C
M ethod We will heat a v olume of air to 1 0 0 C and then cool
i t to 0 C and nd how much i t contracts in v olume T his con
38
1N P H Y S IC S
traction is the same as the expansion would be if we did the t e

verse that is started at 0 C and heated the air to 1 0 0 C
P lace the dry ask wi th stopper and c lip in a 3 q t pail of water
as shown i n F ig 1 8 B oil the water vigorously for 2 or 3 minu tes
then close the clip and invert the ask in a 1 2 q t p ail of ice water
C lose
Open the clip under water and allow the water to enter
the clip remove the ask and measure the volume of water which
entered N ow ll the ask wi th water to the bottom of the sto pp er
and nd i ts to tal volume
C alculate the volume coef cient of expansion of the air as fol
lows : T he vol ume of the air at 1 00 C is equal to the total volum e
of the ask T he volume of the air at 0 C is equal to the to tal
volume of the ask minus the volume of water which entered the
ask T he v olume of the water which entered is the volume t his
air a t 0 C would expand when warmed for 0 C to 1 00 C
E x am ple
1 1 89 c c
total vol ume o f the as k
19 c c
T he vol ume o f the water whi ch entere d
3
87 0 c c
T he volume Of the air a t 0 C
87 0 c c o f a ir at 0 C w arme d 1 00 C expand 3 1 9 c c
.
T he
c c o f air at
.
C warme d
C exp and s L
= 00 66
3
87 0 X
Volum e coe f cient o f expansion o f air
00 3 66
1 00
F OR
M OF R E P O R T
T otal volume o f the as k or the volume o f the air at
T h e volume o f wate r whi ch entere d as k
T he volum e Of the air at 0 C
Change o f temperature 1 00 C
Volume coe i cien t o f expansion of air
,
1 00
cc
cc
cc
.
E x e r cis e 1 2
Kitch en R an ge
E xamine
the range in the school kitchen and trace the path

of the air from the point at whi ch it enters the range to the poin t
a t which i t enters the stovepi p e
C onsul t page 93 P hysics of
.
the H ou s ehold
P H Y S IC S
39
M ake a diagram showing the p ath of the air through the range
when the oven is on

M ark on i t the p osi tion of each damper
D escribe the use of each dam p er
draws
T ell why the range
H ome E xerci se
R epeat this exercise with the range in your home ki tchen and
make a wri tten report
.
E xerci s e 1 3
H e atin g S y s te m
E xamine
the heating system of the school F ollow the p ipes

from the furnace to each radiator or register
I s the school heated by means of ho t air ho t water or steam ?
M ake a diagram showing the path of the air water or steam
from the furnace to at least two radiators or registers C onsul t
ages
6
1
e
d
P
s
t
h
e
H
o
s
h
o
h
s
i
c
u
l
5
3
9
p
9
9
of
y
E xplain wh y the air water or steam moves as i t does
H ome E xerci se
R epeat this exercise wi th the heating system in your own home
and make a written report
.
E xerci s e 1 4
H ot- W ate r B oil e r
E xamine
the system whi ch supp lies running ho t water to the

school kitchen
M ake a diagram illustrating this system
H ome E x e r c i s e
D escribe how your home ki tchen is su pplied wi th running hot
water
M ake a diagram showing where the cold water enters how i t
is heated and where the ho t water leaves C onsul t p age 9 7
.
P hysics
of
the H ou s ehold
M ake a wri tten rep ort
4O
E xp e r im en t 1 5
P AR T I
m e a s ure
H ow to
h e at
P H Y S IC S
illustrate the meaning of the heat uni ts :

T hermal U nit calori e and k ilogram calorie
:
B ri tish
To
A p par t s se d t ill strate t h e h e a t nits d t S h w t h t d i ff erent

s b st n es t t h e sa m e te m perat re may co nt ain di rc t q an tities f he a t
F IG
19
a u
P a il , 3 q t
B al ance lb
of
is
g f
T h e kilogra m
1
water
of
is
lb
a mou n t o
the
to ra ise the temperatu re

calorie
B u rne r an d t r ipo d
Measuring cy lin d er
T he B ritis h T hermal U n it
T he
an
T he rm o m eters
water
heat
the
1 00 0
a mou n t o
cc
.
heat
requ ired
temperatu re
requ ired to rais e the
C alorie is the a mou n t of heat requ ired to

W hen the term cal orie is m et in di sc u ssi o ns o f f o od v al u es an d the energy req u ire
m ents o f n u triti o n it w ill a lm o st in v ari ab l y b e fo u n d to re f er to the kil ogram ca l o rie
T he u se o f t h e c a p it a l C in d i ca tes th a t t h e gre a ter ca l o rie is inten d ed
M an y writers
o n f oo d a d n u triti o n u se the si m ple term ca l o rie f o r t h e kil gram c a l o rie a ss u m ing th a t
re ad ers w ill n o t b e in d oub t as to w hi ch ca l o rie is m e ant in asm u ch as the two un its
di er by a th ou san df ol d
calorie
or
'

rais e the temperatu re o
leg
.
water
P H Y S IC S
T he
41
kilogram calorie
calories
M ethod B riti s h T h ermal U nit Weigh an empty three quart
ail
and
add
to
i
t
a
certai
n
weight
of
cold
water
say
lb
F
ind
4
p
the temperature of the water i n F ahrenhei t degrees
P lace the pail over a burner for 2 minu tes and again nd i ts tem
u re
C
alculate
the
number
of
received
by
the
water
r
t
B
a
e
T
U
p
P lace the p ail in a cool place for 2 minutes and nd i ts tempera
ture C alculate the number of B T U lost by the water
M ethod Calo ri e an d kilogram c al o rie M easure ou t 2 0 0 0 c c
F
g
of
cold
water
and
pour
i
t
i
nto
the
pail
ind
the
tem
2
0
00
)
(
r
u
r
of
the
water
i
n
centigrade
degrees
a
t
e
e
p
P lace the v essel over a bur ner for 2 minu tes and agai n nd i ts
temperature C alculate the number of calories received by the
water C alculate the number of kilogram calories or C alories re
ceived by the water
P lace the v essel i n a cool place for 2 minutes and nd i ts tempera
ture C alculate the number of calories lost by the water Calcu
late the number of kilogram calories or C alori es lost by the wate r
1 00 0
RE P O R T
lb o i waterwas warm e d f ro m
T he
F to
B T U
lb o f water was coole d from
F to
B T U
g o f water w as wa rme d f rom
C to
T he
calories
T he
g Of water was coole d f rom
C to
calories
F
O RM
OF
loss
ga
in
loss
C alo r ies
kg o f waterwas coo le d from
C alories
.
T he
to
loss =
show that di f ferent substances at the same temp era

ture may con tain dif ferent quanti ties of heat
P ART I I
To
42
T hree 3 q t
B alance , lb
pails
Iron
B u r ner
T r ipo d
F ah r enheit thermometer
weight , 3
P H Y S IC S
or
lb
water ( in a ho t water bag ) and ho t iron ( a ho t at iron )

are frequen tly used as foo twarmers L et us compare the amounts
of hea t gi v en up on cooling by equal weights of ho t water and hot
iron at the same temperature P roceed as follows :
M ethod P lace a pail on one pan of a scales and balance i t ;
then place an i ron weight on the other pan and add enough water
to the pail to balance the iron We now ha v e equal weights of
water and iron
P lace the i ron in the pail co v er the pail and hea t until the water
boils vigorously We now have equal weights of iron and water
at 2 1 2 F
While the water and i ron a re being heated weigh two empt y
pails and add to each e q ual weights of cold water say 2 lb T a k e
the temperature of the water i n each pail
N ow place the hot i ron in one pail and the hot water in the
other and again nd the temperature of the water i n each pail
C alculate the number of B T U gi v en up by the hot iron and by
the ho t water
H ot
F O RM
T he
RE P O R T
OF
lb o f w ate r fro m
hot i ron warm ed
the iron gav e up
hot w ater w ar m e d
lb o f wa te r f rom
the water gave up
at
F cont ains m o r e he at th a n
at 2 1 2
to
to
T he
21 2
reason for this is that water has a greater heat capaci ty

than i ron Y ou will understand this better when you ha v e de ter
mined the hea t ca paci ty o r specic heat of iron i n E xperiment 1 8
T he
C ookin g U te n s il s
H an dle s
I n the school kitchen n ame v e coo k ing utensils w i th
hea t resisting han dles C ons ult page 1 0 8 P hys ics of the H ou sehold
E xer c i s e 1 5
LAB ORAT ORY COUR S E IN

Con d uc tivi ty
P H Y S IC S
43
C ompare the heat conducti v i t y of a copper or

aluminum u tensil with that Of a tin u tensil of the same size an d
shape as follows
H eat equal weights of cold water i n each v essel o ne af ter the
other o n the same re for equal lengths of time and nd the cha n ge
i n temperature in each C onsul t page 1 1 9 P hy s ics of the H ou sehold
Which is the better conductor ?
T o show that food is warmed more quickly in a
S iz e of b otto m
u tensil wi th a large bottom than i n one wi th a small bottom
H eat equal weights of cold water in ( 1 ) a covered sauce p an wi th
a large bo ttom ( 2 ) a co v ered tea or co ffee po t wi th a sma ll botto m
one after the other on the same re and nd the time required
to bring the wa ter to the boiling point i n each
C ov er s T o show that food is heated more quickly i n covered
than in uncovered vessels
H eat equal weights of cold water ( 1 ) in a covered v essel ( 2 ) in
the same v essel uncovered on the same re and nd the time
required to bring the water to the boiling point
R epea t these exercises wi th cooking utensils i n your own home
and make a wri tten report
.
E x e r ci s e 1 6
F ire le s s Cooke r
the school reless cooker and make a diagram illu strat

C onsult page 1 0 8 P hysics of the H ou sehold
in g the interior
T est the cooker as follows : P lace a weighed quanti ty of water
lb
i
n
one
of
the
kettles
co
v
er
and
hea
t
until
the
water
1
0
e
)
( g
C lamp down the co v er and place the kettle in
boils ( 2 1 2
the cooker Allow the cooker to stand closed for a cer tai n ti m e
hours
nd
the
tem
erature
of
the
water
and
calculate
2
1
e
)
( g
p
the number of B T U Of heat which ha v e escaped through the sides
of the cooker p er hour
T o compare reless cookers : M ake the abo v e test wi th two
reles s cookers a t the same time
T h e better cooker other things
being equal is the one which loses the less hea t per hour
E xamine
44
'
H ome E xerci s e
I N P H Y S IC S
M a k e this test wi th the reless cooker in your own home and

ma k e a written report
.
E xerci s e 1 7
T he rm o s B o ttle
E xamine
the school thermos bottle and ma k e a diagram illus

t ra tin g i ts construction
C onsul t page 1 0 9 P hysics of the H ou se
.
hold
as follows : P our in to the bottle a denite weight ( e g

1 lb ) of ho t water and nd i ts temperature
Allow i t to stand
closed for a known time ( e g 1 2 hours ) nd the temperature of
the water and calculate the number of B T U of heat lost by the
bottle per hour
R epeat this with a deni te weight of ice wa ter and calculate
the number of B T U of heat which enter the bo ttle per hour
D o y ou nd tha t a thermos bottle k eeps a thing cool better
than i t keeps i t warm ? E xplain why C onsul t page 1 1 0 P hysics
T est it
of
the H ou sehold
H ome E xerci s e
M ake this test with your own thermos bottle and make a written
report
.
E xerci s e 1 8
Ven tilation
E xamine
the school ventilation system

F ollow the path of the air from the point at which i t enters the
school to the point at which i t leaves
M a k e a rough diagram representing the p ath of the air
H ome E xerci s e
M ake a diagram of the ventilating system in your home if
there is an y
M ake a diagram showing how the soil pipe in your home is
ventilated C onsul t p age 1 1 4 P hysics of the H ou s ehold
M ake a wri tten report
.

E xp e rim en t 1 6
P H Y S IC S
C oo ling e e ct of ice an d
of
ic e
45
wate r
how that equal weights of ice and i ce water ha v e di fferent

cooling e ff ects
To
FIG
20
di e ren t
coo
A pp arat s se d
ling e ff e c ts
u
s h o w t h a t e q u al
ei gh ts
of
ice
wa
ter
T wo 3 q t
T wo p a ils
-
pails
an
wa ter
Ice or snow
B al an ce lb
F ahrenheit the r m o m eter
,
strainer for ice
B urner
an d
t r ipo d
M ethod T he tem p erature of melting ice is 3 2 F or 0 C ;

the temperature of ice water is the same We wish to show that
equal weights of these substances have very di f ferent cooling
eff ects
M ake some ice water by stirring snow or ice i n water an d when
you are ready to use the ice water strain i t through a cloth to re
move all snow or ice
Weigh an empty pail and add to i t a cer tain weight of water
say 2 lb C over the pail and heat the water until i t boils vig
o ro u sly
P our into this 1 lb of
I ts temperature is then 2 1 2 F
ice water and take the temperature after stirring for abou t 1
46
P H Y S IC S
minu te C alc u late the number of B T U the ice water absorbed

from the 2 lb of water at 2 1 2 F
R epeat this experiment but use 1 lb of dry ice instead of 1 lb
of ice water C alculate the number of B T U the ice absorbed
from the 2 lb of water at 2 1 2 F
.
F
I
lb
ORM
lb O f w a te r fr o m 2 1 2 F to
o f ice w a te r coo le d
the 1 lb o f ice w a t er abso r b e d
lb o f w ate r fro m 2 1 2 F to
o f ic e cooled
the 1 lb o f ice abso rb e d
B T U
has a gr e ater cooling e ff e c t th a n the sa m e weight o f
lb
R E P O RT
OF
reason for this is that 1 4 4 B T U of hea t are requi red to

change 1 lb Of ice at 3 2 F to 1 lb of water at 3 2 F Y ou will
understand this better after y ou have determi ned the hea t of
fusion of ice in E xperim ent
T he

E xp erim en t 1 7
To
e e c ts
e e ct
of
st
47
eam an d o f boi ling wa ter
how that steam and boiling water ha v e v er y di fferen t heating
A pp r t s se d t s h w t h t e q l w eigh ts O f ste
t the sa m e te m per t re h av e diff erent h e tin g e ff e c ts
F IG
H eating
P H Y S IC S
2 1
a a u
a u
T wo 3 q t pails
B al ance , lb
.
B o iler
M ethod
ua
am
an
d bo
ilin g
wa
t r
e
F ahrenheit
the r m ometer
B u r ne r an d t r ipo d
S team
under atmospheri c pressure has a temperature

of 2 1 2 F ; boiling water under the same pressure has the same
temperature We wish to S how that equal weights of steam and
boiling water have dif ferent heating e ffects
Weigh an empt y pail an d add to i t a certain weight of cold
water sa y 4 lb T a k e the temperature of the water B alance the
pail and water on a scales and pass live steam in to the water un til
.
48
IN PH
Y S IC S
a certain weight of steam has condensed in the water say

lb
T a k e the temperature of the water and calculate the number of
B T U the steam ga v e to the water
lb of boiling water instead of
R epeat this experiment bu t use
1
C alculate the number of B T U the boiling water
:
; lb of steam
gave to the cold water
,
T he
lb
o f s t eam
the steam gave

lb
T he
to
of
up
O RM
warm ed
RE P O R T
lb
of
w at erf ro m
to
b o iling w at e r w arm e d
t he boiling
A gi ve n weigh t o f
w eight o f
F
OF
wat e r
has
lb
of
w ater
f rom
B T U
gave u p
a gr e a te r he ating e ff e c t th a n the s am e
.
reason for this is that 1 lb of steam at 2 1 2 F gives up 9 66

Y ou
B T U of heat when i t changes to 1 lb of water a t 2 1 2 F
will understand this better when you have determi ned the latent
heat of steam i n E xp eriment 2 0
T he

E xp e rimen t 1 8
S p e ci c h e a t
To
I N P H Y S IC S
49
nd the specic heat of iron lead and aluminium

,
'
1O
22
A p p r t s se d
B oile r with d ipper

C alori m ete r
T wo therm o m ete r s
to
a a u
e as u re t h e s p e i c h e a t
c
of
soli d s
B a l a n ce
B u r ne r an d tripo d
L e ad shot i ron n ails
mini um pellets
an d alu
we measure heat in B T U the s peci c heat or heat capacity

of any substance may be dened as the n u mber of B T U requ ired
to rais e the temperatu re of 1 lb of the s u bstan ce 1 F
or the n u mber
If
of B
T U given
.
when
lb
of
the
s u bs ta n ce cools 1
we measure heat in calories the speci c heat or heat capacity

of any substance may be den ed as the n u mber of calories requ ired
to rais e the temperatu re of 1 g of the s u bs tan ce 1 C or the n u mber
of calories given u p when I g of the s u bstan ce cools 1 C
T h e number found for the specic heat is the same no matter
which s y stem of measurement we use
I n the previous experiments in heat we have measured heat in
If
P H Y S IC S
the three follo wing exper i ments we will measure heat

in calories in order to ob tain experience in the use of this heat uni t
I t is suggested that three students or three pairs of students
ma k e this ex p erimen t side by side ; the rst student or pair of
students using iron the second lead and the t hi rd aluminium
T hen let each studen t or p air of students cop y the resul ts Ob
tain ed b y the other two
We propose to nd the specic heat of the metals by the
T his method is as follows : A known

method of mixtures
weight of the metal at a known high temperature is dropped into a
known weigh t of water at a k nown low temperature and the resul t
ing temperature is determined
M ethod 1
Weigh out 1 00 0 g of lead shot or 2 50 g of small
iron nails or 2 0 0 g O f aluminium pellets P lace them in the dip
per o f the boiler F ig 2 2 ; insert a thermometer bulb to abou t
the middle and cover with a loose tting cor k H ea t until the
temperature is abou t 9 5 C
While the metal is hea ting weigh the inner v essel of the calo rim
eter and add to i t 2 0 0 g of water at about 5 or 1 0 C below the
room temperature When you nd that the metal has reached
about 9 5 C read the tempera ture of the water to 1 C and then
add the metal to the water wi thou t splashing S tir the contents
for o ne minu te and read the temperature to 1 C
C alculate the specic heat of the metal in the manner illustrated
in the following example :
On e thousand g of lead at 9 5 C placed i n 2 00 g of water at
C What is the S pecic heat of the
1 5 C warms the water to 2 6
lead ?
I f there has been neither loss nor gain of heat in the whole
apparatus we know that the heat recei v ed b y the water is tha t
gi v en up by the lead We can calculate the amount of hea t
received by the water ( since the heat required to warm 1 g of
and this is the amount of heat given up
water 1 C
1 calorie )
by the lead
B T U
.
In
P H Y S IC S
1
5
water was heated from 1 5 C to 2 6 C or through

therefore the water recei v ed from the lead 2 0 0 X 1 1
calories Of heat
T he
1 1
C ;
.
2 20 0
lead cooled from

say then :
T he
9 5 C to
.
g o f lead in cooling
1 000
69
g o f lead in cooling
26
C or through
.
g av e
C gav e
u p 2 2 00 ca
specic heat of lead
03 1
69
lo r ies
We can
2 2 00
up
X 69
1 00 0
T he
calorie
0 3 1 ca
lorie
N OT E : You have been ask e d to m ak e this experi m ent in ord e r that

you might le a r n the co m m o n method o f o b t a ining the spe ci c he a t o f s u b
st ances Y ou canno t e x pe c t y ou r r esu lts to be ac cu r a t e b e cau se y ou
have not been asked to t ake in t o accou nt the he a t losses ; for exampl e
the h eat lost in w ar m ing the calo r ime ter the heat lost in trans f e r ring
the m etal fro m the b oile r to the calo r i m ete r etc You m ay be s atise d
with your result i f it is wi thin 1 0 p er cent o f the co rr ect v alue
.
F O RM
OF
RE P O RT
I
Weight o f m etal g
H igh T emperat ure o f met al C
Lo w T e m pera t u re Of met al C
Change o f t em pe rature o f m et al
Weight o f w ater g
H igh T e m perature o f w ate r C
Lo w T e m pe r a t u re o f w ater C
Change o f tempe rature Of w ate r
S pe ci c he at
,
RON
LEA D
AL U M N U M
I
M ethod 2 I f the laboratory is not equipp e

d wi th the boiler
shown in F ig 2 2 and wi th a calorimeter the specic heat of the
metals can be determined wi t h the apparatus mentioned below
.
2
5
T wo 3 q t
p ails
B al a n c e
T he r m om ete r
P H Y S IC S
B u r ne r an d t r ipo d
I ron le ad an d al uminium
Attach a piece of cord to a soli d piece of metal and weigh i t
P lace
the metal in a p ail half full of water and hea t i t un til the
water has boiled for 2 or 3 minu tes
.
N OT E
I t is re com m e n d e d tha t the stu d ent u s e l a rge pieces o f m et a l
weighing abo ut 2 00 0 g T hey gi ve mo re a c curate resul t s th an small
pie ces be cause : they can be weighe d mo r e ac c ura tel y an d they prod uce
gre ater ch anges in tempe ra ture whi ch can be measu re d mo re a cc uratel y
Wi th a measuring cylinder measure ou t 2 00 0 c c ( 2 00 0 g ) of

water at a tempera ture abou t 5 C below tha t of the room and
pour i t i nto a 3 q t pail
When the metal is warmed ( its tem p erature is 1 0 0 C ) take the
temperature of the cold water to 1 C P lace the ho t metal in
the cold water sti r for o ne mi nute and tak e the temperature again
to 1 C
C alculate the specic heat of the me tal as illustrated in the
following example :
A piece of i ron weighing 2 00 0 g is wa rmed to 1 00 C and then
placed in 1 500 g of water at 1 5 C T he resul ting tem p era ture
is 2 5 C What is the specic heat of i ron ?
T he 1 50 0 g of water was warmed from 1 5 C to 2 5 C or
1 50 0 0
through 1 0 C therefore the water received 1 50 0 X 1 0
calories Of hea t from the ho t i ron
T he 2 00 0 g of iron cooled from 1 00 C to 2 5 C or through
:
C
We
can
say
then
75
.
2000
g o f iron in coo ling
75
g o f iron in coo ling

.
Specic
heat o f iron
C gave up
C gave up
5000
calories o f heat
.
2 000
X 75
c alorie
F o r the
reasons gi v en abo v e y ou may be satised W ith your re sults

if they are wi thin 1 0 per cent of the true value
.

F
O RM
OF
PH
RON
L EA D
S3
RE P O RT
I
Weight o f met al g
H igh T e m pe r at u re o f m et al C
Lo w T empe r a tu re o f met al C
Change o f tem peratu re o f m e t al
Weight o f w ater g
H igh T e m pera ture o f wate r C
Lo w T empe r a ture Of wa te r C
Change o f temperat u re o f w a t e r
S pe c i c h e a t
Y S IC S
( Loo k up t a b le o f spe c ic he ats page

,
3 8)
AL U M N U M
I
54
E x p e rim e n t 1 9
L at en t
h e at
of
f u si o n
P HY SI CS
of
ice
the number of calories required to change 1 g of ice at

0
C to 1 g of water at 0 C that i s to nd the laten t heat of
fusion of ice
T 0 n d
IG
23
A pp r t s s
u
a a u
C alo r i m eter
T he r mo m eter
to
ea s re t h e l tent h e t O f f u si n
u
B a l an c e
I ce
Ol
ic e
T o w el
Weigh the inside vessel of the calorimeter and add

M ethod 1
to i t 2 0 0 g of water at abou t 1 0 C above room temperature
B reak some clear ice into lumps about 1 in in diameter and
weigh ou t roughly about 50 g of these lumps
D ry each lump
T ake the temperature of the water to 1 C
wi th a towel and add i t to the water S tir until the ice is mel ted
C
a n d read the temperature of the water to 1
Weigh the inside vessel of the calorimeter again to nd the
w eight of the ice used
I f there has been neither loss nor gain of heat the heat gi v en up
b y the water is that ta k en up b y the ice and since we can calculate
t h e amount of heat given up by the water we know the amount
.
I N P H Y S IC S
55
ta k en up by the ice I t will be noticed that the ice takes up heat

in two wa y s : rst when i t changes from ice at 0 C to water at
0
C and second when the resulting ice water is warmed from
0
C to the nal temperature
C alculate the latent heat of fusion of the ice as illustrated in
this example
200 g
of water at 3 5 C is cooled to 1 2 C by 50 g of ice
What is the latent heat of the ice ?
T h e 2 0 0 g of water is cooled from 3 5 C to 1 2 C or through
23
C ; therefore the water gave up 2 0 0 X 2 3
4 60 0 calories
T he 50 g of ice at 0 C was changed to 50 g of water at 0 C
and then the 50 g of water was warmed from 0 to 1 2 C T his
warming of the 50 g of water from 0 C to 1 2 C required 50 X
1 2
60 0 calories
T he to tal heat recei v ed by the ice was 4 60 0 calories bu t 60 0
calories were required to warm the ice water T he di fference
60 0
4 60 0
4 00 0 calories was used to mel t 50 g of ice ; there
fore 4 00 0
8
0
calories
is
the
amount
of
heat
required
to
melt
0
5
1 g of ice
T h e latent heat of fusion of ice
80 calories
.
o u hav e been a s k e d to m ak e this expe r i m ent in o rd er th a t

N OT E
y ou might le a r n the common method o f n d ing the l atent he a t o f f usi o n
o f ic e
You cannot expe c t you r results to be accu r ate b e cause you h ave
n o t b een as k e d to t ak e a c count o f the he a t ga ins
; fo r exam ple the he a t
gaine d b y the cooling o f the calori m ete r an d the he at gaine d bec ause
som e water ( melte d ice) was adde d w ith the ice You may be satise d
i f your results are within 1 0 per cent o f the correct v alue
.
F O RM
Weight o f calo r imeter

Weight o f w ater
Weight o f ice
T h e l a ten t heat of
OF
g
.
f usion
of
RE P O RT
T em p
T em p
i ce
of
of
w ate r ,
beginning
w ate r en d
,
calo
ries p er gr am
6
5
P H Y S IC S
When we measure heat in calories as abo v e the laten t hea t of

fusion of ice is 80 calories per gram bu t when we measure heat i n
1 44 B T U per
B T U the latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 X
F
ound
reason
for
this
is
that
the
ahrenhei
t
degree
is
equal
T
h
e
p
to gof a centigrade degree and therefore there are gas many i n a
gi v en change of temperature
M ethod 2 I f the laboratory is no t equipped wi th a calorimeter
the laten t heat of fusion of ice ca n be determined wi th the apparatus
gi v en here
,
P a il , 3 - q t
T he r mometer
Me asuring cy lin d er
cc
1 00 0
I ce
M easure very carefully 2 0 00 c c ( 2 00 0 g ) of cold water then

pour i t into a 3 q t pai l and warm i t to abou t 3 5 C
B reak clear ice into lumps abou t the si z e of an egg and weigh
ou t very roughly 500 g of i t
T ake the temperature Of the water to 1 C ; dry the ice wi th
a towel and place i t i n the wa ter ; sti r until the ice is mel ted and
take the tempera ture to 1 C
M easure the water agai n and subtract 2 000 c c to nd the
weigh t of ice added
C alculate the la tent hea t of ice as shown in this example :
C is cooled to 1 0 C by 500 g
T wo thousand g of water a t
of ice W hat is the laten t heat of ice ?
to
therefore it
T he 2 00 0 g of wa ter was cooled from
gave up 2 0 0 0 X 2 2 5
4 50 0 0 calories of hea t to the ice
T he 500 g of ice a t 0 C was changed to 50 0 g of water at
0
C and then was warmed to 1 0 C T o warm 500 g of water
from 0 C to 1 0 C required 500 X 1 0
calories
of
heat
00
0
5
T he ice absorbed in all 4 50 0 0 calori es of hea t bu t of this 500 0
calories were required to warm the 500 g of water from 0 to
therefore the difi eren c e 4 50 0 0
calories
was
0
00
0
00
0
4
5
required to change 500 g of ice a t 0 C to 500 g Of water a t 0 C
We can say then :
.

To
melt
g of
500
to melt
ice
g of
ice
re quire d
4000 0
calo r ies
r e q ui re d
4 00 0 0
80
laten t heat of ice
T he
PH
YS I CS
c alories
00
5
calories
80
F O RM
RE P O RT
OF
Weight o f w ater
g T e m p o f water en d
C W eight of ice
T emp o f w ater beginning
L atent hea t o f ice
.
C
g
As stated above , when we measure hea t i n calories , the latent
hea t of ice is 80 calories per gram bu t when we measure hea t in

1 44 B T U
per pound
B T U i t i s 80 X
,
E x e r ci s e 1 9
e f rigerator s
E xamine the school refrigerator and make a diagram illustrating
the interior C onsul t page 1 0 3 P hy sics of the H ou s ehold
T est it as follows : E mpty the pan beneath the refrigerator
close the refrigerator for 1 0 or 1 2 hours and nd the weight of
water in the pan C alculate the number of B T U of hea t which
entered the refrigera tor per hour using the fact that 1 44 B T U
of heat are required to change 1 lb of ice at 3 2 F to 1 lb of water
C onsult page 1 3 5 P hysics of the H ou sehold
at 3 2 F
T o Com p ar e R e f rig e ra tor s
M ake the above test with two refrigerators at the same time
H om e E x e r ci s e
R epea t this test wi th the refrigerator i n y our own home and make
a written report
R
E x e r c i s e 20
Arti c ial R e f rige ration
As a class visi t a refrigeration plant and learn all you can abou t
i t L ocate the compressor condenser evaporator and the brine

circulating s y stem
M ake a rough diagram illustrating the system C onsul t p age
1 3 8 P hy sics of the H ou sehold
.
8
5
E xp e rim en t 20
L at e n t
h e at
of
I N P H Y S IC S
s te am
nd the number of calories of heat gi v en up when 1 g of

steam at 1 00 C changes to 1 g of water a t 1 0 0 C ; that is to
nd the latent heat of steam
To
F IG
B oile r
24
A ppar t s u se d
a u
to
m e a s u re
t h e l a tent hea t o f ste a m

T r i po d
burner
T he r m o m eter
B alance an d weights
W ater trap
C alorimeter
an d
F ill the boiler abou t half full of water and start i t

M ethod 1
heati ng
Weigh the i nner v essel of the calorimeter M ake some ice
water in a pail strain i t through a cloth to separate the ice and
weigh ou t abou t 2 0 0 g of the ice water in the calorimeter
When the steam i s issuing freely from the boiler attach the
water trap ; take the temperature Of the water i n the calorimeter
to 1 C (y o u will nd the ice water has warmed to abou t 5
.
P H Y S IC S
59
and then p lace the delivery tube from the water trap about 2 cm
below the surface of the water
C ontinue to pass steam into the water until the temp erature is
abou t 3 5 C
R emove the delivery tube and take the temperature of the
water to 1 C
Weigh the calorimeter and water again to determine the weigh t
of steam condensed in the water
I f there has been nei ther gain nor loss of heat we know that the
heat taken up by the water is that given up by the steam when i t
condenses from steam a t 1 0 0 C to water at 1 00 C and then
cools to the nal temperature We can calculate the amount of
heat taken up b y the water and this is the amount given up by
the steam
C alculate the latent heat of steam as shown i n this example :
C is warmed to 3 5 C by 1 0 g of steam
2 0 0 g of water a t 5
What is the latent heat of steam ?
T h e 2 0 0 g of water i s warmed from 5 C to 3 5 C or through
20 0 X 30
therefore
the
wa
ter
receives
from
the
steam
0
C
3
60 0 0 calories of heat
T h e 1 0 g of steam a t 1 0 0 C changed to 1 0 g of water at
C and then cooled to 3 5 C or through 6 5 C When the
1 00
of water at 1 00 C cooled through 6 5 C i t gave to the
10 g
water 1 0 X 6 5
650 calories of heat
T h e 1 0 g of steam gave up 600 0 calories i n all bu t 6 50 were
iven
up
in
cooling
therefore
6
6
0
calories
were
00
0
0
;
5
53 5
g
gi v en up in changing from steam at 1 0 0 C to water at 1 0 0 C
We can say then :
.
10
g
1
of
ste am gave up
53 50
g o f steam gav e up
c alo r ies in con d ensing
3
5
$
53 5
l r ies
ca o
10
latent heat of steam is 53 5 calories

calories
C
orrect
value
)
(
53 7
T he
r
e
p
6o
I N P H Y S IC S
N OT E You have m ad e this expe ri m ent in o rd e r to le a r n the comm on

You cannot expec t
method o f d etermi n ing the l aten t heat Of s t e am
you r results to b e corre c t be cau se y o u h ave no t been as ke d t o t ak e into
fo r exa mple the he at lost in warming t he
acco u nt the he a t losses ;
calo ri m ete r the heat lost b y t he cond ens a t ion o f the ste am b e fo re it
ente r s the wate r e tc You m ay b e satise d w ith you r results i f t hey
a re within 1 0 per cen t o f the t r u e value
.
F O RM
Weight o f calorimeter
OF
RE P O R T
T e m pe r ature
of
w ate r ,
end
C
Weight o f
l r imeter
w ate r
ca o
Weight o f w ate r
g
T empe r a tu r e o f wa te r begi n ning
L atent he at o f stea m
Weigh t o f calo r i m eter

s t ea m
Weigh t o f ste a m
C
calo r ies pe r g ram
w ate r
.
When we measure hea t in calories as abo v e the latent heat of

steam is 53 7 calories per g bu t when we measure hea t in B T U
the latent hea t of steam is 53 7 X g 9 66 B T U per pound
of
T he reaso n for this is tha t one F ahrenhei t degree is equal to
a centigrade degree and therefore there are gas many in any given
change of temperature
M ethod 2 I f the laborato ry i s no t equipp ed wi th a boiler ( F ig
2 4 ) and a calorimeter the latent hea t of steam can be found wi th
the app aratus listed below
,
S iru p
bo iler
B urner an d t ripod
Water trap
ca n
B al ance an d weights
T he rm o m ete r
T wo 3 q t pai ls
S tart
water hea ting in the boiler

I n a 3 q t pail cool some wa ter wi th snow or ice
Attach the coun terpoise weight to the left arm of the balance
at tach the second 3 q t pail to this and weigh the pai l then strain
into the p ail 1 000 g of ice water
.
LABORA T ORY COUR S E
FIG
25
S i m pler
pp ara t u s u se d
to
61
I N P H Y S IC S
me s re the l tent he t
a u
ste am
of
the temperature of the wa ter to 1 C ( i t will be at abou t

5 C ) and p ass steam i nto i t until i ts tem p erature i s abou t 3 5 C
K eep the delivery tube of the water trap abou t 2 cm below the
surface and stir the water continuously
T ake the tempera ture of the water to 1 C and then weigh
again to nd the weight of steam
C alculate the latent hea t of steam as shown in the following
example
by 50 g of steam
1 00 0 g
of wa ter at 5 C i s warmed to 3 5
What is the latent heat of steam ?
T h e 1 00 0 g of water is warmed from 5 to 3 5 or through
00
0
therefore the wa ter received 1 00 0 X 3 0
0
calories
of
heat
3
from the steam
T h e 50 g of steam a t 1 00 C changed to water at 1 0 0 C and
then cooled to 3 5 C When the 50 g of water cooled from 1 00 C
2
0
i t gave up 6 5 X 50
calories
of
to 3 5 C or through
3 5
heat
T h e to tal hea t from the steam was 3 00 0 0 calories bu t of this
T ake
'
LABORAT ORY COUR S E I N
62
P H Y S IC S
calories came from the steam water ; the di eren ce 3 00 0 0

2 6 7 50 calories was given up by 50 g Of stea m at 1 00
2
0
C
3 5
when i t condensed to water a t 1 00 C
We can say then
2 6 7 50 calo r ies
g
ste
in
on
d
ensing
ga
v
e
m
c
a
0
5
7
3
9
3
c
a
g
ste
a
m
in
on
d
ensing
g
v
e
1
53 5 calories
0
2
3 5
50
latent hea t of steam i s 53 5 calories

calories
true
value
is
T
h
e
)
7
(
53
T he
F O RM
Weight o f calorimeter
OF
RE P O R T
T empe r a t u re
o f water en d
,
W eight o f calorimeter
water
g
g
Weight o f ca lorimeter
s t eam
W eight o f steam
Weight o f w ater
T emperature o f w ate r beginni n g
w ate r
L atent hea t o f steam
ca l o ries per gr am
As ex p lained above when we measure hea t in calories the laten t

,
heat of steam is 53 7 calories p e r g bu t when we measure hea t

i n B T U the latent hea t of steam is 53 7 X
B
T
per
lb
6
6
U
9
.
E x e r c i s e 21
F uel s
F ind
the average weight of fuel used in the school range per day
and calculate th e cost per day C onsul t pages 1 52 1 53 P hysics
.
the H ou sehold
F ind
the a v erage amount of fuel used to hea t the school per day
and calculate the cost per day
R epea t this exercise in your o wn home and make a wri tten
report
.
N
I f you use co al n d the aver age weight o f a s cu t tle o f co al
an d the number o f scuttles use d pe r day an d c alculate f rom these the
OT E
.
P H Y S IC S
63
cost of the r ange f uel per day Also n d the ave r age weight o f a shovel
f ul of co al an d the ave rage number use d in the f u r nace per day then cal
cul at e from these the cost o f the f u r nac e f u el pe r day
I f y ou us e pet r oleum as f uel calcul ate the cost per d ay f rom the price
per gallon an d the average numbe r o f day s a gallon l as ts
I f you use ga s as f uel c alcul ate the cost pe r day fro m the number o f
cubic feet used per day an d the p r ice p er cubi c foot
I f you use woo d as fuel consi d er 1 co rd o f h a rd woo d to weigh 4 00 0
an d calcul a te the cost f rom the weight
lb an d 1 co rd o f pine 2 000 lb
o f wood use d pe r day
.
64
E L E CT R
I C I T Y AN D M AGN E T I S M
T he
P H Y S IC S
s im p e c
e ll
show that an electri c current is produced when two difi ere n t

metals are p laced i n a solu tion of a sal t or of an acid or of a base
To
tumblers
S trip hol d er
S alt
Ac i d so lution
S tic ks o f KOH o r N aOH
T wo
G alv ano m eter

S t r ips o f coppe r zin c le ad
a l u miniu m i ro n etc
Ro d o f c a r bo n
M ethod W a t er U se strips of metal about 4 in long and I in

wide
full of water
F ill the tumbler
U se copper and z inc connec t wi th the galvanometer and place
the strips in wa ter
R ep ea t wi th the ca rbon rod and z inc stri p
D o you no tice a deection of the galvanometer needle ? ( I f the
galvanometer i s suf cien tly sensi ti v e you will notice a small de
ec tio n
A galvanometer is used to detect and measure an electric
curren t )
L ift the strips ou t of the water and stir a small
S al t s olu tion
handful of table sal t in the wa ter
T ry the metals in pairs
D o two die re n t me tals i n the sal t solu tion produce a curren t ?
D o you no tice tha t the current is sometimes i n one direc tion and
sometimes i n the o ther ?
U se the carbon rod and the zinc strip and remember the di rec
tion in which the needle of the gal v anometer turns I n any elec
tric cell there are two di fferent metals and one me tal is less readily
di ssolved than the o ther
T he metal less readily di ssolved is
charged wi th posi tive electrici ty and is called the p osi tive pole ;
the o ther is charged wi th nega tive electrici ty and is called the
.
66
P H Y S IC S
IN
negative pole T he electric current ows through the wire from

the positi v e pole to the negati v e pole
I n the case of the ca rbon and zinc abo v e the current ows
through the wire from the carbon to the zinc I f any o ther pair
of metals turns the needle in the same direction as the carbon and
z inc you will know that the metal ta k ing the place of the carbon
is the p ositi v e pole and tha t taking the p lace Of the zi nc is the
negative p ole
Aci d s olution
Y ou will nd on the table a large bottle of
dilu te sulphuric acid ( 1 part acid poured i n to 60 parts water)
E mpty ou t the sal t solu tion rinse and ll the tumbler g full of
the acid solution
T ry the metals in pairs
( B e careful no t to get acid on your
clothes I t would be well to ha v e an empty tumbler at hand to
hold the stri p s after you ha v e used them )
D o two di eren t me tals i n the acid solu tion produce a current ?
P our the acid solu tion back in to the large
S oluti on of a b a s e
bottle rinse the tumblers and stri p s
f
F ill the tumbler 5
full
of
wa
ter
and
dissolve
in
i
t
a
stick
O
KOH
%
0 r N aOH abou t 1 inch long
D o two di f ferent metals in a solution of a base p roduce an elec tric
current ?
E mp ty ou t the solution and rinse the tumblers and strips
Y ou have shown that when two diff eren t metals are placed i n a
solution of a salt acid or base a current is produced in the wi re
j oining the metals I t has been found by exp eriment that when
an y two di f ferent meta ls are placed i n a solution of an y sal t acid
or base a current is produced in the wi re joi n ing the me tals
.

E xp e rim en t 22
T0
M agn e ts
st u d y the properties of permanent magnets
FIG
27
A pp r t s se d
a a u
to
ill u stra te t h e pr perties
of
perm
nent
nets
m ag
B u nsen b u rne r
B a r m agnet
P lie r s
T wo s e w ing nee d les
B a r o f s o f t i ron
Iron lings
T h re a d
P ieces o f i ron b r as s l ead a luminiu m woo d etc
T wo
m agnets
67
P H Y S IC S
M ethod H ow d oe s a magne t p oin t ? S uspend a magnet by

means of a string attached a t the middle or by means of a stirrup
in such a way that i t is free to turn C hoose a place where there
is no iron within 3 or 4 feet After the string has untwisted for
an hour observe the directi on of the magnet poles D o the poles
oi
nt
north
and
sou
th
?
p
Wh at s u b s tan c e s d oe s a m agn e t a ttrac t ? Apply a strong
magnet to pieces of iron steel brass lead aluminium wood etc
What substances does a magnet attract ?
Whi ch p ol e s attrac t each oth e r an d whi ch re p el ? Apply the
N pole of one magnet to the N and S poles of another R epeat
wi th the S pole Which poles of two magnets attract each o ther ?
Which repel ?
.
68
I N P H Y S IC S
make a p e rman e n t magnet U se an ordinar y sewi ng needle

about 1 % in long stroke i t 2 or 3 times from the eye to the poin t
wi th the N pole of a magnet D oes the needle pic k up iron lings
that is is i t a magnet ? F ind the poles of the needle as follows :
P lace the needle on the table and move the N pole of the magnet
along the table towards i t in a line at right angles to the needle
at the middle Which end of the needle is a N pole ? T he point
is the end last touched b y the N pole ; is i t a N pole or a S pole ?
S troke the same needle 3 or 4 times from ey e to poin t wi th the
R epeat the test wi th N and S pole of the
S pole of a magnet
magnet I s the end last touched b y the S pole a N or a S pole ?
H ave you reversed the poles of the needle ?
M agnetic in d uctio n P lace the needle used above on the table
and remember which end is the N pole and which the S ( test with
a magnet if necessary ) P lace a p iece of soft iron in front of the
N pole of a magnet and abou t in fro m i t M ove the soft iron
and magne t toward the needle i n a line at right angles to the needle
as above
?
Which pole N or S
D oes the soft iron become a magnet
does the end of the soft iron farthest from the N pole of the magnet
become ? Which pole does the nearer end become ?
1
P lace the soft iron : in in fron t 0 the S pole of the magnet and
repeat the experimen t Which pole N or S does the end of the
soft iron far thest from the S pole of the magnet become ? Which
?
ole
does
the
nearer
end
become
p
U se the needle you stroked
T h e e e ct of b r e akin g a m agn e t
wi th the poles of the magnet C over i t wi th iron lings and lift
i t ou t Are the lings most numerous at the ends ?
T est wi th a magnet to make sure which end of the needle is the
N p ole and which the S pole then break the needle into two
ieces
C
over
each
piece
wi
th
lings
A
re new poles formed ?
p
P lace the pieces on the table and test wi th a magne t to determine
which of the new poles is N and which S
H ave two new magnets been made b y breaking the needle ?
To
'

B reak
one of the pieces again
I N P H Y S IC S
69
Are two more new magnets
made ?
e ff ect o f h ea ting a magnet M agnetize the second needle
strongly b y stro k ing i t 3 or 4 times wi th the N pole of the magnet
I s i t strongly magnetized ?
D ip the needle in i ron lings
H old the needle with a pair of pliers and heat the ends red ho t
in turn P lace the needle in lings I s i t a magnet ?
R emagneti z e the needle and repeat
R ead up in the text boo k on the theory that each molecule of
iron or steel is a magne t D o these experiments support this
theory
The
O
7
E x p erimen t 23
M agnetic
el d s
trace the magnetic lines of force in magnetic elds
To
F IG
P H Y S IC S
A pp r t
28
a a us
B ar m agnet
U sed
r e t he
to t a c
neti c lines
m ag
neti c el d s
fo rc e in
m ag
So ft
i ron b ar
I ron lings in S i ft er
S mall compass
ho rseshoe magnets
G lass pla t e
T wo
Method P lace a bar magnet on the table and p lace over i t a

S heet of glass
S ift i ron lings ( from a c hees eclo th b ag or from a
T ap the glass until the lings are
S ifter ) evenly over the glass
i n curved lines T he lings trace ou t magnetic lines of force in
the plane of the glass
P lace a small com p ass a t difi e ren t positions on the glass where
the lines are distinct D oes the needle take a p osi tion para llel
to the lines of force i n each p osition ?
A magnetic line of force is assumed to run from N to S outside
the magnet and from S to N inside the magnet D oes the N po le
of the compass point i n the direction the lines of force run ?
R epeat thi s ex p eriment but use a horse
H or s e sh oe m agne t
shoe magnet i nstead o f a bar magnet
.
P H Y S IC S
D oes
the N pole of the com p ass point in the direction the lines
of force run ?
M agn e tic in d u ction P lace a bar of soft iron (3 in in diameter
or larger and about 2 in longer than the poles of the magnet are
apart ) across the poles Of the horseshoe magnet bu t abou t 2 in
from the poles S ift lings o v er the glass and nd the magnetic
lines Of force as above D o you notice that man y magnetic lines
Of force run from the N pole to one part of the soft iron bar and
then from the other part of the bar bac k to the S pole ? Also that
there are no magneti c lines of force beyond the soft iron bar ?
T his shows that the lines p ass through iron more readil y than
they do through air
P lace two horseshoe magnets 2 in apart on the
T wo magn e ts
table wi th the S pole of the rst opposi te the N pole of the second
and N pole of rst opposi te S pole of second T race the magnetic
line of force wi th lings as above D o you no tice that the lines
of force run from each N pole to both S poles ?
P lace the two horseshoe magnets 2 in apart on the table with
N p ole of rs t opposi te N pole of second and S pole of rst opposite
T race the lines of force wi th iron lings as above
S pole of second
D o you no tice that the magnetic lines of force starting a t the
N pole of each magne t return to the S pole of the same magnet
and that the magneti c lines of force of one magne t appear to
rep el those of the o ther ?
.
L ABORA T ORY COUR S E IN
E x p erim e n t 24
M agne ti c
s tudy the magnetic

magnet and the solenoid
To
e fi ec t
ele ctric c urr e n t
of an electric curren t the electro

,
29
e e c t of an
P H Y S IC S
A pp r t s se d t ill u str te : t h e
d the so len i d
gnet
a a u
the ele c tro m a
an
cell
Compass
Iron lings
D ry
neti c
m ag
e ec t o f an
ele c tri c
cu
rrent
S o ft
iron b ar
S o ft i ron ho r seshoe
T wo pie ces o f insul ate d w i r e 2 fee t
long and one piece 8 fee t long
M ethod Attach wires 2 feet long to the poles of a dry cell

P lace a compass on the table and lay one wire over the compass
ri
ng
the
bare
ends
of
the
wires
together
r
ll
t
t
h
e
n
l
e
B
a
l
o
a
e
ee
d
p
for an instant
.
N OT E
Wh en using a dry cell do not allow the curren t to run longer
tha n 1 0 or 2 0 seco nd s a t one ti m e
.
the electric current a ma gnetic e ffect that is does it make

the compass needle move ?
T est the following rule which enables us to determine the re
lation between the direction of the curren t and the direction of
the magnetic line s of f orce produced by the curr ent
H as

R
oin
U LE :
Gras p the
wire in the
tin g in the direction the
right
cu rren
P H Y S IC S
han d with the
t ows
the
73
thu mb
ex ten ded
n gers then
oin t
in
rce a bou t the wi re

f
o
of
f
T o test this rule you must remember :
hat
the
electric
curren
t
is
assumed
to
ow
in
the
direction
1
T
( )
the
electricit y mo v es ; in this case from the carbon p ole Of the
dry cell through the wire to the zinc pole
f
O
hat
a
magnetic
needle
places
i
tself
parallel
to
the
lines
2
T
( )
force of a magnetic eld wi th i ts N pole i n the direc tion the lines run
T est the rule as follows :
P lace the wire from the carbon pole o v er the compass parallel
to the needle
( 1 ) Wi th the current owing from N to S
Wi
th
the
current
owing
from
S
to
N
2
)
(
P lace the wire from the carbon p ole under the comp ass p arallel
to the nee dle
Wi
th
the
current
owing
from
N
to
1
S
( )
Wi
th
the
curren
t
owi
ng
from
to
N
S
2
( )
D oes the rule gi v e you the direction of the magnetic lines of force
in each case that is the direction the N pole turns ?
F old one wire and pass the current over the needle i n both
directions at once ; be sure tha t the folded m m 1 5 exactly p arallel
to the needle I s the e ffect zero ? T hat is does the magnetic
eld abou t one fold of the wire exactly counteract the magnetic
eld abou t the other ?
P ass the current o v er and under the needle
I s the eff ect
greater than when the current passes only in one direction ? Apply
the rule to each part of the curren t to determine whether the
magnetic elds of each part of the curren t tend to turn the needle
i n the same direction
L oop the wi re 3 or 4 times abou t the compass p arallel to the
needle I S the e ff ect of the curren t still greater ?
T o d e t erm in e th e d ire ction o f an u n know n c urre n t
H ide the
dry cell b ehind a book and bring the wir es out from under the
the direction
the m agn etic lin es
74
P H Y S IC S
book N o tice the di rection the curren t moves the needle and
use the rule to determine the di rection the current is o wing i n
the wire P ractice thi s a number of times and check your results
by fo llowing the wire back to the cell
.
E L E C T R OMA G N E T
T0
make an electromagnet wind a bar of soft iron wi th 50 turns

Of insulated wire ( y ou will need about 8 feet of wire for a bar 3 in
in diameter )
H old one end of the bar near iron lings and p ass a current
through the wire I s the bar a magnet ?
S top the current
I s the bar a magnet ?
A bar of soft iron wound with insulated wire in this way is an elec
tromagn et and the important property of an elec tromagne t is that
i t is a magne t only when the curren t is owing through the wire
T he followi ng rule enables us to nd the N pole of an electro
magnet when we know the direction in which the current is owing
R U L E : G ras p the electromagn et in the right ha n d with the n gers
,
oin tin g
in the direction the
tend ed thu mb then
cu rren t
poin ts to the
n orth
is
owin g
ole
of
i n th e wire
the
the
ex
electromagn et
T est
this rule as follows : P lace the electromagnet on the table

at right angles to a compass needle and abou t 2 in from i t P ass
the current through the wire rst i n one direc tion and then in the
o ther D oes the rule gi v e the N pole of the electromagnet i n
each case ?
Wind a soft i ron horseshoe wi th the wire to make a horseshoe
electromagnet P lace the ends near iron lings and p ass the
curren t through the wire I s the horseshoe a magnet ?
S top the current
I s the horseshoe a magnet ? T est the rule
for nding the N p ole
.
S OL E N OI D
M ake a solenoid by wi nding a do z en turns
encil
p
Of
wire on a lea d
R emove the coil from the p encil and place i t on the table
P H Y S IC S
75
near a compass an d at righ t angles to the needle P ass the current

through the coil I s the coil a magne t ?
A coil of wire wi th a current passing through i t is called a s ole
; i t is a magnet but wea k er than an electromagnet of the
n or
same si z e
T est the rule for nding the N pole of an electromagnet on the
solenoid D oes i t enable you to nd the N pole of the solenoid
when y ou know the direction the current is owing through the
wire ?
.
P H Y S IC S
a
r
g
e
l
l
b
c
i
c
e
l
0
g
n
i
a
r
p
p

E xp erimen t 25
T0
App lications
of
th e
I N P H YS I C S
le c trom agne t
study the electric bell and the telegraph

E le ct r i c
bell
P ush b u tton
T W O dry cells
77
.
insul ate d wi res

feet long
T w o insula te d w i r es 8 feet long
T w o teleg r aph soun de r s
S ix
T wo
k ey s
As we continue our study of electrici ty we shall nd tha t when
i t is necessar y to mo v e an y thing in or wi th an electrical appliance

an electromagn et is almost always used to produce the movement
T HE
E L E C TR
B E LL
M ethod Join an electric bell to a dry cell and push button i n

such a way that the bell rings when the bu tton is pressed D o you
nd the electromagnet ?
T race the path of the curren t through the bell
S tudy the bell to nd ou t why i t continues to ring as lo n g as
the bu tton is pressed C onsult the text book if necessary
M ake a diagram of the bell i n your note book showing the p ath
of the curren t through the bell
.
T H E T E LE
G RA P H
oin
a
sounder
to
a
dry
cell
and
key
in
such
a
way
that
the
J
sounder sounds when the key is p ressed D o you nd the electro
magnet ?
F ollow the current through the sounder and key
When us ing a dry cell d o not a ll ow the current to run for

N OT E
long at a tim e
L et two groups of student s join two such stations by two line
wi res in such a way that each station has a sou nder key and cell
and that both sounders sound when ei ther key is p ressed the o ther
key being closed
M ake a diagram i n your note book of two telegraph stations
connected b y two line wires each station being equipped wi th
sounder key and cell S ee text if necessary
.
8
7
E x e rci s e 22
C ircuit
L oca te the push
E xa m ine the electric doorbell Of the school
button battery and bell and draw on paper the path whi ch the
wires should take to connect these properly C onsul t p age 1 7 8
.
B e ll
I N P H Y S IC S
P hysics
the H ousehold
of
N ow follow the w ires to determine whether they are as you have
drawn them
U nscrew the top of the p ush button and make a diagram of
the interior C onsul t page 1 7 9 P hysics of the H ou seho ld
R emove the box of the bell and make a diagram of the wiring
C onsul t p age 1 7 8 P hysics of the H ou sehold
What typ e of cell is used in the battery ? C onsul t p ages 1 64
.
6 7 , P hysics
the H ousehold
H o m e E x e rci s e
of
epeat these exercises wi th the electri c bell i n your home and

make a wri tten re p ort
R

E xp erime n t 26
To
E le c tri c
m otor
1 N P H Y S IC S
79
study the electric motor
F ig 1
F ig 2
F ig 3
i agram s show in g the d e m o nstra ti o n m o t or arran ged in F ig 1 as a m o t r

w ith perm anent m agnets in t h e el d m agnet ; in F ig
as a s h u nt w o u n d m o t o r w it h
in F ig 3 as a series wou n d m o t or w it h an
an ele c tro m agnet f r t h e el d m agnet ;
ele ctrom agnet f r t h e el d m agnet
FIG 3 1
.
moto r
2,
D ry
Co m pass
.
D em onst r ation
M ethod
called the
called the
ell
rm ature T he moving p art of the motor is

the spli t ring on one end of the armature is
a rm atu re ;
comm u tator; and the magnets or magnet are called the
T he
eld m agn ets or magn et
C onnect a dry cell B wi th the mo tor as shown in F ig 1 above

D oes the armature revol v e ?
D isconnect one wire place the armature in a position parallel
to the magnets and move the permanent magnets back F ollow
the path of the current : from the carbon pole of the cell to the
brush commu tator section around the armature to the second
commu tator section to the second brush and back to the z inc
pole of the cell
U se the rule for nding the N pole of an electromagnet to nd
.
80
1 N P H Y S IC S
the N pole of the armature C heck thi s by testing wi th a com

pass wi th the current owi ng through the armature
N ow move the N pole of the armature through 3 turn and test
i t again wi th the compass I s i t now a S pole ? Why ?
D O the armature poles change each half revolution ?
T hat is
is each end of the armature a N pole in o ne half turn and a S pole
i n the other half turn ? Where are the ends of the arma ture when
the change is made ?
C onnect the cell and no tice the direction in which the armature
revolves R e v erse the direction of the current I s the direc tion
the armature re v ol v es reversed ? W hy ?
C onnect the cell and no tice the direc tion
T h e e l d m agnet
the armature revol v es
I s the direc tion th e armatu re re v ol v es
R e v erse bo th magnets
reversed ? Why ?
R e v erse one magnet only to make the ends near the arma ture
ei ther both N or both S D oes the arma ture re vol v e ? Why ?
M ake one pole near the armature N and the o ther S M o v e
each pole back 2 in and connect the cell D oes the armature
revol v e as rapidly when the magnetic eld is weakened ?
M ove the magnets back and attach the electromagnet ( eld
magne t ) as shown in F ig 2 connect the cell and notice the dire c
tion the armature re v olves
U se the rule for nding the N pole of an electromagnet to nd
the N pole of the eld magnet C heck this with a compass D o
you understand from this why the armature re v ol v es in the direc
tion i t does ?
I S the direction the arma
R everse the direction of the current
ture re v olves reversed ? Why not ? I s i t because the curren t is
re v ersed in both the armature and the eld magnet ?
C onnect the cell and notice the direction in which the arma ture
revol v es T hen re v erse the direction of the current in the eld mag
net only by connecting the eld magnet wires to the opposite bind
ing posts I s the direction i n which the arma ture revolves reversed ?
.
IN
81
P H Y S IC S
the path of the curren t from the carbon pole Of the cell
to the rst binding post of the mo tor D O you no tice that the
curren t divides here and that par t of i t goes through the armature
and p art through the eld magnet ? T hese parts uni te at the
second binding pos t and return to the zinc p ole of the cell When
a curren t is di v ided i n this way each part i s called a s hu n t of the
o ther A mo tor arranged i n this way is called a s hu n t wou n d
mo tor
C onnec t the eld magnet as shown in F ig 3 F ollow the path
of the curren t D o you notice tha t the current ows through
the armature and eld magne t one after the other that is in
s eries ?
A mo tor arranged in this way is called a s eries wou n d
motor
C onnect the cell and no tice the direction the armature revol v es
R everse the direction of the current
I s the direction the arma
ture re v olves reversed ? Wh y no t ? I s i t because the current i s
reversed i n bo th the armature and the eld magnet ?
R everse the direction of the current through the eld magnet
o n ly as follows : D isconnect the eld magnet wire from the bind
i ng post and connect the other eld magnet wire to this p ost
C onnec t the cell I s the direction i n which the armature revolves
reversed ? Why ?
F ollow
E x e r cis e 23
M o tor s
E l e ctric
E xamine
one or more of the school motors and identify th e

eld magnet armature brushes and commu tator or rings if th e
motors ru n on alternating curren t C onsul t page 1 83 P hysics
,
of
the
H ou s ehold
E xami ne
the name plate on each motor and learn the vol tage
for which i t is made and the amper age of the current i t uses
C alculate the power of the current in wat ts and horse power ,
rememberi ng that : watts
vol ts X amperes and that 7 4 6
watts
horse pow e r C onsul t pages 2 0 8 2 1 0 P hysics of the
1
.
H ou sehold
82
I N P H Y S IC S
C alculate the number of 4 0 -watt tungsten lamps which could

be lighted wi th the current used in the motor
F ind the cost of the ci ty curren t per kilowatt hour and calc u late
the cost of running each mo tor for one hour
H o m e E x e rc i s e
R epeat this exercise wi th the electric motor in your home and
make a wri tten report
.
E xer ci s e 24
E le c tri c H e atin g an d Cookin g Appli an c e s
E xamine
one of each t y pe of electric hea ting and cooking ap

n ce s in the school and l ea rn as much as y ou can abou t how
l
i
a
p
each is heated C onsul t pages 1 87 1 9 1 P hysics of the H ou sehold

E xamine the name plate on each to learn the vol tage amperage
and watts of the curren t used
N OT E
I n some cases t he am perage is gi ven an d in othe r s the watts
C alcula te the watts of the curren t used i n each ap p liance ( watts
vol ts X amperes ) and then calculate the number of 4 0 watt
tungsten lamps which could be lighted wi th the current used in
each
F ind the cost of the ci ty current p er k ilowa tt hour and calcula te
the cost of running each appliance for 1 hour and for 1 0 hours
C onsult page 2 0 9 P hy sics of the H ou sehold
H om e E xerci s e
R epeat this exercise wi th the electric hea ting and cooking ap
i
n
e
l
a
c
s in your home and make a wri tten re p ort
p
.
E x erci s e 25
L i gh tin g
T race the p ath of the electric ligh t wires from the p oint a t which
they enter the school to the s witch box and if possible some
distance along each branch
M ake a diagram of this part of the lighting circuit and S how on
i t the mai n swi tch the fuses the meter the main wires and the
branch wires C onsul t page 2 1 5 P hysics of the H ou sehold
H om e E x e r cis e
R epea t this exercise wi th the electric light wires in your home
.
E l e c tri c

F rom
P H YS I CS
83
the price of the cit y current per k ilowatt hour calculate

the cost per hour of the current used in one electric light in your
home
M ake a wri tten report on this work
-
N OT E
C arbon l am ps of 1 6 candle power use elec tric cur r ent a t
abo u t the r a te o f 55 w atts ; t u ngste n l am ps a re u su all y m a rk e d 2 5 w a tt s
4 0 w atts 6 0 wa tts e t c acco rd ing to the r a te a t whi ch the y u se cu rr ent
.
ead your electric current meter once each mo nth for six months
record the date and readi ng and compare your readi ngs wi th those
sent in by the electric light company
R
84
E xp e rimen t 27
P H Y S IC S
E le c troly s i s , E l e ctro p latin g,
an d th e s tor ag e c ell
To
study electrolysis and to S how how i t is appl ied i n electro

p lating and i n the storage cell
.
tumblers
D ilute H 280 4 ( 1
Concent r ate d solution o f
On e co ppe r strip
On e ca r bon ro d
T wo
lea d strips
E lectric bell
C o mpass
T wo dry cells
S trip hol d er
T wo
Cu S O4
E LE C T RO L Y S I S
M ethod Attach two copper wires to a dry cell and dip the
clean bare ends i n dilu te sulphuric acid D o you no tice tha t
bubbles of gas are formed on one end bu t none at all on the
o ther ? D O the bubbles appear on the anode ( the way in ) or on
the cathode ( the wa y ou t ) ?
When H 280 4 is dissol v ed in water i t breaks up i nto p ositively
charged H ions and negati v ely charged
ions When a current
i s passed through this solution the H ions mo v e wi th the cur
rent and are liberated a t the cathode ( these are the bubbles
you see ) ; the
ions move i n the opposi te direction and are
liberated a t the anode I n this case the anode is copper and the
ions u ni te wi th i t to form Cu S O4 and for this reason no bub
bles app ear
P lace the bare ends of the Copper wire in a concentrated solu
tion of Cu S O4 D o y ou notice bubbles on either the cathode o r
the anode ? After the curren t has ru n for one minu te examine
the ca thode and the anode Whi ch has received a bright covering
of Copper ?
When C u 804 i s dissolved in water i t breaks up into posi tively
charged C u ions and negati v ely charged
ions When a current
is p assed through this solu tion the C u ions move wi th the current
and are deposi ted on the cathode ( this is the bright coating of
copper ) ; the
ions move i n the opposite direction and are
dep osited on the anode as explained above
.
'
P H Y S IC S
e
(
86
1 N P H Y S IC S
E L E CT R OP L A T I N G
P lace
a copp er strip and a carbon rod in a concentrated solu tion

of Cu S O4 ; connect the copper plate wi th the carbon pole of a dry
cell and the carbon rod wi th the z inc pole Allow the curren t to
run for two minutes and exami ne the ca rbon rod
.
I n t hese expe r i m e nts y o u m us t a llo w t he c u rr ent f rom the

N OT E
dry c ells t o ru n fo r t wo an d t h re e m inu tes T his uses up the cells very
r apid l y a n d f o r this r easo n a n d o the r s it w ill be ne cess ary to purch ase
n e w dry c ells e a ch y e ar
Is
the carbon rod plated wi th copper ?

R everse the curren t and allow i t to run for two or three minu tes
I s the co pp er remo v ed from the carbon rod ?
T HE
S T O R AG E
C E LL
two lead plates ( 1 i n by 4 i n ) i n dilu te sul p huri c acid and

connect them with two dry cells joined i n series Allow the curren t
to run for three minutes and then disconnect the dry cells and
connec t the storage cell wi th an electri c bell H as the storage ce ll
been charged ? C onsult your text book and answer these ques
tions :
Wha t gases appear at the ca thode and anode ?
Wha t substances are formed on the cathode and anode when
the storage cell is charged ?
D ir e ction of c h ar gi n g an d d i s ch argin g cu rr e nts
C onnect the
dry cells wi th the storage cell agai n for one half minu te and with a
compass nd the direc tion of the charging current ( check b y follow
ing the wi re to the dry cells ) D isconnect the dry cells and nd
the direction of the discharging currents of the storage cell b y
means of the compass
D o the chargi ng current and the discharging current ow in
Op p osite dir ections ?
P lace

E xp e rim e n t 28
M eas u rem en t
of
PH
Y S IC S
r e s is tan ce
87
learn how to measure resistance by means of a Wheatstone
To
bridge
FIG
33
T wo
D i agra m
dry cells
ill u stra tin g t h e prin ciple
t h e W he a tst one b ri d ge
of
D Arson v al gal vanometer
Key
Wh eatst o ne b r i d ge
esist ance box

On e y ard
30 G
R
S w ire
.
principle of the Wheatstone bridge is illustrated i n F ig 3 3

T he curren t from the
T here are four resistances R X m and n
battery ows to A and divides ; one part I 1 ows through the
resistances R and X and the o ther part 1 2 through the resistances
T h e two parts uni te at B and ow back to the battery
m and n
T here is a continual fall i n potential from A to B along both
branches of the circui t and if we choose some point C in the branch
A C B there must be some poin t D in the branch A D B which
is at the same potential as C I f these points C and D are con
n ec t ed through a galvanometer G there is no curren t through the
galvanometer because C and D are at the S ame po tential When
these points C and D are found the ratio of the resistance X to
the resistance R is the same as the ratio of the resistance n to
the resistance m or
I
n
X
( )
T he
then R m and n are known resistances the resistance of X

can be calculated
T wo dry
T h e apparatus y ou will use is illustrated in F ig 3 4
If
88
P H Y S IC S
IN
R is
cells are connected through a ke y K to the points A and B
a known resistance ( a resistance box or a coil of known resistance )
X is the un k nown resistance
m D n is a piece of #3 0 G erman sil
ver wi re 1 meter long stretched
o v er a meter stick G is a
D Ars o n v al gal v anometer wi th
one terminal connected a t C
and wi th the o ther terminal D
D i gr m o f t h e sli d e w ire b ri d ge
F IG 34
free to S lide along the wire m n
f w ire
u se d to m e s u re t h e resist n e
T he resistances of m and n are
proportional to their lengths which are read on the meter s tick
T h e curren t from the dr y cells enters at A and di v ides
P art
of i t ows through R and X and part of i t through m and n
When a poi nt D is found such that there i s no current through the
galvanometer we can calculate X by i nserti n g R m and n i n
M ethod I nsert 1 yard of #3 0 G erman sil v er wi re a t X and a
P lace the sliding poin t D at the 50 cm mark
resistance box at R
R emove the 1 ohm p lug from the resistance box R close the key and
Obser v e the direction the gal v anometer needle turns
R epeat
wi th the 1 0 ohm plug remo v ed and if the gal v anometer needle
turns in the opposi te direction you know the resistance i s be tween
1 and 1 0 Ohms
T ry plugs between 1 and 1 0 until the deec tion
is sma ll and then Ob ta i n the point of no deection by moving D
back and forth When this poin t is found measure m and n
and the resistance R
I nsert these values in ( 1 ) and calc u late X
M easure the resistance of 1 y ard of #3 0 iron wire i n the same
wa y
F O RM OF RE P O R T
.
GER MA
Resist ance R
L eng t h Of m
L ength Of n
R esist ance X
S ILV
ER
I R ON

E xp e rim e n t 29
m e th o d
I N P H Y S IC S
e s i s tan ce m easure d
by
89
v o ltm e te ramm e ter
nd the resis tance of a number of appliances by the volt

meter ammeter me thod
T o nd the electrica l power used in each appliance
T o nd the eicien cy of a water heating appliance
To
i agram s h owin g how to arran ge the ap p ara t u s to m e asu re the resist an ce

ele c tri c app li a n c es an d the ele c tri l po w er u se d in t h e m
FIG
of
ca
Voltm eter
Amm eter
E lectric i ro n stove water he ater
B al a n c e
( gram)
Vessel
T he r m o m eter
e tc
M ethod R e si s tan c e C onnect the electric iron with the am

meter v ol tmeter and power circui t as shown in F ig 3 5 R ead
the E M F in vol ts and the curren t in amperes
U se Ohm s
law ( amperes
volts
ohms) to calculate the resistance of the
iron in ohm s R ep eat wi th the stove
.
O
9
P ow e r
P H Y S IC S
T he
electri cal p ower used in any app liance in watts

is found by multiplying the current i n amperes by the E M F
in volts that is watts
amperes X vol ts
U se the resul ts ob tained above to calculate the electri cal power
used in each appliance
T h e emcien cy of a wa t er h e a te r
Weigh a vessel of abou t 1
li ter capaci ty M ul tiply this weight by the specic heat of the
me tal of which the vessel is made
for copper 1 1 for iron )
to nd the number of calories of hea t requi red to warm the v essel
1
C
t hi s is called the water equ ivalen t of the vessel
Add 500 g of ice water i nsert the water hea ter and stir w i th
the thermometer con tinuously obser v e and record the exact time
when the water is 1 5 C below room temperature ; also record the
exact time when i t i s 1 5 C above room temperature R ecord
the volts and amperes at the low tem p erature and a t the high
tem p era ture
F rom the average vol tmeter and ammeter rea dings calculate
the p ower in watts
N ow by Joule s law the heat i n calories produced by a curren t
watts X 2 4 X seconds C alculate the hea t in calories gi v en
by the cu rrent to the wa ter heater
inpu t
T he heat in calories which the water recei v ed
( weight of water
water eq u ivalent ) X change in tem p erature C alculate the
number of calori es received by the water
ou tpu t
w
c
a ter
alories r ecei v e d b
t
y
M
E i cre n cy
in put
ca lories gi v en b y current
C alculate the e f ciency Of the water heater
.
F O RM
I ron
S tov e
OL S
T
OF
RE P O R T
AMF E R ES
RES I ST AN CE
WA TTS
L ABORA T ORY COUR S E IN

VOL
TS
PH
YS I C S
AMP ER ES
Wate r he ate r begin nin g

Wate r he ate r en d
,
,
Ave r age
D i f fe rence
Weight o f c alo r im eter

W ater e q uiv alent o f calo r i m ete r
Weight o f w ater
W ate r
w ater e q ui v alent
Ch ange o f te m pe r at u re
C alo r ies pro d uce d b y current
C alories receive d by w ater
E i c ie n cy
a
v
g
o
s
o
1
9
2
9
E xp erim e n t 30
Ce lls
co
nn e cte d
in
PH
eri e s
Y S IC S
an
in
p arall e l
nd the electromoti v e force in v olts of cells connected in

series and in parallel
To
F i v e dry
ells
Voltmeter
M ethod C onnect one dry cell wi th a vol tmeter What is the

i n volts ?
C e ll s in s e rie s C onnec t two cells in series and connect them
wi th the v ol tmeter What is the E M F Of two cells in series ?
of 3 4 5 etc dry cells joined
I n the same way nd the
in series
C ells in pa rallel C onnect two cells in parallel and conn ect
them wi th the voltmeter What is the
of two cells in
parallel ?
I n the same way nd the E M F of 3 4 5 etc cells in parallel
of n cells i n series e q ual to n times the
of
I s the
one cell ?
of n cells in parallel equal to the
of one
I s the
cell ?
F O R M OF RE P O R T
.
ell
o f 2 dry cell s
o f 3 dry cells
o f 4 d ry cells
O f 5 d ry c e lls
E M F
E M F
.
dry
IN S
Of 1
ER ES
I
volts
vol t s
volts
volts
volts
IN P
A R A LL EL
volts
volts
vol t s
vo lts
vo l t s

E xp erim e n t 3 1
To
In d u c e d curr en ts
stud y induced currents
36
C o il
a a u
to
ill u stra te in d u c e d
D Arso n v al ga lv ano m eter
cu
rrents
ell
E lectrom agnet
D ry
T wo m agnets
93
A p p r t s se d
1 N P H Y S IC S
M ake a coil abou t
in in diameter by winding about 1 5 feet of

#2 2 insulated wire about two ngers held apar t and connect i t
wi th a delicate gal v anome ter
P ush the north pole of a p ermanen t magnet into the coil
Is a
current produced ?
Allow the magnet to remai n in the coil
D oes the current con
2
tin u e ?
P ull
the north pole ou t of the coil I s there a current produced ?

I n what direction ?
i
n
h
r
d
u
e
d
S trength of
o
c
t
P ush a magnet p ole
e coil
p
.
94
in to the coil Slowly and then rapidly
P H YS I C S
Which produces the greater
e ec t ?
H old
together the like poles of two magnets and push them into
the coil I s the e ff ect grea ter than that p roduced by one magnet
?
ole
p
Len z s La w states that
D ire ction of E M F p r o d uc e d in co il
.
the direction
of
that its m agn etic
the
cu rren
d
r
o
u
c
e
d
p
eld oppos es
T est
by in duction is always such

the motion of the thin g producin g it
.
this as follows I n order to know the direction of the in

du ce d current i n the coil we must know how the galvanometer
needle turns when the current enters the galvanometer through
one binding post or the o ther T o nd this connect the gal v a
n o m e ter with a dry ce ll ( through a high resistance to avoid damag
ing the gal v anometer ) and notice the direction the needle moves
We know the curren t from the dry cell comes from the carbon pole
B y noticing the binding post through which the current from the
dry cell enters the gal v anometer and the direction the needle
moves we can afterwards tell the direction of any current which
enters the galvanometer
C onnect the coil wi th the galvanome ter P ush the north pole
of the magnet in to the coil I s the current pro duced i n the coil
i n such a direction as to make the top of the coil a north pole
n
and
thus
to
o
ose
the
dow
ward
mo
t
i
on
of
t
h
rule
age
e
)
4
(
p
p
7
p
north p ole of the magnet ?
I s the dir ce
P ull the north pole of the magnet out of the coil
tion of the induced curren t in the coil such as to make the top of
the coil a south pole and thus to o pp ose the u p ward mo tion of
the north p ole of the magnet ?
T est the direc tion of the curren ts p roduced by the sou th pole
in the same way
F ind the
I n du ce d curre n ts produ c e d b y an e le ctro m agn e t
north p ole of an electromagnet ( rule page 7 4 ) and push i t into
the coil D oes i t act i n the same way as a permanen t magnet ?
P lace th e electromagnet in the coil and then s tart and stop the
.
1 N P H Y S IC S
95
curren t in the electromagnet I s the effect the same as though

the electromagne t were moved into and ou t Of the coil ? I s the
direction of the i nduced current in the coil opp osi te to that in the
electromagnet when the curren t is sta rting in the electromagnet
and in the same direction when the current in the electromagnet
is stopping ? I s an induced current produced i n the coil when
the curren t in the electromagnet is nei ther starting nor stopping
bu t is running steadily ?
.
F O RM
OF
RE P O R T
is an in d uce d cu r rent p ro d uce d ?

Is the eect gre ate r o r less when the m agnet is move d q uic kl y ?
Is the e ect gre ater when two m agnets a r e use d ?
M ak e d iagrams in y our note boo k showing the direction o f the in
Mak e two d i agrams
du ced current p ro d uce d in the co il b y the magnet
for the N pole an d two for the S pole
H ow
6
9
E x p erim en t 3 2
To
Applica tio n s
IN
P H Y S IC S
in d u ce d c urren ts
of
study the magneto dynamo and induction coil

,
M agneto
D y n am o
Motor
I ncand escent l amp
Ind uc tion coil

T wo dry cells
G alv ano m ete r
F ou r sp ik es fo r h andles
Iron
w i re
30
L et the Class be di v ided into three groups and let each group
work one third of the period wi th each appliance
.
M AG N E T O
M ethod C onnect two metal handles to the magn eto binding

osts
by
means
of
wires
and
let
each
student
i
n
turn
hold
the
p
handles while ano ther operates the magneto C an the curre nt be
fel t ?
I n order that a current may be fel t i t is necessa ry that the
electromoti v e force in v ol ts of the current be high I n the
text book we l ear n tha t the elec tromo ti v e force of an induced
current depends u p on : the strength of the magnetic eld the
number of turns of wire on the coil and the s p eed wi th which the
magnetic lines of force are cu t
R emo v e the magnets and examine the interior
I s the electro
motive force of the i nduced current high for the following reasons :
( I ) a strong magnetic eld is produced by four or ve strong
magnets ;
( 2 ) there are many turns of wi re on the revolving coil ( the
armature ) ;
3 ) the coil is so geared that i t can be revolved rapidly
T urn the coil w i thou t the magnets
C an a current be fel t ?
Wh y ? R ep lace the magnets and connect the magneto wi th the
2 5 tu rn coil of a gal v anometer
T urn the handle slowly and
observe whether the curren t is direct or alternating
.
IN
PH Y S IC S
97
r
i
n
a
n
i
8
9
D Y NA
1 N P H Y S IC S
MO
C onnect a hand power dynamo wi th an incandescent lamp of sui t

able v ol tage and amperage T urn the handle and light the lamp
I n this case the mechanical energ y supplied by your arm is
transformed into electrical energ y in the dynamo and this in turn
is transformed into ligh t and heat energy i n the lamp
While one student is operating the d y namo let ano ther turn
the lamp on and o ff I s more energy required to drive the dynamo
when the light is on than when i t is o ? W hy ?
D isconnect the lamp and join the two wires from the d y namo
by means of a piece of #3 0 iron wi re abou t 1 in long Operate the
dynamo and heat the wire What are the energy transformations ?
I f a second similar dynamo is available ; connect them and turn
the handle of the rst d y namo D oes the armature of the second
dynamo revolve ? T urn the handle of the second d y namo D oes
the armature of the rst dynamo re v olve ? What does this illus
trate abou t the construc tion of a dynamo and a mo tor ?
C onnect the d y namo wi th one or more small motors and oper
ate the d y namo What are the energy transformations ?
I dentify the eld magnet armature
E xamine the dynamo
commu tator and brushes I s the dynamo shunt wound or series
wound ?
.
I ND U C T I O N C O I L
Attach two metal handl es to the terminals of the seco ndary co il of
a small demonstration induction coil Attach o ne or two dry cells
.
to the p rimary coil and start the interru p ter L et each student in
turn hold the handles while another pulls out the brass reducing
tube slowly C an the c u rrent induced in the secondary be felt ?
T ake the induction co il apart and identify the pri mary coil
secondary coil soft iron core and interrup ter F ollow the path
of the current from the battery through the interp reter and the
primary coil
.
N OT E
T hese
small coils usuall y l ac k
a c
ond enser

E x e rc is e 26
E lectri c
1 N P H Y S IC S
99
Ligh t P l an t
As a class v isi t an electric light plant or an electric power plant
L ocate the dynamo and the source
e g street car power plant
of power that is boiler and engine or water wheel
On the d y namo identify the eld magnet arma ture brushes
and commutator or rings
On the swi tchboard identify the vol tmeter ammeter and
kilowatt meter
M ake a rough diagram showing the location of the source Of
power the d y namo the swi tchboard and of the wires to and from
the swi tchboard
H ome E xerci se
E xami ne the lighting plant on an electricall y lighted au tomobile
L oca te the dynamo the storage ba tter y the lights and the wires
connecting these
M a k e a rough diagra m of the plant and ma k e a wri tten re po rt
.
'
E xerci s e 27
T ele p hon e E xchan ge
As a class v isi t the telephone exchange in your town or ci t y and
ha v e the of cer in charge explain to y ou what ha p pens when you

ring up central and ask for any number
H om e E xerci s e
I n y our own home follow the telephone wires from the p oint at
which they enter y our house to the telephone
Op en your telephone and examine the interior ; follow the wire
f rom the battery ( if i t is a battery telephone ) to the transmi tter
the induction coil and back to the battery : follow one line wire to
the induction coil the receiver and back to the o ther line wire
.
E x e rci se 28
W irele s s S tation
As a class vi sit t h e wireless station in your ci ty if there is one
and ask the operator to explain how the spark is p roduced how a
message is sent and how one is received
.
I OO
E xp erim e n t 3 3
T0
H or s e p o w e r
-
an
d e
determine the horse p ower and

by means of a P rony brake
-
P H Y S IC S
cie n cy of an e ectric
ei cie n cy
m otor
of an electri c moto r
c
e
l
a
r
6
1
COU R SE I
Motor for 1 1 0 o r 2 20 volt c u rrent

Volt m e t e r
T wo spring b al a nces
Amm eter ( 0 5 am peres)
N T HYS I LS
LABORAT ORY
'
'
1 0 1
U
W at ch
C o rd o r belt
S pee d cou nter
S uppo rt a n d l a rge cl amp
M ethod Arrange the circui t as S hown in F ig 3 9 ; the current

ows through the motor M and ammeter A i n series and through
the voltmeter V and motor in parallel T he P rony brake B c on
sists of two spring balances with a cord or bel t attached to the hoo k s
P lace the cord under the pulley of the motor and raise the balances
until each records abou t 2 lb
H or s e p ower
T o determine the horse power of the mo tor we
must measure :
( 1 ) T he number of revolutions per second
( 2 ) T he circumference of the pulley expressed i n feet
( 3 ) T he di ere n ce in the readings of the brake balances ex
ressed
i
n
pounds
when
the
mo
tor
is
runni
ng
p
I t will be remembered that one horse power is the power to do
3 3 00 0 foot pounds of
work per minute or
.
60
00
0
33
0
55
foot pounds of work

r
second
Y
ou
e
p
will nd the number
of foot pounds of
work the motor does
r
second
and
di
e
p
vide this number by
550 to nd the horse
power o f the motor
T o nd the number
of revolutions per
rr n ge t h e p p r t s
F G 39
D i gr m h w in g h w t
second adj ust the
brake then let one student hold the speed counter agai nst the end
of the pulley and give to another student the signal when to start
.
o a
a a u
LAB O
RATO R Y
102
UR S E I N P H Y S IC S
CO
keeping time and also announce 1 2 3 etc to 1 0 at the end of

each 1 0 0 re v olutions I n this way nd the number of seconds
required to make 1 00 0 re v olutions and from this calc u late the
number of revolu tions per second
T o nd the brake load in pounds read each balance in ounces
when the motor is running and di v ide the di fference by 1 6
T o nd the circumference of the pulley i n feet pass a cord arou : l
the pulley four times ; measure the length of the cord i n inche
di v ide the resul t by four and then by twelve
C alculate the horse power of the motor as follows : T h e bra k e
load in p ounds mul tiplied by the ci rcumference of the pulley i n feet
gi v es the foo t pounds of work done b y the motor in one revolution
T his multiplied b y the number of re v olutions per second gives the
foo t pounds of work done b y the motor in one second T his
number divided by 550 gives the horse power of the motor
,
H P
.
T he
ei c ie n c y
of any machine is equal to the ou tpu t

divided by the in pu t Y ou have j ust found the ou tpu t in horse
I t will be
power Y ou must now nd the i n pu t i n horse power
1 horse power
remembered that a rate of working of 7 4 6 watts
T o nd the in pu t then read the fall i n potential i n the motor i n
volts and the number of amperes used by the motor T he produc t
of these equals the watts or the rate a t which electric energy is
supp lied to the motor T his number divided by 7 4 6 gives the
horse power supplied
input
E
cien cy
74 6
E i c ien cy
outp ut
input
M ake the load greater and determine again the outpu t inp u t
and e f ciency I s the ei cien cy grea ter or less on the heavier
load
,

F O RM
e volutions pe r se con d
B rake lo ad lb
Circ um ference o f pulley feet
H orse po we r output
F all in potenti a l v olts
Current amperes
H o r sepo wer inp u t
E fcien c y
R
OF
P H Y S IC S
RE P O RT
103
1 04
PH
Y S IC S
L I GHT
E xp erim e n t 3 4
T h e ph o to met e r
determine the candle power of an oil lamp a 1 6 candle powe r

incandescent carbon lamp and a 4 0 watt tungsten lamp
To
F IG
40
I ll stratin g t h e phot om eter

u
B unsen
photo m e t er in d ark room

or in light proo f box
Or d in ary oil l amp
-
can dle
T he
ower
by the lamp to the
of
la mp
a moun t
is
C ar bon l amp 1 6 cp
T ungsten l amp 4 0 watt
C an dle
.
the ratio
i
v
en
b
g
y
of
the
a mou n t
of
light given
that is i t i s
is greater or less
a s ta n da rd ca n dle ,
the number of times the light given by the lam p

than that given b y a standard candle
I n thi s experiment you will learn simply the method of nding
the candle power of a lamp Y our resul ts wi ll no t be exact unless
you use a standard candle or a s tandard lamp
M ethod Oil lam p Arrange the B unsen pho tometer as show n
i n F ig 4 0 P lace the candle B at one end of the pho tometer an d
an ordinary oil lamp at the o ther ; then move the grease sp o t
!?
screen A back and forth un til the central spo t and the surroundi n g
.
PH
Y S IC S
105
paper are equall y illuminated When this poi nt is found we know

that the screen is recei v ing the same amount of light on one side
from the lamp that i t is on the other side from the candle
S ince the intensi t y of the light from any source varies i n v ersely
as the square of the dis tance between the source and the obj ect
illumina ted we can say :
.
ca
n dle pow e r
o f ca
ndle
( d ist ance fro m
can
dle to s c r e en)
M easure the distance from the lamp to the screen and from the
candle to the screen then assume that the candle power of the
candle is I and calculate the candle power of the lamp
Carb on an d tung s te n lam p s
I n the same way nd the candle
ower
of
the
carbon
lamp
and
of
the
watt
tungsten
lamp
0
4
p
Assuming that the 1 6 candle power carbon lamp uses 55 watts
and the tungsten lamp 4 0 watts calculate the watts requi red p er
candle power for each
Which light is the more economi cal ?
,
F O RM
OF
RE P O RT
OI L
L amp to s creen
C andle to s c reen
C an d le po wer
T he
T he
rbon l am p re qui r es
tungsten l am p re qui r es
ca
E xer c i s e 29
CA R ON L AM
L AMP
cm
cm
cm
cm
U N STE
G
L A MP
m
cm
c
w atts pe r c and le power

w atts per c an d le power
L igh tin g
M ake a rough diagram of one class room in your school showing
how the li ght is admitted
.
1 06
I N P H Y S IC S
T he light shoul d be a dmitte d from the le f t an d r e a r o f a

N
stu dent seate d at his d es k ; it sho uld not be admitte d from the fr on t
b e cause then it will shine di r e c tl y in t o the stu d ent s e y es
T
O E
M a k e a rough diagram of your school ki tchen showing where

y ou would hang the electric lamps with relation to the table range
and sink to light the ki tchen p roperly at night C onsult page 2 4 7
,
P hysics
the H ou sehold
H o m e E xer c i s e
M a k e a diagram of y our home kitchen showing where you would
place the lights if you were consulted

M ake a diagram of y our living room showing how you would p lace
the lamps for convenience in reading
M ake a wri tten rep ort
.

E x p erimen t 3 5
P H Y S IC S
10
e ec tion of light
T o S how that the angle of reection is equal to the angle of
incidence and that an Obj ect and i ts image are equally distant
from the mirror
.
IG
A pp r t s se d
a a u
T hin m i rror
P l ain
P ins
P rotractor
to
ill u stra te t h e re e c ti o n
P ape r
gl ass plate
of
li ght
le r
T wo candles
R
1 08
1 N P H Y S IC S
re e ction e q u als th e an gle o f in ci d e n c e M etho d
D raw a line on a piece of paper and mar k i t

mirror line
S tand a thin mirror on this line perpendicular to the paper
S tick two p ins upright in front of the mirror in a li ne at an angle
of about 4 5 to the mirror line N umber these pins 1 and 2 N ow
set up two p ins in front of the mi rror and exactly i n li ne wi th the
images of pins 1 and 2 M ark these pins 3 and 4 R emo v e the
mirror and pins and draw a line through the pin holes 1 and 2 to
the mirror li ne and a line through the p in holes 3 and 4 to the
mirror li ne T hese li nes should meet at the mi rror line
At the p oin t of i ntersection of the li nes draw a line p erp endicular
to the mi rror line M easure the angle between the li ne 1 2 ( th e
line of i ncidence ) a n d the perpendicular and the angle be tween
the line 3 4 ( the line of reec tion ) and the perpendicular
Is
the angle of reection equal to the angle of incidence ?
R epeat this wi th a di f ferent angle of incidence
M ethod 1
D i s tan ce of im age an d o b j e c t
D raw a li ne on a
f
iece
O
paper
and
mark
i
t
mirror
line
P
lace
the
mirror
on
p
this line p erpendicular to the paper P lace a p in i n front of the
mirror and abou t 1 5 cm from i t With a ruler aim at the image
o f this p in from two p osi tions on each side of the p in and draw
lines to show the p osi tions of the ruler
R emove the mi rror and conti nue the lines soli d to the mirror
line and as dotted lines beyond i t T he place at whi ch the dotted
li nes meet is the posi tion of the image M easure the perpendicular
di stance of image and obj ect from the mirror li ne
Are they
equal ?
M ethod 2 D raw a line on a p iece of paper and p lace a p iece
of plain win dow glas s on the line pe rp endicular to the p aper U se
two candles of abou t the same size L ight one and place i t in
front of the glass then place the unlighted one behind the glass
i n such a posi tion that the u n lighted candle an d the image of the
lighted can dle coin cide when viewed from any p oint in front of
the glass
T he
an
gle
of
P H Y S IC S
10
9
unlighted candle then gi v es the posi tion of the image of the

M easure the distance of each candle from the
lighted candle
mirror line Are they equal ?
T he
F O RM
OF
R E P O RT
1 51
Angle
Angle
EXP
2D
E XP
re ectio n
o f in ci d en ce
of
PIN
D ist an ce
o f i m age fro m mi rro r

D ist anc e o f o b j e c t fro m m i rro r
CA N LES
D
LAB O R AT ORY COUR S E IN
1 10
E xp erim e n t 3 6
I n d ex
o f r e f ra ctio n o f glas s
To
nd the index of refraction of glass
F IG
42
i gra m
a
P l ate
t h e a ppar t u s u sed t
gl ass
Rule r
C o m pa ss
w ith
P H YSI CS
e as u re t h e in d ex
p a rallel ed ges
of
re frac tio n Of gl a ss
P aper
P ins
T he in dex
r
is
t
h
t
t
i
o
h
h
n
e
a
o
t
e
s
e
d
li
i
e
f
of
p
g
f
of
a ir to its s peed i n gla s s
Y ou ca nnot measure the speed of light
in ai r or glass wi th the apparatus at hand bu t the index of re f rac
tion of glass is also the ratio of the s in e of the a n gle of in ciden ce in
and these y ou can
a ir to the s in e of the a n gle of refrac tion in glass
measure
M ethod D raw a line on a p iece of paper and mark i t plate
line
place the plate glass a t on the paper wi th one edge exactly
along thi s line P lace one pi n at some point A F ig 4 2 and
another at a point B Wi th a ruler sight through the glass f ro m
B to the image of A and draw a li ne C on the paper along the edge
of the ruler
R emove the glass plate and draw a line B A and a line M B N
D
erpendi
cu
ar
as
to
the
plate
line
from
the
point
raw
a
circle
l
B
p
wi th B as center and draw the li nes GK and F H p erp endi cular to
MBN
Y ou must remember that you see the image of the pi n A in th e
glass because light starting from A passes through the glass to B
and then through the air to your eye at G Y ou no tice tha t the
re ra ction
s
l
as
g
P H Y S IC S
1 1 1
image of A i n the glass is i n a new posi tion T h e reason for

this i s that the ligh t whi ch travels from A through the glass
to B is bent away from the perpendicular M B N when i t enters
the air a t B T h e light when i n glass ma k es an angle b wi th
the perpendicular M B N and when i n air ma k es the larger angle
T o prevent confusion the angle a i n air is always called the
a
angle of incidence and the angle b i n the other medium ( i n this case
glass) is always called the angle of refraction T he index of re
fraction of glass is sine a
si ne b S ine a i s GK /GB and S ine
.
b is F E
GK
FH
/F E bu t since GB
index
Of
refraction
M easure GK and
FH
FB
( radii of the same circle )
sme
carefull y and calcula te the index of re
fraction of glass
T h e index of refraction of glass is also as stated above the ratio
of the velocity of light in air to i ts veloci ty in glass
.
F ORM
OF
RE P O R T
L ength o f GK
Length o f F H
In d ex o f re fr action o f gl ass
cm
cm
1 1 2
E x p erim e n t 3 7
lens
F o c al
l en gth
an
PH
Y S IC S
co n j u gate f o ci o f
conv e r gin g
nd the principal focal length and a number of conj ugate

foci of a con v erging lens
To
F IG
an
A pp r t
d p irs o f c
43
d to n
a a
us
us e
o n guga te
re t h e prin c ipa l foc a l len gt h

t h e lens
to m e a s u
f oc i
of
Meter s t i ck a n d supports
W i r e ne t ting s c r een
White c a rd bo a rd s c r een
o f a co
n v ergin g lens
C an d le or l am p
H ol d ers
L ens abou t 1 5 c m focal lengt h
P RI N C I P A L F OC A L
L E N GTH
T h e prin cipal focu s of a lens is the poin t at which rays parallel

When an Obj ect is 50 fee t
to the prin cipal ax is of the len s con verge
.
or more from a small lens the ra y s from the Object which fall upon
the lens are practically parallel and the image of the Obj ect is
at the principal focus
P lace the lens in i ts holder at one Of the principal
M ethod 1
,
P H Y S IC S
1 1
divisions Of the meter stick and place the cardboard screen behind
i t G o to the back of the room and point the lens toward an
obj ect ou tside the window M o v e the screen bac k and forth until
the most distinct image is found M easure the distance between
the lens and the screen T his distance is the principal focal length
O f the lens
M ethod 2 I f the sun is shining p oint the lens a t the sun and
mo v e the screen bac k and forth un til y ou nd the smalles t and
brightest image of the sun M easure the distance between the
lens and the screen T his distance is the principal focal length
.
C O NJU GA T E
F OC I
T he
meaning of conj ugate foci ma y be illustrated as follows :

if an obj ect is placed at some point 0 in front of a lens and its
image is formed on a screen at some point I behind the lens then 0
and I are conj ugate foci because if the obj ect is placed at I its
Im age will be formed a t 0
T here is an i nni te number of pairs
o f conj ugate foci
M ethod Arrange the apparatus as shown i n F ig 4 3 T h e
obj ect a wire netting illuminated from behind by a candle gas
lamp or electric light is a t one end of the meter stick ; a whi te
cardboard screen to recei v e the image is near the other end ; and
the l ens is between the two
M o v e the lens back and for th until the most distinct image of
the netting is formed on the screen N ow i nterchange the illu
m in a ted wire netting and the cardboard screen wi thou t mo v ing
the lens D o you nd that a distinct i mage is again formed ?
T wo interchangeable points of this k ind are called conj ugate
foci of the lens I f the object I s placed at the rst point the
image is formed a t the second and if the Object is placed at the
second point the image is formed at the rst
M o v e the screen to a new p osi tion and nd a second p air of
conj ugate foci
,
1 14
I N P H Y S IC S
f o cu s f r o m th e con j ugate f oci T he follow

ing equation gi v es the relation between the conj uga te foci and the
rincipal
focus
:
p
T o n d th e p rin c i p al
Do
Di
this equation D o is the distance of the objec t from the lens

D i is the distance of the image fro m the lens and F is the pri nci p al
focal length
F ind a pair of conj ugate foci and measure D o and D i p u t these
numbers i n the equation above and calculate F the p rincipal
focal length
In
F O RM
focal length ( 1 )
Conj ugate foc i ( I )
cm
OF
P rinc ipal
( 2)
Do =
cm
Di
cm
RE P O R T
cm
( 2)
an d
cm
an d
cm
cm
cm

E x p e rim e n t 3 8
Y S IC S
1 1
r e al image f o rm e d b y a co nv ergin g l e n s
T o show that the size of the image is to the size of the Obj ect as
D i is to D o
Mete r sti c k an d suppo r ts
W i r e netting
Len s
C an d le or l amp
White card bo ar d screen
Meter sti c k
.
S ize
PH
of
M ethod Arrange the apparatus as shown in F ig 4 3 P lace

the wire netting and lens a certain number of centi meters apart
sa y 2 0 and move the screen until a distinct image is formed
We wish to show that the si z e of the image is to the si z e of the
obj ect as D i is to D o T hat is if the distance of the image from
etc
times
the
distance
of
the
obj
ect
from
the
the lens is 2 3
3
1
lens then the size of the i mage will be 2 3 3 3 etc times the si z e
of the obj ect
M easure D i the distance the image is from the lens and D o
the distance the Obj ect ( the wire netting ) is from the lens T o
n d the size of the image measure the number of millimeters
covered by 1 0 squares of the i mage of the wire netting T o nd
the si z e of the Obj ect measure the number of millimeters covered
by 1 0 squares of the wire netting i tself
.
FIn d
Di
Do
S ize
of ima
e
5
an d
S ize of obj ect
Are th ey equa 1?
epeat twice wi th the ne t ti ng i n a new position each time

F O RM
D ist an ce
i m age D i
D ist an ce o f ob j e c t D o
S ize o f i m age
S ize Of Ob j e c t
of
Di
S ize
j t
o f Ob e c
OF
RE P O R T
cm
cm
cm
cm
mm
mm
cm
cm
mm
mm
mm
mm
1 1
E x p erim e n t 3 9
M agni fy in g
p ower
P H Y S IC S
a l ens us e d
of
as a s
im p l e
micr os cop e
T o show that the magn ication produced by a con v erging lens
is equal to Di
Do
.
FIG
44
App r t s
a a u
Converging
us
ed
to
e a s ure t h e
ni fy in g p
m ag
ow
of a
si m ple
S cale , m m
lens ( f
2 5 5
B l ac k sc reen w ith s q u are hole
( A linen tes ter inste ad o f the above )
er
Mete r sti ck
micro sco pe
M ethod P lace a mm scale on the table and support the lens

j ust 2 5 cm abo v e the scale B eneath the lens support a blac k
screen wi th a square hole abou t 1 0 mm on each side and adj ust
.
P H Y S IC S
1 1
i t until the edges of the hole appear distinct when v iewed through
the lens ( A linen tester has lens and blac k screen wi th square
hole )
L ook through the lens wi th one eye and look a t the scale ( Wi th
ou t the lens ) wi th the o ther e y e F ind the si z e ( on the scale ) of
the image of the hole M easure the distance D 0 of the object
( the black screen ) from the lens
T he mm scale is placed 2 5 cm from the lens ( and from the e y e )
because this is the distance a t which the a v erage eye sees thi n gs
Of this size most distinc tly
Y ou have now :
the size of the hole i n mm
( 1 ) T he size of the obj ect
the size of the image of the hole i n
( 2 ) T he size of the image
mm
the distance be tween the
( 3 ) T he distance D 0 of the obj ect
square hole and the lens i n cm
2 5 cm
( 4 ) T he distance D i of the image
F ind the magnication
si z e of image
si z e of object I s
t hi s equal to D i
Do ?
.
F O RM
S ize
o f I m age
S ize o f Ob j ec t
mm
RE P O RT
OF
cm
Di
cm
Di
M agm t
S ize
Do
of
Obj ect
L igh t App lian ce s

E xamine the following light appliances i n the school : mirror ,
camera proj ection lan tern stereoscope
M irror L ook at y our image and explain wh y i t is reversed ; that
is why y our right hand appears to be your left in the image and
v ice versa E xplain also wh y y our image is alwa y s as far behind
the mirror as you are in front C onsul t page 2 54 P hysics of the
E xer c i se 30
H ou sehold
1 1
PH
Y S IC S
C am e ra M easure the fo cal length of the camera lens and

calculate where the image will be formed when the obj ect is at
di ff erent dis tances i n front of the lens C onsul t E xp eriment 3 7
abov e T he plate or lm should be p laced at these calcula ted
distances
M easure the focal length of the p roj ection
P roj ection L an te r n
lens and calculate where the image will be formed when the
lantern slide is at di fferent distances behind the lens C onsul t
E xp eriment 3 7 abo v e
T he calculated p osition of the image is
where the screen should be placed to get the best image
E xamine this and explain why the two p ictures
S t e r e os c op e
app ear as one and wh y the obj ect ap p ears to s tand out C onsult
page 2 68 P hysics of the H ou s ehold
R epea t these exercises wi th any of the above a pp liances which
you have in your home
M ake a repor t of your experiments
.

E xp e rimen t 4 0
T he
P H Y S IC S
a s tronomi c al t el e s co p e
1 1
how that the distance between the lenses in an astronomical

telescope when used to view a distan t obj ect is approximatel y
equal to the sum of the principal focal lengths of the lenses ; and
to S how that the magnifying power is equal to the focal length of
the obj ective di v ided b y the focal length of the e y e piece
TO
FIG
45
L ens
L ens
A pp r t s se d
a a u
(f
(f
1 0 1
to
ill stra te pr perties

u
o f an
Mete r stick
stro n om i ca l teles co pe
an d
supports
1 20
M ethod
PH
Y S IC S
L e ngth o f te l e s co p e Arrange the apparatus as shown

i n F ig 4 5 M ake the large lens used in E xperiments 3 7 and 3 8
the Obj ec ti v e and the small lens used in E xperiment 3 9 the e y e
iece
to
th
e
side
of
the
room
farthest
fro
m
the
wi
ndow
and
O
G
p
focus this rough telescope through th e open window on some dis
tant Obj ect M easure the distance between the lenses I s i t equal
to the sum of the focal lengths of the lenses ? F ind these focal
lengths again if necessar y
M agni fy ing p ower D raw two p arallel lines 1 5 cm apart
on the blackboard and look a t them through the telescope from
the o ther side Of the room
When the telescope is properl y
focused open the other e y e and direct ano ther studen t where to
draw two lines on the board which coincide wi th the image
M easure the dista nce between the image lines and d i v ide them b y
the distance between the obj ect lines to nd the magnication
I s this magnication equal to the focal length of the obj ecti v e
lens divided by the focal length of the e y e piece lens ?
.
F ORM
OF
R E P O RT
F o cal
length o f obj ec t ive lens

F oc a l leng t h o f e y e pie ce lens
D ist an ce bet w een lenses w hen v ie w ing a d ist ant obj e c t
D ist ance bet ween i m age lines
D ist an ce b e t ween Obj e c t lines
M agni ca t ion
F ocal leng t h o f e y e piece
F o cal leng t h o f obj ectiv e
-
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm

E xp erim en t 4 1
e f ractio n
an
P H Y S IC S
d i s p e r s i on
1 21
li gh t b y
of
p ri s m
show how a ra y of light is bent or refracted and how whi te

light is spread or di spersed in passing through a prism
To
FIG
46
i agra m
of
t h e ap p ra t u s u se d
to
G l ass pr ism
P i ns
60
ngles
Sh
ow
ho w
li ght is b en t o r re frac te d
P aper
C and le
EF
RA C T I O N
M ethod P lace the prism AB C on a sheet of paper and draw a

line along each edge P lace two pins D E F ig 4 6 i n a line maki n g
an angle of abou t 4 5 wi th one edge Wi th a ruler sigh t through
the prism a t the images of the two pins and draw a line F G
R emove the prism and pins and draw the lines D E H KF G and
At what two points
HK
T h e path of the light is D E H KF G
is the light bent or refract ed ? M ake a drawi ng of this in your
note book
.
D I S P E R S I ON
M ethod I f the sun is shining suppor t a prism in such a posi

tion F ig 4 7 tha t the sunlight falls on one edge C atch the light
which passes through the prism on a piece of whi te paper placed
on the table or on the oor P lace between the sunlight and
the prism a piece of black cardboard wi th a sli t 2 mm wide
I s the whi te light of the sun spread or dispersed into a colored
band ( the spectrum ) ? Which colors do you recognize ? Which
Color is leas t re f racted, th at is whi ch is n ear es t the upp er angle of
.
1 22
P H Y S IC S
the p rism ? Which color is most refracted tha t is which is

?
nearest the base of the pri sm
M ake a drawing in y our note book showing the path Of the sun
light before and after i t
passes through the prism
L ight a candle and look
at i t through the prism I s
the ame colored ? Wh ich
colors now appear the least
and the most refracted ?
Y ou will no tice that these
colors are j ust opposi te to
T he
those found above
reason is that the eye sees
any obj ec t in the direction
i n whi ch the light from that
object enters the eye I n
this case the whi te light is
dis p ersed the red end of
the sp ectrum being least
refracted and the blue end
most ; bu t the lines along
which the red l ight and
blue light enter the eye are
FIG 4 7
S h win g h w t h e pris m is arra nge d
t ill stra te t h e d is p ersi n f li gh t
divergin g and if they are
extended back they cross at a point in front of the image ; there
fore the red app ears to be the most refracted and the blue the
least
,
LABOR AT ORY COUR S E I N
P H Y S IC S
1 23
S OUN D
V e lo c i ty
To
of s
oun d
measure the veloci ty of s o und in air

T wo
T wo
rev ol ve r s
stop watches
B lan k cartri dges

T hermo m eter
M ethod On a calm da y divi de the class into two sections and

supp ly each section wi th a revolver blank cartridges and a stop
watch L e t the sections stand a measured distance apart say
3 mile I f the wind is blo wi ng the sec tions should s tand in line
wi th the wind if possible L et the rst section make ve measure
men ts of the time i t takes sound to travel the measured distance as
follows : On e member has the stop watch and when ready asks a
second member to wave a handkerchief A member of the second
section then res the revolver i n the air and the member of the
rst section wi th the stop watch measures the time between
seeing the ash and hearing the sound After the rst section
has made ve measurements let the second section make ve
in the same way T ake the average of the ten measurements
as the time i t takes sound to travel the measured distance and
calculate the veloci ty of sound per second
T his method gi v es only appro x imate resul ts bu t furnishes an
excellen t illustration of the veloci ty of sound in air T he velocity
of sound in air i s 1 0 87 feet ( or 3 3 1 meters ) per second a t 0 C and
i t increases abou t 2 feet ( or
meter ) per second for each degree
cen tigrade increase i n tem p erature
.
O RM
OF
R EP
OR T
o f air
D istance betw een d i v isions
Aver age ti m e
Velocit y o f soun d per sec
T empe r ature
l
l
1 24
L ABO R A T ORY COUR S E IN
P H Y S IC S
E
a
C
O
S
!
m
:
E
n
$
9
5
5
o
n
9
5
8
C
3
2
0
3
e
m
:
3
S
a
n
?
o
3
.

E xp erimen t 4 3
T0
N u m b er
1N P H Y S IC S
o f v i b ra tions o f
tunin g
12
f or k
nd the number of vibrations a tuning fork makes per second

T uning
fo rk
R e co rd ing apparatus
W a t ch
P aint
( whiting an d alcohol)
S po nge
of a tuning fork consists of a complete to an d f ro

m oti on ; we wish to determine how many of these a fork ma k es
per second T h e number is so great that i t canno t be determined
by the unaided e y e and i t i s necessary to emplo y some such ap
n c e as is illustra ted in F ig 4 8
his
consists
essen
tially
of
l
i
a
T
p
a pend ulum wi th a ligh t st y lus on the end ; the fork wi th a ligh t
stylus on one prong ; and a glass pla te which can be moved under
the pendulum and the for k
M ethod F ind the time i t takes the pendulum to make 50
vibrations and calculate the number of vibrations p er second ( a
vibration is a complete to and fro motion ) M ake three deter
m in a tio n s and ta k e the average
C over one side of the glass plate with a mixture of whiting and
alcohol b y means of a small sponge
P lace the plate under the pendulum and fork and adj ust these
so that the styluses touch the glass ligh tly
S tart the fork and the p endulum vibrating and move the
plate lengthwise I f your adj ustments are correct you will Oh
tain a trace resem
bling that shown in
I ll str tin g the traces of the fork an d of the
F ig 4 9
F IG 49
d mm
p
Calculate the
number of vibrations of the fork per second as follows :
T h e mar k s A and C or B and D each represent those made at
the beginning and end of one V ibration of the pendulum C ount
the number Of v ibrations ( hills on one side only ) of the fork b e
tween three such spaces as A to C or B to D estimating each to
tenths of a vibration M ul tipl y this by the number of vibrations
On e vibration
en
1 26
1 N P H Y S IC S
the pendulum makes in one second T he product is the number

of vibrations the fork makes per second
.
F O RM
OF
RE P O R T
1
T im e
o f 50 vi b ra t ions o f the pen d ulum

Vibrations o f the fo rk in one pen d ulu m
vib ration
Vibrations o f pen d ulu m pe r second
Vibra tions o f for k pe r se cond
AV ERA GE
LABORAT O RY COUR S E IN
E xp e rim e n t 44
W av e
le n gth
of s o
un d
P H Y S IC S
I 2
measure the length of the sound waves produced by a tuning

fork and to measure the v eloci ty of sound in air indirectly
To
App arat s u se d t m e s u re the len gth f the s ou n d w av es prod ce d

t u nin g f rk an d t m e s u re the V el o c it y o f so u n d in d ire c tl y
FIG
50
by
T u n ing
fork ( n
H ydr ometer j ar
R esonan ce tube
Meter stic k
T wo rubber bands
.
20
deep
long
WA VE L E N G T H
M ethod F ill the hydrometer j ar with water and p lace the
resonance tube i n it S ou nd the tu ni ng fork by striking i t on a
large at cork or on a piece of heavy rubber tubing and hold i t
over the resonance tube R aise the resonance tube slowly and nd
th e length of air column which gives the loudest sound M ark
this length by means Of a rubb er b and R epeat un til y ou are su re
.
1 28
I N P H Y S IC S
y ou have the exact le n gth R aise the resonance tube and nd a

longer air column which gi v es a loud sound M ark this wi th
a rubber band R epeat until you have the exac t length
T he length of the short air column is approximately equal to
one fourth the wave length of the sound T h e di fference between
the lengths of the two air col umns is equal to one half the wa v e
length of the sound gi v en ou t by the fork M easure the distance
between the two rubber bands and multiply i t b y 2 to ob tain the
length of the sound wave
.
VE L OC I T Y
OF
S OU ND
Y ou ha v e found the length of each sound wa v e given ou t by

the fork N ow since the for k makes 5 1 2 complete vi brations per
second i t sends out 5 1 2 wa v es each second and since each wa v e
mo v es continuously at the same veloci ty the product 5 1 2 X wa v e
length i s equal to the distance the sound moves in ai r in one
second that i s i t is equal to the v eloci ty of sound in air per second
M ul tiply the wa v e length found abo v e b y 5 1 2 to nd the v e
locity of sound per second at the temperature of the laborato ry
.
F ORM
D ist an ce b et ween
OF
RE P O R T
rubber b and s
Wave length
Velocit y o f soun d per sec
T emperature
cm
cm
cm

E xp e ri m en t 4 5
IN
P H Y S IC S
1 29
Vi b rating strings
T o show that the vibration frequency varies inversel y as the
length of the wire and that the no tes of an octave are produced by
3
lengths of wire which are in the ratio of 1 g
g33
.
F IG
S ono m ete r
51
A si m p le s n
o
eter
Mete r stic k
Ch alk
S ono m e t e r w i r e
your class work you have learned that the pi tch of a note
dep ends upon the number of vibrations per second of the in s tru
ment producing i t ; for example the number Of vibrations p er
second required to produce a no te one octave higher than a given
note is twice as great as the number required to p roduce the given
note
M ethod Vi b ration f re q u e ncy v ari e s inv e r s e l y as th e le n gth
S tretch a piano wire on a sonometer and adj ust the bridge until
the wire is a denite length ( between 80 cm and 1 0 0
M ark
on the sonometer lengths and :1 of the length of the string
S ound the no te then move the bridge un til the length of the
wire is and sound i t again I S the second no te one octave higher
than the rst note ?
M o v e the bridge until the length of the wire sounded is :1 the
length of the rst tha t is
the length of the second I s the third
note one octa v e higher than the second ? D oes the vibration
frequenc y v ar y inversel y as the length of the wire ?
In
O
3
P H YS I C S
no te s of an o ctav e S tretch the wire and adj ust the bri

un til the length of the wire is j ust 90 cm On the board of
5
sonometer mark lengths equal to 1 g 3
and
of
3
3 g13
cm
ound
the
wire
at
the
0
cm
length
and
then
move
0
S
9
9
bridge to each of the shorter lengths i n turn and sound the w
Are the notes produced those of an octave ?
T he
PH
Y S IC S
1
3
AD VANC E D M E C H AN I C S
E xp erim e n t 4 6
To
T h e p ar a ll el ogram law
illus trate the parallelogram law
F IG
52
T he
pp
r t s u se d
a a u
T h r ee
sp r ing b al ances
L arge sheet o f p ap e r
to
ill u stra te the p arallel ogram
law
R ule r
T h ree s m all cl am ps
.
T h e parallelogram law of forces i s : I f two forces actin g at an

an gle u pon a poi n t a re repres en ted in direction an d am ou n t by s traight
lin es , the
resu ltan t o
the two forces is
ex actly re
res en ted
in direction
mou n t by the diagon al of the parallelogram of which the lin es

the sides
T he equ ilibran t is equ al to the resu ltan t, bu t is in the
an d a
a re
osite
pp
direction
M ethod Attach a stou t cord to the ring of each balance C on

ne e t the hooks of two balances by means of a piece Of strong sh
line abou t 3 0 cm long Attach the hook of the third to the middle
Of this line b y means of a piece of sh line abou t 1
cm
long
5
.
2
3
P H Y S IC S
Attach the balances to clamps so placed tha t the cords are over a
p iece of paper or a page of y our noteboo k i n the relationship

shown in F ig 52 having one balance a t C one at B and one at A
P ull the balance A i n order to stretch each balance
M ar k
carefully the point 0 and draw a short line under each cor d in the
manner i llustrated i n the middle gure M ark beside each line the
number of ounces ( or p ounds ) pull on the corresponding balance
R emove the balances and draw the lines 0C OB and 0 A mak
i ng their lengths equal to the number of ounces ( or pounds ) pull
on the corresponding balances according to any con v enient scale
1 ounce
(3 in
T hen
On the lines DC and 0 B construc t a parallelogram
measure the length of the diagonal OR and calculate the force i t
represen ts T his i s the resultant I s i t equal to the equilibrant
represented by 0 A
I s the resul tan t represented in direc tion and
amoun t b y the diagonal of the p arallelogram ?
.

E x p e riment 4 7
To
E i cie n cy
P H Y S IC S
o f a ma chin e
determine the ef ciency of a commercial block and tackle

B loc k a n d t ack le
Weights
S p r ing
b a l a nc e
Yard sti ck
at on e
T he
oin
machin e
by mean s
which
u t a t a n other
ress u re or a
a
h
i
n
e
is
t
h
t
m
c
e
r
a
i
o
f
y
to the work pu t in to it, that is ,
n
c
i
e
c
l
a n y con triva n c e
ex erts a
A machin e is
33
out put
inpu t
E i cie n cy
oin t
the work don e by the
an
force a pplied
is
:
I
t
t
t
i
h
e
r
e
i
s
no
f
r
c
i
o
n
h
e
w
e
t
i
h
t
i
m
s
e
f
g
f
the dis ta n ce the weight m oves ( ou tpu t) is equ al to the force times the
dis tan ce the force m oves ( in pu t)
I n all actual machines there is friction tha t is a force which
resists motion T his friction is due to the roughness Of the bear
ings the sti ffness of bel ts or ropes and to o ther causes I n an actual
machine then force is required to o v ercome friction and therefore
the inp u t is always greater than the outpu t I n many machines
work also must be done to mo v e parts of the machine ( for examp le
to lift the lower bloc k of this bloc k and tackle ) T his is classed as
useless work since i t helps to ma k e the inpu t greater than the
output
M ethod S upport the upper block in a sui table manner and
at tach a weight of 1 0 lb to the lower block F ind the force in
pounds required to raise the weight slowly
L ower the weight until i t is j ust touching the oor ; mark the
posi tion of the spring balance and measure the distance the force
the
balance
mo
v
es
to
raise
the
weight
1
foo
t
)
(
C alculate the work in foo t pounds done by the machine in
raising the weight 1 foo t
weigh t X dista nce weight moves
1 0 foot pounds
ou tpu t
10 X 1
C alculate the work in foo t pounds pu t into t he machine
T h e law
ma chin es
34
I N P H Y S IC S
force X dis tance force moves in raising weight 1 foo t

input
C alcula te the eicien cy
outpu t
in p u t
Attach a weight of 2 0 lb to the lower block and nd th e force
in pou nds required to raise i t slowly C alculate the ou tpu t inp ut
and eicien cy
R ep eat wi th a weight of 3 0 lb
D oes the e f ciency of the machine increase wi th the weight ?
.
F O RM
W E HT
OU
IG
1b
lb
lb
T PU T
f t 1h
f t lb
f t lb
OF
RE P O R T
F 0 1101:
1h
1b
lb
N PU T
f t lb
f t lb
f t lb
FFI C EN C
I
the block and ta c k le is no t a v ailable use the small laboratory

pulleys ( see F ig
and use weights Of 2 00 g 4 00 g and 60 0 g
M easure th e inp u t and ou tp u t in gram centi meters
If

E xp erim e n t 4 8
1N P H Y S IC S
Ac c e lera te d mo ti on
35
show that the sp ace a bod y falls va n es as the square of the

time and that the veloci ty of fall is indep endent of the weight of
the body
T o nd the veloci ty of a p roj ecti le
To
P ebbles
Watch
T he
formula for nding the space a body falls from rest is

2
Where s is the distance the body falls g the constant
s
3 gt
I f we use 3 2 ft p er
Of acceleration and t i s the time in seconds
second as the consta nt of acceleration the distance a body falls
2
1
f
the
distance
i
t
falls
in
2
1
6
t
i n 1 second is
X
X
;
3 3
2
2 seconds i s s
2
2
6
ft
X
X
4
3 3
.
F A LL I N G B ODI E S
M ethod L et the students go ou t of doors and measure from

the ground a distance of 1 6 feet up the S ide Of the building to a
wi ndow or a balcony L et one student hold his hand at this
height and let pebbles fall one a t a time at a gi v en S ignal L et
another student use a watch wi th well marked seconds and ah
nounce at the end of successi v e seconds
one two three go one
two
At the word go let the rst student drop a pebble and
let bo th notice whether the p ebble strikes the ground i n one second
M ake a number of trials
D oes the body fa ll 1 6 feet in one second ?
L et the rs t student hold weights of 1 and 2 lb side by side
and let them fall D oes the velocit y depend upon the we i ght ?
M easure up the side of the buildi ng 3 6 feet and repeat the ex
r
i
m en t s
e
D oes the body fall 3 6 feet i n 1 3 seconds ?
p
M easure up the side of the building a distance of 64 feet above
the ground and repeat the experi ments D oes the body fall 64
feet i n 2 seconds ? I s the space a body falls from rest p rop ortional
to the square of the time ?
-
6
3
D rop
1 N P H Y S IC S
weights of 1 and 2 lb from this height

D oes the veloci ty of fall depend upon the weight ?
.
P ROJE C T I L E S
T he
v eloci t y of a body thrown verticall y upwards decreases

feet
per
second
each
second
i
t
is
rising
if
then
a
bod
y
is
thrown
2
;
3
verticall y upward and ri ses for 2 seconds i ts v eloci ty a t the s tart
was V
2
X
2
or
fee
t
per
second
if
i
t
rose
t
6
seconds
4
;
3
g
3
2
i ts v eloci t y at the start was V
X
t
6
feet
per
3
3
9
g
second and so o n
L et one student at a time throw a stone vertically upward and
let a second student ta ke the time i n seconds from the instan t the
stone lea v es the hand until i t st ri k es the ground H alf of this is
the time in seconds the stone rose C alculate from this the veloci ty
in feet p e r second of the stone when i t left the ha nd
,

E xp erim e n t 4 9
To
L aw s
of
th e p en d ulum
P H Y S IC S
37
how tha t the time of swing of a pendulum is independent

of the ampli tude for small ampli tudes ; and that the time of swing
varies as the square roo t of the length of the pendulum
S
P en d ulum
M ethod
am p litu d e s
W at ch
T im e
o f s wing in d e p en d ent of th e am plitu d e f or s mall

M a k e apendulum about 3 ft long and start i t swing
ing through an arc of abou t 6 i n Wi th a watch ta k e the time of
1 0 0 swings
S tart i t swinging through an arc of 1 foo t and take
the time Of 1 00 swings I s the time of s wm g I ndependen t of the
ampli tude ?
T im e of s wi n g vari e s wi th th e l e ng th
At tach a metal sphere
( abou t 1 i n diam ) to a ne wire and make the length of the
pendulum ( from the point Of support to the center of the bob )
exactly 1 3 foot F ind the time of 1 0 0 swings and calculate the
time of on e swing
S e t up a pendulum exactly 6 feet long
F ind the time of 1 0 0
swi ngs and calculate the time of one swing
T h e 6 foot pendulum is 4 times as long as the 1 3 foo t pendulum ;
is i ts time of swing
or 2 times that of the 1 3 foo t pendulum
that is does the time of swing v ary directly as the square roo t
of the length Of the p endulum ?
.
F O RM
OF
RE P O R T
1 00
Am plit u d e 6 in
Amplit u d e 1 2 in
time
ti m e
1 3 ft
long ti m e
6 f t l ong t i m e
.
P en d u l u m
P end ul u m
S W ING
S WI N G
8
3
IN
PH
Y S IC S
AP P E ND I X
T AB L E
Alcohol
absolute
Alu m ini u m
B r ass
Co rk
Coppe r
G asoline
G l ass ( F lint )
G l ass
G ra nite
Gol d
I ron
Ke rosene
Lea d
Li m estone
M ar b le
Me r c u ry
Milk
Oak w oo d
P ine woo d
P l a t in um
S an d stone
S ea w ater
S ulphur
Vinegar
65
85
.
d ens it y o f air a t 20 C o r 68 F
cm ) is
g per li t er o r 00 1 2 g
T he
( 76
DE NSIT IE S
OF
Coeic ien ls
B ras s
Coppe r
2 20
B r ass
0 90
COp pe r
R es is tan ce
Copper
ohms
a t mos p here
S olids
r
u
ess
re
p
0000 1 1
S pec ic H eats
Aluminium
pe r c c
S teel
89
00 00 1 6 7
00 0 0 1
No 3 0
at
Lin ear E x pa n s ion
T a ble
an d
Iron
L ea d
Merc ury
09 4
1 10
03 1
.
033
f Wire per 1 00 0 f eet
B ro w n
an d
S h arp
G erm an silve r
1 8%
Nick el
1 89 2 o hms
-
G auge
Iron ( annealed )
L Y N D E S LAB OR AT OR Y C OU R S E
P H Y S I C S OF T H E H OU S E H OL D
AP P AR AT U S
E XP E R
I N P H Y S IC S
F OR
IN
I M E NT
AP P R OX I M AT E
AP P AR AT U S
COST
M E C H ANI C S
Y rd stick
a
Lever su pport
I ro n weight with ring 2 lb
Iron w eights w ith ring 1 1h 2
75
Mete r s ti c k
Spring b al a nce 2 00 0 g 64 oz
B l ock Of woo d 8 X
X
L abo r ato ry suppo rt t r ipo d b ase leg
.
R o d 80
cm
3 mm
cm
Cl am p r ight angle
Cl am p w ith 1 5 cm ro d
20
S ingle p ulle y s 4
G allo n to pint 5 pieces
"
"
P ail a cube 6 X 6 X 6
B al ance 1b w ith at pl at fo rms an d si d e beam
0 to 1 6 o z
5 weights 1 lb
or S t a n d a rd f a m il y s c a le
Lite r m e as u r e
B a l a n ce ( g r a m )
W eights in h ol d e r 500 to 1 0 g
P ail 1 2 qu ar t
20
P ails 3 q u art 4
Ove r o w pail w ith spout an d h an d le
X
X
d eep
Al u mini u m cy lin d e r w ith hoo k
G radu ate d cylinde r 1 0 0 cc
Apparat u s liste d ab ove
S pecic gr avit y b ottle 50 c c
H ydro m ete r u ni ve r s al
"
"
H ydr o m ete r !ar 1 8 X 3
B ar om eter tub e o rd inary tub ing
se ale d at one end 1 2 0 cm long
,
!
C
so
65
80
75
45
70
10
39
40
LAB ORAT OR Y
40
CO U R S E
IN
P H Y S IC S
tub ing i in 1 00 cm long

E v ap ora ting d ish 3 in dia
E v apo r ating d ish 4 in d ia
Mercury 2 lb
20
dia 2
F unnels
3
S iphon 2 pie c es gl as s tubing E
3 0 long
H e a vy r ubbe r tu b ing to t gl ass tubes
"
abov e 1 8
B oyle s Law tubes unlle d
S e aling wax 1 s t i c k
S ame ,
30
40
1!
10
20
30
I I
25
30
.
H EA T
12
mblers 2
10
T hermo m eters
10
to 1 1 0 C
17
2
an d
to 2 20
B oile r hypsomete r
1 gal )
or B oile r ( sirup c a n
S topper 2 hole gl ass tube elbo w
to t si rup can
T ripo d 5 in
B unsen b u rne r
2 f eet
R ubber t u b ing
E xp ansion appa r atus
F l as k 1 0 0 0 c c
On e hole rubber stoppers 2 to t as k abo ve
G l ass elbo w rubbe r t ube 3 in and clip
F l ati ron ab ou t 4 lb
Cloth st rainer
App ar atus liste d abo ve
Calorimeter
L e ad shot 2 1b
1 5
S m all iron n ails 1 1b
Alum inium pellets
lb
or S heet lea d 5
s q foo t
Aluminium weight
App a r at u s liste d above
W ater trap
T
13
14
20
20
LABORAT ORY
CO U R S E
22
S tu dent
P H Y S IC S
141
MAG N E T I S M
E L E CT RI CI T Y AND
21
IN
s dem onst r ation b attery

S i m ple g al vano m eter
Com pass
U m agnets 2
30
C a r ton i ron lings
"
S o ft i ro n b ar 6 X
P lie r s 4 % in
B ar magne t
"
P ane o f gl ass 1 5 X 1 5
Co m pass 1 0 mm
F ilings S if ter
D ry ce lls 2
30
S o f t i ron horseshoe
E lect r ic b ell
P ush button
T elegr aph sound er and k e y 2
D emonstration moto r w ith electromagnet
Lead ele m ents
X 2 cm 2
05
Whe atstone bridge
Resist ance b ox
D Arson v al gal vanometer
Cont act k ey
Volt m eter an d amm eter on stand
E lect ric im me r sion heater 1 1 0 volts
Appar atus liste d abov e
App aratus liste d abo ve
M agneto
D y nam o h an d po wer
L am p an d re cept a cle f or dy namo
Ind uction coil ( demonstration)
Nails 5 in ch 4
Moto r 115 h p
S pee d counte r
L arge cl am p 6 in
60
10
25
20
25
24
40
23
10
10
60
I O
10
26
28
3 -50
10
7 S
~
29
30
31
32
33
75
LABORA T ORY
2
4
CO U R S E
IN
P H Y S IC S
L I GH T
B unsen
34
photometer stu d ent s

Ke rosene l amp
E lect r ic light re cept acle
Att aching plug
#1 8 L am p co rd 1 0 feet
C a r bon l a m p 1 6 c p 1 1 0 V
T ungsten l am p 4 0 w 1 1 0 v
"
"
T hin m i r ror 4 X 4
B l ac k pins 1 paper
P rot r acto r b r as s
R u le r 1 foo t
P l ate gl ass p a r allel si d es
D r aw ing compass
10
L ens hol d e r s 2
L ens 8 in focus
10
S c r een suppo rt s 2
S creens 2
05
W i re gauze s c reen
Apparatus lis t e d a bo ve
L inen t ester
Appara t us liste d abo v e
G lass prism
35
'
37
39
40
4
S OU ND
42
R evol vers ,
S top watches ,
Boxes bl ank car t ri d ges

43
50
Vib ratograp h
T u ning
for k for above

10
E xtra plates 3
Whiting an d sponge
T u n ing fo rk 5 1 2
"
R esonan ce tub e 2 0 X
R ubb e r b a nd s 6
S imple sono m e te r
S onometer w ires set o f
.
44
y
1
4
35
P H Y S IC S
43
AD VA N C E D M EC H ANI C S
46
S m all
25
ps 3
S p r i n g b al a nces 2 00 0 g
App a r a t u s liste d ab ove
App ara tus liste d above
P end ulu m bob s I in 2
c am
47
48
49
75
64
oz
at
55
20
GE N E R A L S U P P LI E S
S ulphu r i c
T ab le
ac
id
lb
salt 3 lb b ag
P ot assium hydr o xi d e sti c k s 1 1b
Coppe r sulph ate 3 lb
Ke rosene 1 gal
Whiting 4 oz
C andles 5 in l ong 1 doz
F ish line I card 2 5 y a rd s best
L inen th re ad spool
W ire #2 2 c c coppe r 1 lb
W i re #3 0 b are G S 4 oz
W ire #3 0 b are i ro n 4 oz
S e w ing nee d les 1 % in 1 p ack age
.
AP P AR AT U S F OR
S T U D E N T S P R I VAT E
L AB OR AT OR Y
AP P R OX I M AT E
AP P ARAT U S
COST
M ECH ANI C S
L abo r ato ry suppo r t tripo d leg

,
o d,
80
cm
13
mm
Cl am p wi t h 1 5 cm ro d
Cl amp r ight angle
Y ard sti ck
Mete r sti ck
20
S ingle pu lle y s 4
Ove r o w p ail
X
X
d eep
P a il 3 q u ar t
S p r ing b al an ce 2 00 0 g 64 oz
B a ro m eter tube com plete with cu p and pipette
.
44
L ABORAT ORY
S iphon ,
COU R S E
IN
P H Y S IC S
"
pieces gl as s tubing g X 3 0
R ubber tubing to t gl a ss t ubes abo ve
B oyle s Law tub e unlle d
Mercu ry i lb
S e aling wax 1 sti c k
2
20
,
% ft
3O
30
HE AT
P a ils , 3 quar t , 3
T he rmome t er C
1
to 2 2 0
5
an d F
.
10
to
1 10
45
an d
T hermomete r ,
common t in back 1 0
Boile r 1 gal sirup ca n
S topper rub b er 1 one hole
1 t wo h o le t o t b o il e r
G l ass t u b e el bo w
T u mb ler
T ripo d 5 in
B unsen bu r ner
R ubber tubing
ih 3 f eet
F lask 1 00 0 c c capacit y
R ubbe r stoppe r one hole to t as k
P inchcoc k
to
2 20
25
E LE CT R I C I T Y AND
D emonstra t ion
MAG N E T I S M
ell complete
L e ad elemen t s 2 ext ra
S imple gal v anometer
Compass 1 6 mm
U m agnets 2 3 0
B a r magne t
C arton iron lin gs
"
S o f t iron b ar 6 X
S o f t i ron horseshoe core
D ry c ells 2
P a ne o f gl ass 1 5 X 1 5
E l ect r i c bell
P ush button
c
10
20
20
10
10
45
I O
P H YSI CS
sound e r an d ke y
D e m onst r ation m o t o r co m plete
Mini a tu r e l am p 2 ; v
R e cept a cle
T elegr aph
L I GH T
T hin m i r ro r , 4
30
S OU N D
AND
X 4
B l ac k pins gl ass head s
P l ate gl ass p ar alle l S i d e s
P rot r actor
Optical bench suppo r t b lo ck s
L ens suppo r t
10
S c r een suppo r ts 2
B unsen sc r een
W i re gauze sc r een
C andle hol d er
C andles 1 lb
L ens 8 in focus
Linen tester
S c r een
P rism
S onometer w ires set o f 4
T uning f o rk A
T uning f o rk C
,
AD VANCE D M EC H AN I C S
P en d ulum
bob
in
I O
S U P P LI E S
S ulphu r i c
i d I oz
P ot assi u m h ydr o x i d e sti c k s 1 oz
Copper sulphate 8 oz
Copper wi r e c c #2 2 4 oz
S e w ing nee d les 1
1 p ac k age
ac
1 N
2
!
45
46
LAB OR AT OR Y
CO U R S E
I N P H Y S I CS
F I R MS
pparatus for Ly nd e s Laboratory Co u rse in

H ousehol d can be purch ase d fro m the follo w ing rms :
T he
P h y sics
o f the
U NI T E D S T AT E S
Central S cientic Co 4 1 2 Orleans S t Chicago I ll

Chic ago Appa r a t us Co 3 2 South Clinton S t Chi cago I ll
Wm G aer tne r Co 53 4 5 L ake P a rk Av e Chi cago 111
L E Knott Appa ra t us Co Boston Mas s
Kn y Sheerer Co 2 2 5 F ou rt h Av e N ew Y or k N Y
S t and a rd S cienti c Co 1 4 7 W ave r l y P lace N e w Y or k N Y
C H S toeltin g Co 3 1 R andolph S t Chicago I ll
,
CANA D A
G eorge M
Vi c t oria S t T oronto On t
M c Kay S chool E q uipment Co Ltd 6 1 5 Yonge S t T oronto On t
T oronto S chool S uppl y Co L t d 2 1 0 Vi c to ria S t T oronto On t
.
H en dry
Co
L td
21
GR E A T B R I T A I N
B aird a n d T atlo c k L t d H a t t on G ard en Lond on E ngland

1
m
a
G
e
rge
L
t
d
Gr
t
Ch
r
les
B
i
r
ingh
m E ng
e
a
a
S
W
o
t
J
57
P hilip H arris 81 Co L t d E d mund S t B irmingh am E n g
.
P r n te
di
the U n
it
d St
tes
of
Am rica
e

ALaboratoryCourseinPhysicsoftheHousehold 10062929

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ALaboratoryCourseinPhysicsoftheHousehold 10062929

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T HE

MAC M ILLAN C O MP ANY

L aborato ry C ourse in P hysics of the H ousehold covers

are three reasons wh y fam iliar app aratus ( 3 q t pail

C OMM ON W E I GH T S AND M E AS URE S

BAR OME T E R AND S I PH ON

AT E LAB ORAT ORY

apparatus needed for a home laborator y in M echanics is

With this equipment you can make in whole or in p art

Add iti n al pp rat u s f

s t u d ent s l abora t ory in H e at

addi tional apparatus required for a home laboratory in

st u d ent s ho me l abo ra t ory in Li ght

Y ou will n d that the most satisfactory wa y to make yo u r own

you have planned and made experiments of your own on a gi v en

A LABOR ATOR Y COUR SE I N PHY SICS

illustrate the lever law by means of a lever of the rst class

lever law is : A lever is balan ced wh en the total mo men t o n

C n v enien t wei ghts f 1b

b e m ad e by llin g co tt o n b ags with

LABORAT ORY COUR S E

STAN CE FRO M F U LCRU M

M ethod 2 B alance a meter stic k M ake the four experiments

LABOR AT ORY COUR S E IN

illustrate the lever law by means of levers of the second

M ethod L ev er s of th e s e con d c la s s ( I ) S upport a yard

ill u stra te le v ers of t h e Se co n d c l ass

the o ther end is supported by a cord attached to a spring balance

LABOR AT ORY COUR S E IN

the force recorded on the balance when there are no weights

( 2 ) S upport a m eter stick as shown in the illustration F ind

I f the en d f the p inter f the sprin g b l n ce is b l u n t it is ne cess ary to n d a

L ABOR AT ORY COUR S E

M ethod L ev e rs o f th e th ir d clas s ( I ) S upport a y ard stick

the f ul cr um d o wn wi t h one nge r exactl y

ill u stra te le v ers

the force i n ounces required to support the yard stick

LABORA T ORY COUR S E IN

LABOR AT ORY COUR S E

M easure the force arm and weigh t arm of at least four of th e

LABORAT ORY COUR S E IN

verify the law of the pulleys

ropes s u pp ortin g the

law of the pulley i s : I f

to the weight divided by the

ropes su pportin g the

LABORAT ORY COUR S E IN

fr i ction in the pulle y b e arings opposes an y movement

LABORAT ORY COUR S E IN

M ethod 2 R epea t the experimen ts gi ven above bu t use the

the law of the pulley hold i n each case ; tha t is i s the

L ABOR AT ORY COUR SE IN

ulle y an d S crew Applian ce s

M a k e a rough diagram of each and mark on i t the length of the

epeat this exercise with pulley and screw appliances in your

LABORAT ORY COUR S E IN

study some common weights and measures

foot cont ains

the num ber of cups in 1 pint

the pound balance T urn i t on i ts side to see the inside

div ision on the be am s cale

show that 1 cubic foot of water weighs

bi c foo t o f w ate r weighs